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Tensile test is a standard engineering procedure to characterize properties related to mechanical behavior of materials. The properties describe t
variation in geometry of the specimen has to be considered. Although the behavior of the material inside elastic limit is of considerable importanc
effects with large deformation takes place in number of manufacturing processes. The Fracture toughness acts to stop the progress of fracture i
environment, temperature, the composition of material and its microstructures together with geometric effects. These factors are important for w

Theory of Tensile Test, elastic constant, surface energy, fracture toughness and derivation of fatigue potential energy, lethargy coefficient, surfac
dynamic fatigue. life equation are presented in this chapter.

2.2 TENSILE TEST

The engineering Tensile Test is also known as tension test which vary widely used for providing the base of the design information on the strengt
materials. Tensile Tests are very simple, relatively, inexpensive, and fully standardized. Under the pulling type of loading something, it can be very
forces being applied in tension. As the materials are being pulled, its strength and elongation can be find out. A lot of about a substance can be le
material until it breaks, a good, complete tensile profile is obtained. The curve shows how it reacted to the forces being applied. In the tension tes
tensile force while simultaneous observations are made of the elongation of the ductile specimen. Fig 2.1 shows a typical stress-strain diagram fo

Fig 2.1: Typical Stress-Strain Curve for mild steel [1]

A: Proportional limit

B: Elastic limit

C: Upper yield point

D: Lower yield point

E: Ultimate stress point

F: Breaking point

Proportional limit: Stress is a linear function of strain and the material obeys Hookeʼs law. This proportionality extends upto point A and this point
portion of the curve and its slope represents the value of modulus of elasticity.

Elastic limit: Beyond proportional limit, stress and strain depart from straight line relationship. The material however, remains elastic upto state po
is such that there is no residual or permanent deformation when the load is removed. Upto to this point, the deformation is reversible or recovera
maximum unit stress to which a material can be subjected and is still able to return to its original form upon removal of load.

Yield point: Beyond elastic limit, the material shows consideral strain even though there is no increase in load or stress. This strain is not fully reco
position. The behavior of the material is inelastic and the onset of plastic deformation is called yielding of the material. The point C is called the u
between the upper and lower yield point is small and the quoted yield stress is usually the lower value.

Ultimate strength or tensile strength: After yielding has taken place, the material becomes strain hardened (strength of the specimen increases) a
stress at point E. Strain in this portion is about 100 times than that of the portion from O to D. Point E represents the maximum ordinate of the cur
tensile stress of the material.

Breaking strength: In the portion EF, there is falling off the load (stress) from the maximum until fracture takes place at F. The point F is referred t
the breaking stress [1].
The stress-strain curve is constructed from the load-elongation measurements (fig.2.2).The stress used in this stress-strain profile is the average
load by original area of cross-section of the specimen.

Stress = (2.1)

The strain used for the engineering stress-strain curve is the average linear strain, which is the rate of the elongation of gauge length of the spec

= = = (2.2)

Fig 2.2: The Engineering Stress-Strain Curve [2]

The magnitude and shape of the stress-strain curve of a metal will depend upon its prior history of plastic deformation, heat treatment, composit
during the testing. The different type of parameters which are used to describe the stress-strain curve of a metal are the percentage elongation,
ductility; the last two indicates strength parameters. In the zone of elastic limit, strain is measured by an “extensometer” attached to the gauge le

In the elastic limit stress is linear proportional to strain. When the load exceeds a value above the yield strength, the specimen undergoes to plast
zero. The stress, to produce continuous plastic deformation, increases with increasing plastic strain i.e. the metal strain-hardens [2] .

The volume of the specimen remains constant during plastic deformation,

= o o (2.3)

Where

= Final area of cross section of specimen

= Final length of specimen

o = Original area of cross section of specimen

o = Original length of specimen

And as specimen elongates, due to this it decreases uniformly in cross sectional area. At the beginning the strain hardening more than compensa
with increasing strain finally a point is arrived where the effect of decrease in specimen cross-sectional area is higher than the increase in deform
reaches first at some point in the specimen that is slightly weaker than the rest. The further non elastic deformation is concentrated in this region
that the cross-sectional area now is decreasing far more rapid rate than the deformation load is increased by strain hardening, the actual amount
stress in the same way continues to decrease until fracture occurs. Many varieties of fractures can occur during the processing of metals and the
Fracture. [3]

2.2.1 DUCTILE FRACTURE

Ductile fracture has been defined as fracture occurring with appreciable gross deformation. Ductile fracture in tension is usually defined by a loca
actually draw down to a line or a point before separation. This kind of failure is usually called by rupture.

Consider segment of a cylindrical bar of length , cross-sectional area A0 and subjected to a load as shown in fig 2.3(a) when the load is increased
and length elongates to 12210 as shown in figs. 2.3 b-c-d. The conventional stress and conventional strain are obtained in each case by

It clearly shows that the original A is assumed constant .This criteria may be true for elastic range only as elastic reduction in cross-sectional area

However, while dealing with the plastic range, the reduction in cross-sectional area and the strain are large (compare Fig. 2.3 a and b). Hence can
all the loads. Thus the need arises to obtain true stress and true strain in plastic range. These are determined in steps as follows [4].

Fig 2.3: Stages in the formation of a cup-and-cone fracture [4].

2.3 Universal Testing Machine

The servo hydraulic testing machines provide both load controlled and displacement control machine. These versatile machines are well adapted
conduct tests based on the control of calculated variables such as true strain or stress intensity factor. Fig2.4 shows a picture of Universal Testin
In UTM top cross head can be adjusted to three positions for extended tension tests (the left hand side of the machine). There are two main hand
The loading valve is designed in so manner that at any setting, needed for applying incremental loads, for applying the loads quickly, for holding t
used to plot the stress-strain curve during the test itself.

Specimens are attached to a movable grip and to a fixed side-gripping device. A parallel spring is made of four thin plates to serve as the straight
guide mechanism are lifted over the base of the tensile testing machine so that they were not affected by friction which would otherwise seriousl
(using a precision translation stage driven by a D.C. motor) one end of steel belt, the other end, is connected to the movable grip. A load cell with
loads applied to the specimen and parallel spring. The load applied or the specimen is calculated by subtracting the load applied to the parallel sp

Fig 2.4: Universal Testing Machine. [3]

Characteristics of the parallel spring measure in advance, from the measure load. The elongation was determined by measuring the relative displ
of the testing machine have a strong influence on the shape of the stress-strain diagram and the fracture behavior a rigid testing machine with a
machine tends to be hard machines, while hydraulically driven testing machines are soft machines. A hard testing machine produces the upper a
load will be recorded.

Universal Testing Machine is used to conduct the Tensile Test. There are two types of machines used in tension testing.

1. Load controlled machine

2. Displacement controlled machines [3].

2.4 ELASTIC CONSTANT

Materials may be isotropic, orthotropic, and anisotropic. Isotropic materials posses four elastic constants named Youngʼs modulus Poissonʼs ratio
not ordinarily change under any effect .

Strain and stress on basis of atomic theory

Force versus distance of atomic separation curve and bond length described in fig 2.5.The inter-atomic equilibrium distance decreases to when a
the inter-atomic equilibrium distance decreases to this externally applied force is equal in magnitude but opposite in nature of inter-atomic force

(2.4)

Fig 2.5: Change in inter atomic distance on application of compressive forces [5].

Where is the potential energy which in the most general way can be expressed as

(2.5)

Hence are constant in which .The increase in length of interatomic

distance is called elongation, and is given by

to (2.6)

Similarly the decrease in length of inner -atomic distance is called contraction ,and it is express as,

(2.7)

(a). The Strain is then defined as the change in length of inter atomic distance over bond length . The tensile strain εt and compressive strain εc

εt = =

and εc = =

(b). The Stress σ is defined as the internal resisting force i.e. inter atomic force F per unit cross sectional area A of a material. Therefore

σ =
Due to Eqs. 2.4 and 2.5 it can be written as

σ = = = (2.8)

The stress can be either tensile or compressive in nature.

Poissonʼs Ratio: A material, subjected to a tensile stress, elongates in the direction of tensile axis but contracts in the transverse direction the tran
This ratio is called Poissonʼs ratio and is expressed by

(2.9)

Youngʼs modulus: In the fig 2.5 a tangent is drawn at .It coincide with the curve over a small range and . AB is in elastic region. This slope is propo

It may be approximated that the force acts on area which is the average area per atom since number of bonds per unit area is 1/ and also knowing
(Hookeʼs law),

(2.10)

(2.11)

The youngʼs modulus is also known as modulus of elasticity or elastic modulus. Its value for a material is influenced by factor such as bonding ch
dimensional network possess high values of elastic modulus [5]. The effect of temperature is to lower down the elastic modulus by 10% to 20% b
temperature for carbon steel can be expressed by

(2.12)

Where is in Kelvin and is in kgf/cm2

Shear Modulus: The ratio of shear stress and the shear strain γ is defined as shear modulus or modulus of rigidity It is related to the Youngʼs mod

(2.13) Bulk Modulus: A material under three dimensional loading is subjected to the stresses axes respectively. The initial volume of the material c
as the ratio of average stress to volumetric strain and is expressed by [5]

(2.14)

Where (2.15)

And (2.16)

(2.17a)

(2.17 b)

(2.17c)

Here are the linear strains along axes respectively.is related to

and by

= (2.18)

The three elastic modulii are related as

(2.19a)

In materials such as gels, pastes, putties and colloidal system, therefore

(2.19b)

2.5 FRACTURE TOUGHNESS

Fracture toughness, is defined as resistance of a material to failure from fracture starting from preexisting crack. Mathematically, it is expressed a

= (2.20)

Where is a dimensionless factor which depends upon the following:

The geometry of the crack and material.

2. The loading configuration if the sample is subject to tension or bending.

3. The ratio of crack length to specimen width.

4. Amount of load (stress) applied to the specimen

Where = crack length.

= width of specimen

Fig 2.6: A specimen with an interior crack [6].

Note that the entire crack length is equal to ‘aʼ

Fig 2.7: A specimen with a through-thickness crack [6].

Fig 2.8: A specimen with a half circle surface crack [6].

Figure 2.6 shows that a is not always the total length of the crack, but sometimes it is half of the crack length in case of Interior crack [6]. The val
important values of Y for short cracks subjected to a tension load are as follows:

For an interior crack which is shown in fig 2.6.

For a through-thickness surface crack which is shown in fig 2.7

For a half-circular surface crack which is shown in fig 2.8

Fracture toughness,has the English customary units of psi inch1/2,and the SI units of MPa m1/2

2.5.1 Plane strain fracture toughness

For thin samples, the value decreases with increasing sample thickness, b, as shown in Figure 2.9. Finally, becomes independent of b, called as th
plane strain fracture toughness. Mathematically, it is expressed as:

= [7]. (2.21)

Fig 2.9: A fracture toughness vs. thickness graph [7].

This value for the fracture toughness is the value normally specified because it is never greater than or equal to. The I subscript for, stands for mo

2.5.2 Fracture toughness testing machine

A sharp fatigue crack(break) is inserted in the specimen, which is loaded to failure. The crack driving force is measured for the failure condition, g

Fig 2.10: Fracture mechanics testing. [9]

2.5.3 Test specimens for fracture toughness

The mostly uses fracture toughness test configurations are the single sharp edge notch bend (SENB or three-point bend), and the compact (CT)
the advantage that it requires less amount of material, but is more expensive to machine and more difficult to test compared with the SENB speci
purpose we use an environmental chamber. The SENB specimens are typically immersed in a bath for low temperature tests. Although the compa
predominantly bending (high constraint). If limited materials are available, it is possible to construct the SENB specimens by welding extension pi

(Electron beam welding(EBW) is typically used, because the weld is narrow and causes little distortion).

Fig 2.11: Examples of common fracture toughness test specimen

(a) SENB Specimen (b) CT Specimen [10].

Other specimen configurations are the centre-cracked tension (CCT) panels, single edge notch tension (SENT) specimens, and shallow-crack te
constraint, and can be more structurally representative than standard CT or SENB specimens. The SENT specimens are being used to determine
where the installation method involves plastic straining. The position and orientation of the specimens are important. The location and orientation
the notch is defined with respect to either the weld axis or the rolling direction or forging axis of other components. In the standard SENB & C T s
of the specimen width, W, giving a lower-bound conservative estimate of fracture toughness, because of the high level of crack tip constraint gen

2.5.4 Fracture toughness Measurement

Fig 2.12: Two ASTM standard compact specimen of different Widths (b). [8]

There are many different experiments which can be used to obtain a value of. Almost any size and shape of sample can be used as long as it is co
experiment that can be performed to find a value for fracture toughness by screw-driven universal testing machine. This testing machine loads th
curve is plotted by an X-Y recorder. From this plot, a possible value for Y can be calculated. With this value can be calculated. [8]

2.5.5 Effect of temperature on fracture toughness

Fracture toughness varies with temperature, crack size and crack location and does not change with sample thickness. Fracture toughnessdoes

Fig 2.13 : Fracture Toughness vs. Temperature for several steels. [9]

2.6 SURFACE ENERGY

Surface energy is defined as the potential energy per unit area of surface film. It may be also defined as the amount of work done in increasing th
also known as surface tension of liquid [11].

2.6.1 Surface energy measurement of the solid

The surface energy of a liquid may be measured by stretching a liquid membrane (which increases the surface area and hence also the surface e
mass of the liquid by an amount, , a quantity of work, is needed (where is the surface energy density of the liquid). However, such a method cann
reason that stretching of a solid membrane induces elastic energy in the bulk in addition to increasing the surface energy. The surface energy of
the solid creeps and even though the surface area changes, the entire volume remains approximately constant [11].

2.7 FATIGUE POTENTIAL ENERGY (U0) AND LETHARGY COEFFICIENT (γ)

The dynamic fatigue equation for high-cycle fatigue under fully reversed tension-compression loading is given by [12].

=constant (2.18).

From Eq. (2.18) we can say that

(2.19)

Where is alternating stress amplitude that gives and=1

Eq. (2.18) is rewritten as

€ (2.20)

Lethargy coefficient can be calculated from S-N curve, to the a variation of stress amplitude to the logarithm of number of cycles to failure, as sh

Fig 2.14: The S-N curve [12].

2.8 MICROSTRUCTURAL PROCESS UNDER HIGH- CYCLE FATIGUE LOAD

For high-cycle fatigue conditions, stress amplitude is below yield strength of the material, so that the strain is normally elastic. If strain is purely e
process. However, this difficulty is associated with over-simplification introduced by concept of a yield strength and assumption of purely elastic
amount of plastic strain even at low stresses. This is called microstrain, because at stresses well below yield strength the magnitude of plastic str
surfaces of samples that have been subjected to cyclic loading reveals that micro strain occurs in homogeneously in the sample, with the entire s
bands form during the first few thousand cycles and remain active until after a crack is formed. Because straining in these bands continues after
persistent slip bands. Since the strain is so inhomogeneous, plastic strain amplitude in persistent slip bands is quite large compared to average s
can continue in persistent slip bands at very low average plastic strain amplitude. The nature of damage which leads to crack formation in high cy
within slip bands. In this phenomenon, material is pushed out of surface at one point in the band and material is drawn in to form deep valleys at o
the presence of the crack itself dominates the stress and strain behavior in its vicinity. The development of the theory of fracture mechanics to de
useful in reaching an understanding of the process of crack propagation in fatigue [13].

2.9 SURFACE ENERGY AND FRACTURE TOUGHNESS

The Arrhenius model for the fatigue life equation and Zhurkovʼs static fatigue equation are of the same type, given as [14]

= (2.21)

Where

= fatigue life of the material

= material constant

= Kelvin temperature

=bonding energy constant of material

= lethargy coefficient

= function of dynamic fatigue model

The fraction of the life already passed by as follows ,

(2.22)

= fraction of the life passed in the time interval dt.

The whole life is integrated like

= 1 (2.23)

In ordinary uniaxial Tensile Test, it is assumed that temperature is constant and that the stress increases linearly

Eq. (2.23) becomes

Where is the time from the start of loading up to fracture. Because fracture begins at the ultimate tensile strength, the stress is maximum at

Eq. (2.23) is simplified as

(2.24)
The surface energy per mole is defined as

(2.25)

and the surface energy per unit area as

= (2.26)

Where surface energy per unit area for elastic brittle fracture

is the time for elastic brittle fracture

In terms of displacement, the surface energy is given as

= (2.27)

Eq. (3.27) can be written as

= (2.28)

Finally fracture toughness may be given as

. (2.29)

2.10 CONCLUDING REMARKS

In this chapter we have discussed that fracture toughness is very important for welded joints where geometric effects are complex .Theory of Ten
are presented in this chapter. The derivation of fatigue potential energy, lethargy coefficient, and surface energy per unit area, surface energy pe
carried out.

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