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    A Level GCSE Physics

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    Keshav Agarwal
    1) Quantum physics builds upon classical physics but is needed to explain phenomena such as the photoelectric effect that cannot be explained by classical wave or particle models alone. 2) Electrons can exist at discrete energy levels within an atom and absorb or emit photons when changing between these levels, leading to atomic emission and absorption spectra. 3) Quantum physics also demonstrated that particles like electrons can diffract like waves and waves like photons behave as particles, a phenomenon known as wave-particle duality.

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    A Level GCSE Physics

    Uploaded by

    Keshav Agarwal
    29 views5 pages
    1) Quantum physics builds upon classical physics but is needed to explain phenomena such as the photoelectric effect that cannot be explained by classical wave or particle models alone. 2) Electrons can exist at discrete energy levels within an atom and absorb or emit photons when changing between these levels, leading to atomic emission and absorption spectra. 3) Quantum physics also demonstrated that particles like electrons can diffract like waves and waves like photons behave as particles, a phenomenon known as wave-particle duality.

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    1) Quantum physics builds upon classical physics but is needed to explain phenomena such as the photoelectric effect that cannot be explained by classical wave or particle models alone. 2) Electrons can exist at discrete energy levels within an atom and absorb or emit photons when changing between these levels, leading to atomic emission and absorption spectra. 3) Quantum physics also demonstrated that particles like electrons can diffract like waves and waves like photons behave as particles, a phenomenon known as wave-particle duality.

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    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as docx, pdf, or txt
    29 views5 pages

    A Level GCSE Physics

    Uploaded by

    Keshav Agarwal
    1) Quantum physics builds upon classical physics but is needed to explain phenomena such as the photoelectric effect that cannot be explained by classical wave or particle models alone. 2) Electrons can exist at discrete energy levels within an atom and absorb or emit photons when changing between these levels, leading to atomic emission and absorption spectra. 3) Quantum physics also demonstrated that particles like electrons can diffract like waves and waves like photons behave as particles, a phenomenon known as wave-particle duality.

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    Download as docx, pdf, or txt
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    Introduction to Quantum Physics

    Understanding Quantum Physics


    Quantum physics builds upon the work done on waves and particle physics. While the wave and
    particle models can explain the behavior of the world around us, they do not explain everything
    we observe. For instance, the photoelectric effect is a phenomenon that cannot be explained by
    the wave model of light. This effect happens on the surface of materials, where electrons gain
    energy and escape after being energized by light. This can only be explained with the particle-
    like nature of light.
    Electrons can also exist at different energy levels inside an atom, and they can move up and
    down energy levels, emitting or absorbing photons in the process. This gives rise to emission
    and absorption spectra. Quantum physics also shows us that particles can have wave-like
    properties, and waves can have particle-like properties. This is known as wave-particle duality.

    Photoelectric Effect
    When light interacts with the surface of a material, the energy of a photon can overcome the
    work function of that material, allowing electrons to escape. The energy of a photon is
    proportional to its frequency, which is why higher frequency electromagnetic radiation (like
    gamma rays) is more energetic and more ionizing than lower frequency radiation (like radio
    waves).

    Electron Energy Levels


    Electrons can exist at different energy levels inside an atom, and they can move up and down
    energy levels, emitting or absorbing photons in the process. The energy of a photon is
    proportional to its frequency, and the size of the energy gap determines the frequency of the
    emitted or absorbed photon.

    Wave-Particle Duality
    Particles can have wave-like properties, and waves can have particle-like properties. For
    example, electrons can diffract like waves, and photons can behave like particles in the
    photoelectric effect. The wavelength of a particle is equal to Planck's constant divided by the
    momentum of that particle.
    The Photon - A Level Physics
    Understanding Photons and Quantum Physics
    This article will briefly explain what photons are and introduce some basic concepts of quantum
    physics. A lot of work has gone into studying the wave and particle models of light. Newton
    believed that light was made up of little particles called corpuscles but this did not explain some
    wave properties such as diffraction and refraction. In 1901, Max Planck theorized that radiation
    is emitted in discrete packets of energy called quanta. He also discovered a link between the
    energy and frequency of radiation, which is known as Planck's constant. It was later discovered
    that these concentrated packets of energy have particle-like properties and are called photons.

    The Electromagnetic Spectrum


    Electromagnetic waves are arranged in order of increasing energy and frequency on the
    electromagnetic spectrum. Radio waves have the lowest energy while gamma rays have the
    highest energy. Photons are massless particles that travel at the speed of light. They are
    responsible for the wave properties of radiation and allow us to observe certain effects that
    wave properties cannot fully explain. For example, when we see a star at night, a photon
    emitted by that star may have travelled millions of years before reaching the back of our eye,
    creating a signal that allows us to see the star.

    Properties of Photons
     Photons are massless.
     They travel at the speed of light.
     They have particle-like properties.
     Energy is equal to Planck's constant times frequency.
     Energy is also equal to Planck's constant times speed of light divided by wavelength.
    Overall, photons are fascinating particles that have revolutionized our understanding of light
    and helped us model the world around us.
    The Electronvolt - A Level Physics
    Understanding Electron Volts
    Imagine having two metal plates. On one of the plates, an electron is placed. Electrons have a
    negative charge. When the top plate is held at zero volts and the bottom plate is set to plus one
    volt, an electric field is created between the two plates. The negative charge on the electron is
    attracted to the positive charge on the bottom plate. This causes the electron to accelerate
    down towards the bottom plate, gaining energy in the process. It gains one electron volt of
    energy by accelerating through a potential difference of one volt.
    An electron volt is a unit of energy that is appropriate for measuring the energy gained by small
    particles like electrons. To calculate one electron volt, we use the equation: W = QV, where W is
    the work done, Q is the charge, and V is the potential difference. The elementary charge on an
    electron is 1.6 x 10^-19 coulombs. Multiplying this by a potential difference of one volt gives us
    one electron volt of energy, which is equal to 1.6 x 10^-19 joules.
    While one electron volt may seem like a small amount of energy, it is important to remember
    that electrons have a very small mass. Additionally, there are many billions of electrons present
    in a given system, which can result in large amounts of energy overall. Understanding electron
    volts is important for further study in this area.

    Finding the Value of Planck's Constant - A Level Physics


    The Relationship Between Energy and Frequency
    We know that the energy of a particle and the frequency of the equivalent wave are related by
    the value of Planck's constant (h). Planck's constant is equal to 6.626 x 10^-34 joule-seconds.
    Energy is measured in joules and frequency in hertz (which is effectively seconds to the minus
    one).

    Measuring Planck's Constant


    To measure Planck's constant, we can use LEDs. Different color LEDs have different threshold
    potential differences, meaning they allow current to flow at different voltages. By measuring the
    threshold voltage and the wavelength of light given off by the LED, we can plot a graph of
    threshold voltage vs 1/wavelength. The gradient of this graph is equal to hc/e, where h is
    Planck's constant, c is the speed of light, and e is the charge on the electron. Therefore, by
    measuring the gradient and dividing by the charge of the electron, we can determine the value
    of Planck's constant.
    Experimental Setup
     LED circuit board
     Power source (e.g. double A batteries)
     Multimeter to measure potential difference
     Ammeter to measure current flow
     Potential divider circuit and source of EMF
    Procedure
     Adjust the potential difference to light up the LED.
     Measure the potential difference across the LED using a multimeter.
     Look up the wavelength of the LED on the packet or online.
     Plot a graph of threshold voltage vs 1/wavelength.
     Calculate the gradient of the graph and divide by the charge of the electron to find the
    value of Planck's constant.

    The Photoelectric Effect - A Level Physics


    The Photoelectric Effect and Einstein's Contribution
    In 1887, Hertz discovered that shining ultraviolet light on two electrodes caused them to spark
    more often than without light. It wasn't until 1985 that Einstein provided a satisfactory
    explanation for this phenomenon, now known as the photoelectric effect. This effect occurs
    when photons cause electrons to be emitted from a material. 
    A goldleaf electroscope is a device used to demonstrate the photoelectric effect. It consists of a
    zinc plate attached to a rigid part of the electroscope, with a gold leaf at the bottom. When
    charged, the metal parts underneath the gold leaf repel it, causing it to move. The angle of the
    gold leaf indicates the size of the charge left on the electroscope. 
    Scientists found that shining red light on the zinc plate had no effect, but even low intensities of
    ultraviolet light caused the electroscope to become discharged. The wave model of light could
    not explain this, so Einstein proposed that each atom has electrons trapped in energy wells.
    Photons can only cause electrons to be emitted if they have enough energy to allow the
    electron to absorb it and escape from the atom. The minimum amount of energy required is
    called the work function. 
    Einstein's Photoelectric Equation - A Level Physics
    Understanding the Photoelectric Effect and Einstein's Equation
    In simple terms, the photoelectric effect is the phenomenon where electrons are emitted from
    a metal's surface when light of a certain frequency or higher is shone on it. This effect is
    explained by Einstein's equation, which states that the energy of the incident photons is equal
    to the work function plus the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons.

    Einstein's Equation
     The energy of the photon (hf) is equal to the work function plus the kinetic energy of the
    photoelectrons.
     The work function is a measure of the size of the hole that electrons come out of.
     The maximum kinetic energy is the energy the electron has after being liberated from
    that atom.
    Different materials have different energy gaps, and the threshold frequency is the minimum
    frequency at which electrons start to be liberated. To liberate an electron, the frequency of the
    light must be equal to or greater than the threshold frequency.

    Implications of Einstein's Equation


     The maximum kinetic energy is independent of the intensity of the light.
     The rate of emission of photoelectrons above the threshold frequency is proportional to
    the intensity of the light.
    Einstein's equation provides evidence that light can be considered as a particle, but it also raises
    the question of whether particles can have their own wavelengths.
    Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect involved using particles and wave properties of
    light. He developed an equation to explain why only photons with a certain energy can cause
    photoelectrons to be emitted.

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