Physics (BPH-151)

Dr. Alok Singh

School of Basic & Applied Sciences

Department of Physics
Harcourt Butler Technical University, Kanpur

B.Tech. First Semester Course

 Module 1:
Introductory Mechanics & Theory of Relativity
Why Relativity?
Classical/ Newtonian Mechanics
Isaac Newton was founder of classical mechanics
Law of inertia: An object either remains at rest or
continues to move at a constant velocity, unless any
force is acted upon it.
Law of Momentum: The rate of change of
momentum is equal to the impressed force.
𝑑𝑝 𝑑(𝑚𝑣) 𝑑𝑣
𝐹= = =𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎 ∴ 𝑚 → 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
∴ =𝑎
𝑑𝑡
Action Reaction Law: Every action has an equal and
opposite reaction.
Limitations of Classical/ Newtonian Mechanics
• Classical/ Newtonian Mechanics is applicable for
𝑐
objects with low velocities v ≪ 𝑐 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 < .
2
• Classical/ Newtonian Mechanics is not applicable
𝑐
for objects with higher velocities v ≈ 𝑐 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 ≥ .
2
Relativistic Examples
 Albert
Einstein
Developed

Relativity

Special General
theory of theory of
relativity relativity

Study of Developed Study of

Developed in
inertial between non- inertial
1905
frames 1905 to 1917 frames
 Technical Terms
Particle: Dimensionless having mass and position
coordinate with time.
Event: Time and position involved
Observer: record an event
Rest or Motion: Need of frame of reference to
define.
 Frame of Reference
 “A system of co-ordinate axes which defines the
position of a particle or an event in two or three
dimensional space is called a frame of
reference”.
The essential requirement of a frame of reference
is that it should be rigid. The simplest frame of
reference is Cartesian system of Co-ordinates, in
which the position of the particle is specified by its
three co-ordinates x, y, and z along the three
perpendicular axes shown in figure 1.
Figure 1.
 Types of Frames of Reference

The frame of reference is of two types:

Inertial frames of reference or unaccelerated or
Newtonian or Galilean frames of reference.
Non-inertial or accelerated frames of reference.
 Inertial frames of reference
“The frame of reference in which bodies obey
Newton’s law of inertia and other laws of
Newtonian mechanics is known as inertial
frames or unaccelerated frames”.
In inertial frames, a body not acted upon the
external force, is at rest or moves with a constant
velocity.
“The frames, in which a body is at rest or
moving with uniform velocity and not under
the influence of any force, remain at rest or
moving with the same velocity is known as
inertial frames”.
 = Constant
S S’

V=0

Figure 2. Inertial Frames S and S‟

Non-Inertial frames of reference
“The frames of reference with respect to
which an unaccelerated body appears
accelerated are called non-inertial or
accelerated frames of reference”.
In these frames, the Newton‟s laws are not
valid and a body not acted upon by an external
force is accelerated. The simplest example of a
non-inertial frame is a rotating merry go-
round.
Figure: Merry go-round.
 Is earth an inertial frame of reference?
Strictly speaking, earth is not an inertial frame of
reference.
Since, the earth is rotating about its own axis and
orbiting around the sun.
In both these motions, centripetal accelerations are
present.
A centripetal acceleration, whose value at the
equator is, ω2R = 3.4 cm/s2 which is by no means
negligible. Therefore, earth is non-inertial frame of
reference.
Consequently, any frame of reference set-up on
earth cannot be considered as an inertial frame of
reference.
 Space time frame of Reference

“A reference frame with such four co-ordinates

x, y, z and t (time) is referred to as a space time
frame. The four axes defining a four dimension
continuum called space time”.
Michelson-Morley Experiment

“The objective of the conduction of

Michelson-Morley experiment is to confirm
the existence of stationary ether and to
measure the absolute velocity of the earth
with respect to stationary ether”
 M1
V

L
D A P

M2
S

Figure 3 : Michelson- Morley experimental setup

The apparatus used by Michelson and Morley is
known as interferometer since it depends upon
the principle of light.
Light from a monochromatic source „S‟ is
incident parallel with the lens L and the half
silvered plate „A’ splits it into two components of
equal intensity. The reflected component travels
to the mirror M1 and is reflected back to plate A,
while transmitted component is reflected from
M2. Now, the reflected beams from M1 and M2
interfere and interference fringes are observed
through the telescope shown in figure 3.
The apparatus is arranged to move along the
direction of the earth‟s orbit round the sun with the
velocity of the earth v.
Let the distance AM1=AM2=D. The velocity of light
in the direction of the motion of earth is (c - v) and
in the opposite direction it is (c + v). Let T1 is the
time taken by the light to travel from A to M2 and T2
is time taken from M‟2 to A‟ as shown in figure 4.
 V 𝑀1 𝑀1′ 𝑀1′′
A
𝑀2
𝐷
𝑇1 =
𝑐−𝑣
T’
D
V

A’
𝑀2′
𝐷 A R A’
𝑇2 =
𝑐+𝑣

Fig. 4 Fig. 5
The total time (T) taken by the light to travel from A to
M2 and back to plate A, is given by,
𝐷 𝐷 2𝐷𝑐
𝑇 = 𝑇1 + 𝑇2 = + = (1)
𝑐;𝑣 𝑐:𝑣 𝑐 2 ;𝑣 2
The total distance travelled by light,
2𝐷𝑐 2 𝑣2
𝑥1 = 𝑇 × 𝑐 = 2 2
≅ 2𝐷 1 + 2 (2)
𝑐 −𝑣 𝑐
Let the time taken by the light to travel from A to M‟1
be T‟. During this time M1 is shifted to M‟1 and A is
shifted to R. (Fig.5)
The distance, AR = v T‟,
From right angled triangle ΔAM1‟R,
From right angled triangle ΔAM1‟R,
(𝐴𝑀1′ )2 = 𝐷 2 + 𝑣 2 𝑇 ′2

𝑐 2 𝑇 ′2 = 𝐷 2 + 𝑣 2 𝑇 ′2

′
𝐷 𝐷
𝑇 = = 1
𝑐2 − 𝑣2 𝑣2 2
𝑐 1− 2
𝑐

2
𝐷 1 𝑣
𝑇′ = 1+ 2
𝑐 2𝑐
Total time (t) taken by the light in going from A to
M1‟ and back to plate A‟ is,
2
2𝐷 1 𝑣
𝑡 = 2𝑇 ′ = 1+ 2
𝑐 2𝑐
Total distance travelled is,
1 𝑣2
𝑥2 = 𝑐 × 𝑡 = 2𝐷 1 + 2 (3)
2𝑐
From eq. (2) and eq. (3), the path difference can be
given by,
𝑣2 1 𝑣2
𝑥1 − 𝑥2 = 2𝐷 1 + 2 − 2𝐷 1 + 2
𝑐 2𝑐
 𝐷𝑣 2
𝛥𝑥 = 2 4
𝑐
If the path difference in eq. (4) corresponds to the
shifting of n fringes then we have,
𝛥𝑥 = 𝑛𝜆
𝛥𝑥 𝐷𝑣 2
𝑛= = 2 (5)
𝜆 𝑐 𝜆
The apparatus is now turned through 900, so that the
path AM1 becomes larger than the path AM 2 by an
𝑫𝒗𝟐
amount 𝟐 . Thus, the rotation of apparatus through
0
𝒄
90 introduces a path difference of the same amount in
the opposite direction, so that the total
𝟐
path difference
𝟐𝑫𝒗
between the two rays become . Hence, the total
𝒄𝟐
fringe shift will be,
 2𝐷𝑣 2
𝑁= 2 (6)
𝑐 𝜆
To get accurate results, the distance D was
increased to a value up to 11 meters by the
method of multiple reflections by using a system
of mirrors. Taking earth‟s velocity through ether
equal to its orbital velocity i.e. v=3 x104 m/s the
expected fringe shift for visible light (λ = 5.5 ×
10;7 m).
2𝐷𝑣 2 2 × 11 × (3 × 104 )2
𝑁= 2 = 8 2 ;7
= 0.4
𝑐 𝜆 (3 × 10 ) × 5.5 × 10
The actual shift of the interference pattern
observed was almost negligible, indicating no
relative velocity between the earth and the
ether. Thus the motion of the earth through the
ether could not be detected experimentally.
Hence the hypothesis of the existence of
stationary ether medium was disapproved.
Explanations and interpretation of the negative results:

 To explain the negative results of Michelson-Morley experiment the

following interpretations were given,
 Ether drag hypothesis: Michelson himself explained that the moving
earth drags the ether along with it and hence there is no relative motion
between the earth and ether.
 Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction hypothesis: According to this a material
body moving through ether is contracted in the direction of motion by
𝑣2
a factor 1− . Thus, a distance D in the direction of motion is
𝑐2
𝑣2
shortened to 𝐷 1 − 2 . It equalizes the times along perpendicular
𝑐
direction in Michelson-Morley experiment and hence no fringe shift
can be expected.
 Constancy of speed of light: Einstein proposed that the speed of
light is invariant, i.e., speed of light is constant and doesn‟t depend
upon the motion of the source, observer or medium. Thus, the time
taken by the light to travel the two paths in Michelson-Morley
experiment would be same and hence no fringe shift is expected.
 Ex.1: What will be fringe shift according to the ether
theory in the Michelson-Morley experiment, if the
effective path length of each path is 7 meters and light
has 7000 Å wavelength? The velocity of earth is 3x104
m/s.
 Sol.: According to the ether theory in Michelson-
Morley experiment, the expected fringe shift is given
by,
2𝐷𝑣 2
𝑁= 2
𝑐 𝜆
Here, D = 7 m, v = 3x104 m/s and λ = 7000Å = 7x10-7 m,
2 × 7(3 × 104 )2
𝑁= 8 2 ;7
= 0.2
(3 × 10 ) × 7 × 10
 Ex.2: Calculate the expected fringe shift in a
Michelson-Morley experiment if the distance of each
path is 11 meter and the wavelength of light is 5.6x10-7
m. The experimental set up was not rotated through 900.
The linear velocity of earth may be taken as 30 Km/s.
 Sol.: When the set up is not rotated through 900. Then,
the expected fringe shift is given by,
𝐷𝑣 2
𝑛= 2
𝑐 𝜆
Here, D = 11 m, v = 3x104 m/s and λ = 5.6x10-7 m,
11 × (3 × 104 )2
𝑛= 8 2 ;7
= 0.196
(3 × 10 ) × 5.6 × 10
 Ex.3: In Michelson Morley experiment, if the effective path
length of paths of two beams is 11 meters each. The
wavelength of the light used is 6000 Å. If the expected fringe
shift is 0.4 fringe. Calculate the velocity of earth relative to
ether.
 Sol.: The expected fringe shift is given by,
2𝐷𝑣 2 𝜆𝑁
𝑁= 2 ⟹𝑣=𝑐
𝑐 𝜆 2𝐷
Here, D = 11m, 𝜆 = 6000 Å = 6x10-7 m, and N = 0.4,
6 × 10;7 × 0.4
𝑣 = (3 × 108 )2 = 3.13 × 104 𝑚/𝑠
2 × 11
 Einstein’s Postulates of special theory of relativity

Einstein‟s special theory of relativity is based on two

postulates:
Postulate 1: The principle of Equivalence (or Relativity):
“It states that the laws of physics are same in all inertial
frames of reference moving with the constant velocity
(without any acceleration) with respect to one another”.
Postulate 2: The Principle of constancy of the speed of
light:
“It states that the speed of light in free space (vacuum) is
always same in all inertial frames of reference and is equal to
c, i.e., it is independent of the relative motion of the inertial
frames, the source and observer”.
The theory based on these two postulates is called special
theory of relativity.
 Galilean Transformation:
The equations which provide the relationship
between the coordinates of two reference systems
are called transformation equations.
In Newtonian mechanics, when the speed of
frames or object or observer is very small
compared to the speed of light, then the
transformation equation are called Galilean
transformation.
Consider two frames of reference S and S‟ with
axes (x,y,z) and (x‟,y‟,z‟) respectively.
 s s’
x
vt
x‟

Galilean transformation equations are,

𝑥 ′ = 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡; 𝑦 ′ = y; 𝑧 ′ = 𝑧; 𝑡′ = 𝑡
The inverse Galilean equations can be obtained by
interchanging the coordinates and replace v by –v
as,
𝑥 = 𝑥 ′ + 𝑣𝑡′; 𝑦′ = y; 𝑧 = 𝑧 ′ ; 𝑡 = 𝑡′
Length between two points is invariant under
Galilean transformation.
′
𝐿 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = x2 − x1′
Velocity is not invariant under Galilean
transformation.
u′x = 𝑢𝑥 − 𝑣; u′y =𝑢𝑦 ; u′z =𝑢𝑧
Acceleration is invariant under Galilean
transformation.
𝑎𝑥′ =𝑎𝑥 ; 𝑎y′ =𝑎𝑦 ; 𝑎𝑧′ =𝑎𝑧
Lorentz Transformation Equations of space and time:

The equation in relativity physics which relate the

space and time co-ordinates of two co-ordinate
systems moving with uniform velocity relative to
one another are called Lorentz transformations.
Lorentz transformation equations are applicable
for all speeds in the range of 0 ≤ v ≤ c.
 Let us consider a flashbulb at O‟ in the frame S‟ moving a speed
v along XX‟ axes as shown in figure 6.
 The frame of the flashbulb S‟ is indicated with the co-ordinates
(x‟, y‟, z‟, t‟) while a stationary observer in S uses co-ordinates
(x, y, z, t). A flashbulb emits a pulse of light at the instant that the
origins of the two reference frame coincide.
 At an instant the flashbulb goes off and this two origin coincides,
we define t=t‟=0. This light signal travels as a spherical wave
where the origin of the wave front is the fixed point O where, the
flash originated. At some later time, a point such as P on the
spherical wave front is the fixed point such as P on the spherical
wave front is at a distance r from O and at a distance r‟ from O‟
as shown in fig b. According to Einstein second postulate, the
speed of light should be C for both observers. Hence, the
distance to the point P on the wave front as measured by an
observer in S is given by r=ct , while the distance to the point P
as measured by an observer in S‟ is given by r‟=ct‟ . That is,
 𝑟 = 𝑐𝑡 ; 𝑟’ = 𝑐𝑡’ (1)
 If we accept Einstein second postulates we must require that
the times t and t‟ taken for the light to reach P be different.
 Now, the radius of a sphere is given by the equation
𝑟 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 as described by an observer in S.
Similarly, the distance r‟ measured in S‟ is given by,
𝑟 ′2 = 𝑥 ′2 + 𝑦 ′2 + 𝑧 ′2
• Hence, we get expressions,
• In frames S, put the value of r from equation (1), we get,
𝑐2𝑡 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 (2)
• In frames S‟, put the value of r‟ from equation (1), we get,
𝑐 2 𝑡 ′2 = 𝑥 ′2 + 𝑦 ′2 + 𝑧 ′2 (3)
• Since, the motion of S‟ is along the XX‟ axes, thus, Y and Z
co-ordinates measured in the two frames are always equal.
That is, they are unaffected by the motion along X and
therefore, Y=Y‟ and Z=Z‟.
Hence, subtracting eq. (2) from eq. (3), we get,
𝑥 2 − 𝑥 ′2 = 𝑐 2 𝑡 2 − 𝑐 2 𝑡 ′2
𝑥 2 − 𝑐 2 𝑡 2 = 𝑥 ′2 − 𝑐 2 𝑡 ′2 (3)
 The transformation equations relative to x‟ and t‟
can be written as,
𝑥 ′ = 𝑘 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡 (4)
Where, k is a constant.
Similarly,
𝑡 ′ = 𝑎 𝑡 − 𝑏𝑥 (5)
Where,a and b are constants.
Now, Substituting the values of x‟ and t‟ in eq. (3), we
get,
𝑥 2 − 𝑐 2 𝑡 2 = 𝑥 ′2 − 𝑐 2 𝑡 ′2
𝑥 2 − 𝑐 2 𝑡 2 = 𝑘 2 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡 2
− 𝑐 2 𝑎2 𝑡 − 𝑏𝑥 2

𝑘 2𝑣 2
𝑥 2 − 𝑐 2 𝑡 2 = 𝑘 2 − 𝑐 2 𝑎2 𝑏 2 𝑥 2 − 2 𝑘 2 𝑣 − 𝑐 2 𝑎2 𝑏 𝑥𝑡 − 𝑎2 − 2 𝑐 2 𝑡 2 (6)
𝑐

Equating the coefficient of corresponding terms in eq.

(6), we get,
𝑘 2 −𝑐 2 𝑎2 𝑏2 = 1 (7)
𝑘 2 𝑣 − 𝑐 2 𝑎2 𝑏 = 0 (8)
𝑘2𝑣2
𝑎2 − =1 (9)
𝑐2
Solving these equations for k,a and b, we get,
1
𝑘=𝑎= (10)
𝑣2
1; 2
𝑐
𝑣
and 𝑏= (11)
𝑐2
Substituting these values of k,a and b in eq. (4) and
eq. (5), we have,
𝑣𝑥
𝑥;𝑣𝑡 𝑡; 2
′
𝑥= and, 𝑡′ = 𝑐
𝑣2 𝑣2
1; 2 1; 2
𝑐 𝑐
 The Lorentz transformation equations (from S to S‟ frame) are,
𝒗𝒙
𝒙;𝒗𝒕 𝒕; 𝟐
𝒙′ = , 𝒚′ = 𝒚, 𝒛′ = 𝒛, 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕′ = 𝒄
(12)
𝒗𝟐 𝒗𝟐
𝟏; 𝟐 𝟏; 𝟐
𝒄 𝒄
The above equation is known as Lorentz transformation equation of space and
time.
 The inverse Lorentz transformation equation are obtained by interchanging
the co-ordinates and replacing v by (-v) in the above equations, (from S‟ to
S frame),
𝒗𝒙′
𝒙′ :𝒗𝒕′ 𝒕′ : 𝟐
𝒄
𝒙= , 𝒚 = 𝒚′, 𝒛 = 𝒛′, 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕 = (13)
𝒗𝟐 𝒗𝟐
𝟏; 𝟐 𝟏; 𝟐
𝒄 𝒄
The above equation is known as inverse Lorentz transformation equation of
space and time.
𝑐 𝑣2 𝑣 v2
 At low speeds i.e., 𝑣 ≪ 𝑐 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 < ; ≈ 0 𝑜𝑟 ≈ 0 ⇒ 1 − ≅ 1.
2 𝑐2 𝑐2 c2
Therefore, Lorentz transformation equations can become,
𝑥 ′ = 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡 , 𝑦 ′ = 𝑦 , 𝑧 ′ = 𝑧 , 𝑡′ = 𝑡
Thus, Lorentz transformation equations are reduced to Galilean transformation
equations at low velocity.
 Ex.4: Prove that 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 𝑐 2 𝑡 2 is invariant under Lorentz transformation.

or
Show that space-time interval between two events remain invariant under Lorentz transformation.
 Sol.: The Lorentz transformation equations are,
′
′ vx
x ′ + vt ′ t + 2
x= , y = y′, z = z′, and t = c
v2 v2
1− 2 1− 2
c c
2
vx ′
x ′ + vt ′ 2 t′ + 2
𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧 2 − 𝑐2𝑡 2 =
2 2
+ y′ + z′ − 𝑐 2 c
v2 v2
1− 2 1− 2
c c
2
2 2 2 2 2
1 ′2 2 ′2 ′ ′ 2 ′2
v2 x′ 2 2
𝑥 +𝑦 +𝑧 −𝑐 𝑡 = x +v t + 2vt x − 𝑐 t − 2 − 2vt ′ x ′ + y ′ + z ′
v2 𝑐
1− 2
c
2
1 2 2 2 v2x′ 2 2
𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧 2 − 𝑐2𝑡 2 = ′ 2 ′ 2 ′
x +v t −𝑐 t − 2 + y′ + z′
v2 𝑐
1−
c2
 1 ′2
v2 2 v 2
2 2
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 − 𝑐2𝑡2 = x 1 − 2 − 𝑐2t′ 1 − 2 + y′ + z′
v2 c c
1− 2
c
2 2 2 2 2 ′2 2 ′2 ′2 ′2
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 − 𝑐 𝑡 = [x − 𝑐 t ] + y + z
2 2 2 2 2 ′2 ′2 ′2 2 ′2
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 − 𝑐 𝑡 = x + y + z −𝑐 t
Hence, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 𝑐 2 𝑡 2 is invariant under
Lorentz transformation.
 Length Contraction:
Faster means shorter
Let us consider two frame of references S and S‟
with their x- axes coinciding at t=0. The frame S‟
is moving with a constant velocity, relative to S in
the positive X-direction as shown in figure 7.
Consider a rod AB at rest in S‟ frame. Let x1′ and
x2′ be the co-ordinates of the ends of the rod at any
instant in S‟ frame. The proper length l0 = x2′ −
x1′ which is the length determined by an observer
at rest with respect to rod.
 Suppose x1 and x2 be the co-ordinates of the ends of the rod at the same
instant of time in S.
 Let the measured length l = x2 − x1 is the length of rod measured in frame
of reference S by an observer. According to the Lorentz transformation,
𝑥2 ;𝑣𝑡
𝑥2′ = (1)
𝑣2
1; 2
𝑐
𝑥1 ;𝑣𝑡
And, 𝑥1′ = (2)
𝑣2
1; 2
𝑐
Subtracting eq. (2) from eq. (1), we get,
′ ′
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑙
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = =
𝑣2 𝑣2
1− 2 1− 2
𝑐 𝑐
𝑙 𝑣2
𝑙0 = Or, 𝑙 = 𝑙0 1 − (3)
𝑣2 𝑐2
1; 2
𝑐
From eq. (3), it is clear that l < l0 . Thus, the
observer in S finds that the length of the rod in S‟ is
v2
contracted by a factor 1− . There is no
c2
contraction in the direction perpendicular to the
direction of motion. The contraction is appreciable
only when v ≈ c . If two identical rods at rest one in
S frame and other is in S‟ frame, then each observer
finds that the other rod is shorter than the rod of his
own system.
 Ex. 5: A bar 1 meter in length and located along the X‟
axis moves with a speed 0.75 c with respect to a
stationary observer. What is the length of the bar as
measured by the stationary observer?
 Sol: According to the length contraction formula,
𝑣2
𝑙 = 𝑙0 1 −
𝑐2
Given, 𝑙0 = 1𝑚 , and 𝑣 = 0.75𝑐
(0.75𝑐)2
Then, 𝑙 =1 1− = 0.66 𝑚
𝑐2
The length of the bar measured by stationary observer
is 0.66 meter
 Ex.6: How fast would a rocket have to go relative to an
observer for its length to be contracted to 99% of its length
at rest?
 Sol: Length contraction is given by,
𝑣2
𝑙 = 𝑙0 1− 2
𝑐
𝑙0 𝑙 99
Given, 𝑙 = 99 ⇒ =
100 𝑙0 100
𝑙 𝑣2 99 𝑣2
= 1− ⇒ = 1 − 2 or,
𝑙0 𝑐2 100 𝑐
𝑣 2 = 0.0199 × (3.0 × 10 ) 8 2

or, 𝑣 = 42.3 × 106 𝑚/𝑠

The velocity of the rocket should be 42.3x106 m/s.
 Ex.7: Calculate the percentage contraction of a rod moving with a velocity
of 0.8c in a direction inclined at 600 to its own length.
 Sol: Let l0 be the length of the rod in the frame in which it is at rest and S‟
is the frame which is moving with a speed 0.8c in a direction making an
angle 600 with x-axis. The components of l0 along and perpendicular to the
direction of motion are l0 cos 600 and l0 sin 600 respectively.
Now, length of the rod along the direction of motion,
(0.8𝑐)2 𝑙0
= 𝑙0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 600 1− = × 0.6 = 0.3 𝑙0
𝑐2 2
Length of the rod perpendicular to the direction of motion,
0 3
= 𝑙0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 60 = 𝑙
2 0
Length of the moving rod,
1
2 2
2 𝑙0 3
𝑙= 0.3𝑙0 + = 0.916 𝑙0
2
𝑙0 ;0916 𝑙0
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100 = 8.4%
𝑙0
The percentage contraction of a rod is 8.4% to its own length.
 Ex.8: Obtain the volume of a cube, the proper length of each edge of which
is 𝑙0 when it is moving with a velocity v along one of its edge.
 Sol: The contraction in length will occur in the edge of the cube along
which it is moving. The lengths of the other edges perpendicular to the
direction of motion will remain unaffected. If l0 be the proper length of
each edge of the cube, the length of the edge along which it is moving will
v2
become l0 1 − . The other two edges of the cube remain unaffected and
c2
have the same length as before viz. l0 , so, the volume of the moving cube,

𝑣2
𝑉′ = 𝑙0 1 − 2 ( 𝑙0 ) × 𝑙0
𝑐

3 v2
V′ = l0 1− 2
c
3 v2
Thus, the volume of the cube is l0 1− .
c2
 Ex.9: Calculate the length and orientation of a rod of length 5 m in a frame of
reference moving with a velocity of 0.6c in the direction making an angle 300 with
the rod.
 Sol: Let l0 be the length of the rod in the frame in which it is at rest and S‟ is the
frame which is moving with a speed 0.6c in a direction making an angle 300 with x-
axis. The components of l0 along and perpendicular to the direction of motion are
l0 cos 300 and l0 sin 300 respectively. Given l0 = 5 m .
Now, length of the rod along the direction of motion (X-axis),
(0.6c)2 3
lx = l0 cos 300 1− =5× × 0.8 = 3.464 m
c2 2
Length of the rod perpendicular to the direction of motion (Y-axis),
1
ly = l0 sin 300 = 5 × = 2.5 m
2
Length of the moving rod,
2 2 2 2
l= lx + ly = 3.464 + 2.5 = 4.27 m
The orientation of the rod,
l𝑦 2.5
tan θ = = = 0.72
lx 3.464
θ= ;1
tan 0.72 = 350 45′ = 35.80
The length of a rod is 4.27 m and orientation is 𝟑𝟓. 𝟖𝟎
Q10: Calculate the percentage contraction in the length
of the rod in a frame of reference, moving with velocity
0.8c in a direction (a) parallel to its length (b) at an
angle of 300 with its length. What is the orientation of
the in the moving frame of reference in case (b)?
Q11: A rocket ship is 50 meter long. When it is on flight,
its length appears to be 49.5 meters to an observer on
the ground. Find the speed of the rocket.
Q12: A circular lamina moves with its plane parallel to
the X-Y plane of a reference frame S at rest. Assuming
its motion to be along the axis of X (or Y), calculate the
velocity at which its surface area would appear to be
reduced to half to an observer in frame S.
 Time Dilation
A moving clock slowed down than a clock at
rest
Let us consider a clock at the point X‟ in the moving
frame S‟. When an observer in S‟ finds that the time
′
is t1 , an observer in S will find it to be t1 , Where,
′ vx′
t1 : 2
c
t1 =
v2
1; 2 = Constant
c S S’
V=0
X’
After a time interval of t 0 , the observer in the moving system finds
that the time is now t ′2 according to his clock thus,
t 0 = t ′2 − t1′
The observer in S, however measures at the end of the same time
interval the time t 2 as,
′ vx′
t2 : 2
c
t2 =
v2
1; 2
c
Now, the duration of time interval t is,
t′2 ;t′1
t = t 2 − t1 =
v2
1; 2
c
𝑡0
𝑡= [ 𝑡 > 𝑡0 ]
𝑣2
1; 2
𝑐
Thus, a stationary clock measures a longer time between
1
events
occurring in a moving frame of reference by a factor 2
. Thus,
v
1; 2
c
a moving clock appears to be slow down to a stationary observer.
 Experimental Verification of Time Dilation
Time dilation has been verified by 𝜇 mesons. These are created at the
height of 10 km in the earth atmosphere by the interaction of photons and
are projected towards earth surface with velocity 2.29 × 108 m/s. These
mesons decay with average life time 2.0 × 10;6 sec. Thus mesons can
travel a distance,
𝑑 = 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 2.29 × 108 × 2.0 × 10;6 ≈ 0.6 𝑘𝑚
This distance is so small compared to 10 km required to reach the earth.
This is possible because of time dilation. So, dilated life time is given by,
𝑡0 2.0 × 10;6
𝑡= = = 3.17 × 10;5 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑣2 2.29 × 108
1− 2 1−
𝑐 3 × 108
In dilated life time mesons can travel,
𝑑 = 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 2.29 × 108 × 3.17 × 10;5
≈ 9.5 𝑘𝑚
Hence, time dilation is a real effect.
Ex.13: At what speed should a clock be moved so
that it may appear to lose 1 minute in each hour?
Sol.: According to time dilation formula,
𝑡0
𝑡=
𝑣2
1− 2
𝑐
Here, t0 = 59 min. is proper time and t = 60 min is
dilated time,
𝑡02 59 2
𝑣 = 𝑐 1 − 2 = 3 × 108 1 − 2
𝑡 60
= 5.45 × 107 𝑚/𝑠
 Ex.14: The proper life of 𝜋 : mesons is 2.5x10-8 sec. If a beam of these
mesons of velocity 0.8c is produced, calculate the distance, the beam can
travel before the flux of the meson beam is reduced to 1/e2 times the
initial flux.

 Sol.: If t0 be the proper life time of 𝜋 : mesons in its own frame of

reference and the observed life time is given by,
𝑡0 2.5 × 10;8
𝑡= = = 4.167 × 10;8 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑣2 (0.8𝑐)2
1− 2 1−
𝑐 𝑐2
If 𝜑0 be the initial flux and 𝜑 that after time t, then,
𝑇
;𝑡 𝜑0 𝑇
𝜑 = 𝜑0 𝑒 𝑜𝑟 = 𝑒𝑡
𝜑
𝜑
According to the given problem, 𝜑 = 20,
𝑒
𝑇 𝑇
𝑒 = 𝑒 𝑜𝑟 = 2 ⇒ 𝑇 = 2𝑡 = 2 × 4.167 × 10;8 = 8.334 × 10;8 𝑠
𝑡 2
𝑡
The distance travelled by the meson beam is produced before the flux
reduced to 1/e2 times the initial flux is given by,
𝑑 = 𝑣𝑡 = 0.8 × 3.0 × 108 × 8.334 × 10;8 = 20𝑚
 Ex.15: A man leaves the earth in a rocket ship that makes a round
trip to the nearest star which is 4 light years away at a speed of
0.8 c. How much younger will he be on his return that his twin
brother who preferred to stay behind?
 Sol.: According to the time dilation formula,
𝑡0 𝑣2
𝑡= ⇒ 𝑡0 = 𝑡 1 − 2
𝑣2 𝑐
1− 2
𝑐
The distance to the star is 4 light years and the speed is 0.8c.
2×4 𝑙𝑦
Therefore, for the person remaining on the earth is 𝑡 = =
0.8𝑐
10 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
However, according to the astronaut's clock,
0.8𝑐 2
𝑡0 = 10 1 − 2
= 10 × 0.6 = 6 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
𝑐
Therefore, 10-6 = 4 years
Thus, his twin brother is 4 years younger.
 Velocity Addition
Let us consider that a particle is moving relative to both S
and S‟. An observer in S measures its three velocity
components to be,
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝑢𝑥 = , 𝑢𝑦 = , 𝑢𝑧 = (1)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
While, to an observer in S‟ they are,
𝑑𝑥 ′ 𝑑𝑦 ′ 𝑑𝑧 ′
𝑢𝑥′ = , 𝑢𝑦′ = , 𝑢𝑧′ = (2)
𝑑𝑡 ′ 𝑑𝑡 ′ 𝑑𝑡 ′
By differentiating the inverse Lorentz transformation
equation for x, y, z and t, we obtain,
𝑣𝑑𝑥 ′
′
𝑑𝑥 ′ + 𝑣𝑑𝑡 ′ 𝑑𝑡 + 2
𝑑𝑥 = , 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑦 ′ , 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑧 ′ , 𝑎𝑛𝑑, 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑐 (3)
𝑣2 𝑣2
1− 2 1− 2
𝑐 𝑐
 𝒖′𝒙 :𝒗
Or, 𝒖𝒙 = 𝒗𝒖′𝒙
𝟏: 𝟐
𝒄

𝒗𝟐 𝒗𝟐
𝒖′𝒚 𝟏; 𝟐 𝒖′𝒛𝟏; 𝟐
𝒄 𝒄
Similarly, 𝒖𝒚 = 𝒗𝒖′𝒙
𝑎𝑛𝑑, 𝒖𝒛 = 𝒗𝒖′𝒙
𝟏: 𝟐 𝟏: 𝟐
𝒄 𝒄
If u′x = c , i.e., if light is emitted in the moving
reference frame S‟ in the direction of motion relative to
S, the observer in S will measure the velocity,
′ :𝑣
𝑢𝑥 𝑐:𝑣
𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑢′𝑥
= 𝑣𝑐 =𝑐
1: 2 1: 2
𝑐
𝑐
Thus, if an object moves with velocity c with respect to
other then, their relative velocity is always c whatever
may be the velocity of the other.
When, u′x = c = v then,
𝑐:𝑐 2𝑐
𝑢𝑥 = 𝑐2
= =𝑐
1: 2 2
𝑐

This shows that the addition of velocity of light to

the velocity of light merely reproduces the velocity
of light.
“It concludes that velocity of light is an absolute
constant”.
“It concludes that no signal can travel faster than
the velocity of light”.
Ex.16: Two particles came towards each other with
speed 0.7c with respect to Laboratory. What is their
relative speed?
Sol.: According to the velocity addition theorem,
𝑢′ + 𝑣 0.7𝑐 + 0.7𝑐
𝑢= ′ =
𝑢𝑣 0.7𝑐 × 0.7𝑐
1+ 2 1+
𝑐 𝑐2
1.4𝑐
𝑢= = 0.9396𝑐
1.49
 Ex.17: A particle has a velocity 𝑢′ = 3𝑖 + 4𝑗 + 12𝑘 m/s in a co-ordinate
system moving with velocity 0.8 c relative to laboratory along positive
direction of x-axis. Find 𝑢 in laboratory frame.
 Sol.: According to the velocity addition theorem,
𝑢𝑥′ + 𝑣 3 + 0.8𝑐
𝑢𝑥 = ′ = = 2.4 × 10;8 𝑚/𝑠
𝑢𝑥 𝑣 0.8𝑐 × 3
1+ 2 1 +
𝑐 𝑐2
′ 𝑣2 0.8𝑐 2
𝑢𝑦 1 − 2 4 1 − 2
𝑐 𝑐
𝑢𝑦 = = = 2.4 𝑚/𝑠
𝑢𝑥′ 𝑣 0.8𝑐 × 3
1+ 2 1+
𝑐 𝑐2
′ 𝑣2 0.8𝑐 2
𝑢𝑧 1 − 2 12 1 − 2
𝑐 𝑐
𝑢𝑧 = = = 7.2 𝑚/𝑠
𝑢𝑥′ 𝑣 0.8𝑐 × 3
1+ 2 1+
𝑐 𝑐2
Therefore, 𝑢 in laboratory frame is given by,
𝑢 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑢𝑦 𝑗 + 𝑢𝑧 𝑘
𝑢 = 2.4 × 10;8 𝑖 + 2.4𝑗 + 7.2𝑘 𝑚/𝑠
 Variation of mass with velocity:
Rest mass is least.
Let us consider two frame of references S and S‟.
The frame S‟ is moving with a constant velocity v
relative to S in the positive X-direction shown in
figure 8. Suppose in S‟, two exactly similar elastic
balls A and B each of mass m approaches each other
at equal speeds (i.e., u and -u). They collide each
other and coalesce in one body.
Considering conservation of momentum,
Momentum of ball A + Momentum of ball B =
Momentum of coalesced mass
i.e., mu+ (-mu) = Momentum of coalesced mass = 0
Thus the coalesced mass must be at rest in S‟ frame.
Now, consider the collision with respect to the frame
of reference S. Let u1 and u2 be the velocities of the
balls relative to S. Then,
𝑢+𝑣
𝑢1 = 𝑢𝑣 (1)
1+ 2
𝑐
−𝑢 + 𝑣
𝑢2 = 𝑢𝑣 (2)
1− 2
𝑐
After collision velocity of the coalesced mass is v
relative to S frame. Let the mass of the ball A moving
with velocity u1 be m1 and that of ball B moving with
velocity u2 be m2 in the frame of reference S.
Considering conservation of momentum, we have,
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝑣 (3)
Substituting for u1 and u2 from eq. (1) and eq. (2),
𝑢+𝑣 −𝑢 + 𝑣
𝑚1 𝑢𝑣 + 𝑚2 𝑢𝑣 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣
1+ 2 1− 2
𝑐 𝑐
𝑢+𝑣 (−𝑢 + 𝑣)
𝑚1 𝑢𝑣 − 𝑣 = 𝑚2 𝑣 − 𝑢𝑣
1+ 2 1− 2
𝑐 𝑐
 𝑣2 𝑣2
𝑢 1− 2 𝑢 1− 2
𝑐 𝑐
𝑚1 𝑢𝑣 = 𝑚2 𝑢𝑣
1+ 2 1− 2
𝑐 𝑐
𝑢𝑣
𝑚1 1 + 2
= 𝑐 4
𝑚2 1 − 𝑢𝑣
𝑐2
Let us consider the value of terms,
𝑢 + 𝑣 2 𝑢2 𝑣2
𝑢12 1− 2 1− 2
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
1− 2 =1− 2 = (5)
𝑐 𝑢𝑣 𝑢𝑣 2
1+ 2 1+ 2
𝑐 𝑐
Similarly,
𝑢2 𝑣2
𝑢22 1; 2 1; 2
𝑐 𝑐
1− = 𝑢𝑣 2
(6)
𝑐2 1; 2
𝑐
Dividing eq. (6) by eq. (5), we have,
𝑢2 𝑢𝑣 2
1; 22 1: 2
𝑐 𝑐
𝑢2
= 𝑢𝑣 2
1; 21 1; 2
𝑐
𝑐
𝑢22 𝑢𝑣
1− 2 1+ 2
𝑐 = 𝑐 (7)
2 𝑢𝑣
𝑢1 1− 2
1− 2 𝑐
𝑐
From eq. (4) and eq. (7), we get,
𝑢2
𝑚1 1; 22
𝑐
=
𝑚2 𝑢2
1; 21
𝑐
𝑢12 𝑢22
Or, 𝑚1 1 − = 𝑚2 1 − (8)
𝑐2 𝑐2

From eq. (8), it is clear that L.H.S. and R.H.S. are independent of one another
and this result may be true only if each is a constant.
𝑢12 𝑢22
Therefore, 𝑚1 1 − = 𝑚2 1 − = 𝑚0
𝑐2 𝑐2

Where, m0 is the rest mass of the body and corresponds to zero velocity.
𝑚0
Thus, 𝑚1 = 2 𝑢
1; 21
𝑐

If m be the mass of the body when it is moving with a velocity v, then,

𝑚0
𝑚= 2
(9)
𝑣
1; 2
𝑐
Eq. (9) is a relativistic formula for the variation of
mass with velocity and m is the relativistic mass of
the material particle.
At ordinary velocity, i.e., when v ≪ c , then,
v2
c2 ≈ 0.

Thus, m = m0 , i.e., relativistic mass is equal to the

rest mass of material particle.
When v = c , then by eq. (9), m = ∞ .
i.e., an object travelling at speed of light would have
infinite mass which is not possible.
Thus “No material particle can have a velocity
equal to or greater than the velocity of light”.
Ex. 18: At what speed will the mass of a body be
2.25 times its rest mass?
Sol.: According to the mass variation formula,
𝑚0
𝑚=
𝑣2
1− 2
𝑐
𝑚0
Here, m = 2.25 m0 ∴ 2.25 m0 =
𝑣2
1; 2
𝑐

12 8
𝑣 =𝑐 1− 2
= 2.68 × 10 𝑚/𝑠
2.25
Ex. 19: A person observes two men; each of rest
mass 60 kg, moving towards each other, each with
velocity of 0.5c. What is the mass of one man as
observed by the other?
Sol.: According to the velocity addition theorem,
𝑢′ + 𝑣 0.5𝑐 + 0.5𝑐 1
𝑢= ′ = = 𝑐 = 0.8𝑐
𝑢𝑣 0.5𝑐 × 0.5𝑐 1.25
1+ 2 1+
𝑐 𝑐2
The mass of one man as observed by the other,
𝑚0 60 60
𝑚= = = = 100 𝑘𝑔
𝑣2 (0.8)2 0.6
1− 2 1−
𝑐 𝑐2
Hence, m = 100 kg.
 Ex.20: The rest mass of a proton is 1.67 × 10;27 𝑘𝑔. At
what speed will its mass be double its rest mass?
 Sol.: According to the relativistic mass with velocity
formula,

𝑚0 𝑚02
𝑚= 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 = 𝑐 1 − 2
𝑣2 𝑚
1− 2
𝑐
𝑚02
𝑣 = 3.0 × 108 1− 2 = 2.6 × 108
𝑚/𝑠
2𝑚0
 Ex.21: What is the length of a meter stick moving parallel to
its length when its mass is 3/2 times of its rest mass?
 Sol.: In the given problem, the mass of the rod is 3/2 times
its rest mass, that is,
3 𝑚0 3
𝑚= 𝑚0 or = 𝑚0
2 𝑣2 2
1; 2
𝑐

𝑣2 2
1 − 2 = = 0.667
𝑐 3
The length of meter stick moving parallel to its length,
according to the length contraction formula,
𝑣2
𝑙 = 𝑙0 1 − 2 Here, l0 = 1 m
𝑐
𝑙 = 1 × 0.667 = 0.667 𝑚
Ex.22: How fast must an electron move in order that its mass
equals the rest mass of the proton?
Sol.: According to the variation of mass with velocity relation,
𝑚0 𝑚02
𝑚= 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 = 𝑐 1 − 2
𝑣2 𝑚
1− 2
𝑐
Here, m0 = me = 9.11 x 10-31 kg, m = mp = 1.67 x 10-27kg and
c = 3 x 108 m/s,
(9.11 × 10;31 )2
𝑣 = 3.0 × 108 1− = 2.99 × 10 8 𝑚/𝑠
(1.67 × 10;27 )2
Mass- energy equivalence [Einstein's mass-energy relation]
Consider a particle of mass m acted upon by a force F. Assume that the
direction of force is the same as the direction of velocity of the particle.
Clearly, the application of the force will increase the energy of the particle.
According to Newton‟s second law of motion, force acting on a body is
defined as the rate of change of its momentum, i.e.,
𝑑 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑚
𝐹= 𝑚𝑣 = 𝑚 + 𝑣 (1)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
According to the theory of relativity both mass and velocity are variable.
Now if this force F displaces the particle by a distance dx, its energy
increases by,
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑚
𝑑𝐾 = 𝐹. 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑚 . 𝑑𝑥 +𝑣 . 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
Or, 𝑑𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑚 ∵ 𝑣 = (2)
𝑑𝑡
According to the Einstein‟s relation of relativistic mass,
−1
𝑚0 𝑣2 2
𝑚= = 𝑚0 1 − (3)
𝑣2 𝑐2
1; 2
𝑐
Now, differentiating the above equation we have,
−3
;1 𝑣2 2 ;2𝑣
𝑑𝑚 = 𝑚0 1− 𝑑𝑣
2 𝑐2 𝑐2
;1
𝑚𝑣 𝑣2
Or, 𝑑𝑚 = 1− 𝑑𝑣
𝑐2 𝑐2
𝑚𝑣𝑑𝑣 𝑚𝑣𝑑𝑣
Or, 𝑑𝑚 = 𝑣2
=
𝑐 2 1; 2 𝑐 2 ;𝑣 2
𝑐
Or, 𝑐 2 𝑑𝑚 = 𝑚𝑣𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑚 (4)
Comparing eq. (2) and eq. (4), we get,
𝑑𝐾 = 𝑐 2 𝑑𝑚 (5)
If particle is accelerated from rest to a velocity v, let its mass m0 increase to
m.
K m
Integrating, total increase in K. E. = 0 dk = c 2 m dm
0
2
Or, 𝐾 = (𝑚 − 𝑚0 )𝑐
Or, 𝐾 + 𝑚0 𝑐 2 = 𝑚𝑐 2 (6)
Here, K is the kinetic energy of the particle and the quantity m0 c 2 is the
energy associated with the rest mass of the particle. The quantity m0 c 2 is
regarded as “internal stored energy or rest energy of the particle”.
The sum of the relativistic kinetic energy and the rest
energy gives the total energy of the particle. So, the
total energy of the particle is given by,
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
This is the Einstein‟s mass- energy equivalence
relation.
Total energy and rest energy can be related as,
2 𝑚0 2 𝐸0
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 = 𝑐 =
𝑣2 𝑣2
1; 2 1; 2
𝑐 𝑐
 Examples:
 Nuclear fission: Total mass of the constituents by which a nucleus
is formed is just a little more than the mass of nucleus itself. The
difference of mass is known as mass defect is converted into the
binding energy of the nucleus. It is the energy which keeps the
nucleus bound. In nuclear fission reaction nucleus splits up into
two parts and release large amount of energy. This principle is used
to prepare atom bomb.
 Annihilation of matter: If an electron and a positron come close to
each other, they annihilate (destroy) each other. High energy
radiation known as γ – radiation of energy equal to the rest mass
energy plus the kinetic energy of the disappeared particles are
produced.
 Pair Production: The process of annihilation of matter is reversible.
When high energy γ – radiations under suitable conditions
disappear and appear as an electron-positron pair whose total
energy i.e., rest mass energy and kinetic energy is equal to the
energy disappeared by the γ – radiations and this phenomenon is
known as pair production.
 Ex.23. Calculate the rest mass, relativistic mass and momentum of
a photon of energy 5eV.
 Sol.: Energy of the photon, E = 5eV = 5x1.6x10-19 J = 8.0x10-19 J
𝐸 8.0x10−19
Momentum of photon, 𝑝 = = = 2.67 × 10;27 𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠
𝑐 3×108
Therefore, relativistic mass of photon,

𝑝 2.67 × 10;27 ;36

𝑚= = 8
= 8.9 × 10 𝑘𝑔
𝑐 3 × 10
According to the variation of relativistic mass with velocity formula,
𝑚0 𝑣2
𝑚= 𝑜𝑟 𝑚0 = 𝑚 1 − 2
𝑣2 𝑐
1− 2
𝑐
The velocity of photon, v = c,
Therefore, the rest mass of photon, m0 = 0.
 Ex.24: Find the mass and speed of 2 MeV electron.
 Sol.: In relativistic mechanics, the energy of a particle is
expressed as,
2
𝐸
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 𝑜𝑟 𝑚 = 2
𝑐
Here, E = 2MeV = 2x106x1.6x10-19 joule and c = 3x108 m/s.
2 × 106 × 1.6 × 10;19 ;30 𝑘𝑔
𝑚= = 3.55 × 10
3 × 108
According to the variation of mass with velocity formula,
𝑚0 𝑚02
𝑚= 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 = 𝑐 1 − 2
𝑣2 𝑚
1− 2
𝑐
(9.11 × 10;31 )2
𝑣 = 3 × 108 1− = 2.90 × 10 8 𝑚/𝑠
(3.55 × 1030 )2
Ex.25: If the total energy of a particle is exactly thrice its
rest energy, what is the velocity of the particle?
Sol.: According to Einstein mass-energy relation,
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
Here, Total energy = 3 x rest energy, therefore,
𝐸 = 3𝑚0 𝑐 2 ⇒ 𝑚𝑐 2 = 3𝑚0 𝑐 2 ⟹ 𝑚 = 3𝑚0
According to the variation of mass with velocity formula,
𝑚0 𝑚02
𝑚= 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 = 𝑐 1 − 2
𝑣2 𝑚
1− 2
𝑐

8
1
𝑣 = 3 × 10 1 − = 2.8 × 108 𝑚/𝑠
9
 Ex.26: The total energy of a moving meson is exactly
twice its rest energy. Find the speed of meson.
 Sol.: According to the mass-energy relation, the total
energy of a moving meson is,
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
According to the given problem,
E = 2 x rest energy = 2m0c2
2 2
𝑚0
2𝑚0 𝑐 = 𝑚𝑐 𝑜𝑟 2𝑚0 =
𝑣2
1− 2
𝑐

8
1
𝑣 = 3 × 10 1 − = 2.598 × 108 𝑚/𝑠
4
Ex.27: If the kinetic energy of a body is twice its rest mass
energy, find its velocity.
Sol.: The relativistic kinetic energy can be expressed as,
𝐾 = 𝑚 − 𝑚0 𝑐 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑐 2 = 𝐾 + 𝑚0 𝑐 2
𝐾 = 2𝑚0 𝑐 2 ∴ 𝑚𝑐 2 = 3𝑚0 𝑐 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑚 = 3𝑚0
According to the variation of mass with velocity formula,
𝑚0 𝑚02
𝑚= 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 = 𝑐 1 − 2
𝑣2 𝑚
1− 2
𝑐

8
1
𝑣 = 3 × 10 1 − = 2.829 × 108 𝑚/𝑠
3
 Ex.28: Find out the velocity of a particle if its kinetic
energy is three times the rest energy.
 Sol.: The relativistic kinetic energy can be expressed as,
𝐾 = 𝑚 − 𝑚0 𝑐 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑐 2 = 𝐾 + 𝑚0 𝑐 2
𝐾 = 3𝑚0 𝑐 2 ∴ 𝑚𝑐 2 = 4𝑚0 𝑐 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑚 = 4𝑚0
According to the variation of mass with velocity formula,
𝑚0 𝑚02
𝑚= 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 = 𝑐 1 − 2
𝑣2 𝑚
1− 2
𝑐

8
1
𝑣 = 3 × 10 1 − = 2.884 × 108 𝑚/𝑠
4
 Ex.29: The mass of a moving electron is 11 times its rest mass.
Find its kinetic energy and momentum.
 Sol.: The relativistic kinetic energy can be expressed as,
𝐾 = 𝑚 − 𝑚0 𝑐 2 𝑜𝑟 𝐾 = 11𝑚0 − 𝑚0 𝑐 2 [∵ 𝑚 = 11𝑚0 ]
𝐾 = 10𝑚0 𝑐 2 = 10 × 9.11 × 10;31 3 × 108 2 = 5.17 × 106 𝑒𝑉
The momentum p of the particle is given by, p = mv,
According to the variation of mass with velocity formula,
𝑚0 𝑚02
𝑚= 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 = 𝑐 1 − 2
𝑣2 𝑚
1− 2
𝑐
𝑚02
𝑣 = 3 × 108 1− = 2.99 × 10 8 𝑚/𝑠
(11𝑚0 )2
𝑝 = 11𝑚0 × 𝑣 = 11 × 9.11 × 10;31 × 2.99 × 108
𝑝 = 2.99 × 10;21 𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠
 Ex. 30: Calculate the amount of work to be done to increase the speed of an electron
from 0.6 c to 0.8c. Given that rest energy of an electron = 0.5 MeV.
 Sol.: The relativistic kinetic energy can be expressed as,
𝑚0 1
𝐾 = 𝑚 − 𝑚0 𝑐 2 = 𝑐 2 − 𝑚0 = 𝑐 2 𝑚0 −1
𝑣 2 𝑣 2
1− 2 1− 2
𝑐 𝑐
Initial kinetic energy of an electron, when its velocity is 0.6 c, is given by,
2
1
𝐾1 = 𝑐 𝑚0 − 1 = 𝑐 2 𝑚0 1.25 − 1 = 0.5 × 106 × 0.25 = 1.25 × 105 𝑒𝑉
(0.6𝑐)2
1−
𝑐2
Final kinetic energy of an electron, when its velocity increases to 0.8 c, is given by,
2
1
𝐾2 = 𝑐 𝑚0 − 1 = 𝑐 2 𝑚0 1.67 − 1 = 0.5 × 106 × 0.67 = 3.35 × 105 𝑒𝑉
(0.8𝑐)2
1−
𝑐2
Therefore, the amount of work to be done to increase the speed of an electron from 0.6 to
0.8 c is,
∆𝐾 = 𝐾2 − 𝐾1 = 3.35 × 105 − 1.25 × 105 = 2.1 × 105 𝑒𝑉
∆𝐾 = 2.1 × 105 × 1.6 × 10;19 = 3.36 × 10;14 𝐽