Lecture No.

GE 135: FUNDAMENTALS OF
SURVEYING AND MAPPING

TOPIC 5:

Angle and Direction Measurements

Department of Geodetic Engineering

College of Engineering and Geosciences
Caraga State University
 Lecture No. 1

Outline
▪ Concepts of location, angles, and directions
▪ Components of an Angle
▪ Meridians and Its Types
▪ Bearing, Azimuths and Other Angles
▪ Methods and Instruments for Angle and Direction
Measurements
▪ Sources of errors in angles and direction
 Lecture No. 1

Intended Learning Outcomes:

At the end of the lecture, the students must be able to:
● Explain the concepts of location, angles, and directions, including its importance in surveying
● Differentiate the components of an angle
● Explain the concepts of meridians and its types
● Discuss the concept and application of bearings, azimuths, interior angles, deflection angles, and angles to
the right
● Explain the different methods for measuring angles and directions
● Discuss the Engineer's Transit
● Identify and discuss the different types of instruments used in angle and direction measurements
● Operate a compass, engineer’s transit, theodolite, and/or total station for angle and direction
measurements
● Solve problems involving angles and directions
● Measure horizontal and vertical angles
● Perform horizontal angle measurements with a Theodolite or an Engineer’s Transit
 Lecture No. 1

FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING AND MAPPING

CONCEPTS OF LOCATION, ANGLES, AND DIRECTIONS

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Location
• A place where a particular point or object exists. It is an
essential term in geography, and is usually considered more
precise than "place.“

• An absolute location of a point is its exact place on Earth, often given

in terms of latitude and longitude.
• A relative location is a description of how a place is related to other
places or points.

Source: https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/location
 Lecture No. 1

Angles
• Angle is a figure which is formed by two rays or lines that
shares a common endpoint. Source: https://byjus.com/maths/angle-definition/
• formed when two straight lines or rays meet at a common
endpoint. Source: https://www.splashlearn.com/math-vocabulary/geometry/angle#:~:text=An%20angle%20is%20formed%20when,%2C'%20meaning%20%E2%80%9Ccorner.%E2%80%9D
 Lecture No. 1

Directions
• Direction is used for the determination of where things are in
relation to other things.
• Example. Jeffrey’s direction is to the left of Jimmy.
• Cardinal directions are probably the essential directions in geography.
These are the north, south, east and west. It helps us orient ourselves
wherever we are.
• Example. Philippines is in the South-east of Asia.

Source: https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/direction
 Lecture No. 1

FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING AND MAPPING

COMPONENTS OF AN ANGLE
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Defining Angles
• An angle is defined as
the difference in
direction between two
convergent lines.
• A horizontal angle is
formed by the
directions to two
objects in a horizontal
plane.
 Lecture No. 1

Defining Angles
• A vertical angle is formed by two
intersecting lines in a vertical
plane, one of these lines is a
horizontal line (in the horizontal
plane).
•A zenith angle is the
complementary angle to the
vertical angle and is formed by
two intersecting lines in a vertical
plane, one of these lines directed
toward the zenith.
Lecture No. 1
 Lecture No. 1

UNITS OF ANGULAR MEASUREMENT

Figures below show that the magnitude of an angle can always be expressed
in units and they are derived from the division of the circumference of a circle.
 Lecture No. 1

Units of Angular Measurement

The following are the principal system of units used:

1. Degree.
• It is a measurement of a plane angle, defined so
that a full rotation is 360 degrees.
• The basic unit is a degree, which is further
subdivided into 60 minutes, and the minute is
subdivided into 60 seconds.
• The °, ‘, and “ are used to denote degrees,
minutes, and seconds, respectively. This system
is used extensively in surveying operations.
 Lecture No. 1

Units of Angular Measurement

2. Grad.
• It is a unit of measurement of an angle,
equivalent to 1/400 of a turn, 9/10 of a
degree, or π/200 of a radian.
• The circumference of a circle is divided into
400 parts.
• It is subdivided into 100 centesimal
minutes and a centesimal minute is further
subdivided into 100 centesimal seconds.
• The symbols g, c, and cc are used to denote grads,
centesimal minutes, and centesimal seconds, respectively.
 Lecture No. 1

Units of Angular Measurement

3. Mil.
• In this system, the circumference is
divided into 6400 parts and 1600 mils
are equal to 90 degrees.
• They are used in the adjustment of
firearm sights by adjusting the angle of
the sight compared to the barrel (up,
down, left, or right).
 Lecture No. 1

Units of Angular Measurement

4. Radian.
• It is the standard unit of angular measure, used
in many areas of mathematics.
• The length of an arc of a unit circle is numerically
equal to the measurement in radians of the
𝟏𝟖𝟎
angle that it subtends; one radian equals to
𝝅
or approximately equal to 57.2958 degrees.
• It is also sometimes used in determining the
length of circular arcs where high speed
electronic digital computers are used.
 Lecture No. 1

Sample Problem.
Convert the following:
1. 238º25’30” to decimal degrees.
2. 456.2230º to degrees, minutes, seconds
3. 68º25’30” to grad, mil, radian
4. 140 grad to degrees, minutes, seconds
5. 40 mil to degrees, minutes, seconds
𝝅
6. to degrees, minutes, seconds
𝟑
 Lecture No. 1

FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING AND MAPPING

MERIDIANS AND ITS TYPES

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Meridians
• Meridian is the direction of a line that is
usually defined by the horizontal angle it
makes with a fixed reference line or
direction.

• This is done with reference to a meridian

which lies in a vertical plane passing
through a fixed point of reference and the
observer’s position.
 Lecture No. 1

Types of Meridian

1. Astronomical Meridian.
• It is sometimes known as a true
meridian or geographic meridian.
• A plane passing through a point on
the surface of the earth and
containing the earth’s axis of
rotation defines the astronomical or
true meridian at that point.
 Lecture No. 1

Types of Meridian

1. Astronomical or True Meridian.

• They are determined by observing the
position of the sun or a star.
• For a given point on the earth, its
direction is always the same and
therefore directions referred to the
astronomical or true meridian remain
unchanged. This makes it a good line
of reference.
 Lecture No. 1

Types of Meridian
2. Magnetic Meridian.
• It lies parallel with the magnetic lines
of force of the earth.
• The earth acts very much like a bar
magnet with a north magnetic pole
located considerably south of the
north pole defined by the earth’s
rotational axis.
• The magnetic pole is not fixed in
position but rather changes its
position continually.
 Lecture No. 1

Types of Meridian

2. Magnetic Meridian.
• The direction of a magnetized
needle defines the magnetic
meridian at that point at that time.
• Because of the magnetic meridian
changes as magnetic north changes,
magnetic meridians do not make
good lines of reference.
 Lecture No. 1

Types of Meridian

3. Grid Meridian.
• It is a fixed-line of reference parallel
to the central meridian of a system
of plane rectangular coordinates.
• In-plane surveys, it is convenient to
perform the work in a rectangular XY
coordinate system in which one
central meridian coincides with a
true meridian.
 Lecture No. 1

Types of Meridian

3. Grid Meridian.
• All remaining meridians are parallel to
this central true meridian. This
eliminates the need to calculate the
convergence of meridians when
determining positions of points in the
system.
• The methods of plane surveying
assume that all measurements are
projected to a horizontal plane and
that all meridians are parallel straight
lines.
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Types of Meridian

4. Assumed Meridian.
• It is an arbitrary direction assigned to some line in the
survey from which all other lines are referenced.
• This could be a line between two property monuments,
the centerline of a tangent piece of roadway, or even the
line between two points set for that purpose.
• They have no relationship to any other meridian and thus
the survey cannot be readily (if at all) related to other
surveys. Also, if the original monuments are disturbed,
the direction may not be reproducible.
 Lecture No. 1

Expedient Methods of Establishing Meridians

The following are some of the expedient methods of determining
or establishing meridians.

1. Establishing Magnetic Meridian By Compass.

2. Determining True North By Aid of Sun and a Plumb Line.
3. Determining True North By the Rising and Setting of the Sun.
4. Determining True North By Polaris.
5. Determining True South by the Southern Cross.
6. Determining Direction or True North ( or South ) By a Wrist
Watch.
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Designation of North Points

There is always a starting or reference point to

define directions. . . .

• Map users are primarily concerned with the north

point for the determination of directions and the
following are the commonly used reference points.
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Designation of North Points

Symbol Used for North Points
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Designation of North Points

1. True North.
• It is the north point of the true
meridian. It is usually portrayed
in the direction of the actual
location of the earth’s north
geographic pole and is always
shown along a vertical line.
• It is symbolized by a star or the
letters TN (Figure a).
 Lecture No. 1

Designation of North Points

2. Magnetic North.
• It is established through a
magnetized compass needle
when no local attractions are
affecting it.
• Its direction is indicated by the
direction of the magnetic lines
of surface passing through the
point at a particular time.
• It is usually symbolized by a half
arrowhead or the letters MN.
 Lecture No. 1

Designation of North Points

3. Grid North.
• It is established by lines on a
map that are parallel to a
selected central meridian. It
may coincide with lines directed
toward true north. It may be
symbolized by a full arrowhead
or the letters GN (Figure c).
 Lecture No. 1

Designation of North Points

4. Assumed North.
• It is used to portray the location
of any arbitrarily chosen north
point. It may be symbolized by a
small blackened circle or the
letters AN (Figure d).
 Lecture No. 1

FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING AND MAPPING

BEARING, AZIMUTHS AND OTHER ANGLES

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Direction of Lines
• It is defined as the horizontal angle the line makes
with an established line of reference.
• Kinds of angles which can be used to describe the
direction of lines:
1. Interior and Exterior Angles
2. Deflection Angles
3. Angles to the Right/Left
4. Azimuths
5. Bearings
 Lecture No. 1

Kind of Angles to Describe Direction of Lines

1. Interior angles are measured
clockwise or counter-clockwise
between two adjacent lines on the
inside of a closed polygon figure.
• Exterior angles are measured
clockwise or counter-clockwise
between two adjacent lines on the
outside of a closed polygon figure.
 Lecture No. 1

Kind of Angles to Describe Direction of Lines

2. Deflection angles, to the right or to the left, are measured
from an extension of the preceding course and the ahead line.
It must be noted when the deflection is right (R) or left (L).
 Lecture No. 1

Kind of Angles to Describe Direction of Lines

3. Angles to the right are turned from the back line in a
clockwise or right hand direction to the ahead line.
• Angles to the left are turned from the back line in a
counter-clockwise or left hand direction to the ahead line.
 Lecture No. 1

Kind of Angles to Describe Direction of Lines

4. Azimuths. In plane surveying, azimuths are generally
measured from the south (here in the Philippines).
• When using azimuths, one needs to designate whether the
azimuth is from the north or the south.
• Azimuths are called true (astronomical) azimuths, magnetic
azimuths, grid azimuths, or assumed azimuths depending on
the type of meridian referenced.
• Azimuths may have values between 0 and 360 degrees and
letters are not required to identify quadrants.
 Lecture No. 1

Kind of Angles to Describe Direction of Lines

4. Azimuths.
 Lecture No. 1

Kind of Angles to Describe Direction of Lines

4. Azimuths.
• Any line established on the earth’s surface has two azimuths, a forward
azimuth, and a back azimuth.
• Depending on which end of the line is considered, the direction differs
by 180 degrees from each other since the back azimuth is the exact
reverse of the forward azimuth.
• To determine the back azimuth when the forward azimuth is known, the
following rules are used:
▪ Rule 1: If the forward azimuth of the line is greater than 180ᵒ,
subtract 180ᵒ to obtain the back azimuth.
▪ Rule 2: If the forward azimuth of the line is less than 180ᵒ, add 180ᵒ to
obtain the back azimuth.
 Lecture No. 1

Kind of Angles to Describe Direction of Lines

4. Azimuths.
• Table below shows example of forward and backward
azimuths.
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Kind of Angles to Describe Direction of Lines

4. Azimuths.

Azimuth From South Azimuth From North

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Kind of Angles to Describe Direction of Lines

5. Bearings.
• The bearing of a line also gives the direction of a line
with respect to the reference meridian.
• The bearing states whether the angle is measured from
the north or the south and also whether the angle is
measured toward the east or west.
• Bearing may have values between 0 and 90 degrees.
 Lecture No. 1

Kind of Angles to Describe Direction of Lines

5. Bearings.
• The figure shows the
quadrantal system that is used
to specify bearings such that a
line may fall under one of the
following quadrants such as
NE, SE, NW, and SW.
 Lecture No. 1

Kind of Angles to Describe Direction of Lines

5. Bearings.
 Lecture No. 1

Kind of Angles to Describe Direction of Lines

5. Bearings.

Conversion: Bearing to Azimuth (From South)

• SW Quadrant:
Azimuth = Bearing
• NW Quadrant:
Azimuth = 180° - Bearing
• NE Quadrant:
Azimuth = 180° + Bearing
• SE Quadrant:
Azimuth = 360° - Bearing
 Lecture No. 1

Kind of Angles to Describe Direction of Lines

5. Bearings.
• Using the quadrantal system, any line of the surface of the
earth may be defined by two directions which differ from
each other by exactly 180 degrees.
• When the bearing of the line is observed in the direction in
which the survey progresses, it is referred to as a forward
bearing, if the bearing of the same line is observed in an
opposite direction is called the back bearing.
 Lecture No. 1

Sample Problem.
• Table below shows an example of forward and
backward bearing. Draw the direction of the lines.
 Lecture No. 1

Sample Problem.
Converting Bearings to Azimuths. Convert the following
bearings to equivalent azimuths (azimuth from South).
a) AB, N 25º25’ E
b)BC, Due East
c) CD, S 50º12’ E
d)DE, S 45º50’
 Lecture No. 1

FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING AND MAPPING

METHODS AND INSTRUMENTS FOR ANGLE AND DIRECTION

MEASUREMENTS
 Lecture No. 1

The Compass

• The compass is a hand-held instrument for determining the horizontal

direction of a line with reference to the magnetic meridian.
• It is so constructed to allow a magnetized needle to swing freely on
a pivot at the center of a graduated circle and point toward the
magnetic north.
 Lecture No. 1

The Compass
• However, because of its portability, it is still employed for
reconnaissance and preliminary surveys, in timber cruising and
exploratory surveys, in retracing old land surveys, and in obtaining
rough checks on angles or directions measured by more precise
methods.
• The magnetic compass has three essential features – compass box,
magnetic needle and line of sight.
 Lecture No. 1

Types of Compasses
• Magnetic directions
such as bearing
and azimuth could
be determined by
the use of the
compass.
 Lecture No. 1

The Engineer’s Transit

• It is essentially a telescope and two
large protractors.
• One of the protractors is mounted in
a horizontal plane and the other in a
vertical plane.
• It is so designed to measure the angle
of rotation of the telescope about its
horizontal and vertical axes.
 Lecture No. 1

The Engineer’s Transit

• The Engineer’s transit is a repeating
instrument since it can measure angles
by repetition for any number of times
and their total added on the graduated
circles.
• It is also commonly employed for a wide
variety of tasks such as determining
differences in elevation, taking magnetic
bearings and azimuths, and stake
outlines, curves, angles, and grades.
• It is usually referred to as the
“UNIVERSAL SURVEYING INSTRUMENT”.
 Lecture No. 1

The Transit
 Lecture No. 1

Main Parts of a Transit

1. Upper Plate ( Alidade )
a. Telescope
b. Standards
c. Compass Box
d. Plate Level Vials
e. Vertical Circle
f. Plate Verniers
g. Optical Plummet
h. Telescope Clamp
i. Telescope Tangent Screw
j. Upper Clamp
k. Upper Tangent Screw
 Lecture No. 1

Main Parts of a Transit

2. Lower Plate
a. Lower Clamp
b. Lower Tangent Screw

3. Leveling Head Assembly

a. Leveling Screws
b. Plumb Bob Chain
 Lecture No. 1

Setting up the Transit

The following are the different steps followed in
setting up the transit.
1. Positioning the Tripod
2. Mounting the Transit
3. Attaching the Plumb Bob
4. Final Centering
 Lecture No. 1

Transit Verniers
• The verniers are used for measuring horizontal and vertical angles
with a high degree of accuracy.
• There are three verniers in an engineer’s transit, two on the
horizontal circle, and one in the vertical circle.
• The verniers for the horizontal circle are named as A and B that
found on the opposite side of the upper plate and positioned
exactly 180 degrees apart.
•Vernier A is found below the eyepiece
when the telescope in direct position
and vernier B is near the objective end
of the telescope.
 Lecture No. 1

Measuring Horizontal and Vertical Angles using Transit

Horizontal Angles Measurement
• They are measured directly either to the right (clockwise) or
to the left (counterclockwise).
• It is important to always remember that when an angle is
measured to the right of the inner circle graduations, the
vernier on the left are read, and when the angle is measured
to the left of the outer graduations, the vernier on the right
are read.
 Lecture No. 1

Measuring Horizontal and Vertical Angles using Transit

Closing the Horizon
• It is a process of measuring horizontal angles about a point by
testing instrument readings and pointings since a check is
obtained if the sum of the angles is equal to 360 degrees.
• The procedure is simply involved using the upper clamp and
tangent screw, aiming at the left-hand point, reading the
horizontal circle, aiming the right-hand point, and again
reading the circle.
 Lecture No. 1

Measuring Horizontal and Vertical Angles using Transit

Closing the Horizon
• Figure on the right shows measuring angles about a
point with several chaining pins stuck in the ground at
convenient distances from the instrument.
• Then the angles between the pins are measured
individually, the vernier and scale being set back to
zero for each measurement.
• Upon completion of the measurement, angular values
observed are added to see if their sum equal to 360
degrees and any difference between 360 degrees and
the sum of the measured angles is called the horizon
misclosure.
 Lecture No. 1

Measuring Horizontal and Vertical Angles using Transit

Vertical Angles
• In a vertical plane it is the difference in
direction measured between two
intersecting lines.
• It may be above or below a horizontal
plane through the point of intersection
and may lie only between zero and plus
(or minus) 90 degrees.
• They are either angles of elevation or
angles of depression (sometimes referred
to as positive or negative angles).
 Lecture No. 1

Measuring Horizontal and Vertical Angles using Transit

Vertical Angles
• When using a transit with a full circle it
is advantageous to measure a vertical
angle once with the telescope in normal
position and once in reversed position.
• The mean of the two readings will be the
correct value of the vertical angle since
both measurements are made
independently of each other, thus

α’ = (αN + αR ) / 2
 Lecture No. 1

Measuring Horizontal and Vertical Angles using Transit

Vertical Angles

α’ = (αN + αR ) / 2
where:
α’ - correct value of the vertical
angle.
αN – vertical angle measured with
telescope in direct or normal
position.
αR - same vertical angle measured
with telescope in reversed or
plunged position.
 Lecture No. 1

Index Correction
• When a transit is used the accuracy in reading a
vertical angle is affected if the line of sight is not
parallel to the axis of the telescope level tube,
there is an inclination of the vertical axis, and the
vertical circle does not read zero when the
telescope bubble is centered.
• Due to any of the above reasons an error will be
introduced and is referred to as the index error.
 Lecture No. 1

Index Correction
• Index error ( IE ) = (αN - αR) / 2
The index correction ( IC ) is equal in amount but
opposite in sign to the index error, thus

Index correction ( IC ) = -IE

• The corrected vertical angle should then be

α’ = αN + IC
 Lecture No. 1

Adjustment of the Transit

• Adjustment which are made on an engineer’s transit are
classified either as:
a. Shop adjustment – are those made in a service
facility of the manufacturer or through an
authorized dealer or distributor.
b. Field adjustment – are simpler to perform, and
should be undertaken by the instrument man
periodically or just prior to executing a survey.
 Lecture No. 1

Adjustment of the Transit

• The most common field adjustments made on the
engineer’s transit are:
a. Adjustment of the Plate Bubbles
b. Adjustment of the Cross Hairs
c. Adjustment of the Line of Sight
d. Adjustment of the Standards
e. Adjustment of the Telescope Bubble Tube
f. Adjustment of the Vertical Circle
 Lecture No. 1

The Theodolite
• It is an instrument designed to
accomplish the same primary purposes
as a transit, that is to measure horizontal
and vertical angles and to prolong
straight lines.
• Its appearance can easily be
distinguished from a transit since this
instrument is smaller, more compact,
lighter in weight, easy to operate, has a
short telescope, and no exposed verniers
and compass.
 Lecture No. 1

The Theodolite
•A precision instrument used for
measuring angles both horizontally
and vertically angular
measurements are more accurate
than transits.
• They have horizontal and vertical
circles for angle measurements just
as in transit.
• Its graduated horizontal and vertical
circles are made of glass instead of
metal and are relatively small.
 Lecture No. 1

The Theodolite
• They are viewed simultaneously from
the eyepiece of the telescope by means
of a system of microscopes and prism.
• It can be used at day and night time.
• It enables the instrument man to make
single observations of angles more
precisely than those which can be made
by several repetitions with an engineer’s
transit.
 Lecture No. 1

The Total Station

• It is an electronic transit and an
Electronic Distance Measurement
(EDM) device combined into one
instrument used for measuring
horizontal and vertical angle
measurements.
 Lecture No. 1

FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING AND MAPPING

SOURCES OF ERRORS IN ANGLES AND DIRECTION

 Lecture No. 1

Sources of Error in Compass Work

• There are various sources of errors and
mistakes related to the use of a magnetic
compass. Some of these are the following:
1. Bent Needle 5. Electrically Charged
2. Bent Pivot Compass Box
3. Sluggish Needle 6. Local Attraction
4. Plane of Sight Not Vertical 7. Magnetic Variations
8. Errors in Reading The
Needle
 Lecture No. 1

Sources of Error in Compass Work

The following are some of the typical mistakes
committed in compass work:
a. Reading the wrong end of the magnetic needle.
b. Falling to observe the reverse bearings or azimuths
of lines in the traverse.
c. Not releasing the needle completely and not allowing
it to swing freely about the pivot.
d. Misreading the quadrant letters when taking a
bearing near the cardinal points of the compass.
 Lecture No. 1

Sources of Error in Compass Work

e. Bearing letters are not changed when using the reversed
bearing of a line.
f. Setting off the magnetic declination on the wrong side of the
north.
g. Failing to adjust the observed traverse angles before
calculating bearings or azimuths of traverse lines.
h. Mixing or interchanging the recording of azimuths from north
and south, magnetic and true bearings, clockwise and
counterclockwise angles, or forward and back bearings.
i. Selecting a line for referencing arbitrary directions which may
be difficult to locate later.
 Lecture No. 1

Some Mistakes Made in Using Azimuths and Bearings

1. Confusing magnetic and other reference bearings.
2. Mixing clockwise and counterclockwise angles.
3. Interchanging bearings for azimuths.
4. Listing bearings with angular values greater than .
5. Failing to include both directional letters when listing a bearing.
6. Failing to change bearing letters when using the back bearing of
a line.
7. Using an angle at the wrong end of a line in computing
bearings—that is, using angle A instead of angle B when starting
with line AB as a reference.
 Lecture No. 1

Some Mistakes Made in Using Azimuths and Bearings

8. Not including the last angle to recompute the starting bearing or
azimuth as a check—for example, angle A in traverse ABCDEA.
9. Subtracting as though it were instead of or using 90° instead of
180° in bearing computations.
10. Adopting an assumed reference line that is difficult to
reproduce.
11. Reading degrees and decimals from a calculator as though they
were degrees, minutes, and seconds.
12. Failing to adjust traverse angles before computing bearings or
azimuths if there is a misclosure.
 Lecture No. 1

References
▪ Ghilani, C.D., Wolf, P., 2012. Elementary Surveying: An Introduction to Geomatics (13th Edition), Pearson Education
Inc., USA. Available online at: https://dl.icdst.org/pdfs/files3/b2b03a2010d7cfca226e3115636ee421.pdf
▪ Google Images
▪ La Putt, J. P., 2007. Elementary Surveying, 3rd Edition, Baguio Research & Publishing Center, Baguio City, Philippines.
▪ Website Sources:
▪ https://byjus.com/maths/angle-definition/
▪ https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/location
▪ https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/direction
▪ Source: https://www.splashlearn.com/math-
vocabulary/geometry/angle#:~:text=An%20angle%20is%20formed%20when,%2C'%20meaning%20
%E2%80%9Ccorner.%E2%80%9D
 Lecture No. 1

Thank You!
Department of Geodetic Engineering
College of Engineering and Geosciences
Caraga State University, Ampayon, Butuan City