Food and Nutrition - Sunetra Rodhay
Food and Nutrition - Sunetra Rodhay
Food and Nutrition - Sunetra Rodhay
NUTRITION
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Third Edition
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SUNETRA RODAY
Former Principal
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Published in India by
Oxford University Press
Ground Floor, 2/11, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi 110002, India
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Second Edition published in 2012
Eight Impression 2016
Third Edition published in 2018
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All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
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a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
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rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above.
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ISBN-13: 978-0-19-948908-4
ISBN-10: 0-19-948908-4
Typeset in Garamond
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The second edition of Food Science and Nutrition received an overwhelming response and served the
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purpose of arousing interest in this subject in students, staff, and the community at large. The simple
language and style of presentation has helped people with minimum science background understand
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this important subject which has a direct impact on our health and wellbeing. Food safety is the key
to sound health and needs to be in place if citizens of our country are to be protected from food-
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borne diseases and dietary deficiencies. Just knowledge about nutrition and food science is incomplete
without adding the food safety aspect. Keeping this in mind, this new edition has been developed as a
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Like every decade, there have been major changes in the Indian consumer’s lifestyle and eating
habits. Likewise, the incidence of lifestyle related diseases and consumption of junk food is on the
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increase, making it necessary for all food business operators and homemakers to understand and apply
the basic principles underlying preparation of products that are safe, nutritionally sound, and high in
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quality. The important role played by regulatory agencies has become more significant and now food
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business operators are realizing the benefits of adopting food standards and regulations in marketing
their products and services.
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The aim of this text has been and remains the same—to provide students with a wide range of basic
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principles and practices in the subject area, thus enabling them to apply their knowledge efficiently—be
it at home, in the food industry, hospitality or health care sector, and provide safe, wholesome, and
quality food.
About the Book
Although the first edition was initially designed both as an introduction to the subject and as a textbook
for students pursuing degree in Hotel Management and Catering Technology, it was well accepted
by students and faculty members from food technology, home science, and health sciences. Based on
feedback from faculty members, a need to expand the coverage of the book was felt. Therefore, the
book now becomes a complete and exhaustive textbook for students from other related streams as well.
Two new chapters and many new topics have been added to ensure adequate coverage of latest trends
and make the book useful for students pursuing a course in food science, home science, and hospitality
studies.
In addition, 12 original chapters have been revised to include the latest examples and trends in the
food and beverage industry. Illustrations have been updated and augmented to add interest to the text.
As in the last edition, each chapter in the book is designed with a focus on the learning objectives.
Key terms are explained at the end of every chapter. Simple illustrations, formulae, and reactions are
added to portray concepts. Review questions are listed at the end of each chapter. A concise summary
to highlight the main points is given for every chapter.
Key Features
• Completely matches the National Council for Hotel Management & Catering Technology
(NCHMCT) syllabus for the subjects taught in the first three semesters namely food science,
nutrition, and food safety
• Covers subjects taught in hospitality and hotel administration, food technology, applied sciences,
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home science, and nursing courses
• Provides ample examples, review questions, analytical thinking exercises, and updated reference
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charts and tables
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• Instructors manual with MCQs for all chapters
New to the Third Edition
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Based on changing trends in hospitality and food business operators as well as the invaluable feedback
received from reviewers, users, industry professionals, and academicians, this edition now includes the
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following:
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• A complete section in the book focuses on all aspects of food safety covered in four dedicated
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food industry, factors that affect and control the growth of microorganisms. An introduction
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to hygienic handling measures of food items to prevent contamination, spoilage and spread of
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• Chapter 19 on Vitamins includes absorption of vitamins.
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• Chapter 20 on Minerals includes bioavailability of minerals and Selenium.
• Chapter 22 on Balanced Diet includes modifications in the healthy food plate.
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• Chapter 24 on Modified Diets has two additional dietary guidelines for cancer patients and
Naturopathy.
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• Chapter 25 on New Trends in Foods has additional information on new packaging options, safety
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concerns regarding plastics, and smart packaging.
Coverage and Structure
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The text is divided into three sections: (1) food science, (2) food safety, and (3) nutrition.
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applications in the preparation of food and commercial food products. New commodities and processes
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which are of relevance have been included. This section concentrates on the composition, structure, and
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behaviour of food in relation to pre-preparation, cooking, packaging, and storage relevant to catering
operations.
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Chapter 7 on Flavour explains the various aspects as well as the use of flavours in food preparation
and different spices and herbs.
Chapter 8 on Browning Reactions discusses types of browning reactions and the role of browning
in food preparation.
Chapter 9 covers different methods of food evaluation.
Section 2—Food Safety
This section comprises four chapters covering all aspects of Food Safety.
Chapter 10 introduces the reader to microorganisms of significance to the food industry.
Chapter 11 on Food Processing and Preservation discusses the objectives of food processing, methods
of food preservation, and the effect of processing on food constituents.
Chapter 12 is on Food Safety.
Chapter 13 deals with Food Standards, Regulations, and Quality Management.
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Section 3—Nutrition
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The section on nutrition comprises 12 chapters related to nutrients and planning of diets for sustaining
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a healthy lifestyle. Crucial issues such as weight control, eating disorders, and lifestyle-related diseases
are included in this section. Dietary guidelines for prevention of deficiency and problems related to
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excessive consumption have been covered.
Chapter 14 introduces readers to the concept of nutrition.
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carbohydrates.
Chapter 16 on Proteins in Nutrition introduces students to classification and functions of proteins.
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Chapter 17 on Lipids covers fatty acids, antioxidants, saturated fatty acids, cholesterol, and more.
Chapter 18 explains the various functions of water as well as the concept of water balance.
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Chapter 21 on Energy Metabolism covers forms of energy, energy requirements, and energy balance.
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Chapter 22 discusses the various aspects of a balanced diet, planning balanced diets, various food
pyramids, and the latest concept of the food plate.
Chapter 23 introduces students to menu planning and mass food production.
Chapter 24 on Modified Diets discusses diet therapy and various types of modified diets.
Chapter 25 discusses new trends in foods and nutrition including the nutritional evaluation of new
products and highlights different nutraceuticals, such as prebiotics and probiotics, and their role in
maintaining health and the significance of nutritional labelling.
Sunetra Roday
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Many people from the food industry and academia have helped me in successfully completing this
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book and I am grateful for their contributions. It is practically impossible to name them all but I would
specially like to mention a few.
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I am grateful to Dr Eram S. Rao, Associate Professor of Applied Sciences, Bhaskaracharya College of
Applied Sciences, University of Delhi and President, Association of Food Scientists and Technologists
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(AFST) Delhi Chapter, for her invaluable inputs, inspiration, and encouragement in completing this
project.
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I would like to thank Ms Sumedha Jalgaonkar, Food Safety Consultant and Trainer, Foodiesys
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Consulting, Pune and Ms Surbhi Datta, Counsellor Food Safety and Quality, CII-FACE, for their
contributions in Chapter 13 on Food Standards, Regulations, and Quality Management.
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I owe an immense debt of gratitude to my son, Mr Vikrant Roday, for providing all technical
assistance and my daughter, Dr Neha Vivek Saraf, for her invaluable contributions especially towards
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I am also thankful to Dr Shashi A Chiplonkar, Hon. Senior Scientist, H C Jehangir Medical Research
Institute, Pune for her suggestions and help.
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I would like to appreciate the timely support provided by the Librarian from MSIHMCT, Pune, Ms
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The provision of food and beverages is one of the oldest services associated with the hospitality industry.
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The food services industry has evolved and has come full circle. The need for providing nutritious meals
for balanced overall development has acquired greater significance in the past few decades.
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Eating out is no longer the occasional special event to be celebrated where people indulge. It has
become a way of life. We are forced to eat out or order take-away meals due to work patterns, education,
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or social commitments. The number of people depending on food service providers for meeting their
daily nutritional requirement is increasing at a rapid pace, making it necessary for professionals in the
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hospitality sector to be able to offer healthy choices on the menu to the customers.
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Food science and nutrition has gained added significance with an increase in the number of lifestyle-
related diseases, such as high blood pressure, atherosclerosis, heart diseases, diabetes mellitus, and
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obesity. Food manufacturers are introducing new products keeping these diseases in mind. A need was
felt for a book designed specially for students in hospitality-related courses that addresses all the basic
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issues of food science and nutrition. Keeping this aspect in mind, I decided to write this book.
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Food Science and Nutrition is designed both as an introduction to the subject and as a textbook
for ‘Principles of Food Science and Nutrition’ for students of the ‘B.Sc. in Hospitality and Hotel
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Administration’ course offered by the National Council for Hotel Management and Catering
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The section on nutrition comprises 12 chapters pertaining to nutrients and planning of diets for
maintaining good health throughout the life cycle. Weight control, eating disorders, and lifestyle-
related diseases are included. Dietary guidelines for prevention of deficiency and problems related to
excessive consumption have been covered.
Each chapter in the book is designed with a focus on the objectives. Key terms are explained at the
end of the chapter. Simple illustrations, formulae, and reactions are added to portray concepts. Review
questions are listed at the end of each chapter. A concise summary to highlight the main points is given
for every chapter.
Today’s consumers ask questions about the nutritional value and health benefits of food. They are
aware of the role the diet may play in maintaining and promoting good health. This makes it imperative
for the food service provider to understand the fundamentals underlying food science and nutrition
and put theory into practice.
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Reader’s views and comments are most welcome and will be appreciated.
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Sunetra Roday
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1 Introduction to
Food Science
LearnIng objectIves
After reading this chapter, you should be able to
• appreciate the importance of food science to a caterer in the context of the processed
food revolution
• understand the relationship of food science to food chemistry, food microbiology,
and food processing
• appreciate the role of convenience foods in our day-to-day life
• appreciate the importance of understanding the basic concepts in physics, chemistry, and biology
• understand the applications of these concepts in the food industry
• interpret the weights and measures in recipes
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• weigh and measure ingredients accurately
Well-labeled illustrations
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IntroductIon
The food industry, be it the processing industry or the catering industry, is one of the largest and most Each chapter is interspersed
needed industries in the world today fulfilling one of our three basic needs, i.e., food. Its growth rate
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is phenomenal, growing Learning by leaps andObjectives
bounds to provide three square meals to our rapidly increasing with numerous illustrations
populationEachand keeping
chapter pace with the ever-changing
begins with learningdemands of the people. that supplement the
The developments in the food industry can be traced back to surplusProt foodei nswhich
i n Nutneeded to be
ri t i on 269
objectives thatpreservation
focus onis not learning explanation in the text.
preserved for a rainy day. Food
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a new phenomenon. Our forefathers understood
the basic and the
principles
should be included in the knowledge
underlying food you should
preservation
diet. Protein requirement and
increases during illness or disease as protein is neededthe
practised them using natural ingredients and Food Processing and Preservation 167
forces of nature,new
for rebuilding such as sunlight
tissue. and ultraviolet
In traumatic (UV) rays,
injury, surgery, burns,tilland
newer and
fever, more
there scientific methods
is breakdown of tissues,were
developed. acquire by Extra
the physical
end of thedoeschapter.
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which need to be repaired. activity not require any additional intake of protein.
Improvement in equipment and machinery has made it possible to increase the capacity of food
Adequacy of calorie intake The diet should contain adequate carbohydrates and fats to have a protein °F 338 170°C Sterilization by
processing plants greatly. The shelf life of perishable foods has increased dramatically with the invention
sparing effect. dry heat
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of the refrigerator and the use of dry ice. Complete sterilization 276 135°C UHTS
Quality
With theprotein
of adventand efficiency
of the wheel,ofsurplus foodThe
digestion wasquantity of protein
transported severalrequired
hundredwill be more
miles. As early if the
as in Bacterial spores killed 250 121°C Sterilization by
proteinmilk
quality
wasistransported
poor. Plant by proteins
specialhave a lower
trainsdigestibility. The method of cooking of also affects the
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1850, milk and tank trucks over a distance several hundred moist heat
availability of protein. Overcooking and toughening of animal proteins affects digestibility.
miles with negligible loss in quality. Food, which was perishable, was moved thousands of miles before Commercial sterilization 240 115°C Canning low
acid food
itPrevious state ofstored,
was processed, nutrition Malnourished and underweight individuals require more protein as
and consumed.
compared to healthy individuals. Vegetative cells die, spores survive 212 100°C Canning high acid
Bacterial load reduced to safe levels food/blanching, boiling
ReCOMMeNDeD DIeTaRYTables
82°C Dish sanitization
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120 G
Table 16.5 gives the recommended protein allowances for Indians. E
49°C
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Table 16.5 Recommended protein allowances for Indians Bacteria multiply rapidly 37°C Body temperature
Group Particulars Body weight (kg) Protein (g/day) Z 15°C Cool for refrigeration,
60 O thawing cabinet
Man Adult 60 60 N
Some bacterial growth occurs temperature
Women Adult 55 55 E
10°C Dry food store ideal
Pregnancy +23 41 temperature
Scant multiplication and survival 39 °
5 C Danger zone begins
Lactation (0–6 months) +19 4°C Refrigerated storage
(6–12 months) +13
Infants 0–6 months 5.4 1.16 g/kg 32 0°C Freezing point of water
6–12 months 8.4 1.69 g/kg
Children 1–3 years 12.9 16.7 No growth, some bacteria 0 –18°C Freezer storage
survive freezing
4–6 years 18 20.1 –35°C Blast freezing
7–9 years 25.1 29.5
Boys 10–12 years 34.3 39.9
13–15 years 47.6 54.3
16–18 years 55.4 61.5 Fig. 11.1 Temperatures used in the food industry and their effect on microorganisms
Girls 10–12 years 35 40.4
13–15 years 46.6 51.9
16–18 years 52 55.5
DIeTaRY sOURCes
Proteins are present in both plant and animal foods.
intake
We get our and prevention
requirement of vitamin D fromofsunlight.
deficiency.
The grain. ItHowever, manyheat, and an alkaline
is destroyed by oxidation,
precursor in the skin ‘7-dehydrocholesterol’ is activated medium. Proper cooking practices need to be followed revIew exercIses
y are calcium, factors affect
by UV rays from the
sunlight. absorption
A deficiency of vitamins E and
and K utilization
if vitamin contentof minerals
of food has to be retained.
m potassium, and theseExercises need to be known to enhance 1. Why does a food handler need to have knowledge
availability of 7. Define the following terms:
Key TeRMsabout food microbiology? (a) Anaerobes (c) Thermophiles
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n, manganese, minerals.
EachAchapter
Anaemia contains
condition in which number of RBCs or
2. Classify the different microorganisms which are
vegetables which include a-, b-, and g-carotenes
(b) Infestation (d) Saprophytes
haemoglobin content of blood is reduced. present in our food.
and cryptoxanthin. (e) Contamination (g) High-risk foods
a series of exercises
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3. DiscussSwollen,
Cheilosis
Antagonist A substance that interferes with the the beneficial
cracked, andeffects of microorganisms.
red lips. (f) Endospores
Key TeRmsthat enhance learning
action of another substance. 4. Explain the
Co-enzyme terms cross-contamination,
A substance that must be present along sanitation, 8. With the help of a line diagram, explain how
foodborne
Antioxidant A substance naturally present or added
with an enzyme illnesses, and danger
for a specific reaction zone.
to occur. diseases are transmitted directly and indirectly.
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tle, which is Haeme and iron
can beIron used for
associated with the haemoglobin
5. Differentiate
Collagen
to a product to prevent its breakdown by oxygen. between
Intercellular cementingfood poisoning
substances which is and food 9. Discuss the harmful effects of microorganisms with
b-carotene A fat-soluble carotenoid pigment whichprotein matrix of cartilage, connective tissue, and
infection. respect to food spoilage and foodborne illnesses.
d betel nut review
molecule andandclassroom
is better absorbed 6. than non-haeme iron.
bone.the various factors which affect microbial
is present in plants and is a precursor of vitamin A.
List
Niger seeds discussion. Also called black gingelly Glossitis
Carotene Reddish orange colour pigment in yellow/
growth seeds
Inflammation
or any two factors.
and explain of the tongue.
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orange/red fruits and vegetables and green leafy
portion or karal. 260 food scie n c e a n d nu tr itio n assIgnment
t is absorbed Non-haeme
260 food science iron Iron present Visit
and nutrition in plant foods
the kitchen andcollege canteen and list measures you would suggest to the caterer to ensure service of
of your
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3. The water-soluble fibre __________ is used for __________ regulates blood sugar levels.
of __________ in the muscles and liver. 5. The hormone
setting jams and __________
jellies. secreted by the
which Phytic
3. The acid An organic
water-soluble acid ispresent
fibre __________ used for in outer layers
__________ regulates blood sugar levels.
ns. of cereals
setting jams andwhich
jellies. combines with calcium Giveforming
one word for the following
s, which Giveinsoluble
one word forcalcium phytate. 1. Disease caused due to insufficient insulin 4. Dietary fibre that is not a carbohydrate
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the following 2. Elevated blood glucose levels 5. Blood level of a substance at which it cannot be
cilaginous 1. Disease caused due to insufficient insulin 4.3. Dietary fibre that is not a carbohydrate
or
RevIew exeRCIses
ribe the func- 7. Match the following minerals in column I with a
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Preface to the First Edition xi
Features of the Book xiv
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PART I FOOD SCIENCE
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1. Introduction to Food Science 2
2. Colloidal Systems in Foods 19
3. Carbohydrates 31
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4. Proteins 54
5. Fruits and Vegetables 78
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Preface to the First Edition xi
Features of the Book xiv
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PART I FOOD SCIENCE
1. Introduction to Food Science 2 Applications of Boiling under
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Introduction 2 Pressure 12
Inter-relationship between Food Chemistry, Evaporation 12
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Gel 23 Mucilages 50
Emulsion 24 Pectin 50
Theory of Emulsification 24 Agar 50
Stability of an Emulsion 25 Algin 50
Some Common Food Emulsions 27 Gums 50
Uses of Carbohydrates in Food
3. Carbohydrates 31 Preparation 51
Introduction 31
Classification of Carbohydrates 33 4. Proteins 54
Monosaccharides 33 Introduction 54
Disaccharides 34 Basic Structure and Properties 54
Oligosaccharides 34 Peptide Linkage 54
Polysaccharides 35 Classification of Protein 55
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Structure of Carbohydrates 35 Classification of Proteins Based
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Reducing Sugars 36 on Structure 55
Non-reducing Sugar 36 Classification Based on
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Polysaccharides 36 Composition 56
Starch 36 Classification Based on
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Effect of Cooking on Starch 40 Function 56
Factors which Affect the Property Native Proteins 57
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of Starch as a Thickening Denatured Proteins 58
Agent 41 Stages in Heat Denaturation 58
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Stirring 42 Milk 60
Other Ingredients 42 Milk Cookery 60
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Retrogradation 43 Proteins 60
Dextrinization 43 Effect of Acid on Casein 60
Types of Food Starches 43 Eggs 61
Unmodified Starches 43 Egg White 61
Modified Starches 44 Egg Yolk 61
Cereals and Cereal Products 44 Effect of Heat on Egg Proteins 61
Cereals used in the Catering Industry 45 Egg Cookery 62
Malting of Cereals 47 Egg Foams 62
Sugar 48 Stages of Fresh Egg White Foam
Sugar Cookery 48 Formation 62
Making Preserves 49 Factors Affecting Egg White
Honey 49 Foam Formation 63
Artificial Sweeteners 49 Souffle and Fondue 65
Soluble Fibres—Pectins, Gums, and Cake 65
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Effect of Steeping 70 Pigments 88
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Effect of Cooking 71
Sprouting of Pulses 72 6. Fats and Oils 91
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Commercial uses of Proteins 72 Introduction 91
Protein Concentrates, Isolates Structure 92
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and Hydrolysates, and their Properties 93
Applications 73 Rancidity 93
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Protein Concentrates 73 Types of Rancidity 94
Protein Isolates 73 Reversion 95
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Air 96
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Compound Fats 103 Ascorbic Acid Browning 123
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Suet 103 Lipid Browning 124
Dripping 103 Role of Browning in Food Preparation 124
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Olive Oil 103 Detrimental Effects of Browning 124
Canola Oil 103
9. Evaluation of Food 126
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Fresh Cream 103
Nuts and Oilseeds 103 Introduction 126
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Role of Nuts and Oilseeds in Importance of Evaluation to the
Cookery 104 Food Industry 126
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Manufacture of Vinegar 151 Ultraviolet Irradiation 173
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Contamination of Food 153 Milling 175
Contaminant 155 Effect of Processing (Heat, Acid, and Alkali)
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Cross Contamination 155 on Food Constituents 176
Food-Borne Illnesses 155 Food Additives 177
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How Pathogens Spread to Food 156 Numbering of Additives 177
Food, Fingers, Faeces, Fomites, and Types of Additives 178
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Flies 156 Preservatives 178
Types of Food Borne Illnesses 156 Antioxidants 180
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Washing 190 Food Allergies 203
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Pre-preparation 189 Foods which Commonly Contain
Thawing 191 Allergens 204
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Cross-contamination 191 Symptoms of Allergy 204
Cooking 191 Control of Food Allergies 205
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Reheating of Food 191
Chilling 192 13. Food Standards, Regulations, and Quality
Management 208
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Hazard Analysis and Critical Traffic Light Signals on Packages 235
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Control Points 219 Adulteration 235
Hazards 220 Mislabelling/Misbranding/
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Developing a HACCP sit Misdescription 236
Health 242
Nutritional Status 242 Digestion, Absorption, and Metabolism of
Food and its Functions 242 Food 248
Physiological Functions 243 Digestion of Food 249
Psychological Function 243 Factors that Affect Digestion 249
Social Function 243 Absorption 250
Factors Affecting Food Intake and Food Metabolism 251
Habits 244 15. Carbohydrates in Nutrition 253
Geographic Reasons 244
Economic Reasons 244 Introduction 253
Religious Reasons 244 Classification of Carbohydrates 254
Social Reasons 245 Digestion, Absorption, and
Health 245 Metabolism 255
Other factors 245 Sources 257
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Non-essential Amino Acids 266 of Fats 285
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Protein Quality 267 Digestion 285
Limiting Amino Acid 267 Absorption 285
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Biological Value 267 Metabolism 286
Classification of Proteins 267 Food Sources 287
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Classification by Composition 268 Plant Sources 287
Classification by Quality 268 Animal Sources 287
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Functions in the Human Body 268 Invisible Sources 287
Structural Functions 268 Deficiency of Fats 287
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Effect of Cooking on Vitamins 308
22. Balanced Diet 338
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20. Minerals 311 Introduction 338
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Introduction 311 Recommended Dietary Allowance 338
Classification 312 RDAs for Specific Nutrients 339
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General Functions of Minerals 312 Definition 340
Bioavailability of Minerals 315 Basic Food Groups 340
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Calcium 315 Cereal and Millets Group 342
Phosphorus 316 Protein or Body-building Food
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Introduction 323
Forms of Energy 324 23. Menu Planning and Mass Food
Units of Measurement 324 Production 350
Energy Value of Food 325 Introduction 350
Calorimetry 325 Factors Influencing Meal Planning 351
Proximate Composition 325 Nutritional Adequacy 351
Energy Needs of the Body 326 Economic Considerations 352
Total Energy Requirement 327 Type of Food Service 352
Basal Metabolic Rate 327 Equipment and Work Space 352
Test for Basal Metabolism 327 Leftover Food 352
Factors Affecting the BMR 328 Food Habits 352
Specific Dynamic Action 328 Availability 352
Physical Activity 329 Meal Frequency and Pattern 352
Energy Balance 329 Variety 352
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Infancy 362 25. New Trends in Foods 389
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Childhood 363 Introduction 389
Adolescence 364 Soya Foods 390
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Old Age 365 Food Fads 390
Effect of Quantity Cooking and Processing Organic Foods 391
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on Nutrients 367 Health Foods 391
Benefits of Cooking Food 367 Natural Foods 392
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Common Food Processing Live Foods 392
Techniques 367 New Trends in Food Packaging 392
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Index 437
About the Author 443
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
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After reading this chapter, you should be able to
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• appreciate the importance of food science to a caterer in the context of the processed
food revolution
• understand the relationship of food science to food chemistry, food microbiology,
sit
and food processing
• appreciate the role of convenience foods in our day-to-day life
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• appreciate the importance of understanding the basic concepts in physics, chemistry, and biology
• understand the applications of these concepts in the food industry
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INTRODUCTION
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The food industry, be it the processing industry or the catering industry, is one of the largest and most
needed industries in the world today fulfilling one of our three basic needs, i.e., food. Its growth rate
xf
is phenomenal, growing by leaps and bounds to provide three square meals to our rapidly increasing
O
population and keeping pace with the ever-changing demands of the people.
The developments in the food industry can be traced back to surplus food which needed to be
preserved for a rainy day. Food preservation is not a new phenomenon. Our forefathers understood
the basic principles underlying food preservation and practised them using natural ingredients and the
forces of nature, such as sunlight and ultraviolet (UV) rays, till newer and more scientific methods were
developed.
Improvement in equipment and machinery has made it possible to increase the capacity of food
processing plants greatly. The shelf life of perishable foods has increased dramatically with the invention
of the refrigerator and the use of dry ice.
With the advent of the wheel, surplus food was transported several hundred miles. As early as in
1850, milk was transported by special milk trains and tank trucks over a distance of several hundred
miles with negligible loss in quality. Food, which was perishable, was moved thousands of miles before
it was processed, stored, and consumed.
Over the past few decades, the food industry has witnessed a significant change. The market has
witnessed a flood of food commodities, superior in quality and available all year round. Ice cream filled
cones and nuts in ice cream retaining their crunch, fresh milk stored on the shelf for months, and crisp
croutons in a ready to serve cream soup are a few marvels of food science and technology. With these
advances in science and technology, the consumer has an unlimited choice of meals to choose from all
year round.
The aesthetic value of food is important. To be able to offer the consumer quality cuisine, basic
knowledge of food science and its applications is necessary. Every food handler should know the
composition, structure, and behaviour of food and the changes that take place during cooking, holding,
and storage as well as what happens to the food once it is consumed, i.e., its digestion, absorption, and
metabolism in the human body.
The study of food is today accepted as a separate discipline called food science.
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Definition Food science is a systematic study of the nature of food materials and the scientific
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principles underlying their modification, preservation, and spoilage.
To understand food science, it is necessary to understand the basic concepts of physics, chemistry,
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mathematics, and biology and their applications, i.e., biochemistry, microbiology, and food technology,
in order to prepare, package, store, and serve wholesome, high quality products.
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All foods are chemical compounds which undergo various chemical reactions at all stages from
production to consumption. These reactions are based on the laws of chemistry. Many processes used
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while preparing food involve physical changes apart from chemical changes.
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Matter exists in three states—solid, liquid, and gas. In general, as the temperature is increased, a pure
substance will change from solid to liquid and then to gas, without change in chemical composition.
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However, many organic compounds will decompose, undergoing various chemical reactions, rather
than a change of state when temperature is raised.
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Many foods are complex mixtures of chemical substances. In processed foods, additives are added
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to improve colour, texture, flavour, etc., and these additives are also chemical compounds. It undergoes
further chemical changes during storage, cooking, processing, as well as in the human body during
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Physical aspects of food such as the various food systems are of colloidal dimensions. Food is
subjected to various physical conditions during preparation and storage which affect its quality such as
temperature and pressure changes.
Food chemistry and food microbiology are intimately related to food processing because the
processes to which food needs to be subjected to improve its taste, texture, flavour, and aroma depend
on its composition and ingredients. The time and temperature for food processing depend not only
on the chemical composition of food but on its microbial load and the type of packaging to be used.
The growing public demand for meals away from home has made the problem of serving safe
wholesome food more critical and challenging. This makes it imperative for food handlers to understand
and implement the basic principles of food science to enable them to prepare and serve high quality
products over extended meal hours.
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cities in search of employment. It is estimated that within the next five years, half the world’s population
will be living and working in urban areas. Increase in buying power and long hours spent away from
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home commuting to work places, make convenience foods a necessity in every home.
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The ever-increasing market for convenience foods, be it tinned, canned, chilled, frozen, or preserved,
presents a whole array of complex operations in food processing. This weaning away from the traditional
fare of yesteryears provides a tremendous and urgent challenge to the food industry—serving safe,
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attractive, and nutritious food that is wholesome and bacteriologically safe, at the same time conforming
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with quality standards.
The urban workforce does not have the time or inclination to follow the traditional recipes and
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prefers picking up packed, clean, and reasonably priced meals rather than returning home from work
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food since it requires no shelling. A packet of whole wheat flour is also a convenience food as it has
or
already been milled. A packet of instant idli mix is more of a convenience food; with ‘ready to eat’ or
‘heat and eat’ foods, such as chicken keema matar or canned palak paneer, are most convenient since
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Many different types of convenience foods are available in the market today. The speed and efficiency
of cooking and service increases dramatically with the use of convenience foods, giving the caterer,
homemaker, or working professional more time to devote to other activities. The convenience food
revolution is possible because of a wide variety of chemicals which are added to food not only to
preserve it but to enhance its overall quality. These numerous chemicals, tested and permitted by law to
be added to food, are called food additives.
Today, convenience foods are being specially packed for caterers and are available in large catering
packs. Manufacturers of specialized food supplies pack food so that it fits into standard catering
equipment, e.g., catering packs that fit into vending machines. The caterer can choose between smaller
packs or larger packs that are economical.
Convenience foods need to be handled with care because one source of infection can contaminate
thousands of pre-packed items. Take-away meals should not be kept for a long time, hygiene should be
practised in processing plants, and time and temperature control should be observed during storage.
Leftover contents in large catering packs should not be stored in the open.
Convenience foods help by saving considerable time and effort. However, the cost of convenience
foods compared to home-prepared foods should be considered before purchase. Some foods may not
be costlier while others may work out to be expensive. For people who have to rush home from work
and prepare a meal, such foods purchased on the way home or stacked in the deep freezer are not only
time-saving but also convenient.
Convenience foods vary widely in their palatability, nutrient content, and cost. The consumer can
choose from a bewildering display of snacks, soups, sauces, fruit chunks and juices, desserts, meat, and
vegetable preparations and gravies in the ready-to-eat and ready-to-cook form. Some only need to be
warmed up in a microwave oven before they are served.
Canned foods, commercially prepared chapattis, snacks both sweet and savoury, main course,
vegetable preparations, soups, gravies, sauces, breakfast cereals, bakery items, deep frozen foods, dry
ready mixes, etc., are not only time saving but convenient to cook and store as well.
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Thus, food science covers all aspects of food, from the properties of food materials and influences
of all factors affecting food, beginning from growing the food to harvesting or slaughter, i.e., all stages
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from the farm to the table, from raw food till it is consumed such as processing, nutritive value, shelf
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life, novel sources of food, fabricated food and food analogs, conservation and reuse of resources to
make more food.
A study of food science, food safety, and nutrition will be of benefit to all food professionals.
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Let us begin by understanding the basic concepts of food science.
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quality product and carry out a profitable business, accurate weighing and measuring of all ingredients
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is essential.
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Measurement of Length
The unit for measuring length is the metre (m).
Length is measured using a measuring tape or ruler.
One thousand metres (1,000 m) = one kilometre (km)
A metre is divided into hundred parts. Each part is called a centimetre (cm).
1 metre (m) = 100 centimetres (cm)
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1 teaspoon = 5 ml 1 teacup = 150–180 ml
1 breakfast cup = 240 ml 1 water glass = 280–300 ml
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The volume of solids that is not greatly affected by water can be measured by the water displacement
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method. Solids are immersed in the displacement can and the volume of water displaced, equal to the
volume of the solid, is noted.
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The seed method is used to measure the volume of cake and bread. A large tin box is filled to the
brim with seeds and the volume of seeds required to fill the box is measured in a measuring cylinder.
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The cake, whose volume is to be measured, is placed in the empty tin and covered with seeds. The
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volume of seeds remaining after covering the cake is equal to the volume of the cake.
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contained in a known volume of substance. Mass always remains constant but weight may change in
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different parts of the world because the force of gravity varies from place to place.
Weight is measured on a weighing scale (see Fig.
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grams.
1 kilogram (kg) = 1,000 grams (g) Adjustment
knob
Each gram is further divided into one thousand
smaller parts called milligrams (mg).
1 g = 1,000 mg Pointer
Each milligram is further divided into 1,000 mi-
crograms (mg).
1 mg = 1,000 mg
10 kg
From the above we conclude that
1 kg = 1,000,000 mg and a measure of 1 ppm Fig. 1.1 Single pan weighing scale
means 1 mg in 1 kg of a substance.
DENSITY
Density is the relationship between the weight and volume of a substance expressed as
weight in kg
Density =
volume in m 2
It is expressed in kilograms per cubic metre and is used to compare the heaviness or lightness of
different foods.
A fruit cake has a greater density as compared to a sponge cake. The density of liquids is measured
in g/cm3 . Water has a density of 1 g/cm3.
Relative Density
Relative density (RD) is the ratio of the mass of a known volume of a substance to the mass of the same
volume of water. It tells us the number of times the volume of a substance is heavier or lighter than an
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equal volume of water. If the RD of a volume of lead is 11, it means that it is eleven times as heavy as
an equal volume of water.
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mass or weight of a substance
Relative density =
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weight of equal volume of wateer
A hydrometer is used to measure the relative density of different liquids. It is made up of a weighted
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bulb with a graduated stem calibrated to measure the relative density of the liquid directly. The liquid
is kept at room temperature and the hydrometer is allowed to float in the liquid. The depth to which
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it sinks is read on the graduated stem. Hydrometers are specifically calibrated to measure the RD of
different liquids used in the catering industry.
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Saccharometers are used to determine the concentration of sugar solutions, denoted in degrees Brix.
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Besides checking the purity of milk, ethanol content of alcoholic beverages, strength of salt solution,
and concentration or stage of ‘doneness’ for sugar syrups and preserves such as jam, sauce, and candied
fruit, the other applications of RD are
• testing eggs for freshness when eggs are dipped in a 10 per cent salt solution, fresh eggs sink and
stale eggs float because of a large air space caused by staling;
• determining the lightness of cakes; and
• choosing potatoes for boiling and frying. Potatoes that have a low RD should be boiled, while
those that have a high RD should be baked or fried.
TEMPERATURE
Heat is a form of energy needed to carry out work. Energy is the capacity for doing work. Energy is
present in two forms:
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1. Potential energy or stored energy, such as the energy stored in a bar of chocolate
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2. Kinetic energy or active energy in motion, such as when a person is walking
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Energy is present in many forms. Heat is one form of energy. Solar energy, electrical energy, and
chemical energy are some of the others.
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Heat energy is measured in units called joules and the energy present in food is measured in
kilocalories. One kilocalorie is made up of 1,000 calories.
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0 °C and boiling water at 100 °C. Thermometers are used to measure temperature.
Temperature is measured either in the Celsius or centigrade scale (°C) or in the Farenheit scale (°F).
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The Celsius scale is divided into 100 degrees and the Farenheit scale into 180 degrees. The Celsius
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To convert 37 °C into °F
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37 ¥ + 32 = °F
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37 °C = 98.6 °F
The conversion of imperival units to metric equivalents is given in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Conversion of Imperial units to metric equivalents
Non-metric units Metric units
Length 1 inch (in) 2.5 centimetres (cm)
1 foot (ft ) 30.5 centimetres (cm)
39.4 inches (in) 100 centimetres (cm) or 1 metre
1 mile 1.6 kilometres
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Volume 1 pint 568 millilitres (ml)
1 gallon 4.5 litres (l)
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1.8 pints 1 litre (l)
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Weight 1 ounce (oz.) 28.4 grams (g)
1 pound (lb) 454 grams (g)
2.2 pounds (lb) 1 kilogram (kg)
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Energy 1 kilocalorie (kcal) 4.2 kilojoules (kJ)
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1 calorie (cal) 4.2 joules ( J)
Temperature 32°Fahrenheit (F) 0°Celsius (C)
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Area 1 square inch (sq. in) 6.45 square centimetres (sq. cm)
1 square foot (sq. ft) 929 sq. cm
1 square mile 2.59 sq. km
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TYPES OF THERMOMETERS
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Most thermometers (see Fig. 1.3) are mercury in glass thermometers with different temperature ranges
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POTENTIAL HYDROGEN or pH
When an acid is diluted with water, it dissociates into hydrogen ions and acid radical ions.
HCl = H+ + Cl -
Hydrochloric acid Hydrogen ion Chloride ion
(acid radical)
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Fig. 1.3 Thermometers
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The term pH (hydrogen ion concentration) is used to express the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a
food. It is defined as the negative logarithm to base 10 of the hydrogen ion concentration, i.e., higher
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the hydrogen ion concentration, lower will be the pH and vice versa. Some foods, such as fruits, contain
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organic acids and have an acid reaction while others such as milk are neutral. Bakery products leavened
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0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Extremely Weak Weak Extremely
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pH pH value Food
4.0 Fruit cake
4.3 Tomato
4.6 Banana
5.0 Bread
Mildly acidic 5.4 Spinach
5.5 Potatoes
6.0 Peas
6.2 Butter and Chicken
6.4 Salmon
6.5 Milk
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Neutral 7.0 Chocolate
Mildly alkaline 8.0 Egg white
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9.0 Soda bread
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When hydrogen ions (H+) or hydroxide ions (OH–) are added, they can be absorbed by these systems
without altering the pH of the resulting solution.
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Common buffers are of two types:
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1. Acetic acid and sodium acetate mixture
2. Citric acid and sodium citrate mixture
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Buffering action is very important in the human body and in food. The salts of calcium, phosphorus,
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sodium, and potassium function as buffers and maintain the pH of milk at a constant level of 6.5.
Applications of pH
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1. Preparation of jam—The pectin in jam and marmalade does not form a gel until the pH is lowered
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to 3.5. If fruit used for making these preserves does not contain sufficient acid, small amounts of
citric acid should be added.
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2. Retaining bright green colour in green vegetables—Green vegetables tend to get discoloured when
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cooked. Green colour can be retained by adding a pinch of sodium bicarbonate to the cooking
liquor but B complex vitamins and vitamin C gets destroyed in an alkaline medium.
3. Food digestion—pH of the gastrointestinal juices affects our digestive process. The pH of gastric
juice is strongly acidic, between 1 and 2, and aids in digestion of food in the stomach while a
mildly alkaline pH, between pH 7 and pH 8, is needed to complete digestion in the intestine.
4. Texture of cakes—A significant change in texture is observed with a change in pH while baking
cakes. Low pH gives a fine texture and high pH gives a coarse texture to the cake crumb.
5. pH of dough—In bread making, compressed yeast is used for fermentation. During fermentation,
yeasts convert simple sugars to ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide.
(a) Ethyl alcohol takes up oxygen and forms acetic acid
(b) Carbon dioxide dissolves partially in water to form carbonic acid
(c) Chemical yeast food, i.e., ammonium sulfate and ammonium chloride if used produce
sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid, respectively.
All these acids lower the pH of the dough from pH 6.0 to pH 4.5. This change in pH makes the
dough less sticky and more elastic.
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1. Boiling vegetables in salted water increases the boiling point above 100 °C.
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2. In sugar cookery, the boiling points of sugar solutions is noted at various stages so that fondant,
fudge, toffee, and caramel can be prepared.
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Boiling under pressure When atmospheric pressure is low- Operating valve
ered, water boils at a lower temperature of 70 °C. At hill sta- Handle
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Temp 121 °C
tions, the atmospheric pressure is low so temperature is also Pressure gauge
lower and food takes longer time to cook. When pressure is
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(15 lb pressure)
increased, e.g., below sea level or boiling in a pressure cook- Clamps
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3. Milk powder is prepared by dehydration or spray drying in which water from milk is removed by
circulating hot air.
Melting Point
Melting or fusion is the change of state from a solid to a liquid.
The temperature at which a solid melts and turns into a liquid is called its melting point. The melting
point of fats depends on the percentage of saturated long chain fatty acids present in it.
The melting point for any chemical is fixed and is used to measure the purity of a substance. It is
lowered by adding other substances.
Melting point of fats
Vanaspati 37–39 °C
Butter 36 °C
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Lard 44 °C
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Tallow 48 °C
Coconut oil 26 °C
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Applications of Melting Point
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1. Ice has a melting point of 0 °C. If adequate sodium chloride is added to ice, the melting point falls
to –18 °C. This lowering of melting point is used in the setting of ice cream.
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2. Fat is removed from adipose tissue of animals by a process called rendering, which is based on the
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melting point. Boiling water or dry heat is used to liberate the oil from the fat cells.
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Smoke point When fats and oils are heated strongly above frying temperature, they decompose and
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a stage is reached at which it emits a visible thin bluish smoke. This temperature is called the smoke
point (see Table 1.3).
Table 1.3 Smoke point of some common fats The temperature varies with different fats and
ranges between 160 °C and 260 °C. The bluish vapour
Oil Smoke point (°C)
is because of the formation of acrolein from overheated
Corn oil 232
glycerol. Acrolein has an acrid odour and is irritating
Cotton seed 236
to the eyes. The effect of high temperature on fat is
Soya bean 243
shown in Fig. 1.6.
Ground nut 243
The smoking point is lowered by the following factors:
Butter 201
Lard 222 1. Presence of large quantities of free fatty acids
Beef dripping 163
2. Exposure of large surface area while heating
3. Presence of suspended food particles
Flash point This is the temperature at which the decomposition products of fats and oils can be
ignited, but will not support combustion. The flash point varies with different fats and ranges between
290 °C and 330 °C.
Fire point This is the temperature at which the decomposition products of fats and oils support
combustion. It ranges between 340 °C and 360 °C for different fats. The oil or fat may catch fire and burn.
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The smoke point, flash point, and fire point are lowered by the presence of free fatty acids.
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Normal frying temperature for most oils is 180–195 °C. The smoke point is 25–40 °C above normal
frying temperature. The application of smoke point is in frying foods. Fats and oils used for deep fat
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frying should have a high smoke point. Moist foods should be coated well before frying as moisture
present in food tends to hydrolyse the fat and increase the free fatty acids present.
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Surface Tension
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Surface tension is a force experienced on the surface of a liquid. It is caused by cohesion, i.e., a force
that causes the molecules of a substance to be attracted to one another.
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The molecules of a liquid that are below the surface are pulled by cohesive forces from all directions.
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However, the molecules at the surface behave differently because they are only pulled downwards or
sideways. This downward or sideways attraction causes a constant pull on the surface molecules which
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makes the liquid behave as if it is covered by a thin elastic film. For example, the surface of water can
support needles if they are placed carefully.
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Due to surface tension, drops of liquid take a spherical shape, which has the smallest possible surface
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This property of liquids is important in many food systems and in the action of detergents.
Surface tension is also defined as the force of attraction which exists between liquid and solid surfaces.
Applications of Surface Tension
1. Addition of detergent to liquids reduces the surface tension of water and the surface attraction
between the fibre and greasy stain, and allows the soil to be removed from the fabric.
2. Release agents help prevent the paper lining the tin from sticking to the cake. They contain silicone
compounds.
3. Silicones have a property of lowering the surface tension and is added to wood polishes to allow
the polish to spread easily.
4. Non-stick cookware is coated with polytetrafluoroethane plastic or silicone to prevent attraction
between the food and pan.
Osmosis
Osmosis is the passage of water from a weak solution to a stronger solution through a semi-permeable
membrane.
When raisins are soaked in a cup of water for sometime, the raisins swell because water from the cup
enters the raisins. Similarly, if raisins are placed in a concentrated sugar solution, they shrivel up after
some time because water from the raisins passes into the sugar solution because of osmosis.
Plant and animal cell membranes act as semi-permeable membranes and selectively permit water and
electrolytes to enter or leave the cell.
Applications of Osmosis
1. Osmosis plays an important role in food processing and preservation to retain the original shape
and size of canned fruits in syrup and of vegetables in pickles.
2. The freshness of fruits and vegetables depends on the osmotic pressure in the cells. Salads lose their
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crisp crunchy texture and become limp if salt and sugar is sprinkled much in advance. Lettuce
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leaves can be revived by immersing them in chilled water.
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Humidity
Humidity refers to the presence of water vapour in the air. Water vapour is produced by respiration of
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plants and animals, evaporation from food during cooking and from water bodies, from rain during
the monsoons, etc.
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In catering establishments, moisture in the air is quite high because of large volumes of steam from
boilers, from cooking food, from dishwashers and laundry processes, and respiration and perspiration
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hold and what it actually holds at the same temperature. Humidity of 60–70 % is considered normal
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Applications of Humidity
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1. Spoilage organisms multiply and spores germinate at high moisture levels in the atmosphere.
2. Humidity needs to be controlled in air-conditioned rooms along with ventilation and heating
which is done by humidifier water sprays which maintain 60–70 % humidity.
3. Processed foods are prevented from drying up by adding substances with hygroscopic properties
called humectants. Glycerine and sorbitol are used as humectants in jam.
FOOD RHEOLOGY
It is the science of measuring forces, which are needed to deform food materials or to study the flow
properties of liquid foods. It deals with the viscous behaviour of a system.
Solid food can be chopped up, ground, minced, sliced, torn apart, or broken while it is being
prepared or eaten. The texture is determined when we chew food and it is described as crisp, tough,
chewy, creamy, sticky, spongy, etc.
Liquid foods are fluid or viscous. Viscosity is defined as the resistance of a liquid to flow. It is
measured by an instrument called a viscometer. This property of a liquid is seen in batters, sauces,
syrups, etc.
Compression It is the pressure needed to squash foam or spongy foods to find out their freshness or
tenderness. The compressimeter or tenderometer is used to measure the lightness of a product.
Adhesion Adhesive gum-like properties give stickiness to food which sticks to the teeth when chewed,
such as toffee. Breaking strength of dry foods, such as spaghetti, biscuits, and potato wafers, are
measured by applying a load till the product breaks.
Shearing It is the force needed to cut or slice through meat, vegetables, fruits, etc., and indicates the
toughness of a food. Penetrometers measure the force needed to penetrate a food such as jelly, cooking
fat, canned and fresh fruits, and vegetables.
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Rigidity It is the property of those substances which do not flow, e.g., baked custard and cake. Rigid
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substances show either elastic property or plastic property.
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Elastic substances These substances do not flow, but flow when force is applied. However, when the
force is removed it regains its original shape, e.g., sponge cake.
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Elasticity It is the property which permits a substance to change its shape when a force is applied to it
and to come back to its original shape once the force is removed, provided the force applied is within
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elastic limits.
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Applications of Elasticity
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1. The stretching power of the dough can be tested before baking. The extensibility of flour is due to
gluten formed in flour. Over kneading of dough results in decreased elasticity.
2. Dough improvers are chemicals added to improve or strengthen the elasticity of bread dough.
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3. Addition of malt flour gives a softer-textured dough because of the enzymes present in malt.
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Plastic substancesThese substances resist flow to a certain point, but beyond that point they flow, i.e.,
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Plasticity is an important property of margarine. A plastic fat is one which can be creamed as well as
forms a thin sheet or layer in dough when the dough is rolled out, e.g., flaky pastry.
SUMMARY
The food industry is a fast-growing industry that applies foods are chemical compounds and undergo physical as
the principles of food science and technology to offer the well as chemical changes. The various food systems are
consumer a wide array of fresh and processed foods to of colloidal dimensions and various physical conditions,
meet their nutritional needs, wants, and budget. These such as temperature and pressure, affect its quality.
foods are available under different brand names, all year Food science is intimately related to food chemistry,
round in delectable flavours and assorted preparations. food microbiology, and food processing. To understand
The aesthetic value of food is an important criterion in its this, the basic concepts of physics, chemistry,
acceptability. Every food handler should be aware of the mathematics, and biology are necessary.
composition, structure, and behaviour of food and what The growing demand for meals away from home has
happens to it during processing and after consumption. made the problem of serving safe and wholesome food
The systematic study of food is called food science. All critical and challenging. There is a shift in focus from
farm-grown fresh foods to partially or totally processed the relative density of different liquids and is specifically
convenience foods. These foods require little labour calibrated to measure the relative density of different
and time to prepare and are useful to caterers and substances. The lactometer is used to test the purity
homemakers. The shelf life and acceptability of these of milk, the saccharometer is used to measure the
foods are enhanced by the use of permitted additives. concentration of sugar solutions, alcoholometers are
A knowledge of basic physical, chemical, and biological used to check the degrees proof, and salinometers to
sciences is needed by all students studying catering. check the relative density of brine.
Today, the SI or International System of measurement Temperature is measured in degrees Farenheit and
is used universally for measuring matter. The unit for degrees Celsius, the potential hydrogen (pH) is used
measuring length is the metre and for volume, it is the to express the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a food.
litre. Weight is measured in kilograms and may change Many terminologies are relevant and need to be
from place to place because of the force of gravity or known and their applications understood by the caterers.
the pull of the earth. The hydrometer is used to measure
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KEY TERMS
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Acrolein A substance formed when glycerol from underlying their modification, preservation, and
fat is heated at high temperatures which is spoilage.
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irritating to the eyes and the respiratory tract. Food technology Application of the principles of
Additives All material added to food to improve food science to the preservation, processing,
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its shelf life, colour, flavour, texture, taste, and packaging, storage, and transportation of food
quality such as flavouring agents, antioxidants, and materials.
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preservatives. Hygroscopic Readily absorbing water, such
Convenience foods Processed foods in which much substances are used as drying agents, e.g., silica
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peas, breakfast cereals, and canned foods. moisture present in air relative to saturation at
Dry ice Solid carbon dioxide having temperature the same temperature.
of –79°C and used to refrigerate foodstuffs being Rendering The process of removal of fat from the
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REVIEW EXERCISES
1. What changes has the food industry witnessed in the (a) Viscosity
last century? (b) Osmosis
2. Why is knowledge of the principles of food science (c) pH
necessary for a catering professional? (d) Smoke point
3. What do you understand by the term convenience (e) Relative density
foods? What foods does it include? Give suitable 6. Give scientific reasons why:
examples from your daily life. (a) Food takes longer time to get cooked at high
4. Do you think convenience foods are necessary? Justify altitudes
your answer giving suitable examples. (b) Fat used for deep fat frying should have a high
5. Define the following terms: smoke point
(c) The weight of a substance changes when weigh- 9. How would you determine the density of a bread
ed in different parts of the world roll?
(d) Fresh eggs sink and stale eggs float in water 10. Convert the following measurements:
(e) Small amount of citric acid is added while (a) 2200 kcal into kJ
making jelly preserve. (b) 37 °C into °F
7. List the main factors which affect the rate of evapo- (c) 90 °F into °C
ration. (d) 5 ft 6 inches into cm
8. What does surface tension mean? Give two exam- (e) 8 ozs into ml
ples to explain this term.
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