Microwave Amplifiers and Oscillators

(a) (b)

6.1 Introduction

A microwave source is essential for any microwave system, and we have seen that the microwave
tubes offer very high-power to very-high frequencies, but at the cost of:

(a) Larger space requirements.

(b) Higher dc power (electric field and magnetic field) requirements.
(c) Filament heater (of cathode) requirements.
(d) Higher cost, etc.

Scientists were on a look out for a simpler source. Therefore, after the invention of transistor, the
work on microwave transistor like oscillators/amplifiers, new sources like Gunn diode, IMPATT
diodes, TRAPATT diodes, etc., had started. Today we have these semiconductors, i.e. solid-state
device as sources, which meet the low-power requirements in microwave

In this lower region

in-cw-mode

Fig. 6.1 Power versus frequency performance of solid-state sources and the microwave tubes
Table 6.1 Summary of microwave semiconductor devices (diodes and transistors: oscillators, amplifiers, and circuit
devices)
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(continued)
6.1 Introduction

6.2 Classification of Microwave Semiconductor Devices

In this chapter, we are going to study various semiconductor or solid-state devices used in microwaves
as oscillator, as amplifier, or as a circuit device. These can be listed in the following two classes:

(i) Transistors: Microwave BJT, Jn-FET,

MOSFET

(ii) Diodes: Gunn diodes

6.3 Microwave Transistors—BJT and FET

Because of lot of advancement in microwave transistors and the fact that a transistor has become the
fundamental building block of digital and analog circuits, it has become important in microwaves
also. The two properties of the transistor e.g. (a) a small input voltage or current controlling large
voltage and current variation and (b) fast response time and accuracy, has found its applications in
amplification, switching, modulation and as an oscillator.
First we will discuss the three FETs and their common properties.

6.3.1 Field Effect Transistors (FETs)

The FETs are called unipolar device, as only one type of carrier current (e.g. electron current for ‘n’
channel FET) is there. The channel current is controlled by the following three mechanisms of the
gates:
(a) pn junction depletion region at the gate in jnFET
(b) Metal–semiconductor jn depletion region (Schottky barrier gate) in MESFΈT
(c) Capacitative field and charge effect in MOSFET.

Major advantages of FETs over bipolar transistor are:

(i) Low dc power requirement

(ii) FETs are voltage-controlled devices and draw very little power from the dc supply as well as
from the input signal
(iii) As no minority carrier is involved, it has more stability
(iv) Both Zin and Zout are very high, therefore do not load either the input side or the output side
(v) Less noisy
(vi) Can be a part of the integrated circuit (vii) Easy to fabricate than the bipolar Tr.
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All the three FETs have the following:

1. Source: Through this terminal, the majority carriers enter the channel.
2. Drain: Through this terminal, the majority carriers leave the channel.
3. Gate: It is used to control the flow of carriers in the channel, by application of a −ve voltage which
creates depletion region in the channel, thereby restricting the path and hence current in the
channel.
4. Channel: The space between drain and source through which the majority carrier current flows.
5. The maximum frequency of oscillation that ispossible is:

1
fmax = where τ= Lg/vs
2πτ

where τ = transit time of carrier across the gate length (Lg), where the depletion region and its
capacitance are formed, vs being the saturated velocity of carriers which is around 107 cm/s for silicon

6.4 Microwave Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

After the invention of transistor (word derived from transfer of resistor) in 1948 by W.
Schockley of Bell Laboratories, lot of development has taken place. Now for microwave low-power
applications, silicon bipolar transistor dominates for frequency range from UHF to S-band (i.e. 200
MHz–6 GHz); however, it can give useful power up to 25 GHz.
Silicon bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is less expensive, durable, low noise, integratable in the
circuit, and offers higher gain than FET. For higher frequencies, higher temperature, and radiation
hardness, GaAs BJT is being used. High-frequency response limit of BJT is determined by the (a)
time taken by the carriers injected from emitter to cross the base region and the (b) mobility of the
carriers.
As mobilities of electron and holes are 1500 and 450 cm2/Vs, electron carrier is preferred to be
transmitted through the base and therefore the npn-type of BJT. By newer technologies (e.g. ion
implantation), base width as lower as 0.05 l can be achieved, which keeps the hole-electrons
recombination (i.e. carrier losses) at the base also small.
Thus, the µW BJT differs with low-frequency BJT in terms of:

(i) Very low base width (<0.2 µm) and low emitter width (<1 µ).
(ii) High emitter doping (>1019/cc) for reducing base resistance and increase current gain.
(iii) Multifinger emitter and base metallization contact.
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6.4.1 Structure

Table 6.2: Doping Levels

Symbols Doping density range

P++, n++ >1019/cc (Degenerate)
p+, n+ 1017–10 l8/cc
p, n 1015–1016/cc
p−, n− 1013–1014/cc
p− −(p), n− − (v) In Si < 1010/cc (intrinsic)
In GaAs < 107/cc (intrinsic)

These transistors are fabricated by the usual planar technology by diffusion of impurities through the
strip-type windows formed on the oxide layer as per the design of the masks for that diffusion. These
diffusion depths are more for p-base diffusion, less for n+ emitter junction diffusion (Fig. 6.2a). The
p+ base contact diffusion is done so that the semiconductor has high conductivity and its contact with
metal does not form Schottky diode contact but ohmic contact. For the same reason for metal contact
at the bottom with the collector (which is n− epitaxial layer), the substrate is n+. These depths are
controlled by time and temperature of that diffusion. Finally the strip-type windows on the oxide layer
are again made at appropriate locations for metallisation contacts for base and emitter. The surface
geometry for the diffusions and metallisation can be inter-digited, i.e. multifinger (or some other
similar forms, e.g. ‘over lay’ or ‘matrix’ form). The objective behind such geometry with alternate
emitter and base metallisation strips is to use maximum surface area with lower capacitance for
increasing the current and hence higher power capability of the device.

6.4.2 Operation

The bipolar junction transistor is commonly used as amplifier and switch. Normally emitter junction
is forward biased and collector junction reversed biased. When both the junctions are reversed biased,
it acts as open circuit and when both are forward biased, it is like a short circuit. Out of the three
configurations, i.e. common base, common emitter, and common collector, the second one is normally
used in microwave circuits.
Figure 6.3 gives the various components of current flow in an npn-BJT under normal bias
conditions of collector-Jn reverse biased and emitter-Jn forward biased. As the emitter is forward
biased, large number of electrons (majority) gets injected into the base. As the base width is kept very
low (e.g. 0.1µ) (see Fig. 6.2), some of the electrons recombine with the majority (p) of the base,
(giving a small current to the base), but most of the electron current diffuses to the collector due to its
voltage +ve corresponding electric field attracting them.
The hole current of the emitter and of the collector will be there as minority, and a part will be used
at the base for recombining with the electrons coming from emitter. This will constitute the small
base current IB.
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6.4.3 Cut-off Frequency

At microwave frequencies, three parasitic elements come into play. These are
(a) inter electrode bond pad capacitances,
(b) inductance, as the current in the lead wires has skin effect, and
(c) resistances of the base, emitter, and collector regions in the silicon.
All these limit the maximum frequency of operation of the transistor.
Using a simplified equivalent circuit, we can see that the ultimate frequency limitation is due to
the following.
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6.4 Microwave Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

For wire contact,

Collector contact metal

Fig. 6.2 Bipolar npn microwave power transistor a cross sections of metallisation and diffusion, with typical
measurements and b inter-digited (fish bone) geometry of surface metallisation contacts, etc.

Out of the two types of delay given above, the transit time dominates on charging as (stt sct).
Therefore, the base width and the collector width (Fig. 6.3) have to be made as small as possible for
having higher fT.
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At fT the current gain b falls to unity (i.e. b = 1 at f = fT) but the power gain(AP) has not become
unity. Therefore, we define fmax (which is higher than fT) where power gain (AP) falls to unity. These
two frequencies are related by the following equation:

where both RB base spreading resistance and C0 the collector base depletion layer capacitance are
proportional to the width of emitter strip. Reducing these two reduces the power handling capacity
but increases fmax. Therefore, study of power frequency limitations becomes important.

Fig. 6.3 (a) Barriers-depletion regions across junctions

6.4.4 Power Frequency Limitation

It has been shown by that product of power (P) and square of frequency f2 are constant (Pf2 = K) in
BJT, MESFET as well as for two terminal devices. These limitations are due to:

(i) Maximum attainable field (Em = 2 × 105 V/cm in Si) in semiconductor without onset of
avalanche multiplication.
(ii) Maximum carrier velocity (vs = 2 × 107 cm/s in Si).

(iii) Maximum current a transistor can carry is limited by the base width (Lm).
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(iv) The cut-off frequency fT =1/2πτ’ where τ’ = Lm/vs and Lm = emitter collector distance.
6.5 Junction Field Effect Transistors (Jn-FET)

The actual structure and the structure used just for explaining the working of n-channel Jn-FET are
given in Fig. 6.4a, b, respectively, with Fig. 6.4c giving the symbol of Jn-FET used in the circuits.
The gate junction is reversed based, resulting into a depletion region, which increases with gate
reverse voltage. This depletion region being devoid of majority carriers reduces and pinches the
conducting portion of the channel and hence reduces the drain–source current. Further increase of
−ve gate voltage will spread the depletion layer further and fully pinch the conducting path for Ids
current (Figs. 6.4b and 6.5). The characteristic of the Ids-vs-Vds for different region electric field
created by Vgs controls the Ids, that is how the name field effect transistor.
.
Thus the pinch-off voltage is the reverse gate voltage that removes all the free charges from the
channel and thereafter the channel current saturates (Figs. 6.4 and 6.5). The Poisson equation for the
voltage in the n-channel in terms of the volume charge density q is given by:

With Nd = electron concentration density (doner) in the n-channel.

es e0, er = the permittivity of material, space, and dielectric constant, respectively.
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A rA 2 lneNdz a w
Fig. 6.4 a n-channel-Jn-FET-actual layout in planar technology giving typical diffusion densities and the measurements
of its size. b Simplified figure used just for explaining the working of the n-channel-Jn-FET. Here diffusion (gate) is
shown on both the sides, which is not actual, and c circuit symbol of n-channel-Jn-FET
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Start of pinch off

8
Fig. 6.5 Typical characteristic of a Jn-FET

6.6 Metal–Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MESFET)

Instead of forming a rectifying contact of pn junction in Jn-FET, one can form a rectifying gate contact
by a contact between lightly doped (n, n−) semiconductor and metal also called Schottky diode. It
may be noted that if the doping is high (n+) then this junction, instead of Schottky diode, forms ohmic
contact. These types of transistors are metal–semiconductor field effect transistor (MESFET). The
majority carrier current from drain to source in an n-channel MESFET is controlled by a Schottky
metal gate −ve voltage. Just like in Jn-FET, this Vgs forms depletion region in the semiconductor,
thereby reducing the thickness of the conducting portion of the channel and hence the current IDS
reduces.
The only disadvantage of MESFET is the presence of Schottky metal gate, which limits the
forward turn-on voltage to <0.7 V for GaAs Schottky diode.
The main advantage of MESFET over
MOSFET is the higher mobility of channel carriers. The inversion layer of MOSFET (OFF-
MOSFET) which extends into the channel reduces the mobility to half, than the bulk mobility in
MESFET. In MESFET the depletion layer separates the carrier from the surface and hence mobility
is close to the bulk mobility. This leads to higher current, transconductance, and smaller transit time
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and hence higher frequency of the device. Thus use of GaAs rather than Si-MESFET offers additional
advantages:
• Electron mobility five times larger.
• Saturated electron velocity two times larger.
• Higher current possible than Si devices.
• Low shot noise.
• Higher electric field before breakdown.
• Operates up to higher temperature than Si.
• Higher frequency than Si.
• Higher µ W power output than Si.
Because of these advantages, GaAs-MESFET amplifiers have replaced X-band parametric
amplifiers in airborne radar systems, due to less-complicated circuit and less expensive, besides
having above-listed advantages. It is also used in microwave IC for high-power, low-noise, and
broadband applications.

6.6.1 Physical Structure

Figure 6.6 gives the schematic diagram of a GaAs-MESFET, where we see that two thin layers of n–
and n-layers are grown on the thick substrate, either by epitaxial process or by ion implantation. The
impurity densities of these n− and n-layers are 1014/cc and 1016–1017/cc, respectively. The n− epitaxial
layer of 3µ is just to isolate the n-channel layer from substrate. The channel layer is very thin (0.15–
0.35 µ), on which the metal contacts for gate/source (Au-Ge or Au-Te) on ohmic contact diffusion
(n+) region
(a)
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Fig. 6.6 a Device symbol in circuit and b schematic diagram of a GaAs-MESFET with thin expitaxial layers on the thick
semi-insulating substrate.

Fig. 6.7 Current–voltage characteristic of a typical nchannel GaAs-MESFET drain–source current-vs-drain– source
voltage for different gate–source voltages.

6.6.2 Application of MESFET

Because of so many advantages (as listed earlier), it is used in a number of microwave applications
up to 50 GHz.

1. Satellite, receiver, radars, cellular devices, etc.

2. Power amplifier of output stage of microwave links.
3. Power oscillator in a number of applications.
4. Power driver amplifierfor high-power transmitters.
5. Low-noise amplifier in microwave receivers etc.

6.7 Metal Oxide Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET)

All the transistors discussed so far, e.g. bipolar, Jn-FET, MESFET, are three terminal devices, with
substrate isolated in Jn-FET and MESFET, while in bipolar transistor, the substrate is the collector
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itself bonded on the header directly. Thus MOSFET is a four-terminal device where substrate is 4th
terminal normally connected to the source and is grounded. Rest of the three terminals being source,
drain, and gate. In Jn-FET the p–n junction is at the gate while in MOSFET, there are two p–n
junctions at source and drain itself. The MOSFET, because of its simpler structure and lower losses,
has superseded the junction transistors (BJT and Jn-FET).
When the gate bias is zero, the two back-to-back pn junctions, between the source and drain,
prevent the current flow in either direction. When in a p-type substrate MOSFET, a +ve voltage is
applied to the gate with respect to source, i.e. vgs, (with substrate and source grounded), then −ve
charges are induced in the channel (like a capacitor) and this provides current flow in the channel.
As this MOSFET (Fig. 6.8) is with p-substrate, the channel region forms −ve carrier channel for
current flow and therefore called nchannel MOSFET.
The structure given in Fig. 6.8 also gives the dimensions of the chip and its layers. In practice on a
wafer, a large number of such chips are fabricated and chips diced out of it. A MOSFET can be a part
of a circuit on a chip also and in such cases the MOSFET is normally surrounded by a thick oxide to
isolate it from the adjacent device in a microwave I.C. Two designs of MOSFET are used, e.g.
enhancement design (OFF-MOSFET), where n-channel region being very lightly p–type doped
(1013/cc), it has very less carriers therefore even with Vds bias Id = 0 for Vg 0. But by Vg = +ve n carriers
are induced in the channel region, then Id starts (Fig. 6.8): The other is depletion type depletion design
(ON-MOSFET), where n type (1015/cc) doping is already done in the channel region, giving enough
n carriers. Therefore with Vds bias Id 6¼ 0, whether Vg 0 or Vg 0 and hence ON-type the name is given.
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So far we have discussed the n-channel MOSFET only, but all these are true for pchannel
MOSFET also, with n-replaced by p.

6.7.3 Applications

MOSFET is generally used as power amplifiers as they have some advantages over BJT, Jn-FET, and
MESFET, for example:
1. It can be linear power amplifier in the enhancement mode as Cin and gm do not depend on Vg, while
cout is independent of vds.
2. Gate ac input signal can be quite large asn-channel depletion-type ON-MOSFET can operate from
depletion-mode region (−Vg) to enhancement mode region (+Vg).
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