Glossary

Absolute zero temperature – the theoretical as either an acid or base

temperature at which the volume of an ideal gas is
Anion – any negatively charged ion
zero and all molecular motion stops
Anode – the positive electrode of an electrolytic cell
Absorption spectrum – the spectrum produced when
and the site of oxidation
atoms absorb speci c wavelengths of incoming
light and become excited from lower to higher Aqueous solution – a solution made by dissolving a
energy levels; this pattern of absorption can be substance in the solvent water
used in identifying an element.
Arrhenius, Svante – Swedish Nobel Laureate
Acids – a class of compounds that produce an excess chemist known for his theory on acids and bases
of hydrogen ions (H ) when in water solutions;
+
Atom – the smallest whole unit of an element that
such solutions will test below 7 on the pH scale
contains a nucleus and electrons around the
Activation energy – in a collision of reactants, the nucleus and is neutrally charged
amount of energy required for a reaction to form
Atomic mass – the average mass of an atom of an
transition states and proceed to products
element; it is the weighted average of the isotopes
Activity series – an arrangement of metals sequenced based on the proportion of each isotope in a given
in decreasing order of their ability to act as a element sample.
reducing agent in aqueous solutions
Atomic mass unit – Abbreviated amu and also called
Alchemy − a practice that was particularly popular a Dalton, it is the mass equal to the mass of a
during the Middle Ages that focused on trying to carbon-12 atom.
change other metals into gold or silver
Atomic number – the number of protons in the
Allotrope – one of several possible forms of an nucleus of an atom; this identi es the type of
element; for instance, carbon can be graphite, atom; for example, all atoms with seven protons
diamond, or buckminsterfullerene (commonly are nitrogen.
called “buckyballs”).
Atomic radius – half the distance between two
Alloy – a solid or liquid mixture of two or more adjacent atoms in an element’s crystal
metals; some common alloys include steel, brass,
Avogadro’s law − a gas law that states that equal
and bronze.
volumes of an ideal gas contain equal numbers of
Alpha decay – a type of radioactive decay where particles at constant temperature and pressure and
the nucleus emits two neutrons and two protons, thus the volume of a gas is directly proportional to
4
which is the equivalent of a helium nucleus, 2He 2+ the number of moles of the gas
Alpha particle – the helium nucleus, 42He2+, emitted Avogadro’s number − a number representing the
in an alpha decay number of atoms in 12.0 g of C-12; the number is
6.022 x 1023
Amphoteric – describes a substance that can behave

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Base – any substance that produces an excess of OH– Calx − the powdery substance that remains after a
ions in aqueous solution metal or mineral is burnt; now known as an oxide
Beta decay – radioactive atom decay that emits a Catalyst – a substance that increases the rate of a
charged particle; if this particle is negative, then chemical reaction by lowering the activation
it is an electron; if it is positive, then it is called a energy needed for the reaction by altering the
positron. reaction pathway
Beta particle – a negatively charged or positively Cathode – the negative electrode of an electrolytic
charged particle with the mass of an electron that cell and the site of reduction
is emitted in beta decay
Cation – any positively charged ion
Binary – describes a substance made of two elements
Cell potential – electromotive force (emf) or cell
Body-centered cubic – a unit cell of a crystal where voltage; the electrical potential di�erence between
there is a particle at each corner of a cube and one the two electrodes in an electrolytic cell
in the center
Charles’s law − a gas law that states that at constant
Bohr model of the atom – a model of the atom where pressure, the volume of a xed amount of gas is
electrons orbit the nucleus like planets around the proportional to its absolute temperature
sun, but at predetermined distances; electrons can
Chemical bond – an attractive force that exists
transition from one orbit to a di�erent empty one.
between two atoms such that the combination
Boiling point – the temperature at which the of atoms behaves as a unit that requires force
vapor pressure of a liquid substance equals the (energy) to break apart
atmospheric pressure; normal boiling points are
Chemical formula – a written expression using
de ned at 1 atmosphere of pressure.
symbols and subscripts to indicate the number
Boltzmann constant – de nes the relation between and type of each atom in a chemical unit
absolute temperature and the kinetic energy
Chrome plating – the technique of electroplating a
contained in each molecule of an ideal gas; it is
thin layer of chrome onto an object
equal to 1.380649×10 −23 J∙K−1.
Close-packed hexagonal – a crystal structure based
Boyle’s law – a gas law stating that the volume of a
on a hexagonal unit cell layering
gas is inversely proportional to its pressure when
the number of gas molecules and the temperature Colligative properties – physical properties of
remain constant; P1V1 = P2V2 solutions that depend on the ratio of the amount of
solute to the solvent
Brass – an alloy of primarily copper and zinc with
varying proportions of each metal Collision model – a model used to explain reaction
rates using the number of molecules colliding per
Brønsted-Lowry acid-base theory – an acid-base
second with a certain required minimum energy
theory based on the transfer of a proton; according
to this theory, an acid is a proton donor, and a base Combustion – a reaction involving oxygen as a
is a proton acceptor. reactant
Buret – a liquid measuring device used in titrations; Compound – a molecule that contains at least two
the liquid is dispensed through the bottom of the di�erent elements that are chemically combined
device via a stopcock that opens and closes to in a xed ratio
control the ow of liquid.
Concentration – the measurement of how much solute
Calorimetry – the measurement of heat evolution or is in a given amount of solution; depending on the
absorption in chemical reactions type of problem, di�erent types of concentration

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 units can be used, such as molarity and molality. state decreases, and thus it is reduced.
Covalent bond – the sharing of a pair of electrons by Electrochemistry – the division of chemistry that
two atoms in a chemical bond studies the relationship between reactions and
electrical parameters such as voltage and current
Covalent network – an extended lattice formed of
covalent bonds, such as in SiO2 or diamond Electrolysis – the nonspontaneous splitting of a
substance by adding electrical energy; an example
Critical point – the endpoint of the liquid-gas curve
is the splitting of water into hydrogen and oxygen
on a phase diagram; it is the point at which a vapor
by applying a voltage and current.
and liquid become indistinguishable.
Electron – a fundamental particle of matter that has
Crystalline – a solid with a well-de ned lattice shape
a negative charge; discovered by J. J. Thompson
due to an orderly arrangement of its particles
in 1896
within the solid
Electron affinity – the energy change, in kJ, when
Decomposition – a type of chemical reaction where
one mole of atoms of an element adds a mole of
a substance breaks down into simpler substances;
electrons (one per atom)
such reactions have one reactant and two or more
products. Electron “cloud” – the representation of the areas
occupied by electrons in the atom; the types of
Diffusion – the movement of one uid through
electron clouds include ones with di�erent shapes
another from an area of high concentration to an
called “orbitals.”
area of lower concentration
Electronegativity – the ability of an atom to attract
Dipole – a polar molecule in which the centers of
shared electrons in relative units
positive and negative charge are separated
Electroplating – the deposition of a thin coat of a
Dipole moment – the product of one of the equal but
metal onto the surface of an object by passing
opposite charges on two atoms in a molecule and
an electrical current through a salt solution
the distance separating them
containing the metal ion to be deposited
Diprotic – describes an acid capable of donating two
Electrostatic force – a force created by the attraction
H+ ions per molecule; for example, sulfuric acid,
of oppositely charged ions or charged particles
H2SO4
Elements – the simplest type of substance with
Dispersion force – the intermolecular attraction
unique physical and chemical properties
between any two particles resulting from the
polarization of the electrons in the electron clouds; Emission spectrum – the line spectrum produced
also called London dispersion forces when excited atoms return to lower energy levels
and emit photons characteristic of the element;
Double replacement – the reaction of two ionic
the pattern of emission can be used in identifying
compounds to form two new ionic compounds
an element.
Ductile – the property of a metal that describes how
Empirical formula – a chemical formula reduced to
easily the metal can be pulled into a wire without
lowest terms; for example, C2H2 reduced to CH
breaking
Empiricism − the process of relying on experiments
Effusion – the process by which a gas escapes from
and observations in the natural sciences
its container through a tiny hole
Endothermic – describes a chemical reaction that
Electrochemical reduction – the transformation of
absorbs heat from the surroundings
metallic cations to metals by electron transfer;
when a substance gains an electron, its oxidation Endpoint – the point in an acid-base titration when

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 the pH indicator changes color system to a cooler system resulting in changes in
molecular motion; measured in kilojoules
Enthalpy – a thermodynamic quantity (H) that
measures the heat content under constant pressure Heat of formation – the enthalpy change that occurs
when a unit of mass of a compound is produced
Entropy – a thermodynamic quantity (S) that is a
from its elements
measure of the state of order in a substance
Heat of fusion − the enthalpy change that occurs
Equilibrium – the condition of a chemical reaction
when a unit of mass of a solid substance melts
when the forward rate and the reverse rate are
equal, so there is no apparent change Heat of vaporization − the enthalpy change that
occurs when 1 gram of a liquid substance
Equilibrium constant – the number obtained if
vaporizes
concentrations and/or pressures of the products
are divided by those of the reactants when the Homogenous – describes a solution that features a
reaction is at equilibrium. uniform dispersion of its components
Equivalence point – the point in a titration when the Hybridization – the process when electron orbitals
moles of the two reactants are equal; in an acid- like s and p mix together to form new orbitals such
base titration, the moles of H+ transferred equals as sp; the total number of orbitals is conserved, so
the moles of OH . –
1s + 1p electron orbitals yields 2sp hybrids.
Exothermic – describes a reaction that releases heat Hydration – the process of being surrounded by
to the surroundings water solvent molecules; this process can also
form solid crystals called hydrates.
Face-centered cubic – describes a crystal structure
that has atoms at each corner of the cube and six Hydrogen bond – a type of dipole-dipole force
atoms at each face of the cube between molecules involving the attraction of
a hydrogen, which is bound to one strongly
Force – mass x acceleration or time derivative of
electronegative atom, either a nitrogen, oxygen, or
momentum; force creates change in a physical
uorine atom in another molecule; for example,
system.
the bond that occurs when the hydrogen in a water
Galvanic electrochemical cell – a spontaneous molecule is attracted to the nitrogen atom in an
reaction used to generate electrical potential ammonia molecule.
(voltage) and deliver energy
Hydronium ion – a hydrogen ion (H+) bonded to a
Gas – a state of matter characterized by molecules water molecule in hydration to form H3O+
being spread out from each other and therefore
Ideal gas equation – an equation that relates
highly compressible; takes the shape of any
temperature, pressure, volume, and moles of gas
container it is in, creating uniform pressure in all
together (PV=nRT)
directions
Induced dipole – a weak attraction that results from
Gibbs Free Energy – a thermodynamic quantity that
a polar molecule inducing a dipole in an atom
indicates whether a reaction will be spontaneous
or in a nonpolar molecule by disturbing electron
and how much work it can do; a spontaneous
arrangement of the nonpolar species
reaction has a release of free energy (∆G) found
from the equation ∆G = ∆H–T∆S, where ∆H is the Insoluble – describes a substance that does not
enthalpy change, and ∆S is the entropy change. dissolve in a solvent such as water
Group – a column on the periodic table; for example, Instantaneous rate – the rate of a reaction at any one
alkali metals (group 1) or noble gases (group 18) point in time
Heat – an amount of energy transferred from a hot Insulator – any substance with a low thermal

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 conductivity and/or low electrical conductivity that a compound is always composed of the same
elements in the same ratio according to mass
Intermolecular force – the type of force that attracts
one molecule to another molecule Law of multiple proportions − a mass law that
states if two elements react to form more than
Intramolecular force – the force in a bond that holds
one compound, the masses of one element will
the atoms within a molecule together
combine with the other element in a whole number
Ion – a charged particle formed when an atom either ratio
gives up one or more electrons or gains one or
Law of partial pressures − a law stating that the total
more electrons
pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of the
Ionic bonds – bonds that occur between two pressures of the individual gases in the mixture
oppositely charged ions
Lewis structures – a structural formula representation
Ionic lattice – an arrangement formed of alternating used to depict the arrangement of atoms, electrons,
cations and anions in an ionic crystal and bonds in a molecule using dots to represent
electrons and a line to represent the sharing of an
Ionization energy – the amount of energy needed to
electron pair
remove a mole of electrons from a mole of atoms
(one electron per atom) in the gaseous state; Limiting reactant (limiting reagent) – the reactant
measured in kilojoules per mole in a reaction that determines the maximum
amount of product that can be made
Isotope – an alternate form of the same element that
has a di�erent mass number due to its having a London dispersion force – see dispersion force
di�erent number of neutrons
Lustrous – refers to the appearance of a substance’s
Kelvin – a scale that is the SI (international system of surface in re ected light; metals have luster.
units) unit of temperature; the lowest temperature
Malleable – describes the property of a substance
is zero K; water boils at 373K
indicating it can easily be attened into thin sheets
Kinetic energy – the energy of any particle of matter
Mass number – the total number of protons and
due to its motion
neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
Kinetic-molecular theory – a model of gas behavior
Mass spectrometer – an instrument used to measure
that explains how the random motion of particles
the relative masses of ions
gives gas volume and pressure; it also explains
rates of di�usion and e�usion of gases. Melting point – the temperature at which a substance
transitions from a solid to a liquid; usually
Kinetics – a branch of chemistry that studies the rates
measured at 1 atmosphere of pressure
of reactions
Metallic bond – a type of bond that forms between
Latent heat − the heat released or absorbed by a
metal atoms in a solid metal, where the atoms act
substance when it changes its phase or physical
as if positive ions form and electrons are mobile
state (e.g., from a solid to a liquid) without
in a “sea” and so can conduct an electric charge
changing its temperature
Mixture – two or more substances that are
Law of conservation of mass − In any chemical
intermingled with each other but not chemically
reaction, the total amount of matter of the
bonded together
reactants is equal to the total amount of matter of
the products, and thus no mass is lost or gained as Molar mass – the mass of one mole of entities (atoms,
substances change in a reaction. molecules, or formula units) of a substance; given
in units of g/mol
Law of definite proportions − the law that states

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Molality – a measure of concentration in moles of fully surrounded by hydrogen atoms; the chemical
solute per kilogram of solvent formula for octane is C8H18.
Molarity – a measure of concentration in moles of Orbital – in an atom, the area in space around the
solute per liter of solution nucleus where an electron is found; each orbital
holds only one or two electrons.
Mole – the amount of a substance containing 6.022 x
1023 particles of the substance Organic – describes compounds in which carbon is
bonded, often to itself, in chains or rings; organic
Mole fraction – a measure of concentration based on
compounds usually contain many hydrogen
the number of moles of one substance compared
atoms.
to the total number of moles of all substances
present Oxidation number – the number of electrons that
must be added to or subtracted from an atom
Molecular orbital theory – a model that describes
of an element in a compound to convert it to its
a molecule as a collection of nuclei and electrons
elemental state of zero charge
in which the electrons occupy orbitals that extend
over the entire molecule Oxidation-reduction – a type of reaction where one
reactant loses one or more electrons while another
Molecular solid – a solid held together by weak
reactant gains those electrons; often abbreviated
intermolecular forces between the molecules;
“redox”
typical molecular solids have relatively low
melting points and boiling points. Oxidation state – essentially equivalent to oxidation
number (see above); the number that indicates the
Molecule – a compound consisting of two or more
oxidation state is equal to the e�ective charge on
atoms held together by a chemical bond
an atom.
Net ionic equation – a type of chemical equation
Period – a row on the periodic table; period 1 has
where spectator ions have been eliminated to
only H and He
highlight the actual chemical reaction taking place
Periodic table – a table showing all the elements,
Neutron – a fundamental particle of matter found
symbols, and masses arranged into seven rows and
in the nucleus that has a mass of 1.009 amu but
eighteen columns according to increasing proton
no electric charge; rst identi ed by Sir James
number and similar electron con gurations
Chadwick in 1932
pH – a number scale that indicates whether a solution
Nonpolar molecules – a molecule without a net
is acidic or basic; in aqueous solutions, a pH below
permanent dipole
seven indicates an acid while a pH above seven
Nonspontaneous – describes a reaction that does not indicates a base
naturally occur in the direction indicated (from
pH indicator – a species that has a di�erent color
left to right)
at di�erent pH values, typically one color in acid
Nucleus – the very dense positively charged center and a di�erent color in base; this color change can
part of the atom that contains the protons and indicate the endpoint of a reaction.
neutrons and, consequently, most of the mass of
pH meter – an instrument used to indicate the pH of
the atom
a solution
Nuclide – a nuclear species of an atom characterized
Phase – a state of matter such as a solid, liquid, or gas
by mass (protons + neutrons), charge (protons),
and energy content Phase diagram– a diagram that shows the temperature
and pressure conditions of a pure substance as it
Octane – a hydrocarbon with eight carbons in its
changes from one state of matter to another
chain, all of which are single bonded together and

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Phlogiston theory − an incorrect theory of Radioactive atom – an atom whose nucleus will break
combustion that posited that when a substance up to form a more stable arrangement of the nuclear
is burned, it releases an undetectable substance particles; natural or arti cial transmutation was
called phlogiston rst discovered by Antoine Henri Becquerel in
1896; radioactivity is not a�ected by the chemical
Photoelectric effect – the emission of an electron
state of the atom, and thus processes like burning
from a metal’s surface as a result of the absorption
do not destroy an atom’s radioactivity.
of a photon (electromagnetic radiation); this
phenomenon was rst explained by Albert Radioactive decay – the process through which an
Einstein; the amount of energy varies depending atomic species transmutates into a new species;
on the metal and the wavelength of the photon. for instance, U-238 decays initially to thorium-234
and then through a series of steps into Pb-206.
Photon – a discrete unit or quantum of electromagnetic
radiation; forms include microwaves, light waves, Rate law – an equation that shows the factors that
X rays, and gamma rays; photons are emitted a�ect the rate of the reaction and how they a�ect it
when electrons move from one energy state to
Reactants – the starting substances in a chemical
another in an atom, for example, when an excited
reaction
electron drops from the sixth energy level to the
second energy level; the energy released to make Redox – see oxidation-reduction
the change is the energy of the emitted photon.
Rotational motion – the movement of a molecule
Polar molecule – a molecule with an unequal overall circling around its central atom or the movement
distribution of permanent positive and negative of an individual group within a molecule rotating
charge; such a molecule has a net dipole moment about a bond
that is not equal to zero.
Salt – an ionic compound resulting from the reaction
Potential energy diagram – a diagram that shows between an acid and base; sodium chloride and
the energy of the reactants, the activation energy, lithium uoride are both salts; sodium chloride is
and the energy of the products in relationship often referred to as “common salt” or just “salt.”
to one other; this type of diagram can show if a
Saturated solution – a solution containing the
reaction is endothermic or exothermic and how
maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved
fast the reaction will occur.
at a given temperature
Precipitate – the insoluble product of a precipitation
Scientific Revolution − a term often used to describe
reaction
the emergence of modern science during the
Precipitation reaction – a reaction of two soluble sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; much current
ionic solutions that when combined form an scholarship questions the concept of a Scienti c
insoluble product called a precipitate Revolution.
Products – the substances that are formed in a Single replacement – a type of reaction where an
chemical reaction element combines with a compound, and the
element displaces a species in the compound that
Proton – a subatomic particle found in the nucleus
then becomes an element.
that has a positive charge and a mass of 1.008 amu
Solubility – the maximum amount of a solute that can
Quantum – the smallest possible unit of energy; this
dissolve in a solvent at a particular temperature;
unit can apply to any form of energy.
often expressed in grams per liter
Quantum Mechanical Model – a model of the
Soluble – describes the ability of a solute to dissolve
atom that explains the presence of electrons as
in a solvent at a particular temperature
“stationary” waves in orbitals

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Solute – the substance being dissolved in a solvent to measure of the thermal (motion) energy content
form a solution of a system
Solution – a homogeneous (uniformly dispersed) Temporary dipoles – a momentary induced dipole
mixture created when a polar molecule distorts the electron
cloud of a nonpolar molecule
Solvent – the substance doing the dissolving in a
solution; the solvent generally constitutes the Thermochemistry – a branch of chemistry focusing
main component of a solution on the heat transferred during chemical reactions
Sonorous – producing sound Thermodynamics – the study of the mathematical
relationships among work, temperature, and
Spectator ions – ions that are not involved in a
di�erent forms of energy in chemical systems,
reaction but are in the solution
especially chemical reactions
Spontaneous – a reaction that occurs naturally
Titration – a method used in chemistry to determine
Stalactites – formations in a cave that descend from an unknown concentration of a substance by
the ceiling and are made of calcium carbonate and comparing it with another substance; typically
other minerals used with acid and base solutions
Stalagmites – formations in a cave that grow upward Toxic – describes substances that can cause damage
from the oor due to dripping minerals, including to living tissue, especially upon ingestion or
calcium carbonate inhalation
State function – a property of a system that is Translational motion – the net movement of an
determined by its current state and not how it got object through space (in a solid, liquid, or gas),
there; volume, V, is an example of a state function; excluding vibration or rotation
since chemistry mostly involves studying change,
Transmutation – the natural or arti cial process
it often focuses on change in a state function;
of changing an atom from one type of atom to
this also does not depend on the pathway; for
another as the result of a nuclear reaction; in
instance, only Vinitial and the V nal are important for
alchemy, the act of changing a substance from
determining ∆V.
one form or state to another; alchemists believed
Steel – a metal alloy made with primarily iron that base metals could be changed into precious
and carbon whose composition varies; other metals such as silver and gold.
components can include nickel, chromium, cobalt,
Triple point – the one temperature and pressure at
molybdenum, or zirconium.
which all three phases of a substance (solid, liquid,
Stoichiometry – the establishment and use of mass- and gas) exist at the same time in equilibrium with
mole relationships in balanced chemical equations each other
STP – standard temperature and pressure for a gas Triprotic – describes an acid that has the ability to
which is at 0 °C (273K) and 1 atm donate three protons (H+ ions); for example, H3PO4
Supercritical fluid – a dense gas that is above its Valence electrons – the outermost electrons in an
critical temperature and pressure and behaves as atom that are used in bonding
a viscous uid
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR)
Synthesis – a type of reaction where two or more model – a model that is used to explain or
reactants make a new product predict the shape of many molecules and ions by
minimizing electron pair repulsions around the
Temperature – a measure of how hot or cold a
central atom
substance is relative to another substance; a

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Van der Waals force – weak forces of attraction energy di�erence between two electrodes when
between atoms or molecules that result from no current is owing
permanent or temporary electrostatic forces
Volts – the SI unit of electrical potential
Vibrational motion – the motion of two atoms in
Volume – the space occupied completely by a sample
a molecule that results from the stretching or
of matter
bending of a bond in the molecule
Yield – the amount of product made in a reaction
Voltage – (or cell voltage) the electrical potential

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APPENDIX: PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS

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