big data and

cognitive computing

Article
“What Can ChatGPT Do?” Analyzing Early Reactions to the
Innovative AI Chatbot on Twitter
Viriya Taecharungroj

Mahidol University International College, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand; [email protected]

Abstract: In this study, the author collected tweets about ChatGPT, an innovative AI chatbot, in the
first month after its launch. A total of 233,914 English tweets were analyzed using the latent Dirichlet
allocation (LDA) topic modeling algorithm to answer the question “what can ChatGPT do?”. The
results revealed three general topics: news, technology, and reactions. The author also identified five
functional domains: creative writing, essay writing, prompt writing, code writing, and answering
questions. The analysis also found that ChatGPT has the potential to impact technologies and humans
in both positive and negative ways. In conclusion, the author outlines four key issues that need to be
addressed as a result of this AI advancement: the evolution of jobs, a new technological landscape,
the quest for artificial general intelligence, and the progress-ethics conundrum.

Keywords: ChatGPT; AI chatbot; artificial intelligence; topic modeling; LDA; Twitter

1. Introduction
ChatGPT is an artificial intelligence (AI) chatbot created by OpenAI, a non-profit
organization founded in 2015 with Microsoft, Reid Hoffman’s charitable foundation, with
Khosla Ventures as its current main investor. With its mission to develop safe and valuable
artificial general intelligence (AGI) that benefits all humanity, OpenAI released the latest
model, “ChatGPT”, that can interact with humans in a conversational way on 30 November
2022 [1]. Less than a week after the launch, OpenAI’s CEO Sam Altman announced on
Citation: Taecharungroj, V. “What
5 December 2022 that “ChatGPT launched on Wednesday. Today it crossed 1 million users!”
Can ChatGPT Do?” Analyzing Early
The attention from the global technological community to this revolutionary innovative AI
Reactions to the Innovative AI
chatbot has been substantial. The purpose of this paper is to identify ChatGPT’s functional
Chatbot on Twitter. Big Data Cogn.
Comput. 2023, 7, 35. https://
domains (what can it do?) by analyzing the conversations surrounding ChatGPT on Twitter
doi.org/10.3390/bdcc7010035
during the first month after its launch.
ChatGPT is the latest development in the group of systems known as “chatbots”. Chat-
Academic Editors: Tim Schlippe and bots are intelligent systems that are developed using either rule-based or self-learning (AI)
Matthias Wölfel
methods [2]. The concept of chatbots dates back to 1950 when Alan Turing posed the
Received: 5 January 2023 thought-provoking question, “Can machines think?” Since then, many technologies have
Revised: 7 February 2023 been developed that attempt to pass the “Turing Test”, including ELIZA in 1966, ALICE in
Accepted: 15 February 2023 1995, and more recently, Apple Siri, Amazon Alexa, and Microsoft Cortana [3]. The core
Published: 16 February 2023 of AI chatbots lies in the use of natural language processing models that enable computers
to understand human language [4]. Chatbots receive users’ inquiries as input and respond
through either audio or messaging methods [2,5]. They have become widely used in busi-
nesses, government agencies, and non-profit organizations because of their 24/7 availability
Copyright: © 2023 by the author. to many users, convenience, low cost, and improved user experience [2,4,5].
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
Despite gradual developments and studies of AI chatbots, there are some obvious
This article is an open access article
research gaps that need to be addressed. First, most recent studies of AI chatbots are
distributed under the terms and
technical in nature. They introduce, evaluate, and compare different AI chatbot techniques,
conditions of the Creative Commons
leading to an improved understanding of technical advancements in the field [2,4,6]. This
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
type of research is critical in helping researchers and developers continually improve
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
chatbot systems. However, the focus on a technicality has inhibited a thorough exploration
4.0/).

Big Data Cogn. Comput. 2023, 7, 35. https://doi.org/10.3390/bdcc7010035 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/bdcc

Big Data Cogn. Comput. 2023, 7, 35 2 of 10

and investigation into the use cases of AI chatbots. This has resulted in the second research
gap in the literature on AI chatbots: a lack of generalizability. Some studies on chatbots
have highlighted beneficial use cases, but these are narrow, emphasizing highly specialized
use cases such as elderly care, children’s development, university administration, business
customer service, and medical examination [4]. For example, Okonkwo and Ade-Ibijola [7]
studied the use of chatbots in the education sector, while Yang and Evans [8] discussed the
implications of chatbots in higher education. Xu, Sanders, Li and Chow [3] detailed the
use of chatbots in the medical field, including cancer diagnostics and screening, treatment,
patient monitoring, support, and administration. Despite the highly beneficial use cases
of chatbots that have been identified in these studies, the apparent limitation is that AI
chatbot technologies cannot yet adapt and handle diverse, growing real-world dialogues [5].
The introduction of ChatGPT has changed the industry landscape and has the potential
to fill the research gap by providing a deeper understanding of the general, rather than
specialized, use cases of a highly advanced AI chatbot.
The history of ChatGPT started with the first-generation generative pre-trained trans-
former (GPT-1) language model, which was an evolution of NLP technologies. It employs
the large-scale training of models using unsupervised transformer language models [9].
GPT-2 included five minor improvements and increased the training textual data to 40 GB.
As a result, GPT-2 could formulate very coherent and plausible-sounding results [9,10],
as shown in a study that it could effectively generate patent claims [11]. The next GPT-3
model drew a lot of attention because it used 100 times more textual data (45 TB vs. 40 GB)
than the earlier GPT-2 version [9]. Compared to its predecessors, GPT-3 could generate
sequences of words, code, or other data that are human-like and sound coherent [10,12].
Its capability led to recent studies on GPT-30 s potential usage in various areas such as
medicine [13,14] and computer science [15].
Despite its capabilities, researchers identified three main shortcomings of GPT-3: the
inability to answer semantic, factual, and ethical questions. The first problem is that GPT-
3 does not understand the semantics and context of the request well; it often produces
uncontrollable nonsensical gibberish using its statistical capacity [9,10,12]. Second, the
outputs of GPT-3 are usually factually wrong. The model is trained using a large amount
of often false information, so the results are not always reliable [10]. Furthermore, GPT-3
often struggles with ethical questions and produces disturbing biases and prejudices, such
as racist and sexist remarks in its answers [9,10,12]. These limitations are a reminder that
GPT-3 is some distance from achieving AGI [12].
On 30 November 2022, OpenAI released ChatGPT, an AI chatbot that was able to
“answer follow-up questions, admit its mistakes, challenge incorrect premises, and reject
inappropriate requests” [1]. The technology behind ChatGPT was not new; the model was
not as extensive as GPT-3. However, what set ChatGPT apart was its ability to imitate the
human-like ability to “talk” and respond in smooth, natural instant dialogues with the
general public through a free and easy-to-use web interface [16,17]. The model, trained
using reinforcement learning from human feedback (RLHF), gave ChatGPT the ability
to detect and understand human calls, responses, and follow-up questions in normal
conversations [18].
Compared to its predecessors, OpenAI had given ChatGPT certain restrictions when
prompted to answer impossible or inappropriate questions (e.g., “What happened when
Columbus arrived in America in 2015?” or “How to steal a car?”) [17,19]. In order to miti-
gate the shortcomings of GPT-3, including incoherent, incorrect, and unethical responses,
ChatGPT often responds with phrases such as “I’m sorry, but I don’t have enough infor-
mation to answer that question”, “As a language model trained by OpenAI, I do not have
personal beliefs”, or “It is not appropriate to ask”.
Despite the fact that ChatGPT’s responses are still imperfect and its restrictions can
be easily evaded [16,19,20], the capabilities of ChatGPT have led to much hype and hyste-
ria among the public, as reported by many journalists since its release. Journalists have
reported that ChatGPT’s users, including academics and tech professionals, were stunned
Big Data Cogn. Comput. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 11

hysteria among the public, as reported by many journalists since its release. Journalists
Big Data Cogn. Comput. 2023, 7, 35
have reported that ChatGPT’s users, including academics and tech professionals, 3were of 10
stunned and astonished [21] “as if it were some mix of software and sorcery” [17]. Many
were alarmed by its potential to fabricate and proliferate plausible-sounding fake news
and information [17]. Another widely implicated outcome of ChatGPT is the mass job
and astonished
displacement of [21] “as if it knowledge
white-collar were some workers,
mix of software and
including sorcery”and
professors [17].programmers
Many were
alarmed by its potential to fabricate and proliferate plausible-sounding fake news and
[17,19]. These claims are based on the potential use cases of ChatGPT and its predecessors
information [17]. Another widely implicated outcome of ChatGPT is the mass job displace-
that researchers and journalists have observed or imagined. Potential use cases include
ment of white-collar knowledge workers, including professors and programmers [17,19].
writing minutes, webpages, catalogs, newspaper articles, guides, manuals, forms, reports,
These claims are based on the potential use cases of ChatGPT and its predecessors that
poems, songs, jokes, and scripts; facilitating code debugging, organization of unstructured
researchers and journalists have observed or imagined. Potential use cases include writing
data, query and prompt generation; creating “no-code” automated applications for busi-
minutes, webpages, catalogs, newspaper articles, guides, manuals, forms, reports, poems,
nesses; improving relationships between businesses and stakeholders through conversa-
songs, jokes, and scripts; facilitating code debugging, organization of unstructured data,
tions and services; providing therapy and answering open-ended analytical questions
query and prompt generation; creating “no-code” automated applications for businesses;
[9,12,16–19,21].
improving relationships between businesses and stakeholders through conversations and
The aforementioned use cases of ChatGPT have been observed and imagined anec-
services; providing therapy and answering open-ended analytical questions [9,12,16–19,21].
dotally. Despite their value, existing studies that have systematically identified the appli-
The aforementioned use cases of ChatGPT have been observed and imagined anec-
cations of
dotally. ChatGPT
Despite theirare limited
value, in number
existing due
studies to have
that the recent nature of the
systematically technology
identified [22].
the appli-
Therefore, the aim of this study is to employ topic modeling on tweets about
cations of ChatGPT are limited in number due to the recent nature of the technology [22]. ChatGPT
during its the
Therefore, firstaim
month
of thisto study
answer theemploy
is to research question:
topic modeling“What are the
on tweets useChatGPT
about cases of
ChatGPT, as evidenced by crowdsourced data on Twitter”?
during its first month to answer the research question: “What are the use cases of ChatGPT,
as evidenced by crowdsourced data on Twitter”?
2. Materials and Methods
2. Materials and Methods
The research process is illustrated in Figure 1. The first step was data collection. The
authorThecollected
researchtweets
process about “ChatGPT”
is illustrated in in English
Figure 1. between
The first 30 November
step was dataand 31 De-
collection.
cember 2022 (UTC time) using the Twitter API in Python.
The author collected tweets about “ChatGPT” English between 30 November andOnly original tweets and self-
31
replies (replies
December 2022to one’stime)
(UTC own using
tweet the
to form a thread)
Twitter API inwere included.
Python. Only The totaltweets
original number of
and
tweets was 249,568.
self-replies (replies toThe dataset
one’s ownwas pre-processed
tweet to remove
to form a thread) wereunusable
included.tweets. Thenumber
The total author
then
of tokenized
tweets the tweets,
was 249,568. Theremoved
dataset stop
was words from the to
pre-processed “Snowball” and “Onix”
remove unusable libraries,
tweets. The
author then tokenized
and removed the threethe tweets,words
common removed stop words
“ChatGPT”, from the “Snowball”
“OpenAI”, and “AI”. Wordsand “Onix”
were
libraries,
lemmatized andand
removed
stemmed. the three
Sparse common words
words were “ChatGPT”,
removed “OpenAI”,
to include and “AI”.
only salient ones.Words
Spar-
were lemmatized and stemmed. Sparse words were removed to include
sity was set at 0.999, indicating that only words that appeared in at least one tweet out only salient ones.
of
Sparsity was set at
every thousand 0.999,
were indicating
included. Bythat onlythe
setting words that appeared
sparsity, we could in remove
at least one tweet out
irrelevant or
of every thousand
marginally relevantwere
words included.
from theBy settingreducing
dataset, the sparsity,
noisewe andcould remove
potentially irrelevantthe
improving or
marginally relevant
quality of the topics words
learnedfrom theLDA
by the dataset, reducing
model. noise
In total, 1327and potentially and
(lemmatized improving
stemmed) the
quality of the topics
words remained for learned by the LDA
topic modeling. The model. In total,
final dataset 1327 (lemmatized
consisted and stemmed)
of 233,918 tweets.
words remained for topic modeling. The final dataset consisted of 233,918 tweets.

Figure 1. Research process.

Figure 1. Research process.
To answer the research question, a topic modeling algorithm, latent Dirichlet allocation
(LDA), Towas
answer the research
performed on thequestion, a topic
tweets about modeling
ChatGPT. LDAalgorithm, latent Dirichlet
helped discover alloca-
the underlying
topics of tweets in a hidden structure in the corpus of data [23]. LDA views each tweetun-
tion (LDA), was performed on the tweets about ChatGPT. LDA helped discover the as
aderlying topics
vector of wordsof tweets in a through
generated hidden structure in the corpus
a “bag-of-words” of dataIt[23].
approach. LDAa views
creates each
three-level
tweet as aprobability
Bayesian vector of words
model,generated
where each through a “bag-of-words”
tweet has approach. over
a probability distribution It creates a
topics,
three-level Bayesian probability model, where each tweet has a probability
and each topic has a probability distribution over words [24]. As adapted from Blei, Ng, distribution
over Jordan
and topics, and
[23],each topic
Figure has a probability
2 illustrates distribution
the graphical over wordsof
representation [24].
LDA.As adapted from
Additionally,
Blei, Ng, and Jordan [23], Figure 2 illustrates the graphical representation
LDA has been effectively utilized in numerous studies across a variety of fields, including of LDA.
business, technology, and society, to analyze textual data [25–30].
Big Data Cogn. Comput. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 11

Additionally, LDA has been effectively utilized in numerous studies across a variety of
fields, including business, technology, and society, to analyze textual data [25–30].
Big Data Cogn. Comput. 2023, 7, 35 Additionally, LDA has been effectively utilized in numerous studies across a variety 4 of of
10
fields, including business, technology, and society, to analyze textual data [25–30].

Figure 2. Graphical representation of LDA.

The2.author
Figure tuned
Graphical the most suitable
representation of LDA.number of topics using the algorithms in the “lda-
tuning” R package. After specifying the suitable number of topics, hyperparameters (al-
pha and Thebeta)
The author
author
were tuned
tuned
tuned the
the most
most
using suitable
suitable
the number
number
“LDATuning” of topics
ofRtopics using
using
package. the algorithms
the algorithms in thein“lda-
the
“ldatuning”
tuning”
Subsequent R package.
R package. After
Afteranalysis
thematic specifying
specifying
wasthe the suitable
suitable on
performed numbernumber of
tweetsofthat topics,
topics, hyperparameters
hyperparameters
highly represented each (al-
(alpha
pha and
topic. and
The beta)
beta)
author were
were
only tuned
tuned using
using
analyzed thethe
tweets “LDATuning”
“LDATuning”
that had a gammaRR package.
package.
value of 90% or higher, indicat-
Subsequent
Subsequent
ing a high thematic
thematic
probability analysistowas
analysis
of belonging was performed
theperformed
topic. These ontweets
on tweetswere
tweets that used
that highly
highly represented
torepresented each
each
define the topic
topic.
topic. The author only analyzed tweets that had a gamma value of 90% or higher, indicating
and to The author
identify only analyzed
possible tweets it.
themes within that
Thehad
tena gamma value of 90% words
most representative or higher,
wereindicat-
also
aing
high probability of belonging to the topic. These tweets were used to define the topic and
used atohigh
helpprobability
name and of belonging
define to theAll
the topics. topic. These topics
identified tweetswere
were later
usedanalyzed
to define qualita-
the topic
to identify
and to possible
identify themes
possible within
themes it. The
within it. ten most representative words were also used to
tively and grouped into larger categories forThe tenunderstanding.
better most representative words were also
help name and define the topics. All identified topics were later analyzed
used to help name and define the topics. All identified topics were later analyzed qualita- qualitatively and
groupedandinto larger into
categories
larger for better understanding.
3.tively
Results grouped categories for better understanding.
The number of topics tuning results (Figure 3) showed that 10 was the most suitable
3. Results
3. Results
number Theofnumber
topics because
of topicsittuning
achieved locally
results maximal
(Figure information
3) showed retrieval
that 10 was scores
the most [31],
suitable
and Theaverage
numberdistances
of topics tuning results (Figure 3) showed that 10 hyperparameter
was the most suitable
number of topics because it achieved locally maximal information retrieval scores [31],tun-
their of topics were locally minimal [32]. The and
number
ing produced of topics becausescore
it achieved locally maximal information retrieval scores [31],
their averageadistances
perplexity ranging
of topics from 416
were locally to 491,[32].
minimal andThethe hyperparameter
model had an alpha of
tuning
and
0.1 andtheir
a average
beta of distances
0.001, of topics
demonstrating were
the locally
lowest minimal
perplexity [32].
score The
of hyperparameter
416.15.
produced a perplexity score ranging from 416 to 491, and the model had an alpha of 0.1 and The tun-
hyperpa-
ing produced
rameters
a beta ofwere ademonstrating
0.001,setperplexity score
accordingly. LDA
theranging from 416 tosampling
with perplexity
lowest the Gibbs 491, of
score and the model
technique
416.15. hadperformed
was an alpha of
The hyperparameters
0.1
with and
werefive a beta
setrandom of 0.001, demonstrating
starts;LDA
accordingly. the best
withmodel the lowest
with sampling
the Gibbs perplexity
the highest score
posteriorwas
technique of 416.15.
likelihood The hyperpa-
was selected
performed with five
rameters
torandom
produce were set accordingly.
the results.
starts; LDA with the Gibbs sampling technique was
the best model with the highest posterior likelihood was selected to produce performed
with five random starts; the best model with the highest posterior likelihood was selected
the results.
to produce the results.

Numberofoftopics
Figure3.3.Number
Figure topicstuning
tuningresult.
result.

The results of LDA are shown in Table 1. The author used representative words and
The3.results
Figure NumberofofLDA are
topics shown
tuning in Table 1. The author used representative words and
result.
the subsequent thematic analysis of highly probable tweets to name the topics and develop
the subsequent thematic analysis of highly probable tweets to name the topics and de-
their definitions. The 10 topics were in
grouped 1.into
Thethree domains: general topics,words
functional
velop The
theirresults of LDA
definitions. are10
The shown Tablegrouped
topics were author used domains:
into three representative and
general topics,
and potential impacts. The general topics include news
the subsequent thematic analysis of highly probable tweets to name the topicsChatGPT,
domains, reporting about and de-
the technology
velop behind it,The
their definitions. topicsreactions.
and10global The functional
were grouped into threedomains
domains:refer to the
general five
topics,
possible functions of ChatGPT: creative writing, essay writing, prompt writing, code writing, and
answering questions. Lastly, the potential impacts domain includes two topics: impacting
tech and impacting humans.
Big Data Cogn. Comput. 2023, 7, 35 5 of 10

Table 1. LDA results and detail.

Domains Topics (n) Representative Words Definition

chatbot, intelligence, via, artificial, Tweets containing news headlines
News
artificialintelligence, machinelearning, about ChatGPT’s launch and
(18,398)
bot, technology, machine, tech immediate impacts.
General model, language, trained, gpt,
Technology Tweets explaining ChatGPT’s large
topics conversation, human, learning, data,
(24,061) language model and how it operates.
text, understand
Reaction try, time, playing, people, game, mind, Tweets containing intense reactions
(25,183) blown, talking, day, fun such as awe, fear, and excitement
Creative writing write, story, poem, twitter, web, nft, song, Tweets about creative writing, such as
(27,966) crypto, tweet, elon stories, poems, and songs.
write, essay, students, education,
Essay writing Tweets about essay writing and the
teachers, test, human, school,
(21,501) impacts on the education sector.
cheating, article
Prompt writing write, content, gpt, create, post, dalle, Tweets about content and prompt
Functional domains
(17,131) prompt, midjourney, video, blog generation for other AI platforms.
Code writing code, write, help, try, programming, Tweets about using ChatGPT to
(26,090) create, build, app, python, development generate and fix computer code.
answer, questions, wrong, try, people,
Answering Tweets evaluating ChatGPT’s ability
correct, human, response,
questions (28,613) to answer questions correctly.
look, information
Impacting tech google, search, engine, replace, day, code, Tweets about the impact on other
(20,349) users, chatbot, million, chat technologies, especially Google.
Potential
tool, technology, time, future, help,
impacts Impacting humans Tweets about the potential impact on
change, marketing, business,
(24,626) humans and jobs of the future.
potential, people

The first topic, news, includes tweets containing news reporting and the general impact
of ChatGPT. Many news outlets and prominent Twitter users broadcasted and participated
in general discussions about ChatGPT, such as “#ChatGPT, the latest development in
artificial intelligence, has been making headlines throughout the internet. Could this be the
first step towards furthering the adoption of A.I. tech?” and “ChatGPT: Everything You
Really Need To Know (In Simple Terms)”. These tweets are generally sensational news
headlines that persuade other users to click and engage.
The second topic, technology, primarily involves discussions about the technology
behind ChatGPT and provides suggestions for improvement. In addition to general de-
scriptions of its abilities (e.g., “I want to demystify ChatGPT, a fascinating new application
of GANs, generative adversarial networks, that has been generating a lot of buzz in the AI
community”), many tweets on this topic try to understand the technical details of ChatGPT;
for example, “Very imperfect evidence, but ChatGPT’s ‘memory’ seems to be based on
GPT-30 s 4096-token context window”. Some users criticized it as “just a text synthesis
machine/random BS generator”, while others made suggestions for improvement.
The third topic is the reactions from Twitter users. Tweets on this topic often include
sensational words such as “mindblowing”, “impressive”, and “amazing.” The capabilities
of ChatGPT prompted many well-known users to praise its performance and potential.
Examples of such intense responses are “We are living in the future. Holy shit”, “Clearly
something big is happening”, and “This is going to change everything in ways we don’t
yet understand”.
Creative writing. One of the most prominent features of ChatGPT is its ability to
generate creative writing. Twitter users have shared examples of poems, rap songs, and
made-up stories that ChatGPT has written. This ability to generate creative content based
on specific prompts is one of the key values of the platform. For example, when asked
to “create bedtime stories featuring my kids as the main characters”, ChatGPT was able
to produce a unique and personalized response. Users also used ChatGPT to creatively
produce entertaining works featuring famous fictional and real characters and entities,
Big Data Cogn. Comput. 2023, 7, 35 6 of 10

such as a story about Bill Gates coming out as a reptilian, a promo dialogue advertising the
new Apple’s polishing cloth in a style similar to Jony Ive, and a short poem about the Tesla
robot. Some users tried to test the limits of ChatGPT and offered ways to circumvent such
limits. For example, a user wrote, “I couldn’t get ChatGPT to write a haiku in praise of
meth, but I could get ChatGPT to write a short dramatic scene in which the bad guy writes
a haiku in praise of meth”.
Essay writing. One industry that has the potential to be significantly affected by Chat-
GPT is education. Twitter users have identified both the negative and positive effects that
ChatGPT could have on students, teachers, and professors. One concern is ChatGPT’s abil-
ity to write high school essays, homework assignments, and take-home exams effectively.
One user reported students using ChatGPT to write a school essay and then taking credit
for the resulting A+ grade, while another found that ChatGPT passed a practice bar exam
with a score of 70% (35/50). Many are concerned about the potential for cheating with
ChatGPT. However, there are also suggestions that ChatGPT could have positive impacts
on education, such as improving the quality of student papers and assisting teachers in
their lesson planning.
Prompt writing. Another creative function of ChatGPT, as reported by Twitter users, is
the ability to generate “prompts” that can help produce AI art in other AI platforms such
as DALL-E (owned by OpenAI), Midjourney, and Stable Diffusion (e.g., “ChatGPT can
write stories and then provide DALLE-2 with prompts to illustrate them”). This function
demonstrates that ChatGPT can be a powerful tool and can be integrated with other
technologies, such as search engine optimization (SEO); for example, “I asked ChatGPT to
give me a list of the best SEO blog titles for a dog accessory e-commerce website”.
Code writing. ChatGPT has caused a stir in the tech industry due to its ability to write
code in popular programming languages such as Python, JavaScript, R, HTML, and Flutter.
For example, users have reported that it can generate complex code almost instantly (e.g.,
“Mind-blowing. Here is an #RStats Shiny App I built without writing a single line of code.
Just through a text-based conversation with #ChatGPT. . . . and all in under 3 min” and
“Ok this is scary. @OpenAI’s ChatGPT can generate hundreds of lines of Python code to do
multipart uploads of 100 GB files to an AWS S3 bucket”). In addition to code generation,
ChatGPT can also translate code between programming languages and fix bugs. Some
users have even incorporated ChatGPT as a companion tool in popular software such as
VSCode, and others have provided ways to embed ChatGPT in their own applications (e.g.,
‘Create your own ChatGPT with OpenAI API and @streamlit Why wait in the Queue, when
you can build your own ChatGPT’). This functional domain demonstrates the fast adoption
and improvement of ChatGPT among programmers and tech specialists.
Answering questions. Many users tested the quality of answers that ChatGPT produced,
and the results were mixed. The majority of tweets on this topic criticized the inadequate
performance of the platform. One user even reported that ChatGPT has an IQ of 83.
Despite the potential positivity of ChatGPT on answering factual questions, problems
such as false yet fluent and confident answers (e.g., “It hallucinates nonsense just as easily
as commonly accepted fact”, “ChatGPT is both uninformed and confident, a dangerous
combination”, and “Open AI is either impressively correct or confidently wrong”.) still
persisted. Furthermore, the restrictions that OpenAI was set to for avoiding biases and
prejudice are still easy to bypass.
Impacting tech. Tweets on this topic discussed the possibility of ChatGPT disrupting or
even dominating existing digital platforms. The main target mentioned by Twitter users is
Google. Many people believe that ChatGPT could compete with or even overtake Google as
the new go-to source of information (e.g., “I’m already using ChatGPT more than Google”
and “Google issues ‘code red’ following ChatGPT launch”). Despite some concerns about
the quality of ChatGPT’s responses, many users on Twitter praised its clarity, brevity,
helpfulness, speed, and innovativeness compared to Google. Some compared the instant
success of ChatGPT with other dominant digital platforms (e.g., “ChatGPT has reached
1 million users in just 5 days. Here’s how much time it took these platforms to reach
Big Data Cogn. Comput. 2023, 7, 35 7 of 10

1 million users: Instagram: 2.5 months Facebook: 10 months Twitter: 24 months”). Due to
the concentration of tech people on Twitter and ChatGPT’s ability to write code effectively,
many users reported that ChatGPT could replace StackOverflow: a digital community for
programmers and developers (e.g., “ChatGPT is the new Stack overflow for me”). In fact,
some people exploited ChatGPT to generate responses on StackOverflow, prompting the
website to temporarily ban ChatGPT due to its inability to moderate.
Impacting humans. Tweets on this topic discussed the potential positive and nega-
tive impact of ChatGPT on human livelihood. On the positive side, many users believe
that ChatGPT could drastically improve business processes, particularly in the realm of
marketing, where it could facilitate product design, content creation, and marketing copy
generation. ChatGPT could also be used for legal work (e.g., “I just signed a legal contract
that was written by AI”) and research. Many optimistic and opportunistic users came up
with several ways that ChatGPT could improve productivity, such as “11 new ChatGPT
ideas”, “How to use ChatGPT for business & personal life?!” and “12 tips for becoming a
successful engineer from ChatGPT”. However, the other side of the coin is the potential for
job displacement. Many Twitter users were concerned about the possibility that ChatGPT
could replace white-collar professionals and creative workers such as software engineers,
lawyers, journalists, marketers, creative writers, and storytellers.
Big Data Cogn. Comput. 2023, 7, x FOR PEERFigure
REVIEW4 displays the t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding (t-SNE) visualiza-
8 of 11
tion of the LDA results [33]. t-SNE is a dimensionality reduction algorithm that displays
high-dimensional data in two dimensions while preserving the most significant structure.

t-SNE visualization
Figure 4. t-SNE visualization of
of LDA
LDA results.

4. Discussion and Conclusions

4. Discussion and Conclusions
This research fills the gap in the literature by investigating the general use cases of
This research fills the gap in the literature by investigating the general use cases of
advanced AI chatbot technology. This was achieved by systematically analyzing and
advanced AI chatbot technology. This was achieved by systematically analyzing and sum-
summarizing early conversations about the innovative AI chatbot, ChatGPT on Twitter.
marizing early conversations about the innovative AI chatbot, ChatGPT on Twitter. Dur-
During the first month of its launch, journalists and experts shared a variety of ideas
ing the first month of its launch, journalists and experts shared a variety of ideas and sug-
and suggestions. However, a systematic analysis of early, dynamic, and crowdsourced
gestions. However, a systematic analysis of early, dynamic, and crowdsourced data on
data on this topic does not yet exist. This research fills this gap by employing LDA topic
this topic does not yet exist. This research fills this gap by employing LDA topic modeling
modeling on 233,914 English tweets containing the word “ChatGPT”. The study presents
on 233,914
three mainEnglish tweets
domains containing the
of conversation: word “ChatGPT”.
general The study
topics, functional presents
domains, three
and main
potential
domains of conversation: general topics, functional domains, and potential impacts.
impacts. The five topics in the functional domain—creative writing, essay writing, prompt The
five topics in the functional domain—creative writing, essay writing, prompt writing,
code writing, and answering questions—are the comprehensive possible use cases of
ChatGPT based on the crowdsourced knowledge of Twitter users. However, arguably
even more important are the potentially serious impacts on tech and humans, which are
topics that require further exploration in the future. Four key issues are identified based
Big Data Cogn. Comput. 2023, 7, 35 8 of 10

writing, code writing, and answering questions—are the comprehensive possible use cases
of ChatGPT based on the crowdsourced knowledge of Twitter users. However, arguably
even more important are the potentially serious impacts on tech and humans, which are
topics that require further exploration in the future. Four key issues are identified based on
the findings of this study.
The next evolution of jobs. The next evolution of jobs will likely be impacted by ChatGPT
and other innovative AI technologies. This evolution has the potential to benefit people,
but it also poses risks, such as job displacement for white-collar and creative professionals.
Furthermore, the future seems to be approaching faster than anticipated. Even “safe”
professions, such as AI coders, trainers, and analysts [34,35], may be at risk of becoming
replaced by ChatGPT. As the world rapidly advances and new technologies emerge, it is
critical for leaders in both the public and business sectors to contemplate the future of the job
market and its potential transformations brought about by advancements such as ChatGPT.
The answers to these questions will have a significant impact on the characteristics and
trends of the job market. Equally important is the consideration by the education sector
on how best to prepare the next generation for this rapidly changing landscape. This
requires the transformation of pedagogical approaches and a deep reflection on the skills
and knowledge necessary for success in the new era.
The new technological landscape. In 2022, the two most renowned technological frame-
works, Web3 and Metaverse, encountered major roadblocks; the Luna crypto and FTX crash
impacted Web3’s blockchain trajectory, and the decline of Meta (Facebook) impacted the
future of Metaverse. ChatGPT emerged into the tech scene and received a mostly positive
reception from the Twitter community in its first week. It remains to be seen how ChatGPT
and its related technologies can challenge dominant players such as Google, who have
recently announced a competing technology called “Bard” [36]. However, as found in
this research, the use cases of ChatGPT could compete in many sectors, including search
(Google), personal assistant (Alexa and Siri), personalized entertainment, and software as
a service (SaaS). The digital era has brought about a rapid evolution in technology, and
the introduction of ChatGPT has the potential to greatly shape the future technological
and digital landscape. While it remains uncertain just how deeply AI technologies such as
ChatGPT will become integrated into our lives, those who are able to anticipate the trends
and adapt proactively are poised to reap significant benefits.
The quest for artificial general intelligence. ChatGPT has undoubtedly sparked further
discussions about AGI, or what Goertzel [37] referred to as “human-level AGI”. Despite
its creative writing skills and advanced model, ChatGPT, which is created from a large
language model (LLM), has not achieved the level of AGI. It has not achieved many fun-
damental components of AGI, such as self/social, emotion, motivation, meta-cognitive,
and deliberative processes [see 37]. However, it has undeniably demonstrated another
step towards AGI. Moving forward, ChatGPT and other similar technologies face numer-
ous challenges and opportunities for growth as they strive towards AGI. These include
improving the quality of their responses, incorporating new technical advancements in
models, and developing new features that can expand and deepen their application in a
wider range of use cases.
The ethics-progress conundrum. The discussion about ethics and AI has been ongoing,
with many globally convergent ideas such as transparency, justice, and fairness. However,
divergence in the interpretation of these principles remains substantial [38]. Unfortunately,
the development and implementation of AI ethics have not been successful and are often
considered an extraneous, unbinding framework imposed from institutions outside the
tech sector [39] despite calls for ethical frameworks and for AI chatbots in education and
healthcare [3,7]. However, it is necessary to accelerate the debates and address the tension
between technological progress and ethical concerns. The potential positive and negative
impacts of ChatGPT are immediate and wide-ranging, emphasizing the necessity for a
comprehensive examination and collective formation of ethical guidelines for its use in
Big Data Cogn. Comput. 2023, 7, 35 9 of 10

all fields. In scientific research, the esteemed scientific journal “Nature” recently released
principles regarding the use of large language model (LLM) AI in scientific papers [40].
Due to the recentness and novelty of the technology, the findings of this research seem
to raise more questions than they provide answers. Indeed, ChatGPT could answer (and
has answered) these questions with ease, but as our findings suggest, we cannot rely on its
answers fully.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement: The analyzed dataset including Tweet IDs and LDA results (gamma
values) can be found at https://github.com/viriyatae/chatgpt_twitter accessed on 16 February 2023.
Acknowledgments: This paper, along with the accompanying codes, was originally created entirely
by the human author. The text of the manuscript was later proofread and corrected for grammar by
using ChatGPT.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. OpenAI. ChatGPT: Optimizing Language Models for Dialogue. Available online: https://openai.com/blog/chatgpt/ (accessed
on 4 January 2023).
2. Thorat, S.A.; Jadhav, V. A review on implementation issues of rule-based chatbot systems. In Proceedings of the International
Conference on Innovative Computing & Communications (ICICC); SSRN: Rochester, NY, USA, 2020.
3. Xu, L.; Sanders, L.; Li, K.; Chow, J.C. Chatbot for health care and oncology applications using artificial intelligence and machine
learning: Systematic review. JMIR Cancer 2021, 7, e27850. [CrossRef]
4. Nagarhalli, T.P.; Vaze, V.; Rana, N. A review of current trends in the development of chatbot systems. In Proceedings of the 2020
6th International Conference on Advanced Computing and Communication Systems (ICACCS), Coimbatore, India, 6–7 March
2020; pp. 706–710.
5. Nithuna, S.; Laseena, C. Review on implementation techniques of chatbot. In Proceedings of the 2020 International Conference
on Communication and Signal Processing (ICCSP), Chennai, India, 28–30 July 2020; pp. 157–161.
6. Satu, M.S.; Parvez, M.H. Review of integrated applications with aiml based chatbot. In Proceedings of the 2015 International
Conference on Computer and Information Engineering (ICCIE), Rajshahi, Bangladesh, 26–27 November 2015; pp. 87–90.
7. Okonkwo, C.W.; Ade-Ibijola, A. Chatbots applications in education: A systematic review. Comput. Educ. Artif. Intell. 2021, 2, 100033.
[CrossRef]
8. Yang, S.; Evans, C. Opportunities and challenges in using AI chatbots in higher education. In Proceedings of the Proceedings of
the 2019 3rd International Conference on Education and E-Learning, Barcelona, Spain, 5–7 November 2019; pp. 79–83.
9. Zhang, M.; Li, J. A commentary of GPT-3 in MIT Technology Review 2021. Fundam. Res. 2021, 1, 831–833. [CrossRef]
10. Dale, R. GPT-3: What’s it good for? Nat. Lang. Eng. 2021, 27, 113–118. [CrossRef]
11. Lee, J.-S.; Hsiang, J. Patent claim generation by fine-tuning OpenAI GPT-2. World Pat. Inf. 2020, 62, 101983. [CrossRef]
12. Floridi, L.; Chiriatti, M. GPT-3: Its nature, scope, limits, and consequences. Minds Mach. 2020, 30, 681–694. [CrossRef]
13. Nath, S.; Marie, A.; Ellershaw, S.; Korot, E.; Keane, P.A. New meaning for NLP: The trials and tribulations of natural language
processing with GPT-3 in ophthalmology. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 2022, 106, 889–892. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
14. Chintagunta, B.; Katariya, N.; Amatriain, X.; Kannan, A. Medically aware gpt-3 as a data generator for medical dialogue
summarization. In Proceedings of the Machine Learning for Healthcare Conference, Online, 6–7 August 2021; pp. 354–372.
15. Wang, S.; Liu, Y.; Xu, Y.; Zhu, C.; Zeng, M. Want to reduce labeling cost? gpt-3 can help. arXiv 2021, arXiv:2108.13487.
16. Verma, P.; Lerman, R. What is ChatGPT, the Viral Social Media AI? Available online: https://www.washingtonpost.com/
technology/2022/12/06/what-is-chatgpt-ai/ (accessed on 4 January 2023).
17. Roose, K. The Brilliance and Weirdness of ChatGPT. Available online: https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/05/technology/
chatgpt-ai-twitter.html (accessed on 4 January 2023).
18. Morrison, R. OpenAI’s New Chatbot ChatGPT could be a Game-Changer for Businesses. Available online: https://techmonitor.
ai/technology/ai-and-automation/chatgpt-openai-chatbot (accessed on 4 January 2023).
19. Hern, A. AI Bot ChatGPT Stuns Academics with Essay-Writing Skills and Usability. Available online: https://www.theguardian.com/
technology/2022/dec/04/ai-bot-chatgpt-stuns-academics-with-essay-writing-skills-and-usability (accessed on 4 January 2023).
20. Cuthbertson, A. ‘Google is Done’: World’s Most Powerful AI Chatbot Offers Human-Like Alternative to Search Engines. Available
online: https://www.independent.co.uk/tech/ai-chatbot-chatgpt-google-openai-b2237834.html (accessed on 4 January 2023).
21. Kelly, S.M. This AI Chatbot Is Dominating Social Media with Its Frighteningly Good Essays. Available online: https://edition.
cnn.com/2022/12/05/tech/chatgpt-trnd/index.html (accessed on 4 January 2023).
22. Haque, M.U.; Dharmadasa, I.; Sworna, Z.T.; Rajapakse, R.N.; Ahmad, H. “I think this is the most disruptive technology”:
Exploring Sentiments of ChatGPT Early Adopters using Twitter Data. arXiv preprint 2022, arXiv:2212.05856.
23. Blei, D.M.; Ng, A.Y.; Jordan, M.I. Latent dirichlet allocation. J. Mach. Learn. Res. 2003, 3, 993–1022.
Big Data Cogn. Comput. 2023, 7, 35 10 of 10

24. Tirunillai, S.; Tellis, G.J. Mining marketing meaning from online chatter: Strategic brand analysis of big data using latent dirichlet
allocation. J. Mark. Res. 2014, 51, 463–479. [CrossRef]
25. Guan, G.; Liu, D.; Zhai, J. Factors Influencing Consumer Satisfaction of Fresh Produce E-Commerce in the Background of
COVID-19—A Hybrid Approach Based on LDA-SEM-XGBoost. Sustainability 2022, 14, 16392. [CrossRef]
26. Çallı, L.; Çallı, F. Understanding airline passengers during covid-19 outbreak to improve service quality: Topic modeling approach
to complaints with latent dirichlet allocation algorithm. Transp. Res. Rec. 2022, 0, 03611981221112096. [CrossRef]
27. Li, L.; Hua, L.; Gao, F. What We Ask about When We Ask about Quarantine? Content and Sentiment Analysis on Online
Help-Seeking Posts during COVID-19 on a Q&A Platform in China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 20, 780.
28. Ogunleye, B.; Maswera, T.; Hirsch, L.; Gaudoin, J.; Brunsdon, T. Comparison of Topic Modelling Approaches in the Banking
Context. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 797. [CrossRef]
29. Bastani, K.; Namavari, H.; Shaffer, J. Latent Dirichlet allocation (LDA) for topic modeling of the CFPB consumer complaints.
Expert Syst. Appl. 2019, 127, 256–271. [CrossRef]
30. Çallı, L. Exploring mobile banking adoption and service quality features through user-generated content: The application of a
topic modeling approach to Google Play Store reviews. Int. J. Bank Mark. 2022. [CrossRef]
31. Deveaud, R.; SanJuan, E.; Bellot, P. Accurate and effective latent concept modeling for ad hoc information retrieval. Doc. Numérique
2014, 17, 61–84. [CrossRef]
32. Cao, J.; Xia, T.; Li, J.; Zhang, Y.; Tang, S. A density-based method for adaptive LDA model selection. Neurocomputing 2009, 72, 1775–1781.
[CrossRef]
33. Van der Maaten, L.; Hinton, G. Visualizing data using t-SNE. J. Mach. Learn. Res. 2008, 9, 2579–2605.
34. Wilson, H.J.; Daugherty, P.; Bianzino, N. The jobs that artificial intelligence will create. MIT Sloan Manag. Rev. 2017, 58, 14.
35. Smith, A.; Anderson, J. AI, Robotics, and the Future of Jobs. Pew Res. Cent. 2014, 6, 51.
36. Elias, J. Google CEO Issues Rallying Cry in Internal Memo: All Hands on Deck to Test ChatGPT Competitor Bard. Available online:
https://www.cnbc.com/2023/02/06/google-ceo-tells-employees-it-needs-all-hands-on-deck-to-test-bard.html (accessed on
4 January 2023).
37. Goertzel, B. Artificial general intelligence: Concept, state of the art, and future prospects. J. Artif. Gen. Intell. 2014, 5, 1. [CrossRef]
38. Jobin, A.; Ienca, M.; Vayena, E. The global landscape of AI ethics guidelines. Nat. Mach. Intell. 2019, 1, 389–399. [CrossRef]
39. Hagendorff, T. The ethics of AI ethics: An evaluation of guidelines. Minds Mach. 2020, 30, 99–120. [CrossRef]
40. Jenkins, R.; Lin, P. AI-Assisted Authorship: How to Assign Credit in Synthetic Scholarship; SSRN: Rochester, NY, USA, 2023.

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual
author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.