Physics of the Dark Universe

Thermodynamic stability and $P$--$V$ criticality of nonsingular-AdS black holes

endowed with clouds of strings
--Manuscript Draft--

Manuscript Number:

Article Type: Full Length Article

Keywords: Thermodynamics; nonsingular AdS; Clouds of strings; P-V Criticality; Critical

exponents

Corresponding Author: ASHIMA Sood, Ph.D.

Jamia Millia Islamia Central University: Jamia Millia Islamia
NEW DELHI, DELHI INDIA

First Author: ASHIMA Sood, Ph.D.

Order of Authors: ASHIMA Sood, Ph.D.

Arun Kumar, Ph.D

J. K. Singh, Ph.D

Sushant G. Ghosh, Ph.D

Abstract: We investigate the extended phase space thermodynamics of nonsingular-AdS black

holes minimally coupled to clouds of strings in which we consider the cosmological
constant ($\Lambda$) as the pressure ($P$) of the black holes and its conjugate
variable thermodynamical volume ($V$) of the black holes.  Owing to the background
clouds of strings parameter ($a$), we analyse the Hawking temperature, entropy and
specific heat on horizon radius for fixed-parameter $k$.  We find that the strings clouds
background does not alter small/large black hole (SBH/LBH) phase transition but
occurs at a larger horizon radius, and two second-order phase transitions occur at a
smaller horizon radius.  Indeed, the $G$--$T$ plots exhibit a swallow tail below the
critical pressure, implying that the first-order phase transition is analogous to the liquid-
gas phase transition at a lower temperature and lower critical pressure. To further
examine the analogy between nonsingular-AdS black holes and a liquid-gas system,
we derive the exact critical points and probe the effects of a cloud of strings on $P-V$
criticality to find that the isotherms undergo liquid-gas like phase transition for
$\tilde{T}\,<\,\tilde{T}_c$ at lower $\tilde{T}_c$.   We have also calculated the critical
exponents identical with Van der Walls fluid, i.e.,  same as those obtained before for
arbitrary other AdS black holes, which implies that the background clouds of strings do
not change the critical exponents.

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Cover Letter

To,
The Editor
Physics of the Dark Universe

Dear Sir/madam
Greetings.

We wish to submit a new manuscript entitled Thermodynamic stability and P-V criticality of
nonsingular-AdS black holes endowed with clouds of strings by Ashima Sood, Arun Kumar, J.
K. Singh, Sushant G Ghosh for consideration in Physics of the Dark Universe.

We confirm that this work is original and has not been published elsewhere, nor is it currently
under consideration for publication elsewhere.

We would be grateful if you could acknowledge the receipt of the same. Please address all
correspondence concerning this manuscript to me.
Thank you for your consideration of this manuscript.

Sincerely,

Ashima Sood
Corresponding Author
 Click here to view linked References

Thermodynamic stability and P –V criticality of nonsingular-AdS black holes endowed

with clouds of strings

Ashima Sood,1, 2, ∗ Arun Kumar,1, † J. K. Singh,2, ‡ and Sushant G. Ghosh1, 2, 3, §

1
Centre for Theoretical Physics, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi 110025, India
2
Department of Mathematics, Netaji Subhas University of Technology, New Delhi-110078, India
3
Astrophysics and Cosmology Research Unit, School of Mathematics,
Statistics and Computer Science, University of KwaZulu-Natal,
Private Bag X54001, Durban 4000, South Africa
We investigate the extended phase space thermodynamics of nonsingular-AdS black holes mini-
mally coupled to clouds of strings in which we consider the cosmological constant (Λ) as the pressure
(P ) of the black holes and its conjugate variable thermodynamical volume (V ) of the black holes.
Owing to the background clouds of strings parameter (a), we analyse the Hawking temperature,
entropy and specific heat on horizon radius for fixed-parameter k. We find that the strings clouds
background does not alter small/large black hole (SBH/LBH) phase transition but occurs at a larger
horizon radius, and two second-order phase transitions occur at a smaller horizon radius. Indeed,
the G–T plots exhibit a swallow tail below the critical pressure, implying that the first-order phase
transition is analogous to the liquid-gas phase transition at a lower temperature and lower critical
pressure. To further examine the analogy between nonsingular-AdS black holes and a liquid-gas
system, we derive the exact critical points and probe the effects of a cloud of strings on P − V
criticality to find that the isotherms undergo liquid-gas like phase transition for T̃ < T̃c at lower
T̃c . We have also calculated the critical exponents identical with Van der Walls fluid, i.e., same as
those obtained before for arbitrary other AdS black holes, which implies that the background clouds
of strings do not change the critical exponents.

I. INTRODUCTION bring out how the effect of a background of clouds of

strings can modify black hole solutions and their proper-
The black hole’s thermodynamics investigation has ties aspects in non-extended thermodynamics. A cascade
communicated a deep and fundamental relationship of subsequent interesting work analysed black hole solu-
among gravitation, thermodynamics, and quantum the- tions in clouds of strings model [27–31] and these black
ory. Interestingly, classical and semiclassical analysis has holes have been shown to also exhibit Hawking-Page type
given rise to most of our present physical understand- phase transitions [29]. The theoretical developments sig-
ings of the nature of quantum phenomena [1, 2]. An nal toward a scenario in which the fundamental building
interesting phenomenon in the AdS black hole thermo- blocks of the Universe are extended objects instead of
dynamics is the existence of the transition between AdS– point objects can be exciting and have been taken quite
Schwarzschild black hole and thermal AdS was unlocked seriously [32] with the most natural candidate being a
in the pioneering work of Hawking and Page [3], which one-dimensional strings object. In addition, the intense
has attracted numerous astrophysicists towards study- level of activity in string theory has led to the idea that
ing black holes thermodynamics in AdS spacetimes. In- the static Schwarzschild black hole (point mass) may
deed, the Hawking-Page phase transition between large have atmospheres composed of fluid or field of strings.
black holes (LBH) and thermal gas in the AdS space is a The clouds of strings background for the Schwarzschild
topic of intense research [4–18], e.g., an analogy between black hole was proposed by Letelier [33] to demonstrate
phase structures of various AdS black holes and statis- that event horizon has modified radius rH = 2M /(1 − a)
tical models associated with Van der Waals like phase with 0 < a < 1 being the string cloud parameter [33],
transitions has been suggested [19–21]. The analysis of thereby enlarging the Schwarzschild radius of the black
AdS black hole phase transition has been generalized to hole by the factor (1 − a)−1 . Many authors generalized
the extended phase space where the cosmological con- the pioneering work of Letelier [33], for instance, in GR
stant has been treated as the pressure of the black hole [30], for EGB models [29, 31, 34] and in Lovelock gravity
revealing several exciting results[22–25]. [27, 28]. Thus, the study of black holes surrounded by
In an interesting paper, the authors [26] explicitly clouds of strings, in general relativity or modified theo-
ries, may be critical because relativistic strings at a clas-
sical level can be used to construct applicable models
[32].
∗ [email protected]
† [email protected] The primary purpose of this paper is to look for an
‡ [email protected] exact spherically symmetric nonsingular black hole solu-
§ [email protected] tion endowed with clouds of strings in AdS spacetime,
 2

and explicitly mention how background clouds of strings where e is NED charge and k > 0 is constant. To obtain
can alter black hole solutions and their extended phase our black hole solution, we assume the static spherically
thermodynamic qualitative features we know from our symmetric metric of the form [35]
experience in general relativity. We shall analyse, in turn,
we probe the effects of background s on P − V critical- 1
ds2 = −f (r)dt2 + dr2 + r2 dΩ, (3)
ity, the critical behaviour of the thermodynamic quanti- f (r)
ties and demonstrate that there exists a phase transition
and critical phenomena similar to the ones in a Van der where the function f(r) is the metric function to be de-
Waals liquid-gas system. Thus, it is our goal to connect termined and dΩ = dθ2 + sin2 θdφ2 . The Nambu-Goto
nonsingular-AdS black holes with the concept of black action of strings evolving in spacetime is given by [31, 33]
hole chemistry [35–37]. The black hole chemistry – a Z Z  21
new perspective on black hole thermodynamics, with the 1 1
interpretation of black hole mass as enthalpy and the cos- SM = M (γ)− 2 dλ0 dλ1 = M − Σµν Σµν dλ0 dλ1 ,
Σ Σ 2
mological constant Λ it’s conjugate variable, respectively, (4)
as a pressure term and the thermodynamical volume of where the world sheet is parameterized by spacelike and
the black holes has led to a new understanding of Van timelike parameters [32] represented by λ0 and λ1 and M
der Waals fluids, phase transitions from a gravitational is a dimensionless positive constant which characterises
viewpoint [37]. In particular, we investigate the anal- each string. The quantity γ is determinant of γab given
ogy between nonsingular-AdS black holes endowed with by
clouds of strings and a liquid-gas system and find exact
solutions of the critical points. ∂xµ ∂xν
γab = gµν . (5)
This paper is organized as follows. In Section II, ∂λa ∂λb
we consider nonsingular–AdS black holes surrounded by
clouds of strings, discuss the effect of clouds of strings pa- The movement of a string in time sweeps out area in two
rameter a, nonlinear electrodynamics (NED) parameter dimension which is termed as it’s [38] world sheet Σ and
k, on horizon structure. The thermodynamic properties has associated with it a bivector given by [33]
of the solution derived and discussed in Sec. III. In Sec.
∂xµ ∂xν
IV, the thermodynamical stability analysis and P − V Σµν = ab , (6)
criticality of the black holes has been discussed, and the ∂λa ∂λa
critical exponents have been calculated in Sec. V. Finally,
where ab is the Levi-Civita tensor in two dimensions,
we summarize our main findings in Section VI.
which is anti-symmetric in the indices a and b given by
We use geometrized units 8πG = c = 1, unless units
01 = − 10 = 1. By varying the action (1) with respect
are specifically defined.
to gab , we obtain the following equations of motion
 
3 ∂L(F) c cs
II. NONSINGULAR BLACK HOLES WITH Gab − 2 gab = Tab = 2 Fac Fb − gab L(F) + Tab ,
CLOUDS OF STRINGS l ∂F
(7)
and
The AdS black holes are natural tools to investigate
AdS/CFT correspondence and black hole thermodynam-
 
∂L(F)
ics in extended phase space. Here, we are interested ∆a Fac = 0, (8)
∂F
in a nonsingular-AdS black hole solution endowed with
clouds of strings, and the energy-momentum tensor of where Gab is the Einstein tensor and
clouds of strings resembles the global monopole [31]. The
nonsingular-AdS black holes can be derived from general cs
Tab = 2∂L/∂gab = ρ (γ)−1/2 Σha Σhb , (9)
relativity minimally coupled to NED whose action reads
is energy-momentum tensor of clouds of strings [34]. The
√
Z
1
S= d4 x −g[R + 6l−2 − L(F)] + SM , (1) associated quantity ρ is the proper density of the string
16π cloud [34] and ρ (γ 1/2 ) is the gauge invariant density. The
where R is the scalar curvature, g is the determinant conservation of energy and momentum yields the equa-
of the metric tensor and l is positive AdS radius re- tion
lated to cosmological constant Λ through the relation
Λ = −3/l2 . The Lagrangian density L(F) is a func- ∇a Tab = 0, (10)
tion of F = 14 F ab Fab with Fab = ∂a Ab − ∂b Aa and the
which leads to
solution we are interested, has the form
√
∂a ( −g ρ Σab ) = 0. (11)
2 1
e2
L(F ) = F e−k/e (2e F)4
, with F = 4. (2) For a spherically symmetric solution the density ρ and
2r
 3

1.0 bivector Σab are functions of radial and temporal com-

ponents, hence the energy momentum tensor for a string
0.8 cloud is [33]
Black Hole
a
0.6 Ttt = Trr = . (12)
r2
a

0.4 No Black Hole On using Eqs. (3), (7) and (12), the (r, r) component of
Einstein equations can be integrated to
0.2
2M e−k/r r2
f (r) = 1 − + 2 − a, (13)
r l
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
˜ where M is the integration constant related to the mass
k of the black hole and k is related to charge e via e2 =
2M k. Clearly solution (13) in the absence of clouds of
FIG. 1. The parameter space (a, k̃) for the existence of black strings background (a = 0), exactly goes over to solution
holes. The black solid line corresponds to the extremal black in [35] and encompasses the Schwarzschild black holes
holes. [34, 39, 40] when (1/l2 = k = a = 0).

˜ ˜
k = 0.4, a = 0.6 k = 0.4, a = 0.8
0.8

1.0 m > m0 m > m0

m = m0 0.6 m = m0
m < m0 m < m0
0.4

0.5
f( x)
f( x)

0.2

0.0

0.0

-0.2

-0.4
-0.5
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

x x

FIG. 2. The metric function f (x) vs x. When m = m0 = 0.5039 (left) and m = m0 = 0.16139 (right) corresponding to
extremal black hole with degenerate horizon. The black hole with Cauchy and event horizons exist when m > m0 .

In order to discuss the properties of the solution (13) m = mo the two horizon degenerate on (x+ = x− = x0 )
we rewrite it as and we have extremal black holes. Similarly, for given
k̃ and m, we have found critical value of a such that
2me−k̃/x a = a0 corresponds to extremal black hole (cf. Fig 3)
f (r) = 1 − + x2 − a, (14)
x and a > a0 corresponds to regular black holes with two
horizons (x± ). In Fig 1, we have depicted the parametric
such that x = r/l, m = M/l and k̃ = k/l. Thus the
space (a, k̃) for m = 0.3, in which the solid black curve
black hole (13) is characterised by three parameters M ,
is corresponding to the extremal black holes. The grey
k and a. The metric (3) is singular at the points where
region is showing black holes with two horizons whereas
f (x) = 0 and it corresponds to coordinate singularity,
the white region corresponds to no black hole solutions.
signifying the presence of event horizon. The numerical
In absence of clouds of strings parameter (a = 0), we
solution of f (x) = 0 reveals existence of maximum two
roots as shown in Fig 2. It is possible to find critical value only obtain critical values m0 and k̃0 which correspond
m0 , for a given a and k̃, such that for m > m0 there exists to extremal black hole at m = m0 (k̃ = k̃0 ) and regu-
two roots of f (x) = 0 viz. ± x corresponding to Cauchy lar black hole with two horizons for m > m0 (k̃ < k̃0 )
horizon (x− ) and event horizon (x+ ) (cf. Fig 2). When [35]. Interestingly the radius of an extremal black hole is
 4
˜
m = 0.3, k = 0.4 m = 0.3, a = 0.6
0.5
˜
a = 0.7 k = 0.35
0.6
˜
0.4
k =0.422066
a0 = 0.5602 ˜
0.4 0.3
k = 0.5
a = 0.3

f( x)
f( x)

0.2
0.2

0.1

0.0
0.0

-0.1
-0.2

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

x x

FIG. 3. The metric function f (x) vs x showing extremal black hole with degenerate horizon for a = a0 = 0.5602 (left) and
k̃ = k̃0 = 0.42206 (right) and the black hole with Cauchy and event horizons exist for a > a0 and k̃ < k̃0 .

slightly smaller when we introduce the clouds of strings by demonstrating cosmological constant Λ as dynamical
parameter. thermodynamical pressure [45, 46] via P = 3/8πl2 . This
The existence of extremal black hole confirms that the inclusion of Λ as thermodynamical pressure (P ) leads
black hole undergoing evaporation will result in stable to interpretation of black mass as enthalpy (H = m)
black hole remnant characterised by mass (m0 ) and ra- instead of internal energy [47, 48]. Then the gener-
dius size (x0 ), can be determined by solving systems alised first law of black hole thermodynamics reads as
[35, 36] [21, 37, 44, 49, 50]
∂f (x) dm = T dS + V dP + φdk, (18)
f (x) = 0 = |x=xo . (15)
∂x
where m (S, k, P ) is black hole mass function with dy-
Solving Eq. (15), we obtain namical variables namely the entropy S, the pressure P
1 h 2 i and the magnetic charge parameter k. While the temper-
xo = υ + k̃υ + k̃ 2 − 9(1 − a) , (16) ature T , the thermodynamical volume V and the chemi-
9υ
cal potential φ are the conjugate variables of S, P and k,
and respectively, which can be defined as [21, 37, 44, 49, 50]
   
3 2
81(1 − a)υ + υ + k̃υ + k̃ − 9(1 − a) µ 
∂m
 
∂m
 
∂m

9k̃υ/µ  T = , φ = , V = .
mo = e  ,
81υ ∂S k,P ∂k S,P ∂P k,S
(17) (19)
h √ p i 1 The cosmological term leads the Smarr relation [51] to
3
where υ = k̃ 3 − 108(1 − a)k̃ + 9 3 (1 − a) β , the following generalized form [37, 52]
2
µ = υ 2 + k̃υ + k̃ 2 − 9(1 − a) and β = k̃ 4 − 3 (1 − a) + m = 2T S − 2P V + φk. (20)
47 (1 − a) k̃ 2 . The above results, in the limit a → 0 re-
duce to those obtained in Ref. [35]. The analysis of all thermodynamic quantities of the black
hole is associated with the horizon x+ . The mass of the
black hole is obtained by solving f (x+ ) = 0 as
III. BLACK HOLE THERMODYNAMICS
x+ k/x+
m=H= [e (1 − a + x2+ )]. (21)
Black hole thermodynamics conceived as a discipline, 2
was formulated with the advent of quantum field theory the Hawking temperature of the black hole can be derived
in curved spacetime which suggested analogies of ther- from the definition of surface gravity (κ) [44] as follows
modynamic quantities like internal energy, temperature
and entropy with black hole mass, surface gravity and κ 1 k̃
event horizon area, respectively [40–43]. The nomencla- T̃ = = [ 3x+ 2 − (1−a+x+ 2 )+(1−a)]. (22)
2π 4πx+ x+
ture in black hole chemistry, has been given in a new
scientific era and is simply regarded as the thermody- T = 1/4πx+ is the temperature of the Schwarzschild
namics of black holes in extended AdS spacetime, [37, 44] black holes. Obviously, the Hawking temperature of
 5

FIG. 4. The Hawking temperature T̃ vs horizon x+ for a = 0.6 varying k̃ with T̃max = 0.215369 , T̃min = 0.160236 for k̃ = 0.04
(left), and for k̃ = 0.1 varying a with T̃max = 0.223639, T̃min = 0.221622 for a = 0.1 (right). For a = 0.6, T̃max = T̃min at
x = 0.210 for k̃ = 0.0702728 whereas for k̃ = 0.1, T̃max = T̃min at x = 0.3 for ac = 0.1899999.

nonsingular-AdS black holes surrounded by clouds of Fig 4). The critical value ac (k̃c ) for some given value of
strings is modified and it evident that the temperature is k̃ (a), can be obtained by solving ∂ T̃ /∂x|x=xc = 0. The
sensitive to the clouds of strings (cf. Fig 4). It is evident Hawking temperature plot is showing positive slope for
from the Fig 4, for a given k̃ (a), there is a phase tran- small black hole (SBH) and LBH whereas for the IBH
sition with 0 < a < ac ((0 < k̃ < k̃c )). Fig 4 shows it has negative slope, mimicking the Van der Walls-like
that the Hawking temperature has local maxima and first-order phase transition between SBH–LBH [21, 53].
minima, respectively, at critical radii xc1 = 0.25578 and When a = ac (k̃ = k̃c ), the Hawking temperature’s local
xc2 = 0.31547 when a < ac = 0.189999 (for k̃ = 0.1) (cf. maxima and minima merge and they increases monoton-
ically when a > ac (k̃ > k̃c ) (cf. Fig 4). Also, due to
background clouds of string, the T̃max increases.

The Bekenstein–Hawking entropy of the black hole is In the classical limit (a, k → 0), all above variables co-
obtained from the first law of black hole thermodynamics incide with the conventional variables of a Schwarzschild
(18), which comes out to be AdS black hole [21], and in the case when only a → 0,
they go over to that of the nonsingular-AdS black holes
" " ## [35].
A k̃/x+
  k̃ k̃ IV. STABILITY AND P − V CRITICALLY
S̃ = e x+ 1 + k̃x+ − Ei , (23)
4 x+ 2 x+
Here, we investigate the thermal properties and the
phase structure of black holes in canonical ensemble
where A = 4πx2+ and Ei is the exponential integral func- (fixed NED charge). Hawking and Page [3] investigated
tion. Eq. (23) concludes to the usual area law (S = A/4) the thermodynamic properties of black holes in asymp-
up to Ei corrections in the classical limit. It is interesting totically AdS spacetimes. The thermodynamic stabil-
to note that the entropy (23) does not explicitly depend ity of the black holes requires investigation of the Gibbs
on the clouds of strings parameter a, but is endowed in free energy behaviour[35, 36]. We are interested in the
the horizon x+ . The cosmological term permits the defi- regions where the free energy is negative, and identify
nition of the system’s pressure and its conjugate quantity, where black holes are thermally favoured over the refer-
the black hole volume, and we obtain pressure, volume ence background. The free energy of the black hole is
and φ associated with the black holes as calculated from [35, 36],

G = m − T̃ S̃
3 4 k̃/x+ 3 e k̃/x+ 
1 − a + x2+ .

P = , Ṽ = e πx+ , φ̄ = which comes out to be complicated to present and hence
8πl2 3 2
(24) depicted in Fig.5
 6
˜
k = 0.1
a = 0.6
0.10

˜ 0.20
a = 0.6
k = 0.1
0.08
˜ a = 0.1899999
k = 0.0702728 0.15
0.06
˜ a = 0.1
k = 0.04
0.10
0.04

G
˜
G
˜

0.02 0.05

0.00 0.00

-0.02
-0.05
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

x+ x+

FIG. 5. The plot of Gibbs free energy G̃ vs horizon x+ for nonsingular-Ads black hole surrounded by clouds of strings for
different values of clouds of strings parameter a.
˜ ˜
k = 0.4, a = 0.6 k = 0.4, a = 0.8
0.12

0.20 0.10

0.08
0.15

0.06
0.10 ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
G
˜

G
˜

P = 1.6P c P = 1.6P c
0.04
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
0.05 P = Pc P = Pc
˜ ˜ 0.02 ˜ ˜
P = 0.4Pc P = 0.4Pc
0.00
0.00

-0.05 -0.02
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020
˜ ˜
T T

FIG. 6. The plot of Gibbs free energy G̃ vs temperature T̃ exhibiting a liquid-gas phase transition for P̃ < P̃c and no transition
for P̃ > P̃c obtained for a particular value of a (k̃) and corresponding critical pressure P̃c . The swallow tail occurs at lower
temperature for higher values of a. P̃c = 0.00368414, 0.00184207, respectively, for a = 0.6, 0.8.

Since the global stability of the system is measured by stable. However, at minimal horizon radii, the Hawking
the Gibbs free energy, its global minimum is estimated temperature is negative and hence not physical for global
to be the preferred state of the black hole [44]. Gibbs stability, so we have the Hawking-Page-like phase tran-
free energy plays a crucial role by identifying the first- sition in GR [3]. The minimum value of the G̃ decreases
order phase transition via the swallow tail behaviour in (increases), occur at the lower (higher) radius with in-
the G̃– T̃ plots (Fig. 6), and G-x+ plots (cf. Fig.5) creasing a (k̃), but the phase transition happens at lower
throw light on the SBH/LBH transition. As it is shown horizon radii (cf. Fig.5).
in Fig. 5, the free energy G+ for various a, have local
minimum and local maximum, respectively, at horizon Fig. 6 shows the plot of the Gibbs free energy vs tem-
radii xc1 and xc2 with xc2 > xc1 , which can be identi- perature. For the values of pressure below the critical
fied as the extremal points of the Hawking temperature pressure P̃c , the G̃ − T̃ diagram exhibits a swallow tail
shown in Fig. 4 and where the specific heat capacity C+ structure [55] where the Gibbs free energy of the black
diverges (cf. Fig. 8). The first-order phase transition hole intersects with itself which is indicative of first-order
occurs at x+ = xc , where the free energy turns nega- phase transition between SBH and LBH (cf. Fig. 6). By
tive viz., G+ < 0 for xc > xc2 . Thus the LBH, with analyzing the Gibbs free energy, one can observe that
horizon radii x+ > xc , are thermodynamically globally at a pressure lower than the critical value (P̃ < P̃c ),
 7

a = 0.6 ˜
k = 0.1
10 60

40

5
xc1
20
CP

CP
˜

˜
0 0

˜ -20 a = 0.6
k = 0.1
-5 ˜ a = 0.189999
k = 0.0702728
˜ -40
xc1 a = 0.1
k = 0.04
-10 -60
0.1 0.2 0.3 xc2 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 xc2 0.40 0.45 0.50

x+ x+

FIG. 8. The plot of specific heat C˜P vs horizon x+ for different values of parameter a and NED parameter k̃.

T1 . Thus, LBH is the preferred state when T̃ ∈ [T̃0 , T̃2 ],

and for T̃ < T̃0 , the preferred state is stable SBH. Thus,
the SBH undergoes first-order phase transition to LBH
at T̃ = T̃0 (cf. Fig 7 ).
After discussing the global thermodynamical stability
of nonsingular-AdS black holes endowed with clouds of
string, we next turn to the local stability or thermal sta-
bility. The reason to consider local stability is that even
when a black hole configuration is globally stable, it can
be locally unstable [26]. One can investigate the thermo-
dynamic stability from the specific heats CV and CP of the
system [21], where CV = T (∂S/∂T )V.k is the specific heat
at constant volume and CP = T (∂S/∂T )P,k is the spe-
cific heat at constant pressure [44]. The black hole with
positive specific heat is at least locally thermodynamical
stable, whereas the negativity of specific heat signifies the
FIG. 7. The generic plot of Gibbs free energy G̃ vs horizon T̃ thermodynamical instability of the black hole to the ther-
for P̃ < P̃c . mal fluctuations [56, 57]. A phase transition is known to
exist in the case when the specific heat diverges [36]. The
specific heat at constant volume, CV , is zero for our case.
the Gibbs free energy exhibits a characteristic swallow- The specific heat at constant pressure, C˜P is calculated
tail behaviour which implies that SBH/LBH first-order to be
phase transition occurs. Indeed, for P̃ < P̃c , the G – T 

1 − a + 3x2+ − xk̃+ 1 − a + x2+


graph exhibit three black holes states: SBH stable, in-
termediate BH (IBH) unstable and LBH stable (cf. Fig C˜P = 2πek̃/x+ x2+ 
.
7 ). Further, the SBH / IBH black hole transition oc- (1 − a) x2+k̃ − 1 − a − 3x2+
curs at the inflection point T2 , the IBH/ LBH meet at (25)

The specific heat of the Schwarzchild AdS black holes C˜P against x+ in Fig. 8 for different values of k̃ and
can be obtained in the classical limits a = k̃ = 0 [21] a. It turns out that there exists ac (k̃c ), for given k̃(a),
whereas when only a = 0 it resembles the specific heat such that the heat capacity is discontinuous at the critical
of nonsingular-AdS black holes [35] radii xc1 and xc2 , corresponding to the local maxima and
minima of Hawking temperature, with xc1 < xc2 , when
1 + 3x2+
 
˜
CP = −2πx+ 2
(26) a < ac (k̃ < k̃c ) . This signals a second-order phase
1 − 3x2+ transition [3, 35]. As can be seen from the Fig. 8, we
have three different cases:
To analyse the behaviour, we depict the heat capacity
 8
˜ ˜
k = 0.3, a = 0.6 k = 0.3, a = 0.8
0.10 0.03
˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
T = 0.40T c T
˜ = 0.40T˜c
0.08 ˜ ˜
T = 0.70T c T
˜ = 0.70T
˜ c
˜ ˜ T
0.06
T = Tc
˜ ˜
0.02
˜ = Tc ˜
T = 1.30T c T
˜ = 1.30T˜c
˜ ˜ T = 1.50T c
0.04
T = 1.50T c
˜

˜
P

P
0.01

0.02

0.00
0.00

-0.02
-0.01
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 5 10 15 20

˜ ˜
V V

FIG. 9. The isotherms of black holes in P̃ - Ṽ plane for two different values of parameter a = 0.6 where T̃c = 0.0340578 (left)
and a = 0.8 where T̃c = 0.0170289 (right) with fixed k̃ = 0.3. The temperature of isotherms decreases from top to bottom

• When a < ac (k̃ < k̃c ), we have the second-order and the specific heat is always positive signifying
phase transition between SBH – IBH and IBH– the local stability of the black holes.
LBH such that the black holes with x < xc1 (SBH)
and x > xc2 (LBH) are locally stable with pos-
itive specific heat whereas the black holes with • The a = ac case for k̃ = 0.1 corresponds to ex-
xc1 < x < xc2 having negative specific heat are istence of two stable black holes (SBH and LBH)
locally unstable . that coexist at the inflection point x ≈ 0.2988.

• For a > ac (k̃ > k̃c ), no phase transition occurs

The equation of state to investigate the P − V criticality for the critical temperature T̃c
of the black hole, by using the equations of pressure,
volume and temperature [37], is found to be (1 − a)(3x2c − 5k̃xc + k˜2 )
T˜c = , (29)
h i 6πx3c
3T̃ 3 (1 − a) x + − k̃
P̃ = h i+ h i, (27) and further we can get the equation for critical pressure
2 3x+ − k̃ 8πx+ 2 3x+ − k̃ P̃c in terms of critical radius xc as

(1 − a)(81k̃xc − 81k̃ 2 − 26x2c )

where P̃ = Pl2 . The P̃ − Ṽ diagram depicted in Fig 9 P̃c = . (30)
plots the various isotherms of the equation of state Eq. 216k̃π(k̃ − 3xc )x2c
(27). For values of temperature T̃ higher than the criti-
cal temperature T̃c , the plot shows the isotherms follow Inserting the value of critical radius xc = 3k̃ in the above
ideal gas behaviour. The isotherms undergo liquid-gas expressions for critical temperature, critical pressure and
like phase transition [37] for T̃ < T̃c governed by the critical volume we obtain the following expressions
Maxwell’s equal area law [58] and have a point of inflec- 1−a 13(1 − a)
tion at T˜c , which can be obtained from the equation P̃c = , Ṽc = 36 e1/3 π k̃ 3 ,
. T̃c =
216π k̃ 2 162π k̃
  (31)
∂ P̃  ∂ 2 P̃  The universal constant  for the nonsingular AdS black
 = 0 =  . (28)
∂x+  ∂x2+  hole endowed with clouds of string calculated as
T̃ T̃
1/3
The LBH are depicted by the branch with low pressure P̃c Ṽc
and SBH are shown by the branch with high pressure. = = 0.311, (32)
T̃c
The oscillating branch between SBH and LBH show the
black hole is going through Van der Walls-like first order which is slightly less than 3/8 – the value for Van der
phase transition [58]. The Eq. (28) yields the expression Walls fluid [35]. It turns out that the temperature of
 9

isotherms decreases from top to bottom (cf. Fig 9), and where C̃Ṽ is the specific heat at constant volume, η is the
T̃c decreases with increasing a. Clearly, the quantities P̃c order parameter, κT̃ is the isothermal compressibility. Ṽl
Ṽc T̃c are corrected because background clouds of strings. and Ṽs are the volumes of LBH and SBH. The specific
heat at constant volume is independent of t hence the
critical exponent α = 0 [58]. In order to study the crit-
V. CRITICAL EXPONENTS ical exponents δ, β and γ we define the following set of
dimensionless quantities [35, 55, 58]
We analyse the thermodynamic quantities near the
critical point with the help of critical exponents α, β, P̃ x+ Ṽ T̃
γ, and δ [59]. These exponents do not depend on the p= , 1+ = , 1+ω = , 1+t = , (35)
P˜C xc Ṽc T̃c
physical system instead can depend on the dimension of
the system or the range of the interaction. The exponents where |  |, | ω |, | t |  1. Our analysis requires a
α and β determine the behaviour of specific heat at con- relation between  and ω which is obtained by using Eqs.
stant volume [21] and behaviour of the order parameter (24) and (35) as
η which is the difference between the volume of the gas
phase and the volume of the liquid phase respectively.
!
k̃
γ explains the behaviour of isothermal compressibility ω =4 1− . (36)
2xc
κT̃ and δ governs the behaviour of the critical isotherm
P̃ − P̃c [55]. The critical exponents can be calculated by
The equation of state given by Eq. (27) in terms of di-
using following relations [35, 36]
mensionless quantities defined by Eq. (35) becomes
∂ S̃ 
C̃Ṽ = T̃  ∝ |t|−α , η = Ṽl − Ṽs ∝ |t|β , (33) p = 1 + Ut − Vt − W3 + O(t2 , 4 ), (37)
∂ T̃ Ṽ
1 ∂ Ṽ  3 9xc
κT̃ = −  ∝ |t|−γ , |P̃ − P̃c |T̃ =T̃c ∝ |Ṽ − Ṽc |(34)
δ
, where U =   T̃c , V =
P̃ 
T̃
2 P̃cc , and
Ṽ ∂ P̃ T̃ 2 3xc − k̃ c
2 3 xc − k̃

162πx5c T̃c P̃c h h

4

3 2
ii
W=  4 3(−1 + a) 2k̃ + xc −23k̃ + 6xc (16k̃ − 27xc k̃ + 9xc ) .
4πx2c 3xc − k̃

The pressure of the system remains constant during tran- which means β = 1/2. To calculate γ we use the equation
sition of phase from SBH to LBH when t < 0. Hence, ! 
from Eq. (27), we can write 1 ∂ Ṽ 4 k̃ ∂ 1
κT̃ = − | T̃ = 1− 2
|t ∝ ,
Ṽ ∂ P̃ P̃ (1 + ω) 2 x c ∂p V t
1 + Ut + Vs − W3s = 1 + Ut + Vl − W3l , (38)
(43)
where s and l , respectively, are related to the radii of which leads to γ = 1. To compute δ we find the value
SBH and LBH. To calculate the exponent β, the well of | P̃ − P̃c | at T̃ = T̃c or t = 0, with the help of the
known Maxwell’s area law is used [55, 58]. equation
Z ωl |P̃ − P̃c |T̃c ∝ 3 ∝ |Ṽ − Ṽc |3 , (44)
ωdP̃ = 0. (39)
ωs which implies δ = 3. The values of the critical exponents
of the nonsingular-AdS black holes with clouds of strings
By using Eq. (37) and Eq. (36) in Eq. (39), we get background are similar to the Van der Walls fluid.
1 2 3 1 3
V + W4l = Vt2s + W4s . (40)
2 l 4 2 4 VI. CONCLUSION
By solving Eqs. (38) and (27), one gets
The idea that the Schwarzschild black hole (point
mass) may have atmospheres composed of clouds of
r
−Vt
− s = l = . (41) strings because of the intense level of activity in string
W
theory. The clouds of strings are the one-dimensional
Hence, the order parameter η can be calculated as analogue of a dust cloud, have the same energy-
√ momentum tensor as that of the global monopole, which
η = Ṽl − V˜s = Ṽc (ωl − ωs ) ∝ −t, (42) could be effective on gravitational fields such as black
 10

holes. Further, it could describe a globular cluster with due to thermal fluctuation when xc1 < x < xc2 with neg-
components of dark matter. Further, it is firmly believed ative specific heat and stable otherwise. The behaviour of
that the one-dimensional objects known as strings can Gibbs free energy revealed that the LBH with less Gibbs
describe the Universe; hence the study of black hole so- free energy are more stable than the SBH. We also anal-
lution in clouds of strings background has a tremendous ysed isobars on G̃− T̃ plane and found that when pressure
physical significance. Motivated by this and AdS/CFT P̃ is less than critical pressure P̃c , the SBH underwent
correspondence, we have derived an exact nonsingular- first-order phase transition (exhibiting swallow tail) to
AdS black hole solution endowed with clouds of strings LBH at temperature T̃0 , and it was also found that an
background. In turn, we have investigated the extended unstable IBH possible. Thus, our model still exhibits
phase space of thermodynamics and studied the criti- SBH/LBH phase transition but at a larger horizon ra-
cal phenomena of the nonsingular-AdS black holes sur- dius, and also two second-order phase transitions occur
rounded by clouds of strings background by treating the at a smaller horizon radius. We found that the back-
cosmological constant as a thermodynamical pressure. ground clouds of strings impact the P − V critically and
Interestingly, the thermodynamical quantities viz. calculated the values of critical exponents to see that
temperature, pressure, specific heat and the Gibbs free these values match that of Van der Walls fluid.
energy are corrected except the entropy, which is not di-
rectly affected by the background clouds of strings, and Thus, we demonstrated that background clouds of
then we probe the thermodynamic stability of the black strings profoundly influence the P –V criticality and
hole. We find an analogy between the nonsingular-AdS thermodynamic properties of black holes, which may
black holes endowed with clouds of strings and Van der have several astrophysical consequences, for example, on
Waals fluid. Investigation of the Hawking temperature wormholes and accretion onto black holes. Some of the
revealed critical values of NED parameter k̃ and clouds results presented here generalise previous discussions on
of strings parameter (a) and the critical value of hori- nonsingular AdS black holes [35] and Schwarzschild AdS
zon radius xc where the temperature has local extrema black holes [20] to a more general setting. The possibility
and also divergence of specific heat thereby confirming of further extensions of these results to higher curvature
the existing of two second order phase transition. Inter- gravity is an interesting problem for the future.
estingly, the heat capacity diverges at two critical radii VII. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
xc1 and xc2 , for a < ac , respectively, at which the tem-
perature has the local maximum and the local minimum
values indicate that two second-order phase transitions S.G.G. would like to thank SERB-DST for the ASEAN
exist in the canonical ensemble. The black hole unstable project IMRC/AISTDF/CRD/2018/000042.

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Conflict of Interest

Declaration of interests

 The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships
that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered
as potential competing interests: