DESIGN AGINIST FLUCTUATING

LOADS
P. Kiran Kumar
Assistant Professor, MED
CBIT
 Stress concentration

A change in the geometric shape of a part gives rise to additional stress over and above
the calculated stress, which is known as stress concentration.
In the figs above, the tensile stress changes from and, as A1>A2,
. Within the part, the internal stress gets redistributed from low to high value at
the region where the cross-sectional area changes.
In this example, this redistribution occurs at the region of the fillet radius joining the two
geometric forms. If a large fillet radius is provided between the two sections, that is the
cross-sectional area is changed more gradually, then the internal stresses gets ample
space to get redistributed evenly. However, if the fillet radius is small, that is the change
in shape is more abrupt, then the internal stresses do not get enough space to get
redistributed evenly. As a result of this, at the base of the fillet in the smaller side, the
actual stress becomes more than the theoretical stress .
This increase in stress due to sudden change of geometric shape is called stress
concentration.
Similar to the fillet radius, holes, notches, or grooves also bring in sudden change in the
geometric form. This means all these features will also be associated with stress
concentration effect. Generally, more abrupt the change in geometric form, higher is the
stress concentration effect.
Theoretical or Form Stress Concentration Factor
The theoretical or form stress concentration factor is defined as the ratio of the maximum
stress in a member (at a notch or a fillet) to the nominal stress at the same section based
upon net area.
Mathematically, theoretical or form stress concentration factor,

The value of Kt depends upon the material and geometry of the part.

Geometric stress concentration factor

To account for stress concentration effect, the actual maximum stresses have been
determined either experimentally or by using more sophisticated stress analysis
methods, such as finite element analysis, for common types of geometric features.
Notes:
1. In static loading, stress concentration in ductile materials is not so serious as in brittle
materials, because in ductile materials local deformation or yielding takes place which
reduces the concentration. In brittle materials, cracks may appear at these local
concentrations of stress which will increase the stress over the rest of the section. It is,
therefore, necessary that in designing parts of brittle materials such as castings, care
should be taken. In order to avoid failure due to stress concentration, fillets at the changes
of section must be provided.

2. In cyclic loading, stress concentration in ductile materials is always serious because the
ductility of the material is not effective in relieving the concentration of stress caused by
cracks, flaws, surface roughness, or any sharp discontinuity in the geometrical form of the
member. If the stress at any point in a member is above the endurance limit of the
material, a crack may develop under the action of repeated load and the crack will lead to
failure of the member.
 Stress Concentration due to Holes and Notches
• Consider a plate with transverse elliptical hole and subjected to a tensile load as shown
in Fig. We see from the stress-distribution that the stress at the point away from the
hole is practically uniform and the maximum stress will be induced at the edge of the
hole. The maximum stress is given by
When a/b is large, the ellipse approaches a crack transverse to the load and the value of Kt
becomes very large. When a/b is small, the ellipse approaches a longitudinal slit [as shown
in (b)] and the increase in stress is small. When the hole is circular as shown in Fig. 6.6 (c),
then a/b = 1 and the maximum stress is three times the nominal value.

The stress concentration in the notched tension member, as

shown in Fig. , is influenced by the depth a of the notch and radius r
at the bottom of the notch. The maximum stress, which applies to
members having notches that are small in comparison with the
width of the plate, may be obtained by the following equation,
 Methods of Reducing Stress Concentration
• We have already discussed that whenever there is a change in cross-section, such as
shoulders, holes, notches or keyways and where there is an interference fit between a
hub or bearing race and a shaft, then stress concentration results. The presence of stress
concentration can not be totally eliminated but it may be reduced to some extent. A
device or concept that is useful in assisting a design engineer to visualize the presence of
stress concentration and how it may be mitigated is that of stress flow lines, as shown in
Fig-1. The mitigation of stress concentration means that the stress flow lines shall
maintain their spacing as far as possible.

Fig. 1
Fig-2. Methods of reducing stress concentration in cylindrical members with shoulders.

Fig-3.Methods of reducing stress concentration in cylindrical members with holes.

Fig-4. Methods of reducing stress concentration in cylindrical members with holes.

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Methods of reducing stress concentration
A number of methods are available to reduce stress concentration in machine parts.
Some of them are as follows:
1. Provide a fillet radius so that the cross-section may change gradually.
2. Sometimes an elliptical fillet is also used.
3. If a notch is unavoidable it is better to provide a number of small notches rather than a
long one. This reduces the stress concentration to a large extent.
4. If a projection is unavoidable from design considerations it is preferable to provide a
narrow notch than a wide notch.
5. Stress relieving groove are sometimes provided.

In mechanical design, stress concentration effects can be minimized by placing these

geometric features in a noncritical stress area. However, in
some cases, the effect of stress concentration must be accounted for in design
calculation. It is also worthwhile to note that tool marks, porosity in castings etc. may also
give rise to stress concentration effect.
CONCENTRATION FACTOR Kt
Variation of theoretical stress concentration factor with r/d of a stepped shaft for
different values of D/d subjected to uni-axial loading
 Design of Fluctuating stress
We have discussed, in the previous chapter, the stresses due to static loading only. But
only a few machine parts are subjected to static loading. Since many of the machine
parts (such as axles, shafts, crankshafts, connecting rods, springs, pinion teeth etc.) are
subjected to variable or alternating loads (also known as fluctuating or fatigue loads),
therefore we shall discuss, in this chapter, the variable or alternating stresses.
 Alternating stress Repeated stress

Fluctuating stress Completely reversed stress

The stresses which vary from a minimum value to a maximum value of the same nature,
(i.e. tensile or compressive) are called fluctuating stresses.

The stresses which vary from zero to a certain maximum value are called repeated
stresses.

The stresses which vary from a minimum value to a maximum value of the opposite
nature (i.e. from a certain minimum compressive to a certain maximum tensile or from a
minimum tensile to a maximum compressive) are called alternating stresses.

The stresses which vary from one value of compressive to the same value of tensile or
vice versa, are known as completely reversed or cyclic stresses.
 Fatigue and Endurance Limit

It has been found experimentally that when a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it
fails at stresses below the yield point stresses. Such type of failure of a material is known as
fatigue. The failure is caused by means of a progressive crack formation which are usually
fine and of microscopic size. The failure may occur even without any prior indication. The
fatigue of material is effected by the size of the component, relative magnitude of static
and fluctuating loads and the number of load reversals.
Fatigue is the failure of a mechanical element by the growth of a crack within a
material under variable, repeated, alternating, or fluctuating stresses.

Generally, fatigue crack growth occurs under stresses below the ultimate tensile
strength (σut), yield strength (σy) and critical stress for the original crack (σc).

A fatigue failure has an appearance similar to a brittle fracture, as the fracture surfaces
are flat and perpendicular to the stress axis with the absence of necking.

The fatigue of material is effected by the size of the component, relative magnitude of
static and variable loads and the number of load reversals.

It is observed that about 80% of failure of mechanical components are due to “Fatigue
Failure” resulting from fluctuating stresses.

Fatigue failure is characterized by three stages

I. Crack Initiation
II. Crack propagation
III. Final fracture
Fatigue-Life Methods
The S-N Diagram
•The S-N diagram is the graphical representation of stress amplitude (Sf) verses
the number of stress cycles (N) before the fatigue failure on semilog paper or on
log-log paper.

•To establish the fatigue strength of a material, quite a number of tests are
necessary because of the statistical nature of fatigue. For the rotating-beam
test, a constant bending load is applied, and the number of revolutions (stress
reversals) of the beam required for failure is recorded.

•The first test is made at a stress that is somewhat under the ultimate strength
of the material. The second test is made at a stress that is less than that used in
the first. This process is continued, and the results are plotted as S-N diagram.

•In the case of the steels as shown in Fig.(A), a knee occurs in the graph, and
beyond this knee failure will not occur, no matter how great the number of
cycles. The strength corresponding to the knee is called the endurance limit or
the fatigue limit.
Aluminium alloys does not have an endurance limit as shown in Fig.(B), normally
the fatigue strength Sf is reported at a specific number of cycles, normally
N = 5( ) cycles of reversed stress.

Endurance or fatigue limit stress (Se) is defined as the maximum amplitude of

completely reversed stress that the standard specimen can sustain for an
unlimited number of cycles without fatigue failure.

We also distinguish a finite-life region and an infinite-life region in S-N diagram
as shown in Fig.(A).

The boundary between these regions cannot be clearly defined except for a
specific material; but it lies somewhere between and cycles for steels, as
shown in Fig.(A).
Relation Between Endurance Limit and Ultimate Tensile Strength

Fig--Endurance limit of steel corresponding to ultimate tensile strength.

Fig.. Notch sensitivity.
Fm: the midrange steady (mean)component of force, and
Fa or Fv: the amplitude or variable of the alternating component of force
Combined Steady and Variable Stress
• The failure points from fatigue tests made with different steels and combinations of
mean and variable stresses are plotted in Fig. as functions of variable stress (σv or σa )
and mean stress (σm ). The most significant observation is that, in general, the failure
point is little related to the mean stress when it is compressive but is very much a
function of the mean stress when it is tensile. In practice, this means that fatigue
failures are rare when the mean stress is compressive (or negative). Therefore, the
greater emphasis must be given to the combination of a variable stress and a steady
(or mean) tensile stress.
 There are several ways in which problems involving this combination of stresses may be
solved, but the following are important from the subject point of view :
1. Gerber method, 2. Goodman method, and 3. Soderberg method.

Goodman Method for Combination of Stresses

A straight line connecting the endurance limit (σeor Se ) and the ultimate strength (σu or
Su), as shown by line AB in Fig. , follows the suggestion of Goodman. A Goodman line is
used when the design is based on ultimate strength and may be used for ductile or brittle
materials.
In Fig., line AB connecting σe and σu is called Goodman's failure stress line. If a suitable
factor of safety (F.S.) is applied to endurance limit and ultimate strength, a safe stress line
CD may be drawn parallel to the line AB. Let us consider a design point P on the line CD.
Now from similar triangles COD and PQD

Goodman method
 Soderberg Method for Combination of Stresses
• A straight line connecting the endurance limit (σeor Se ) and the yield strength (σy or Sy
), as shown by the line AB in Fig., follows the suggestion of Soderberg line. This line is
used when the design is based on yield strength. The line AB connecting σe and σy, as
shown in Fig., is called Soderberg's failure
stress line. If a suitable factor of safety (F.S.) is
applied to the endurance limit and yield strength,
a safe stress line CD may be drawn parallel to
the line AB. Let us consider a design point P on
the line CD. Now from similar triangles COD
and PQD,
Gerber Method for Combination of Stresses