Faculty of Engineering

Nile University of Nigeria

Course Title: Strength of Materials

Course Code: GET 214
Instructor: Dr. Adekunle A. ADELEKE
Lecture hours: Thursdays (09:00 am – 12:00 pm)
Office: Room…,Law Building
Office hours: Monday ( 10:00- 14:00 H)
Textbook: Strength of Materials (Mechanics of Solids)
by R. K. Rajput, Multicolor Illustrative
Edition
 Simple Stresses and Strains
Expressions for stresses and strains is derived with the following assumptions:

 For the range of forces applied the material is elastic i.e. it can regain its original shape
and size, if the applied force is removed.

 Material is homogeneous i.e. every particle of the material possesses identical

mechanical properties.

 Material is isotropic i.e. the material possesses identical mechanical property at any
point in any direction.
 MEANING OF STRESS

When a member is subjected to loads it develops resisting forces. To find the resisting
forces developed a section plane may be passed through the member and equilibrium of
any one part may be considered. Each part is in equilibrium under the action of applied
forces and internal resisting forces. The resisting forces may be conveniently split into
normal and parallel to the section plane. The resisting force parallel to the plane is called
shearing resistance. The intensity of resisting force normal to the sectional plane is called
intensity of Normal Stress. Stress may be represented with p or 𝜎

In most of the standard codes published unit of stress

has been used as Mega Pascal (MPa or )
 Mathematically

where R is normal resisting force

The intensity of resisting force parallel to the sectional plane is called Shearing Stress (q)

where Q is Shearing Resistance

Thus, stress at any point may be defined as resistance developed per unit area

We then have;
At any cross-section, stress developed may or may not be uniform. In a bar of uniform
cross section subject to axial concentrated loads as shown, the stress is uniform at a section
away from the applied loads; but there is variation of stress at the section near the applied
loads
 AXIAL STRESS

Consider a bar subjected to force P (tensile) as shown. To maintain the equilibrium the
end forces applied must be the same, say P.
The resisting forces acting on a
section are shown in b. Now since
the stresses are uniform

where A is the cross-sectional area

Considering the equilibrium of a cut
piece of the bar, we get

From both Equations, we have

Thus, in case of axial load ‘P’ the stress developed is equal to the load per
unit area. Under this type of normal stresses the bar is being extended. Such
stress which is causing extension of the bar is called tensile stress.
A bar subjected to two equal forces pushing the bar is shown. It causes shortening of the
bar. Such forces which are causing shortening, are known as compressive forces and
corresponding stresses as compressive stresses.

Now

For equilibrium of the piece of the bar

Therefore, whether it is tensile or compressive, the stress developed in a bar subjected

to axial forces, is equal to load per unit area
 STRAIN

No material is perfectly rigid. Under the action of forces a rubber undergoes changes in shape and size. This
phenomenon is very well known to all since in case of rubber, even for small forces deformations are quite
large. Actually all materials including steel, cast iron, brass, concrete, etc. undergo similar deformation when
loaded
Instrument for measuring deformation to 1/100 th or 1/1000 th are;
i. Extensometer
ii. Electric strain gauges
iii. Ultimate testing machine

The change in length per unit length is known as linear strain

The lateral strain may be defined as changes in the lateral

dimension per unit lateral dimension
 STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIP TENSION
Stress-strain shows the following salient points Lower Yield Point (C): At this
Limit of Proportionality (A): It is the limiting stage the stress remains same
value of the stress up to which stress is but strain increases for some
proportional to strain. time

Elastic Limit: This is the limiting value of stress up to which if the material
is stressed and then released (unloaded) strain disappears completely and
the original length is regained. This point is slightly beyond the limit of
Typical tensile testing specimen proportionality

Upper Yield Point (B): This is the stress at which, the load starts reducing and
the extension increases. This phenomenon is called yielding of material. At
this stage strain is about 0.125 per cent and stress is about 250

Ultimate Stress (D): This is the maximum stress the material can resist. This stress is
about 370–400 . . At this stage cross-sectional area at a particular section starts
reducing very fast. This is called neck formation. After this stage load resisted and
hence the stress developed starts reducing

Breaking Point (E): The stress at which finally the

specimen fails is called breaking point. At this
Stress vs strain diagram for the typical mild steel specimen strain is 20 to 25 per cent
 STRESS-STRAIN CURVE FOR DUCTILE AND BRITTLE MATERIALS

Stress-Strain Relation Aluminium and High Strength Steel Stress-Strain Relation for Brittle Material

In these type of elastic materials, there is no clear cut yield point. The necking takes place
at ultimate stress and eventually the breaking point is lower than the ultimate point

In brittle materials, there is no appreciable change in rate of strain. There is no yield point
and no necking takes place. Ultimate point and breaking point are one and the same. The
strain at failure is very small
 Quantifying Ductility of a materials

Percentage elongation and percentage reduction in area are the two terms used to
measure the ductility of material

Percentage Elongation
It is defined as the ratio of the final extension at
rupture to original length expressed, as
percentage

Percentage Reduction in Area

It is defined as the ratio of maximum changes in the cross sectional area to original cross-
sectional area, expressed as percentage
 Behaviour of Materials under Compression

As there is chance to bucking (laterally bending) of long specimen, for compression tests
short specimens are used. Hence, this test involves measurement of smaller changes in
length. It results into lesser accuracy. However precise measurements have shown the
following results:

 In case of ductile materials, stress-strain curve follows exactly same path as in tensile test
up to and even slightly beyond yield point. For larger values the curves diverge. There
will not be necking in case of compression tests.

 For most brittle materials, ultimate compressive stress in compression is much larger
than in tension. It is because of flows and cracks present in brittle materials which
weaken the material in tension but will not affect the strength in compression
 NOMINAL STRESS AND TRUE STRESS

So far our discussion on direct stress is based on the

value obtained by dividing the load by original cross-
sectional area. That is the reason why the value of
stress started dropping after neck is formed in mild
steel (or any ductile material) as seen in the figure.
But actually as material is stressed its cross-sectional
area changes. We should divide load by the actual
cross-sectional area to get true stress in the material.
To distinguish between the two values we introduce
the terms nominal stress and true stress and define
them as given below
 FACTOR OF SAFETY

In practice it is not possible to design a mechanical component or structural component

permitting stressing up to ultimate stress for the following reasons
 Reliability of material may not be 100 per cent. There may be small spots of flaws.
 The resulting deformation may obstruct the functional performance of the component.
 The loads taken by designer are only estimated loads. Occasionally there can be overloading. Unexpected
impact and temperature loadings may act in the lifetime of the member.
 There are certain ideal conditions assumed in the analysis (like boundary conditions). Actually ideal
conditions will not be available and, therefore, the calculated stresses will not be 100 per cent real stresses.

Hence, the maximum stress to which any member is designed is much less than the ultimate stress, and this
stress is called Working Stress. The ratio of ultimate stress to working stress is called factor of safety. Thus

Factor of safety for various materials depends

up on their reliability. The following values are
commonly taken in practice:
Steel – 1.85
Concrete – 3
Timber – 4 to 6
 HOOKE’S LAW

Robert Hooke, an English mathematician conducted several experiments and concluded that stress
is proportional to strain up to elastic limit. This is called Hooke’s law. Thus Hooke’s law is, up to
elastic limit

Where E is the constant of proportionality of the material, known as modulus of elasticity or Young’s
modulus, named after the English scientist Thomas Young (1773–1829).
 EXTENSION/SHORTENING OF A BAR

Example 1.
A circular rod of diameter 16 mm and 500 mm long is subjected to a tensile force 40 kN. The modulus of elasticity for
steel may be taken as 200 k . Find stress, strain and elongation of the bar due to applied load.
EXTENSION/SHORTENING OF A BAR
 Example 3.

A hollow steel tube is to be used to carry

an axial compressive load of 160 kN. The
ultimate stress for steel is 250 . A
factor of safety of 1.75 is to be used in the
design. The following three class of tubes
of external diameter 101.6 mm are
available. Which section do you recommend?

Solution: Ultimate stress = 250

Example 4.
A specimen of steel 20 mm diameter with a gauge length of 200 mm is tested to destruction. It
has an extension of 0.25 mm under a load of 80 kN and the load at elastic limit is 102 kN. The
maximum load is 130 kN. The total extension at fracture is 56 mm and diameter at neck is 15
mm. Find
(i) The stress at elastic limit.
(ii) Young’s modulus.
(iii) Percentage elongation.
(iv) Percentage reduction in area.
(v) Ultimate tensile stress.

Solution next slide

Solution to Example 4.
 TRY THESE QUESTIONS

1.