Chemistry Guide

Chemistry
Chapter – 1
Matter in our surroundings
Introduction
 Everything in this universe is made of
materials which scientist has names
‘matter’.
 The matter is made up of very small tiny
particles. It is not continuous but is
particulate.
 The matter is anything that occupies space
and has mass.
 Particles of matter have space between them
and are continuously moving.
 Particles of matter attract each other.
States of matter
Change in state
Matter can change its state from solid to liquid
and from liquid to gas and vice – versa.
Effect of temperature
On increasing the heat, the particles gain energy
and start vibrating with greater energy. Due to
increased kinetic energy the particles overcome
the force of attraction and a new state is
obtained.
Melting point
The temperature at which a solid melts to
become a liquid at the atmospheric pressure is
called its melting point.
Boiling point
The temperature at which a liquid starts boiling
at the atmospheric pressure is known as its
boiling point. Boiling is a bulk phenomenon.
Latent heat of fusion
The amount of heat energy required to change 1
kg of a solid into liquid at its melting point is
called the latent heat of fusion of the solid.
Latent heat of vaporization
The amount of heat energy required to change 1
kg of a liquid to vapour at atmospheric pressure,
at its boiling point is called the latent heat of
vaporization of the liquid
Evaporation
The phenomenon of changing of a liquid into
its vapour state at any temperature below its
boiling point is called evaporation. Evaporation
is a surface phenomenon.
Factors affecting evaporation.
 An increase in surface area increases
evaporation.
 An increase in temperature increases the rate
of evaporation.
 A decrease in humidity increases the rate of
evaporation.
 An increase in wind speed increases the rate
of evaporation.
 Evaporation causes a cooling effect.
Some measurable quantities and their units
Chapter – 2
Is matter around us pure?
Compounds
The compound is a pure substance made up of
two or more elements combined chemically in a
definite ratio.
Characteristics of a compound
 The properties of compound differ from
those of its constituents.
 Compound has fixed melting point and
boiling point.
 Compound is a homogeneous substance.
 Constituent elements can be separated by
chemical process.
Mixtures
It is made up of two or more elements or
compounds mixed in any ratio or proportion.
Properties
 It may be homogeneous or heterogeneous.
 The properties of constituent substances are
retained.
 No new compound is formed.
 Elements can be separated by simple
physical processes.
 It does not have a fixed melting and boiling
point.
How to calculate concentration of an

solution?
Solution
It is a homogeneous mixture of two or more
substances
Examples for colloids
Chapter-3
Atoms and molecules
Atoms
 Atoms are the smallest particles of an
element which can take part in a chemical
reaction.
 Size of an atom: Atomic radius is
measured in nanometres
Laws of chemical combination
 Given by Lavoisier and Joseph L. Proust as
follows:
1. Law of conservation of mass: Mass
can neither be created nor destroyed in
a chemical reaction.
E.g., A + B C + D Reactants
→Products Mass of reactants = Mass
of products
2. Law of constant proportion: In a
chemical substance, the elements are
always present in definite proportions
by mass.
E.g., in water, the ratio of the mass of
hydrogen to the mass of oxygen is always 1:
8 respectively.
 These laws lacked explanation.
 Hence, John Dalton gave his theory about
the matter. He said that the smallest particle
of matter is called ‘atom’.
Dalton’s atomic theory
 Every matter is made up of very small or
tiny particles called atoms.
 Atoms are not divisible and cannot be
created or destroyed in a chemical reaction.
 All atoms of a given element are same in
size, mass and chemical properties.
 Atoms of different elements are different in
size, mass and chemical properties.
 Atoms combine in the ratio of a small
whole number to form compounds.
 The relative number and kinds of atoms are
constant in a given compound.
Symbols
 It is the short form representation of an
element.
 There are two types of symbols:-
(i) Dalton’s symbols

(ii) Modern Symbols (Berzileus)
Molecule
 It is the smallest particle of an element or a
compound which can exist independently.
 Molecules of an element constitute the same
type of atoms.
 Molecules may be monoatomic, diatomic or
polyatomic.
 Molecules of compounds join together in
definite proportions and constitute a
different type of atoms.
Molecules of elements
 The molecules of an element are constituted
by the same type of atoms.
Molecules of compounds
 Molecules of compounds have atoms of two
or more different elements
Atomicity
The number of atoms constituting a Molecule is
known as its atomicity.
Chapter – 4
Structure of atom
 Atoms are composed of 3 sub-atomic
particles:-
► Protons
► Neutrons
►Electrons
Neutrons(discovered by James Chadwick)

 Changeless particles of an atom.
 Their mass is 1amu.
Electrons (discovered by J.J.Thompson)

 Electrons are negetively charged sub-atomic
particles of an atom.
 The mass of an electron is considered to be
negligible and it's charge is -1.
 The symbol for an electron is e-
 They are found outside the nucleus.
Protons(discovered by E.Goldstein)
 It is the positively charged sub-atomic
particles of an atom.
 They have a mass of 1amu.
Thompson's model of atom
 According to the postulates of Thomson's
atomic model, an atom resembles a sphere
of positive charge with electrons (negatively
charged particles) present inside the sphere.
 The positive and negative charge is equal in
magnitude and therefore an atom has no
charge as a whole and is electrically neutral.
 Thomson's atomic model resembles a
spherical plum pudding as well as a
watermelon. It resembles a plum pudding
because the electrons in the model look like
the dry fruits embedded in a sphere of
positive charge just like a spherical plum
pudding.
Rutherford's alpha particle gold foil
experiment
 A piece of gold foil was hit with alpha
particles, which have a positive charge.
Most alpha particles went right through.

This showed that the gold atoms were
mostly empty space. Some particles had
their paths bent at large angles. A few even
bounced backward. The only way this would
happen was if the atom had a small, heavy
region of positive charge inside it.
Rutherford's atom model
 The model described the atom as a tiny,
dense, positively charged core called a
nucleus, in which nearly all the mass is
concentrated, around which the light,
negative constituents, called electrons,
circulate at some distance, much like planets
revolving around the Sun.
Drawback of Rutherford's model

 It could not explain the stability of an atom
because this model does not obey the
Maxwell law of electrodynamics.
 Rutherford's model of the atom does not say
anything about the arrangement of electrons
in an atom.
Neils Bohr model
 Salient features of Niels Bohr atomic model
are: Electrons revolve around the nucleus in
stable orbits without emission of radiant
energy.
 Each orbit has a definite energy and is
called an energy shell or energy level. An
orbit or energy level is designated as K, L,
M, N shells.4
Orbits(shells)
 Orbits are energy shells surrounding the
nucleus in which electrons revolve.
Electronic configuration
 An electronic configuration is the
arrangement of electrons in an atom in a
particular manner in the shells.
 The maximum number of electrons can be
obtained by 2n² where n is the orbit number.
Valency
 The combining capacity of an element is
known as its valency. Valency is used to find
out how the atom of an element will
combine with the atom of another element to
form a chemical compound. (Every atom
wants to become stable, to do so it may lose,
gain or share electrons.)
Atomic number
 The atomic number of an atom is equal to
the number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom.
 It is denoted by the letter z.
Mass number
 The mass number of an atom is the total
number of protons and neutrons present in
the nucleus of the atom.
 It is denoted by the letter A
Isotopes
 Isotopes are the atoms of the same element,
having the same atomic number but different
mass number.
 Isotopes of hydrogen
1.Protium (1H)
2.Deuterium (2H)
3.Tritium (3H)
Uses of isotopes
 An isotope of Uranium (i.e. Uranium-235) is
used as a fuel in a nuclear reactor.
 An isotope of cobalt (i.e. Cobalt-60) is used
in the treatment of cancer.
 An isotope of iodine (i.e. lodine-131) is
used in the treatment of goitre.
Isobars
 Atoms of different elements having same
MASS NUMBER and different ATOMIC
NUMBER are called ISOBARS
 Eg: Sodium and Magnesium both have
atomic Mass 23 but different Atomic
numbers of 11 and 12.
Ions
 The charged particles (atoms) are called
ions, they are formed by attaining positive
charge or negative charge on it.
 Negatively charged ion is called anion
(Cl-).
 Positively charged ion is called cation
(Na+).
Chemical formulae
Chemical formulae is symbol representation
of elements present in a compound.

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Chemistry

How to calculate concentration of an

(i) Dalton’s symbols

Neutrons(discovered by James Chadwick)

Electrons (discovered by J.J.Thompson)

Most alpha particles went right through.

Drawback of Rutherford's model

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