PH111: Introduction to Classical Mechanics

Chapter 4: Non-Inertial Frames and Pseudo Forces

PH111: Introduction to Classical Mechanics Chapter 4: No

Introduction

Question: How do laws of physics change, when we change

the frame of reference (coordinate system)?

Are laws of physics same in all inertial frames of reference, i.e.,

frames moving with constant velocities?

What if the frames of reference are accelerating?

Underlying assumption will be that frames are moving with

nonrelativistic velocities ( v ≪ c)
For relativistic velocities, correct theory is Einstein's Special
theory of relativity.
Inertial Frames of Reference
First we consider inertial frames of reference

We demonstrate that in inertial frames of reference, Newton's

second law holds good

Let α and β be two frames of reference displaced by vector S

We consider the dynamics of a particle of mass m in both the

frames

Position rβ of the particle in frame β, is related to its position

rα in frame α by
rβ = rα − S
Inertial Frames of Reference....

If an observer in frame α measures the acceleration of mass m

to be aα , according to her the force acting on the mass Fα is

Fα = maα

Similarly the observer in β on measuring its acceleration to be

aβ will conclude that the force is

Fβ = m aβ .

Question is: What is the relationship between Fα and Fβ ?

Inertial frames....

By taking time derivatives of rβ = rα − S, we obtain

vβ = vα − V
aβ = aα − A

Where V = Ṡ and A = S̈, are the velocity and acceleration,

respectively, of frame β w.r.t. frame α .
If A = 0, i.e., β is an inertial frame, then

aβ = aα
=⇒ Fα = maα = maβ = Fβ

Thus measured force is same in both the frames, as is the

equation of motion.
Non-inertial Frames

Thus, Newton's second law is unchanged when the frames of

reference are inertial

What about non-inertial frames of reference, i.e., when A ̸= 0?

We already have the result that

aβ = aα − A
=⇒ Fβ = maβ = maα − mA = Fα + Fp ̸= Fα
where Fp = −mA.

Above notation Fp stands for pseudo Force.

Thus force measured by an observer in a non-inertial frame is

dierent from the one measured by an observer in an inertial
frame.
Non-inertial frames and pseudo forces

According to the observer in the non-inertial frame, the object

is experiencing an additional force −mA, in a direction
opposite to that of the acceleration

Because this force is absent for an observer in the inertial

frame, it is called Pseudo Force.

To illustrate this, we consider the example of a pendulum in an

accelerating car
Example: Pendulum in an Accelerating Car

Consider a car with a pendulum inside, moving with an

acceleration A

We want to nd the tension in the string T , and angle the

pendulum makes from the vertical θ
We will analyze the problem both in the lab frame (static on
ground) and the accelerated frame (moving with car)
Analysis in Lab Frame (Attached to the Ground)
Free body diagram in the lab frame is

With respect to lab frame, mass m has an acceleration A

As shown, it experiences two forces, tension T of the string,
and its own weight W = mg

We want to nd angle of inclination θ , and T

Application of Newton's law in vertical and horizontal

directions, yields

T cos θ − W = 0 (vertical)
T sin θ = mA (horizontal)
Lab frame contd.

Leading to the solution

A
tan θ =
gp
T = m g 2 + A2
Let us analyze the problem in the non-inertial frame, next
Analysis in non-Inertial Frame (moving with the car)
In the non-inertial (NI) frame, the free-body diagram is

In the NI frame, particle is stationary, and in equilibrium

But it is acted upon by three forces, instead of two

Additional force is the ctitious (or pseudo) force Fct = −mA

Equations of motion are

−Fct + T sin θ = 0 (horizontal)

T cos θ − W = 0 (vertical)
Non-inertial frame contd.

Because Fct = mA, both these equations are essentially same

as in case of inertial frame

Thus we obtain the same expressions for T and θ.

Next, we discuss dierent types of accelerating frames, i.e., the
rotating frames of reference
Rotating frames of reference

Rotating frames of references are non-inertial

Because any article executing circular motion experiences

centripetal acceleration

Next, we develop the theory of rotating frames of references

But, before that, we illustrate the vector nature of angular

velocity
Vector nature of angular velocity

We denoted the position of a particle as a vector

r = x î + y ĵ + z k̂

Can we similarly specify the angular position of a particle

θ = θx î + θy ĵ + θz k̂ ?

The answer is no because such an expression does not satisfy

commutative law of vector addition

θ 1 + θ 2 ̸= θ 2 + θ 1

Let us rotate a block rst around the x axis, and then around
the y axis. Compare that to the same operations performed in
the reverse order
Non-commutative nature of nite rotations
Consider those two rotations, with each one of them being π/2

Clearly θx î + θy ĵ ̸= θy ĵ + θx î
Vector nature of Angular Velocity
On the other hand, one can verify that innitesimal rotations
commute to rst order terms

∆θx î + ∆θy ĵ ≈ ∆θy ĵ + ∆θx î

Thus, innitesimal rotations can be represented as vectors

Because angular velocity is dened in terms of innitesimal

rotations
∆θ
ω = lim ,
∆t →0 ∆t

Angular velocity can be denoted as a vector

ω = ωx î + ωy ĵ + ωz k̂

And, in general,
ω = ωn̂,
where n̂ is the direction of the axis of rotation, and ω is the
magnitude of the angular velocity.
Relation between linear velocity and angular velocity

It is obvious that angular velocity ω, will give rise to linear

velocity v

What is the mathematical relation between the two?

Linear and Angular Velocities
Consider a rigid body rotating with a uniform angular velocity
ω = ωn̂ as shown
Linear and angular velocity...
Note that the position vector r of a particular point in the rigid
body, precesses about the axis of rotation, and forms a cone
with its tip at the origin
φ is the constant angle between r and n̂
During precession, r traces a circle of radius r sin φ
Let ∆θ be the angle by which r rotates in time ∆t
Relation between v and ω

It is obvious from the gure that the magnitude of change in r,

i.e., ∆r is given by

∆θ
|∆r| = 2r sin φ sin
2

For ∆t → 0, ∆θ → 0, so that

∆θ ∆θ
|∆r| = 2r sin φ sin ≈ 2r sin φ ≈ r sin φ ∆θ
2 2

Leading to (for ∆t → 0)
 
 ∆r 
  = r sin φ ∆θ
 ∆t  ∆t
dr dθ
 
=⇒   = r sin φ = ω r sin φ
dt dt
v − ω relation....

Obviously, for ∆t → 0, ddtr is in tangential direction

Keeping the direction and magnitude of

dr in mind, we
dt
conclude
dr
= v = ω ×r
dt
Rate of change of a general rotating vector
Previous discussion was about when position vector r was
precessing with a constant angular velocity ω, about the axis
in direction n̂.

But the same arguments will hold if, instead of r, some general
vector A, was precessing with a constant angular velocity ω,
about the axis in direction n̂.

Then, we will have

dA
= ω × A.
dt
This is a very important general relation about the rate of
change of rotating vectors.

Let A = v, then using above, we get the expression for

acceleration of a rotating particle

dv
= a = ω × v = ω × (ω × r) (centripetal acceleration)
dt
Physics in Rotating Reference Frames

Consider a general vector A which is changing with time

When observed from an inertial frame, its rate of change is

dA .


dt in
Suppose we have a non-inertial frame of reference which is
rotating with a constant angular velocity Ω
dA


What is the rate of change of A, i.e.,
dt rot , with respect to
the rotating frame?

Let î, ĵ, k̂ be the basis vectors of the inertial frame

And î
′ , ĵ′ , k̂′ be the basis vectors of the rotating frame
Physics in rotating frames...

This means that î

′ , ĵ′ , k̂′ are rotating w.r.t. the inertial frame

with angular velocity Ω.

At a given point in time, A in two frames can be expressed as

A = Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂ (inertial)
A = A′x î′ + A′y ĵ′ + A′z k̂′ (rotating)

Therefore, in inertial frame

dA dAx dAy dAz

 
= î + ĵ + k̂
dt in dt dt dt

PH111: Introduction to Classical Mechanics Chapter 4: No

Physics in rotating frames contd.
We can also compute the time derivative of the second
expression of A
Keeping in mind that not only the components of A, but the
basis vectors î
′ , ĵ′ , k̂′ are changing with time due to rotation

Therefore, the rate of change of A will be

dA dA′x ′ dA′y ′ dA′z ′ ′ d î′ ′ d ĵ′ ′ d k̂′

 
= î + ĵ + k̂ + Ax +A + Az
dt in dt dt dt dt y dt dt
Because vectors î
′ , ĵ′ , k̂′ are rotating with angular velocity Ω,
w.r.t. to the inertial frame

d î′
= Ω × î′
dt
d ĵ′
= Ω × ĵ′
dt
d k̂′
= Ω × k̂′
dt
PH111: Introduction to Classical Mechanics Chapter 4: No
Rotating frames
So that

dA dA′x ′ dA′y ′ dA′z ′

 
k̂ + Ω × Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂
 
′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′
= î + ĵ +
dt in dt dt dt
First three terms denote the rate of change of A as seen in the
rotating frame, i.e.,

dA′x ′ dA′y ′ dA′z ′ dA

 
î + ĵ + k̂ =
dt dt dt dt rot
Leading to
dA dA
   
= +Ω×A
dt in dt rot
Because A is a general vector, the previous formula can be
symbolically expressed as

d d
   
= + Ω×
dt in dt rot
PH111: Introduction to Classical Mechanics Chapter 4: No
Velocity and acceleration in a rotating frame

Taking A = r, we have

dr dr
   
= +Ω×r
dt in dt rot
=⇒ vin = vrot + Ω × r

On taking A = vin , we get

d vin d vin
   
= + Ω × vin
dt in dt rot
d vin d
   
=⇒ = (vrot + Ω × r) + Ω × (vrot + Ω × r)
dt in dt rot

PH111: Introduction to Classical Mechanics Chapter 4: No

Acceleration in Rotating Frame

Or

d vin d vrot d (Ω × r)
     
= + + Ω × vrot + Ω × (Ω × r)
dt in dt rot dt rot
d vrot
 
= + Ω × vrot + Ω × vrot + Ω × (Ω × r)
dt rot
=⇒ ain = arot + 2Ω × vrot + Ω × (Ω × r)

Above, we used that condition that Ω = constant, so that

Ω̇ = 0.
Thus, the acceleration as seen in the rotating frame is

arot = ain − 2Ω × vrot − Ω × (Ω × r)

PH111: Introduction to Classical Mechanics Chapter 4: No

Pseudo Forces in Rotating Frames

Multiplying the previous equation by m on both sides, and

using notations Frot = marot and F = main , we have

Frot = F − 2mΩ × vrot − mΩ × (Ω × r)

= F + Fcoriolis + Fcentrifugal
= F + Fct

Where F is the real force acting on the particle, while Fcoriolis

and Fcentrifugal are pseudo (ctitious) forces

Fcoriolis = −2mΩ × vrot

Fcentrifugal = −mΩ × (Ω × r)

PH111: Introduction to Classical Mechanics Chapter 4: No

Probing Centrifugal and Coriolis Forces

Consider a circular plank (say a merry-go-round) rotating with

an angular velocity Ω = Ωk̂,
Y
with a mass m as shown

r
θ
O X

Mass m is moving with a velocity v which is in the radial

direction w.r.t. plank

Location of the particle at a given instant is r, w.r.t. to

rotating coordinate system

What are the magnitudes and directions of pseudo forces?

Centrifugal Force

Centrifugal force can be computed as

Fcentrifugal = −mΩ × (Ω × r)
= −mΩ2 r k̂ × (k̂ ×r̂)
= −mΩ2 r k̂ × θ̂
= −mΩ2 r (−r̂)
= m Ω2 r .

Thus centrifugal force has the same magnitude as the

centripetal force, but opposite direction, as expected of a
pseudo force.

PH111: Introduction to Classical Mechanics Chapter 4: No

Coriolis Force

Coriolis force exists only when the particle moves with respect
to the rotating frame. Here

vrot = v r̂.

Therefore,

Fcoriolis = −2mΩ × vrot

= −2mΩv (k̂ ×r̂)
= −2mΩv θ̂

PH111: Introduction to Classical Mechanics Chapter 4: No

Coriolis and Centrifugal Forces
Thus, nally the direction of the forces

Centrifugal

v
r
θ Coriolis
O X

PH111: Introduction to Classical Mechanics Chapter 4: No

Coriolis Force due to Rotation of Earth

Earth's Angular Velocity in a Non-Intertial Frame

Here x points to south, y to east, and z is radially outwards

(vertically above from earth), and λ is latitude angle

In this frame
Ω = −Ω cos λ î + Ω sin λ k̂

PH111: Introduction to Classical Mechanics Chapter 4: No

Coriolis Force on a Falling Object

If a particle of mass m is falling vertically down, at a given

instant with velocity v, then

v = −v k̂

Then Coriolis force on it due to Earth's rotation is

 
 î ĵ k̂ 
Fc = −2m (Ω× v) = −2m Ω  − cos λ sin λ  = 2mv Ω cos λ ĵ
 
0
−v 

0 0


Thus, the object will experience a force towards east, and will
get deviated in that direction

Another example: away from equator, wind ow becomes

circular due to Coriolis force

Note Fc ⊥ vrot , so it will lead to a circular motion

PH111: Introduction to Classical Mechanics Chapter 4: No