Modern Residential Construction Practices

Modern Residential Construction Practices provides easy-to-read, comprehensive and highly illustrated coverage of
residential building construction practices that conform to industry standards in the United States and Canada.
Each chapter provides complete descriptions, real-world practices, realistic examples, three-dimensional (3D) illustrations,
and related tests and problems. Chapters cover practices related to every construction phase including planning, funding,
permitting, codes, inspections, site planning, excavation, foundations and flatwork, floors, walls, roofs, finish work and
cabinetry; heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC); electrical, and plumbing. The book is organized in a format that
is consistent with the process used to take residential construction projects from preliminary concept through all phases
of residential building construction.
An ideal textbook for secondary and college level construction programs, the book is packed with useful features such
as problems that challenge students to identify materials and practices along with research and document information
about construction materials and practices, useful summaries, key notes, a detailed glossary, and online materials for both
students and educators.

David A. Madsen is the president of Madsen Designs Inc. He is also Faculty Emeritus of Drafting Technology and the
Autodesk Premier Training Center at Clackamas Community College in Oregon City, Oregon. David is a former member
of the American Design and Drafting Association (ADDA) Board of Directors, and was honored by the ADDA with Director
Emeritus status at the annual conference in 2005. David holds a Master of Education degree in Vocational Administration
and a Bachelor of Science degree in Industrial Education.

David P. Madsen is the president of Engineering Drafting & Design, Inc. and the vice president of Madsen Designs Inc.
He has provided drafting and computer-aided design and drafting instruction to secondary and postsecondary learners
since 1999, and has considerable curriculum, program coordination, and development experience. Dave holds a Master
of Science degree in Educational Policy, Foundations, and Administrative Studies with a specialization in Postsecondary,
Adult, and Continuing Education; a Bachelor of Science degree in Technology Education; and an Associate of Science
degree in General Studies and Drafting Technology.
Modern Residential Construction Practices

David A. Madsen and David P. Madsen

First published 2017
by Routledge
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Please advise the publisher of any errors or omissions and these will be
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explanation without intent to infringe.

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 Contents

Preface ix Small footprint home�������������������������������������������������������� 32

Learning Modern Residential Construction Practices xiii Solar energy design���������������������������������������������������������� 32
Instructor resources xv Living with solar energy systems������������������������������� 33
Authors xvii Codes and solar rights������������������������������������������������ 33
Acknowledgements xix Passive solar systems������������������������������������������������� 33
Active solar systems��������������������������������������������������� 35
1. Introduction to building codes and the Photovoltaic modules�������������������������������������������������� 36
preliminary construction process������������������������� 1 Solar thermal water heating���������������������������������������� 37
Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������ 1 Architectural features associated with solar systems������� 38
Introduction to building codes�������������������������������������������� 2 Air-lock entry��������������������������������������������������������������� 38
Creating the codes�������������������������������������������������������� 2 Roof overhang������������������������������������������������������������� 38
Introduction to the construction process���������������������������� 3 Clerestory windows���������������������������������������������������� 39
The building permit process������������������������������������������ 4 Skylights��������������������������������������������������������������������� 39
Public and private land use restrictions������������������������� 4 Light shelves��������������������������������������������������������������� 40
Creating or choosing plans�������������������������������������������� 5 Thermal storage walls������������������������������������������������� 40
The role of a general contractor (GC)���������������������������� 5 Roof ponds����������������������������������������������������������������� 41
Building your own home by being your own GC����������� 5 Earthen floors�������������������������������������������������������������� 41
Hiring a contractor�������������������������������������������������������� 5 Green roof������������������������������������������������������������������� 41
Seeking a construction loan������������������������������������������ 6 Solariums and sunrooms�������������������������������������������� 41
The building permit application������������������������������������� 6 Solar architectural concrete products�������������������������� 42
Mandatory inspection schedules���������������������������������17 Geothermal systems�������������������������������������������������������� 42
Voluntary inspections and tests�����������������������������������17 Wind energy��������������������������������������������������������������������� 43
Net-zero energy or net metering�������������������������������������� 44
2. Introduction to green building technology����������� 23 Hydroelectric power��������������������������������������������������������� 46
Introduction to green building technology������������������������ 24 Biopower�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 46
Green building technology supports a healthy Sustainable development and green building on
architectural environment������������������������������������������� 24 brownfield sites���������������������������������������������������������� 47
International Energy Conservation Code (IECC)��������������� 26
Energy-efficient construction alternatives and 3. Drawings and specifications����������������������������������� 49
programs��������������������������������������������������������������������� 26 Introduction���������������������������������������������������������������������� 49
The USGBC LEED program���������������������������������������� 27 Architectural drawing format�������������������������������������������� 50
The LEED for Homes program������������������������������������ 27 Sheet sizes������������������������������������������������������������������ 50
National Association of Home Builders Model Green Zoning������������������������������������������������������������������������� 51
Home Building Guidelines������������������������������������� 29 Reading architectural sheet blocks������������������������������ 51
Water efficiency and conservation������������������������������ 29 Site plan���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 52
National Green Building Standard������������������������������� 29 Legal descriptions������������������������������������������������������� 54
Energy Star����������������������������������������������������������������� 30 Floor plans������������������������������������������������������������������������ 58
Earth Advantage certification programs���������������������� 30 Elevations������������������������������������������������������������������������� 60
The EnviroHome Initiative, Canadian Home Builders’ Foundation plan���������������������������������������������������������������� 60
Association������������������������������������������������������������ 31 Framing plans������������������������������������������������������������������� 73
The Construction Product Sustainability Information Electrical plans������������������������������������������������������������������ 77
Reporting Guide���������������������������������������������������� 31 Sections and details��������������������������������������������������������� 80

v
Contents

Roof plan�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 82 Setting and pouring a pier foundation������������������������184

Interior elevations������������������������������������������������������������� 93 Under-slab electrical, HVAC, and plumbing����������������������184
Snow, wind, and seismic engineering������������������������������ 93
Schedules������������������������������������������������������������������������� 96 6. Floor framing materials and construction������������193
Specifications������������������������������������������������������������������� 99 Introduction���������������������������������������������������������������������193
Specifications for commercial construction���������������100 Wood floor framing materials������������������������������������������194
Introduction to universal design��������������������������������������102 Dimensional lumber���������������������������������������������������194
Engineered wood products����������������������������������������195
4. Construction site and excavation��������������������������103 Subflooring materials�������������������������������������������������195
Site orientation����������������������������������������������������������������103 Steel floor framing materials�������������������������������������������195
Terrain orientation������������������������������������������������������104 Floor framing systems�����������������������������������������������������197
View orientation���������������������������������������������������������104 Using hold-down anchors������������������������������������������199
Solar orientation���������������������������������������������������������105 Floor framing at partitions������������������������������������������201
Wind orientation��������������������������������������������������������������107 Framing floor openings��������������������������������������������� 203
Summer cooling winds����������������������������������������������109 Framing a cantilever�������������������������������������������������� 207
Sound orientation������������������������������������������������������������109 Bracing used in floor framing������������������������������������ 207
Topography���������������������������������������������������������������������� 112 Framing at bearing partitions and beams������������������ 207
Survey basics������������������������������������������������������������������� 112 Installing subflooring and underlayment�������������������� 211
Site survey����������������������������������������������������������������� 113 Platform and balloon framing�������������������������������������������218
Reading survey stakes����������������������������������������������� 115 Timber-frame construction���������������������������������������������� 220
Grading plan��������������������������������������������������������������������� 119 Timber-frame floor framing��������������������������������������� 221
Site grading����������������������������������������������������������������121
Corner staking, excavation layout, and footing 7. Wall framing materials and construction������������ 225
excavation������������������������������������������������������������������124 Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������� 225
Environmental protection������������������������������������������������126 Wall framing systems����������������������������������������������������� 226
Construction site storm water runoff control�������������������132 Platform and balloon framing������������������������������������ 226
Erosion control�����������������������������������������������������������133 Wood framing materials������������������������������������������������� 226
Sediment control�������������������������������������������������������136 Wall framing with dimensional lumber��������������������� 226
Wall framing with engineered wood products���������� 232
5. Foundation materials and construction��������������� 145 Wall sheathing and siding����������������������������������������� 233
Foundation systems��������������������������������������������������������146 Wall framing techniques������������������������������������������� 236
Concrete construction�����������������������������������������������������146 Framing corners�������������������������������������������������������������� 236
Poured-in-place concrete�������������������������������������������147 Framing intersecting partitions��������������������������������������� 238
Soil, excavating, and grading��������������������������������������148 Framing shear walls�������������������������������������������������������� 239
Steel reinforced concrete�������������������������������������������148 Energy-efficient wall framing methods��������������������������� 242
Welded wire reinforcement���������������������������������������149 Using rigid insulation sheathing�������������������������������� 242
Anchor bolts and hold-down anchors�������������������������151 Framing staggered studs and double-wall systems�� 245
Crawl space foundation���������������������������������������������������152 Structural insulated panels (SIP)������������������������������� 247
Staking and excavating the crawl space��������������������156 Steel wall framing materials and methods��������������������� 248
Crawl space foundation forms and pouring Steel wall framing materials�������������������������������������� 248
concrete���������������������������������������������������������������156 Steel wall framing methods�������������������������������������� 250
Concrete slab foundation�������������������������������������������������158 Masonry wall construction��������������������������������������������� 253
Staking and excavating for concrete slab Common masonry construction materials���������������� 254
construction���������������������������������������������������������162 Common masonry wall practices for residential
Concrete slab foundation forms and pouring construction�������������������������������������������������������� 258
concrete���������������������������������������������������������������163
Basement foundation������������������������������������������������������170 8. Roof framing materials and construction������������ 277
Concrete block construction��������������������������������������172 Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������� 277
Staking and excavating for basement foundation Roof styles���������������������������������������������������������������������� 277
construction���������������������������������������������������������172 Roof framing materials and terminology������������������������ 283
Basement foundation forms and pouring concrete���172 Framing a hip roof����������������������������������������������������� 290
Insulating concrete forms (ICF)���������������������������������������181 Framing the eave������������������������������������������������������ 290
Pier foundation����������������������������������������������������������������184 Framing a flat roof����������������������������������������������������� 296

vi
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Framing a dormer������������������������������������������������������ 297 Prepare the skylight curb�������������������������������������������376

Framing a roof opening����������������������������������������������301 Prepare the flashing and roofing������������������������������� 377
Framing a roof for a vaulted ceiling��������������������������� 303 Install the skylight����������������������������������������������������� 379
Framing with roof trusses����������������������������������������������� 305
Timber-frame roof construction�������������������������������������� 306 11. Stair construction�������������������������������������������������� 381
Light steel roof framing applications������������������������������ 308 Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������� 381
Light steel roof trusses����������������������������������������������314 Types of stairs���������������������������������������������������������������� 382
Roofing materials and installation������������������������������������314 Stair floor plan representations�������������������������������������� 382
Wood roofing�������������������������������������������������������������316 Basic stair characteristics����������������������������������������������� 385
Composition roofing��������������������������������������������������317 Stair framing������������������������������������������������������������� 387
Concrete and clay tile roofing����������������������������������� 321
Metal roofing������������������������������������������������������������ 323 12. Fireplace construction��������������������������������������������401
Roof vents���������������������������������������������������������������������� 326 Introduction���������������������������������������������������������������������401
Fireplace types and floor plan representations��������������� 405
9. Insulation and barriers������������������������������������������ 329 Manufactured fireplaces������������������������������������������� 405
Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������� 329 Direct-vent, self-venting, and vent-free gas
Insulation������������������������������������������������������������������������ 329 fireplaces������������������������������������������������������������� 408
Types of insulation���������������������������������������������������� 330 Electric fireplaces������������������������������������������������������ 409
House wrap and vapor barrier���������������������������������������� 333 Wood storage����������������������������������������������������������� 409
Vapor barrier installation�������������������������������������������� 334 Built-in masonry barbecue�����������������������������������������410
Radiant barriers��������������������������������������������������������������� 335 Masonry fireplace construction���������������������������������������410
Radiant barrier installation����������������������������������������� 335 Multilevel fireplaces���������������������������������������������������415
Caulking�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 336 Solid fuel–burning appliances������������������������������������������416
Floor protection����������������������������������������������������������416
10. Door and window specifications and Wall protection�����������������������������������������������������������418
installation���������������������������������������������������������� 341 Combustion air�����������������������������������������������������������418
Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������� 341
Door types and styles����������������������������������������������������� 342 13. Mechanical, plumbing, and electrical systems������� 421
Exterior doors����������������������������������������������������������� 342 Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������� 422
Interior doors������������������������������������������������������������ 345 Introduction to mechanical systems������������������������������� 422
Windows������������������������������������������������������������������������ 347 Central forced air systems���������������������������������������� 422
Window types and styles����������������������������������������������� 349 Hot water heating systems�������������������������������������������� 427
Sliding windows�������������������������������������������������������� 351 Heat pump systems������������������������������������������������������� 427
Casement windows�������������������������������������������������� 351 Ductless heat pump systems����������������������������������� 428
Double-hung windows���������������������������������������������� 351 Zone control systems����������������������������������������������������� 428
Awning windows������������������������������������������������������ 352 Radiant heat�������������������������������������������������������������������� 429
Jalousie windows����������������������������������������������������� 352 Thermostats������������������������������������������������������������������� 429
Fixed windows���������������������������������������������������������� 352 HVAC code requirements����������������������������������������������� 430
Bay windows������������������������������������������������������������ 353 Universal HVAC installations������������������������������������������� 430
Garden windows������������������������������������������������������� 353 Introduction to plumbing systems���������������������������������� 431
Skylights and sloped glazing������������������������������������� 353 Sizing of plumbing piping������������������������������������������������ 432
Insulated windows���������������������������������������������������� 355 Water systems��������������������������������������������������������������� 433
Door and window schedules������������������������������������������ 358 Water heaters����������������������������������������������������������� 434
Schedule key������������������������������������������������������������� 358 Hose bibbs���������������������������������������������������������������� 436
Pre-hung doors��������������������������������������������������������������� 359 Drainage and vent systems�������������������������������������������� 436
Specifying door swing���������������������������������������������� 360 Plumbing placement������������������������������������������������������� 437
Slab doors����������������������������������������������������������������������� 362 Plumbing schedules������������������������������������������������������� 438
Door installation�������������������������������������������������������������� 362 Fire sprinkler systems���������������������������������������������������� 438
Steps for hanging a pre-hung door���������������������������� 362 Sewage disposal������������������������������������������������������������� 439
Steps for installing a pocket door������������������������������ 369 Public sewers������������������������������������������������������������ 439
Window installation�������������������������������������������������������� 372 Septic system����������������������������������������������������������� 439
Installing a window��������������������������������������������������� 373 Cesspool system������������������������������������������������������ 440
Skylight installation����������������������������������������������������������376 Residential storm drains������������������������������������������� 440

vii
Contents

Metric values in plumbing���������������������������������������������� 441 Kitchen, bath, and laundry room design basics���������������476
Universal plumbing installations������������������������������������� 443 Appliances and fixtures���������������������������������������������������476
Introduction to electrical systems���������������������������������� 443 Reading cabinet elevations����������������������������������������������476
Temporary����������������������������������������������������������������� 443 Keying cabinet elevations to floor plans���������������������476
Rough-in�������������������������������������������������������������������� 444 Surface finishes�������������������������������������������������������������� 479
Finish electrical��������������������������������������������������������� 446
Reading electrical symbols��������������������������������������������� 446 Appendices
Basic electrical installation recommendations���������������� 446 Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access the
Smoke detectors������������������������������������������������������� 446 following appendices:
Carbon monoxide alarms������������������������������������������ 448 Appendix A: General code requirements for
Universal electrical installations�������������������������������������� 448 common heating and cooling equipment
Home automation����������������������������������������������������������� 448 and duct systems
Entertainment centers���������������������������������������������� 450 Appendix B: Basic electrical installation
Computerized programming������������������������������������� 450 recommendations
Security systems������������������������������������������������������ 450 Appendix C: Kitchen, bath, and laundry
Radio frequency systems����������������������������������������� 450 room design basics
Structured wiring������������������������������������������������������ 450 Appendix D: US Department of Agriculture,
Electrical schedules�������������������������������������������������������� 451 US Department of Housing and Urban
Residential wind power electricity generation���������������� 451 Development – Federal Housing
Photovoltaic modules����������������������������������������������������� 451 Administration, US Department of
Metric values in electrical installations��������������������������� 452 Veterans Affairs: Description of Materials
Appendix E: Universal design applications
14. Indoor air quality and safety��������������������������������� 455
Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������� 455 Glossary�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 481
Sources of pollutants������������������������������������������������������ 455 Index��������������������������������������������������������������������������������515
Heat recovery and ventilation����������������������������������������� 456
Exhaust systems������������������������������������������������������������ 458
Cleaning the air��������������������������������������������������������������� 459
Ventilation and air filtration���������������������������������������� 459
Electrostatic air filters����������������������������������������������� 459
Ultraviolet light systems������������������������������������������� 460
Controlling dust��������������������������������������������������������� 460
Mold prevention�������������������������������������������������������� 460
Sealing the home from the garage��������������������������������� 461
Mechanical systems and the garage������������������������� 461
Detached garages����������������������������������������������������� 461
Central vacuum systems������������������������������������������������ 461

15. Finish work and materials������������������������������������� 463

Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������� 463
Drywall installation and finish����������������������������������������� 464
Types of millwork������������������������������������������������������������ 467
Baseboards��������������������������������������������������������������� 468
Wainscots����������������������������������������������������������������� 468
Chair rail�������������������������������������������������������������������� 469
Cornice���������������������������������������������������������������������� 470
Casing����������������������������������������������������������������������� 471
Mantels��������������������������������������������������������������������� 471
Bookshelves�������������������������������������������������������������� 471
Handrails and guardrails�������������������������������������������� 473
Cabinets�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 473
Cabinet types������������������������������������������������������������� 474
Cabinet options����������������������������������������������������������476

viii
 Preface

This textbook provides easy-to-read, comprehensive and

portion is built to code. The inspector may be
highly illustrated coverage of residential building construction
satisfied by asking specific questions, or may
practices that conform to industry standards. Each chapter
require a portion of the construction be exposed
provides comprehensive descriptions, real-world practices,
for observation. Regardless, the inspector needs
realistic examples, three-dimensional (3D) illustrations,
to be confident that the construction is completed
and related tests and problems. The examples illustrate
to code.
typical construction practices used throughout the United
States and Canada. Chapters are organized in a format
that is consistent with the process used to take residential
construction projects from preliminary concept through all
phases of residential building construction. PowerPoint presentation assignments
The following describes several special features found in The PowerPoint feature is found throughout the
this textbook: textbook in locations where it is appropriate for
students to create their own PowerPoint slides
directly related to the textbook content and
Special note box feature examples. Specific instructions are given for
A special note box feature is used where appropriate students to create each PowerPoint presentation. The
to provide reference to other chapters, additional following is an example of the instructions given for
explanation, helpful tips, professional information, students to create a specific PowerPoint slide:
or alternate practice. The following is an example of Create one PowerPoint slide showing how tail joists
information found in a note box feature: are used to tie the outside wall to the adjacent joists
Codes are constantly changing. Typically, a new when the main joists run perpendicular to the rafters.
ICC code version is adopted every three years, and
minor code changes are adopted between code
versions. Additionally, local jurisdictions modify
building codes periodically to provide for local Chapter research
practices and regulations.
The content found in each chapter is followed by a
research feature that provides you with an opportunity
to do research on chapter-related topics. For example,
Question and answer (Q&A) feature you are asked to use the Internet to research the topics
A special Question and Answer (Q&A) feature is and seek the following desired results:
provided in early chapters providing common Concrete construction: Describe how steel
questions asked of local building officials, and reinforcing is used to increase the ability of
answers that can be given, for example: concrete to withstand tensile stress.
Q: What if I accidently miss a required inspection? Concrete construction: Describe rebar and
A: Call the building official as soon as you realize the demonstrate how rebar is specified on plans.
mistake and explain the situation. The inspector Concrete construction: Describe welded wire
will probably evaluate the construction project reinforcing and demonstrate how welded wire
in an effort to determine if the missed inspection reinforcing is specified on plans.

ix
Preface

Concrete construction: Describe anchor bolts and assignments and members are determined by your
demonstrate how anchor bolts are specified on instructor.
plans.
Model home framing construction
Concrete construction: Describe hold-down anchor
systems and demonstrate how hold-downs are Scale model home framing kits are available for the
specified on plans. purpose of learning framing for a home according to
building codes. These kits provide on-the-job training
Shear wall: Describe the function of shear walls and
in the classroom similar to constructing an actual
how they are constructed.
home. Scales are 3/4″ = 1′-0″ and 1″ = 1′-0″.
Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
Kits include complete plans, instructions, and
research options and topics that correlate with
materials for the homes being built. Model home
the content of each chapter.
construction problems are correlated with chapters
in this textbook, allowing your team to complete
the entire project while learning modern residential
Chapter tests construction practices using conventional framing or
Comprehensive tests are provided that correlate timber framing practices.
with each chapter, and can be used for examination Home Framing Kit 301. This is a scale framing
or review. The tests ask for short answers or other model of a two-bedroom one-story home shown
activities to confirm your understanding of chapter in Figure 0.1. This kit provides conventional
content. Answering test questions using your construction from the foundation to the roof.
textbook as a resource is an excellent way to review
Two-story Townhouse Kit. This is a scale framing
what you have learned in each chapter.
model of a two-story home shown in Figure 0.2.
Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access This kit provides conventional construction from
the test for each chapter. the foundation to the roof for students in building
construction programs with an emphasis on
two-story framing including stairs.
Chapter problems A-Frame Cabin Kit 101. This is a scale framing model
Each chapter ends with numerous real-world of an A-frame cabin shown in Figure 0.3. This kit
construction-related problems for you to practice allows your team to construct a complete home
what you have learned. using timber-framing concepts.
The model home framing kits previously described
Team problems can be purchased from these sources:
Team problems are provided that can be used as Pitsco Education
projects that help foster leadership and cooperation
Midwest Technology Products
between team members to solve or construct a
specific residential building phase. Construction Home construction
teams are established with any desired number
Many school and apprenticeship building
of members based on the project and curriculum
construction programs provide students with the
goals. Teams can select a foreman by voting in a
opportunity to build actual homes on property near
democratic process, by selecting the person with
the school and sold when finished, or on the school
the highest course evaluation, or as determined by
grounds and then moved to another location after
the instructor. A foreman is the person in charge
completion and sale. The income from the sale of
of a construction crew or team in this situation.
these homes can help fund the building construction
Use of the title of foreman today is intended
to be gender non-specific. The foreman can be program. The complete sets of residential working
responsible for reading prints and providing drawings, described later, can be used for home
answers and instructions to the construction construction, or homes are commonly built from the
workers in cooperation with the instructor. Other plans designed by the architectural drafting students
team members can include a materials handler and at the school.
inventory controller, a material processor and cutter, Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
and one or more carpenters or framers. Final team the problems for each chapter.

x
Figure 0.1  Home Framing Kit 301. Courtesy Pitsco Education.

Figure 0.2  Two-Story Townhouse Framing. Courtesy Pitsco Education.

Preface

Complete sets of residential

working drawings
As you use this textbook to study residential construction,
you will discover the importance of being able to read
actual architectural drawings that are used to build homes.
Several complete sets of residential drawings are provided
on the companion website for you to see and correlate
with textbook content. You can also use these sets of plans
to continue expanding your ability to read and interpret
construction information after you secure employment in
building construction. The following sets of plans are found
on the companion website:
 Small footprint or fit home
 One-story slab construction
 One-story post and beam construction
 Small two-story home
 Two-story with multiple foundations
 Two-story with daylight basement
 Two-story with full basement
Figure 0.3  A-Frame Cabin Kit 101. Courtesy Pitsco  Complex home with framing plans.
Education.
Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access the
complete sets of plans provided with this textbook.

Image bank
All figures found in this textbook are provided in an
image bank where you can access the images on your
computer screen for viewing as desired. Here you can
zoom in on specific details that can be small on the
textbook page.
Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access the
images for each chapter.

Glossary
The most comprehensive residential construction glossary
available anywhere is located in this textbook. Glossary
terms are bold in chapter content, where they are defined
immediately and also placed in the glossary for additional
alphabetical reference. Each term is clearly defined using
descriptions that are related to construction industry
practices.

Appendices
The appendices found on the companion website
contain supplemental information used for projects in the
construction environment.
Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access the
appendices for this textbook.

xii
 Learning Modern Residential
Construction Practices

Modern Residential Construction Practices is designed for in this textbook, but after hands-on use of the concepts
you. Chapters are presented in individual learning segments and field experience, construction applications should
that begin with basic concepts and build until each chapter become second nature.
provides complete coverage of each topic. The content 4. Learn each concept and skill before you continue to
of each chapter is divided into logical learning segments, the next. The text is presented in a logical learning
providing you with an opportunity to see two-dimensional sequence. Each chapter is designed for learning
and three-dimensional illustrations of construction development, and chapters are sequenced for your
applications and practices. Content is based on residential construction knowledge to grow from one chapter to
building construction practices and standards, and trends the next. Chapter tests and problem assignments are
in the residential construction industry. Use the text as a presented in the same learning sequence as the chapter
learning tool while in school, and take it along as a desk content.
reference when you enter the profession. The amount of
5. Practice. Development of good construction skills
written information is comprehensive but kept as concise as
depends to a large extent on experience and practice.
possible. Examples and illustrations are used extensively. The
It can take several months of training and experience
following are a few helpful hints to use as you learn modern
to become proficient with construction practices. You
residential construction practices using this textbook: should take building construction and woodworking
1. Read the text. The text content is designed for easy courses at your school and continue with on-the-
reading. Descriptions, practices, and applications are job training with a residential contractor or in an
given in as few easy-to-understand words as possible. apprenticeship program.
Do not pass up the reading, because the content helps 6. Read actual residential plans. Reading as many actual
you to understand construction concepts and how to residential plans as possible gives you a chance to
build every aspect of a new home. organize thoughts about how the home is built in
2. Look carefully at the examples. The figure examples are relationship to what you learn in school and on the job.
presented in a manner that is consistent with modern Your ability to effectively read residential plans can
residential construction practices. Look at the examples help you to communicate when building a home in the
carefully in an attempt to understand the intent of construction industry.
specific applications. If you are able to understand why 7. Attend building construction or related schooling.
something is done a certain way, it is easier for you to Find education courses in building construction or
apply the concepts to construction applications in school woodworking at your high school, trade school,
and on the job. community college, or apprenticeship program. Most
3. Use the text as a reference. Construction practices can construction technology programs in schools have
be complex and varied, so always be ready to use the quality professional training, equipment and practices
reference if you need to verify how a specific application used on actual construction projects. Compare
is handled. Become familiar with the definitions and use programs and evaluate the equipment, facilities, and
of technical terms. It is difficult to memorize everything projects when selecting a school for your education.

xiii
 Instructor resources

The Instructor’s Manual can be found on the companion Complete sets of residential working
website, www.routledge.com/cw/madsen. It contains the drawings
following features to help you develop and teach residential
The complete sets of residential working drawings
building construction courses.
previously described and found on the companion website
can be used for the construction of a home in your building
Chapter test answers construction program, for you to develop your own print
reading assignments for students, or for you to encourage
The Instructor’s Manual has each chapter test provided
students to read and interpret actual residential plans.
with the questions repeated and the answer to each
question given.

Chapter problem solutions

The Instructor’s Manual provides written or graphic
solutions to end-of-chapter problems.

xv
 Authors

ENGINEERING DRAFTING & DESIGN, INC.

MADSEN DESIGNS INC. Drafting, design, and training for all disciplines.
Integrity - Quality - Style

David A. Madsen is the president of Madsen Designs Inc. David P. Madsen is the president of Engineering
(www.madsendesigns.com). David is Faculty Emeritus Drafting & Design, Inc. and the vice president of Madsen
of Drafting Technology and the Autodesk Premier Training Designs Inc. (www.madsendesigns.com). Dave provides
Center at Clackamas Community College in Oregon drafting and design consultation and training for all
City, Oregon. David was an instructor and department disciplines. Dave has been a professional design drafter
Chairperson at Clackamas Community College for since 1996, and has extensive experience in a variety
nearly 30 years. In addition to community college of drafting, design, and engineering disciplines. Dave
experience, David was a Drafting Technology instructor has provided drafting and computer-aided design and
at Centennial High School in Gresham, Oregon. David is drafting instruction to secondary and postsecondary
a former member of the American Design and Drafting learners since 1999, and has considerable curriculum,
Association (ADDA) Board of Directors, and was honored program coordination, and development experience.
by the ADDA with Director Emeritus status at the annual Dave holds a Master of Science degree in Educational
conference in 2005. David has extensive experience in Policy, Foundations, and Administrative Studies with a
mechanical drafting, architectural design and drafting, specialization in Postsecondary, Adult, and Continuing
and building construction as an architectural designer Education; a Bachelor of Science degree in Technology
and residential general contractor in Oregon for over Education; and an Associate of Science degree in General
25 years. David holds a Master of Education degree in Studies and Drafting Technology. Dave is the author of
Vocational Administration and a Bachelor of Science Goodheart-Willcox’s Inventor and its Applications; author
degree in Industrial Education. David is the coauthor of of Pearson Education’s Autodesk Inventor Basics Through
Delmar Cengage Learning’s Architectural Drafting and Advanced; coauthor of Delmar Cengage Learning’s
Design, Engineering Drawing and Design, Print Reading Architectural Drafting and Design, Engineering Drawing and
for Architecture and Construction Technology, and Print Design, Print Reading for Architecture and Construction
Reading for Engineering and Manufacturing Technology; Technology, and Print Reading for Engineering and
Goodheart-Willcox’s Architectural AutoCAD, Architectural Manufacturing Technology; coauthor of Goodheart-Willcox’s
Desktop and its Applications, Architectural Drafting Architectural Drafting Using AutoCAD, AutoCAD and Its
Using AutoCAD, AutoCAD and Its Applications: Basics, Applications: Basics and Comprehensive, and Geometric
Advanced, and Comprehensive, AutoCAD Architecture Dimensioning and Tolerancing; and coauthor of Pearson
and Its Applications, AutoCAD Essentials, and Geometric Education’s Civil Drafting Technology.
Dimensioning and Tolerancing; and Pearson Education’s
Civil Drafting Technology.

xvii
 Acknowledgements

Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc. design process that flows naturally and allows the designer
(www.mascord.com) to complete the design process quickly and efficiently.
Chief Architect includes design tools for photorealistic
Special thanks to Jon Epley, Office Manager, and Gary
Renderings, Artistic Renderings and Virtual Tours to help
Higginbotham, Marketing Director and Software Engineer,
clients visualize designs. Visit the Chief Architect website
for their continued contribution and involvement in providing
to download a free trial version of Chief Architect Software
quality content and plans for this textbook and our other
at www.chiefarchitect.com/freetrial.
architecture-related textbooks. For more than 20 years,
a deep-rooted commitment to architectural excellence
has made Alan Mascord a trusted name among builders, Pitsco Education (www.pitsco.com)
consumers, and competitors. To date, well over 50,000
Special thanks to Alan Kirby, Inside Sales Representative,
Mascord homes have been built across the United States,
for providing model home building kits for inspection
Canada, and in most developed countries around the world.
and testing, along with content and images. Pitsco’s
Alan Mascord Design Associates provides more than unwavering focus on innovative educational solutions
600 stock home plans in a wide range of architectural and unparalleled customer service began when the
styles, from single-family homes to multi-family dwellings, company was founded in 1971 by three teachers. Using
including detached garage plans. An active custom product flyers promoting just a handful of kits and related
design business serves clients with specific and unique curriculum in the beginning, Pitsco expanded rapidly
requirements, and Efficient Living Services provides from a humble dream to a multifaceted corporation with
builders with tools and resources for building green. thousands of products, more than 200 employees, and a
simple vision: To lead educational change that positively
Chief Architect Software affects learners. As an industry leader and innovator,
(www.chiefarchitect.com) wherever education goes in the future – Common Core, in
the cloud, blended instruction – Pitsco will be there with
Special thanks are given to Derek Pedersen, the Sales proven, effective solutions that help students and teachers
Manager of Chief Architect Software. Mr. Pedersen has an succeed! Pitsco Education – One Powerful Mission. One
AKBD and a background in real estate sales, development, Proven Resource.
and construction. Derek provided residential drawings and
Special thanks to the following professionals and
images.
companies for their extra support in providing content and
Chief Architect was created in 1992 for the professional images for this textbook:
home design software market and was the first
object-based 3D CAD system with smart object design
principles; known as building information modeling (BIM). BuildBlock Building Systems, LLC
Chief Architect is the market-leading home design software (www.buildblock.com)
product for residential design. Brian Corder, Director of Marketing.
Chief Architect Software is professional 3D architectural
design software for architects, builders, remodelers,
CrystaLite, Inc.
kitchen and bath designers, and interior designers. The
(www.CrystaLiteInc.com)
software is specifically designed for residential and light
commercial projects. The software’s powerful building, John Westerfield, Marketing, Web Development and Code
drafting, construction document, and 3D tools provide a Compliance Officer.

xix
Acknowledgements

SRG Partnership, Inc.

(www.srgpartnership.com)
Bryan Higgins, AIA, Senior Associate.
Special thanks to all industry professionals who
provided images that correlate with content throughout
this textbook. A credit is provided with each image
acknowledging the contribution.

xx
 CHAPTER 1
Introduction to building
codes and the preliminary
construction process
Learning objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
 Explain the basic fundamentals and terminology of residential building codes.
 Discuss the responsibilities of a licensed Registered Architect (RA), Professional Engineer (PE), and General
Contractor (GC).
 Describe the process for obtaining a building permit.
 Explain zoning.
 Discuss private restrictions including deed restrictions; and covenants, conditions, and restrictions (CC&Rs).
 Describe the different ways to create home plans.
 Discuss the option of being a homeowner general contractor.
 Explain the responsibilities and licensing requirements of a general contractor and subcontractors.
 Define construction loan and describe the construction loan process.
 Find a description of materials form and start filling out the basic introductory information.
 Identify a typical cost estimate format for residential construction.
 Give an example of a typical inspection schedule for residential construction.
 Identify voluntary inspections and tests that can be performed on a residential construction project.
 Create PowerPoint presentations related to building codes and preliminary construction processes.
 Answer questions related to building codes and preliminary construction processes.

INTRODUCTION
NOTE
This chapter covers the wide range of activities involved
before actual building construction can start. An important Modern Residential Construction Practices
part of building a new home or home remodeling project provides easy-to-read, comprehensive and
is knowledge of building codes. Building codes are highly illustrated coverage of residential building
required laws that are intended to protect public safety by construction practices that conform to industry
establishing minimum design and construction standards. standards. Each chapter provides comprehensive
There is also a variety of administrative activities that take descriptions, real-world practices, realistic
place prior to and during the construction process that are examples, three-dimensional (3D) illustrations, and
important for you to learn.

1
Introduction to building codes

related tests and problems. The examples illustrate NOTE

typical construction practices used throughout
the United States and Canada. Chapter 1 has Building regulations in the United States have
content that covers information that you can learn historically been based on the codes developed
about building codes, along with preliminary and by three regional code development groups.
construction-related administrative activities used The Building Officials Code Administration
in residential building construction. This chapter is (BOCA) developed codes for the east coast, the
highly text concentrated with few figures needed International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO)
to support the content. For this reason, instructors developed codes for the west, and the Southern
and students who want their learning sequence Building Code Congress (SBCC) developed codes
to cover every aspect of building construction for the south. Understanding the need for a
should start by studying Chapter 1 and then coordinated set of model building codes, the three
move on to the following chapters. Instructors regulatory bodies formed the International Code
and students who want to move quickly to Council (ICC) in 1994.
building construction-related content can skip
Chapter 1 and go directly to Chapter 2. It is still
recommended that you return to Chapter 1 and The components of the ICC code series include the following:
review or carefully study the important content at  International Building Code
a later time.  International Residential Code for One- and Two-Family
Dwellings
 International Mechanical Code
 International Plumbing Code
 International Fire Code
INTRODUCTION TO BUILDING CODES
 International Fuel Gas Code
Building codes are required laws that are intended  International Energy Conservation Code
to protect public safety by establishing minimum  International Existing Building Code
design and construction standards. Residential building  International Wildland-Urban Interface Code
codes apply to single and multifamily housing and  ICC Performance Code for Buildings and Facilities
home remodeling projects and protect the public in  International Property Maintenance Code
the areas of fire and life safety. Construction elements  International Zoning Code
governed by building codes include structural, fire,  International Private Sewage Disposal Code
energy, mechanical, plumbing, electrical, ventilation, and  International Green Construction Code
accessibility. Building codes used in the United States  International Swimming Pool and Spa Code
are generally those developed by the International Code
Council (ICC), but the adopted building codes can vary by Creating the codes
state, county, city, borough, or town. Some states have
The ICC develops construction and public safety codes
their own set of building codes that are based on the
through a governmental consensus process that
ICC with changes that contain local laws and regulations,
results in general agreement among the participants.
while most states have adopted the standard ICC series
The governmental consensus process leaves the final
of codes. Contact your local building department before
determination of code provisions in the hands of public
starting a design or construction project to determine
safety officials who can legally represent the public interest
which codes are used and how they affect your project.
with no vested financial interest.
Begin this research by calling the local government body
that has jurisdiction over the property where you plan
to build. The local official can provide you with specific
information about which building codes are currently
Q&A
used in your area, and any changes that have been
Codes change constantly. Typically, a new ICC code
adopted by the local jurisdiction. The term jurisdiction
version is adopted every three years, and minor
refers to the city, county, or state location where the
code changes are adopted between code versions.
official authority exists to make legal decisions and
Additionally, local jurisdictions modify building
judgments. You may also be required to follow state or
codes periodically to provide for local practices and
federal guidelines based on specific project conditions
regulations.
such as environmental issues.

2
 Introduction to building codes

engineer who is registered or licensed within a specific

1
Q: Is it possible to design a house that would meet
state or states where they pass rigorous qualifications
all ICC code series requirements everywhere in
needed to offer professional services directly to the
the U.S.?
public. A PE is generally licensed in one or more specific
A: Codes deal with a number of design and disciplines, such as a structural engineer who performs the
construction issues that are dependent on engineering on the building structure, or civil engineer who
geographical climatic factors. For example, a does earth-related engineering. When the local jurisdiction
design might need to withstand heavy snow does not require an RA or PE to design and submit the
loads in one location, or tropical winds in another entire set of plans, you should be sure to select a building
location. Energy needs make heating the main designer with extensive building code knowledge, a history
challenge in some locations and cooling in of successful projects, and possibly even certification
others. Also, the use of many building materials through the American Institute of Building Design (AIBD).
vary by region. For example, Southern Pine is Many jurisdictions require wind and seismic calculations to
an excellent and readily available material in the be performed and stamped by an RA or PE, even though
east, and Douglas fir is a common construction full stamped drawings are not required for the design.
component in the west. While it is theoretically When pre-manufactured products, such as floor and roof
possible to design a house to withstand the systems, are used in the design, structural engineering
earthquakes of southern California, the snow associated with the products is generally provided by
drifts of Vermont, the hurricanes of Florida, the manufacturer to submit with the plans for building
the tornadoes of Kansas, meet the heating department approval. The term pre-manufactured, also called
requirements of North Dakota and cooling prefabricated, refers to products that are built away from
requirements of Texas, and be made of a material the job site by a manufacturing company and delivered to
that can be shipped anywhere it is needed, the the construction project for assembly into the building.
resulting house would be extremely expensive
Review the definition of building codes, which are
and needlessly over-designed.
required laws that are intended to protect public safety by
establishing minimum design and construction standards.
POWERPOINT Notice the building codes definition specifies minimum
design and construction standards. Minimum standards are
Create two PowerPoint slides containing a building not adequate in some architectural design applications. For
codes definition, identification of the ICC, and a list example, a designer might use the minimum requirement
of at least five international codes that you feel are for sizing floor joists with the result being a floor that is
related to residential construction. not solid and can feel bouncy. Floor joists are structural
members that are normally made from wood or other
products used between supports such as foundation walls,
NOTE frame walls, or other construction members to construct
the floor system. For this reason, it is also important for
Building codes are comprehensive and detailed, and
the home designer to have construction knowledge that
local codes can vary from the international codes.
influences the use of construction members that exceed
A complete examination of codes is beyond the
minimum standards when necessary.
scope of this textbook. You should consider studying
local and national building codes, or taking codes
courses that may be offered at your local trade POWERPOINT
schools, community colleges, or local jurisdictions.
Create a PowerPoint slide describing plans and the
Many jurisdictions require parts of, or the entire set of, responsibility of a State licensed Registered Architect
building plans prepared and submitted by a State licensed (RA), or Professional Engineer (PE).
Registered Architect (RA), or Professional Engineer
(PE). The term plans refers to the complete set of
INTRODUCTION TO THE CONSTRUCTION
drawings needed to build a home. The elements of a set
PROCESS
of plans are described in detail in Chapter 3, Drawings and
Specifications. An RA is a person trained in the planning, The following outlines typical steps for creating plans,
design, and oversight of the construction of buildings, and finding a building contractor, securing a construction
is licensed to practice architecture in a specific state or loan, applying for a building permit, requesting required
states where they pass rigorous qualifications. A PE is an inspections, and gaining occupancy of a new home.

3
Introduction to building codes

The building permit process also regulate specific uses such as building height and
lot coverage. Traditionally, if an area is zoned residential,
The process for obtaining a building permit is similar then no commercial uses, such as a grocery store, are
for most city and county locations. A building permit is allowed in the area. Recently, planned use development
permission granted by a jurisdiction to build a specific or planned unit development (PUD) has been used
structure based on approved plans and specifications. in zoning. A PUD allows zoning with mixed uses such
A building permit is required in most jurisdictions for new as single- and multi- family homes, parks, offices, small
construction, adding on to existing structures, and in some businesses, restaurants, and grocery stores. This allows
cases for alterations and major renovations. New construction people to work and have activities without traveling out of
is normally inspected during the building process and after the immediate area.
completion to ensure compliance with building codes. Failure
Private restrictions include deed restrictions and
to get a building permit can result in penalties, or demolition
covenants, conditions and restrictions (CC&Rs). Deed
if building code requirements are not met. A jurisdiction can
restrictions are placed in a deed and provide specific
require a building be demolished even if the construction
controls on the use of the property. Deed restrictions
does meet codes, but a building permit was not approved.
go with the deed and cannot be easily removed by new
You first need to determine the governing agency in the area owners. For example, a specific deed restriction might
where the project is located, such as in the city limits or state that trees cannot be removed from the property.
outside city limits in a county jurisdiction. Many jurisdictions A deed is a written document used to transfer land or
require building plans be prepared and submitted by a other real property from one person to another. Covenants,
state licensed Registered Architect (RA) or Professional conditions and restrictions (CC&Rs) are limitations and
Engineer (PE), as previously described. Most building rules placed on a group of homes by a builder, developer,
permit applications require the submission of plans along neighborhood association, homeowner association, or
with forms and fees. The plans and forms are usually a combination of these entities. Many neighborhoods
submitted to the building department by the RA, PE, or and most planned unit developments, condominium
General Contractor (GC) on behalf of the owner, but can be complexes, and townhomes have CC&Rs. CC&Rs can
submitted by the owner when acceptable by the jurisdiction. include controls over architectural style, home square
Most jurisdictions have plan examiners who review the footage minimums, landscaping requirements, automobile
plans, request changes where necessary, or ask for parking restrictions, and the use of green space. A green
additional information as needed before providing approval. space is an open space area that can be used for a park,
In some jurisdictions, plans can be professionally certified a playing field, or a natural area with or without walking
as conforming to local requirements by the licensed trails. The green space can be well landscaped or totally
professionals who create the plans. This can eliminate natural, and can be available for use only by the adjoining
the process of plan examination by the local building landowners or open to the public.
department’s examiners, and can save time. Applications The neighborhood association or homeowner association
that are professionally certified by a PE or RA are routinely is generally controlled by a board of directors, who are
audited to ensure they are in compliance with related laws. elected residents of the community. These people are
responsible for administering and revising the CC&Rs. There
are normally subcommittees that help regulate and enforce
POWERPOINT specific aspects of the CC&Rs. For example, an architectural
review committee is normally responsible for reviewing
Create a PowerPoint slide defining building permit
and approving the plans for new homes to be built in the
and a chart showing who submits plans for a
neighborhood. Property owners generally pay a monthly
building permit, plan review, and issuing a building
maintenance fee to the homeowner’s association (HOA)
permit.
to pay for the maintenance of common areas. Common
areas are not part of individual private properties and are
used by all property owners. Common areas can include
Public and private land use restrictions roads, curbs, public utilities, neighborhood landscaping, and
Zoning is a system of land use planning and public green spaces.
restrictions applied by local governments. The term comes It is important for you to be familiar with the zoning,
from the practice of separating one type of land use deed restrictions, and CC&Rs related to the property that
from another into mapped zones. Zoning typically divides you own, plan to buy, or where you plan to build. These
land uses into groups such as residential, commercial, conditions can have a major influence on the ideas you
industrial, farming, forests, and wet lands. Zoning can have for the property. You need to comply with these

4
 Introduction to building codes

conditions while having a home designed for the property

1
and in conjunction with local jurisdiction regulations and
POWERPOINT
permit requirements.
Create one PowerPoint slide demonstrating a custom
and spec home, and the options for securing plans.

POWERPOINT
The role of a general contractor (GC)
Create two or three PowerPoint slides defining
zoning, deed restrictions, and CC&Rs. Create a small A general contractor oversees the construction process
drawing showing and labeling the parts of a planned from permit acquisition to construction completion and
unit development, including residential area, a store final inspection. The general contractor is responsible for
and shop, a restaurant, a gas station, roads, and the day-to-day oversight of a building site, management
green space. of vendors, trades and logistics, and communication
of information to all involved parties throughout the
construction process.
Creating or choosing plans
There are many ways to create plans to build a new home. Building your own home by being
Plans can be initiated by individuals who want to have a new your own GC
custom home built, by a contractor who wants to build a Most people choose a professional, experienced GC to
spec home, or can be pre-designed by a stock house plan oversee the construction of a new home. Some individuals
company. A custom home is a home designed specifically for decide to take on the role and responsibilities themselves,
a client who wants to have a new home built. A spec home potentially saving the cost of hiring a GC, which can be
is a home designed for a contractor to build and offer for sale. as much as 25% of the construction cost. However, the
The term spec refers to speculation, where the contractor is decision should not be taken lightly as the role of a GC is
building the home based on the assumption that it will sell important, and can drastically affect the outcome of the
for a profit. Much like a spec home, a stock house plan has construction project. A professional GC also comes with
been designed in advance to meet building codes, and made practical experience, connections to sub-contractors, and
available for sale by a professional home designer. It is initially vendor discounts that could be highly valuable.
important to consult with the building department of the local
Construction liaison or concierge services are available,
jurisdiction to determine building plan requirements.
which can provide some benefits to those being their own
As previously mentioned, many jurisdictions require building GC. Several places offer services that match homeowners
plans be prepared and submitted by a state licensed PE or with sub-contractors as a service. You can find these local
RA, while others do not have this requirement. Individuals or national services by searching the Internet using terms
can hire a registered architect or professional home such as construction liaison or concierge services, find a
designer to design and draw plans to fit specific desires sub-contractor, or list of sub-contractors.
and style. A professional home designer is not a registered
architect, but can design homes for construction in many
Hiring a contractor
jurisdictions. Professional home designers usually work with
a PE who performs the required engineering and stamps Most states require a building contractor to have a
the plans with a PE certification. Standard plan books and license, performance bond, and insurance. The licensing
many websites are also available where individuals can find requirements are similar but specific to each state.
plans that meet their needs and buy the plans as-is or have A performance bond is issued by an insurance company or a
them modified by the designer or architect selling the plans. bank to guarantee satisfactory completion of a project by a
Regardless of who creates the plans, the wind and seismic contractor. Insurance coverage for construction is specifically
engineering drawings typically have to be stamped by an for general contractors and subcontractors, and includes
RA or PE for certification. This stamp is commonly found in coverage for general liability, physical loss damage to owned
the lower right or upper right corner of each sheet where property, and business interruption, including loss of income.
the engineering drawings are found. Some jurisdictions The general contractor is the person or business who
allow the prospective home owner or contractor to apply contracts for the construction of an entire building or project,
for the building permit, while others require the RA or PE rather than just a portion of the work. A subcontractor is
to apply for the building permit. Chapter 3, Drawings and a person or business who carries out work for a general
Specifications, describes and shows the elements found in a contractor as part of a complete project. There can be a
complete set of plans. number of subcontractors on a project, including electrical;

5
Introduction to building codes

heating, ventilating, and air conditioning; plumbing, framing, are the same as or modeled after the Description of
concrete work, and roofing, just to name a few. The general Materials used by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S.
contractor is responsible to make sure the subcontractors Department of Housing and Urban Development – Federal
have required license, performance bond, and insurance. The Housing Administration (FHA), and the U.S. Department
general contractor is also responsible for all work being done of Veterans Affairs (VA). The Description of Materials is
to meet the requirements set by the plans, specifications, shown in Figure 1.1, with the entire set of forms provided
and in compliance with building codes and industry in Appendix D on the companion website.
standards. Home construction is a huge investment, so you Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
should always confirm the licensing requirements, seek Appendix D.
references, and visit completed projects to be confident of
A cost estimate is also submitted with the plans and
the general contractor’s ability to complete the project in a
description of materials. The architect or the general
quality and timely manner. In addition to performing work in
contractor, or both, create the cost estimate based on
a quality manner, a general contractor who takes too long
materials and labor costs necessary to complete the
can cost you extra money in construction financing and
project. It is common for the architect or general contractor
inflation.
to seek subcontractor estimates for their portion of work
on the project. There are a variety of cost estimate formats
POWERPOINT that list the cost for every component of the project.
A typical cost estimate sheet is shown in Figure 1.2.
Create one PowerPoint slide defining a bond and
insurance and a graphic that displays the function of
the general contractor and subcontractors.
POWERPOINT

Create three PowerPoint slides defining a construction

loan, the steps in obtaining a construction loan, and
Seeking a construction loan the characteristics of a cost estimate. Display the first
A construction loan is commonly used to fund the page of the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban
building of a new home. Mortgage lenders have varying Development – Federal Housing Administration (FHA)
requirements for construction loans, and a licensed Description of Materials.
general contractor is typically one of the requirements.
A construction loan is designed to pay for the development
The building permit application
phase in stages and with the land used as collateral,
assuming the land is free and clear, which means no Confirm the building permit applications process with
debt. The lender normally disburses funds according your local jurisdiction. The home owner can apply for the
to a construction schedule for the project. The lender building permit in some locations, while others require the
normally inspects the project at each phase before making application submitted by the architect or general contractor.
a payment to the general contractor. In most cases, The steps for applying can also differ with each location.
the construction loan is converted to a permanent loan For example, some jurisdictions require the RA or PE to
(mortgage) when construction is complete and the owners apply for the building permit before a general contractor
have approval to occupy. is selected. The general contractor is then hired after the
The loan application process normally includes submitting building permit is approved. The architect and general
a complete set of plans and specifications. These can be contractor then work together or independently with
submitted by the home owner, by the architect, or by the subcontractors to obtain specialty permits that are required
general contractor. Most lenders ask for a description of for construction phases such as electrical, plumbing, and
materials. The description of materials includes specific mechanical. The mechanical phase of construction
information about construction and finish materials, involves the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC).
products, appliances, and equipment. The home owner The building permit application is similar in most
generally works closely with the architect and contractor locations, and a typical form is shown in Figure 1.3. Local
to determine the specific products used in the home. jurisdictions charge different rates for building permits,
It is common for the home owner to research and subcontractor permits, System Development Charges,
find the specific items desired in the home. This can and inspections. System Development Charges (SDCs)
include appliances, light fixtures, windows, doors, finish are charged by local jurisdictions to fund the development
woodworking, flooring products, and paint colors. Each of parks, schools, transit systems, and other municipal
lender has a specific description of materials, but most facilities associated with an increase in population due

6
 1

Figure 1.1  The Description of Materials. Go to http://www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access the entire

set of Description of Materials. Courtesy U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development – Federal Housing
Administration (FHA), and the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA).
Figure 1.1  (Continued)
 1

Figure 1.1  (Continued)

Figure 1.1  (Continued)
Figure 1.2  A typical cost estimate sheet.
1
Figure 1.2  (Continued)
Figure 1.2  (Continued)
1
Figure 1.2  (Continued)
 1

Figure 1.3  This is a typical building permit application that is similar in most locations. Courtesy The
Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Board of Building Regulations and Standards.
Figure 1.3  (Continued)
 Introduction to building codes

to the construction of new homes. Inspections are inspection to occur. Second inspection – Framing – after
conducted by the local jurisdiction at different phases
throughout project construction. The cost of permits, SDCs,
and inspections for one jurisdiction are shown in Figure 1.4.
all framing, rough-in electrical, plumbing and mechanical is
completed, and before drywall or any other wall or ceiling
cover is installed. Third inspection – Final – after everything
1
is completed, and before anyone moves into the home.
A permit to occupy is normally posted on the home
POWERPOINT when the final inspection is satisfactorily completed. The
permit to occupy informs the owners that they can move
Create one or more PowerPoint slides displaying the in, and lets suppliers and subcontractors know that they
building permit application for your local jurisdiction. have a specific amount of time to file a lien, if necessary.
A lien is a legal term meaning a form of security interest
or charge granted over real or personal property to secure
the payment of a debt or performance of some other
Q&A
obligation.
Q: What happens if a house is designed and Other jurisdictions have inspection schedules required
approved for construction, but construction is during the construction phase prior to the following:
put on hold for some reason such as unavailable  Placing concrete or grout.
financing? The permits expire by the time the  Covering electrical, plumbing, or mechanical work.
project can continue.  Covering floor framing.
A: Permits are normally valid for one year, unless  Covering interior sides of wall framing.
renewed. In order to resume construction in this  Taping gypsum wallboard, or applying stucco.
situation, the project needs to be re-permitted,  Final inspection.
which takes into account any new code Inspections are also required prior to connecting to, or the
requirements. This can require design alterations hook-up of the following:
in order to comply with code changes.
 Gas lines.
 Electrical service.
 Water and sewer services.
Mandatory inspection schedules
Regardless of the jurisdiction, plans and permit must
Inspection schedules also differ between jurisdictions. be at the construction site and the address posted and
Inspections are required to insure that the construction visible from the street. It is best to post the plans and
is proceeding according to the approved plans and permits in a convenient and protected location such as
specifications, and that all current building code at the front entry to the home. You might want to put
requirements are met. This helps to assure personal safety the plans in a protective container, so they do not get
and to secure the value of the improvement. It is critical to damaged by the weather. The construction project must
have inspections when required to avoid possible fines and be accessible for the inspectors, and an OSHA-approved
penalties. ladder must be available if needed. The Occupational
It is normally the responsibility of the general contractor Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) is a
or each subcontractor to schedule necessary inspections. government agency under the U.S. Dept. of Labor that
Inspection appointments are typically made at least one helps employers reduce injuries, illnesses, and deaths in
working day in advance, and possibly scheduled several the workplace.
days in advance during busy construction periods. Periodic
inspections must be scheduled until the project is completed Voluntary inspections and tests
and the jurisdiction gives final approval. The building permit Local building codes determine the minimum for a building
is kept on file at the jurisdiction after the job has received a to meet fire and life safety requirements. Additional
final inspection as proof of the work completed. voluntary certification programs can have other inspection
Some locations have an inspection schedule similar to requirements to meet certification standards. Voluntary
the following: First inspection – Footing – after footing certification programs are discussed in more detail in later
trenches have been opened, any required steel is in place, chapters, and can include insulation and building envelope
and the grade staked. The soil must be treated and footing inspections, mechanical and plumbing inspections,
forms inspected prior to any concrete being poured. Do and a blower door test. A blower door test involves
not schedule your inspection for the day you want to pour depressurizing the home and testing for leaks in the
concrete, because adequate time must be given for the building envelope.

17
Figure 1.4  The cost of permits and inspections for a sample jurisdiction. Courtesy Building Inspection Division
Schedule for Permits and Services, City of Dallas, Texas.
 1

Figure 1.4  (Continued)

Figure 1.4  (Continued)
 Introduction to building codes

1
POWERPOINT TEST

Create one or more PowerPoint slides displaying Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access

the building inspection process or schedule for your the test for this chapter.
local jurisdiction.

RESEARCH PROBLEMS

Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access

research options and topics that correlate with the problems for this chapter.
the content of this chapter.

21
 CHAPTER 2
Introduction to green
building technology
Learning objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
 Explain the basic fundamentals of building science.
 Discuss terms such as sustainable, environmentally friendly, and environmentally sound that refer to design and
construction practices using renewable resources.
 Describe renewable energy resources that help reduce the carbon footprint and the reduction of greenhouse gases.
 Explain the function of the International Energy Conservation Code (IECC) and basic changes that affect residential
design and construction.
 Discuss the features of the USGBC LEED program and rating system.
 Describe the LEED for Homes program and its elements.
 Discuss the National Green Building Standard.
 Explain the Energy Star program.
 Discuss the Earth Advantage Certification programs.
 Describe the EnviroHome Initiative, Canadian Home Builders’ Association.
 Explain the Construction Product Sustainability Information Reporting Guide.
 Describe a small footprint home, its typical location, and its function.
 Discuss the characteristics of solar energy design and living with a solar home, including passive and active
systems.
 Explain the advantages of south-facing glass and solariums.
 Discuss the function of thermal mass.
 Identify a variety of architectural features associated with solar systems.
 Discuss the function of geothermal systems.
 Explain the function of wind energy.
 Describe net-zero energy and how net-metering works.
 Discuss how to create and use hydroelectric power.
 Explain biopower.
 Briefly discuss sustainable development and green building on brownfield sites.
 Create PowerPoint presentations related to green building technology.
 Answer questions related to green building technology.

23
Introduction to green building technology

INTRODUCTION TO GREEN BUILDING dioxide and water. The carbon footprint measurement of a
TECHNOLOGY home is a measure of its theoretical influence in contributing
to global warming. Carbon offsets are abstract tools used
Building science is the collection of scientific knowledge to negate the impact of a building’s carbon footprint through
that focuses on the analysis and control of a building’s the development of alternative projects such as solar or
physical environment. Building science typically includes wind energy, or reforestation. Greenhouse gases are the
the analysis of construction materials used to create gases that absorb global radiation and contribute to the
the building, the effects of geographical and geological greenhouse effect. The main greenhouse gases are water
observations on the building, and the effects of the building vapor, methane, carbon dioxide, and ozone. The greenhouse
on its occupants. Building science applications help to effect is atmospheric heating caused by solar radiation being
advance construction best practices and offer alternate transmitted inward through the Earth’s atmosphere with less
construction methods and energy sources that improve the radiation transmitted outward due to absorption by gases in
building. the atmosphere.
Reducing energy consumption and required maintenance A carbon neutral building can be created through the
are often at the top of homeowners’ lists of priorities; use of natural, low footprint materials, increased energy
protecting the quality of future life on Earth should also efficiency, renewable energy purchases, and carbon offset
be an important consideration when designing, building, purchases, or all of these applications. Carbon neutral is a
or buying a home today. Improving energy efficiency is state in which the net amount of carbon dioxide or other
a good way to reduce our dependency on oil and fossil carbon compounds emitted into the atmosphere is reduced
fuels, and address environmental concerns connected with to zero by carbon offsets. Construction practices that
home construction. Private organizations, local and state help create carbon neutral buildings often use renewable
governments, and national agencies sponsor projects that energy for heating and cooling, implement high energy- and
provide incentives and education for architects, designers, water-efficient appliances and mechanical systems, and
and builders in an effort to promote building practices that use construction materials that have a low carbon footprint
are good today and protect the future. and are from responsible manufacturers. In addition to the
The terms sustainable, environmentally friendly, and materials and energy sources used in the construction of
environmentally sound refer to design and construction your home, you can also reduce your carbon footprint in
practices using renewable materials such as wood from other ways. For example, you can carpool, use mass transit,
certified forest farms, earthen or natural materials, and or plan trips that reduce driving. You could also be involved in
recycled products. These buildings are also healthier for or donate to programs that offset carbon dioxide emissions,
the occupants because of the extensive use of low- and such as renewable energy or tree-planting programs.
nontoxic materials. Using construction materials and (Source: Mascord Efficient Living, Building a More
collecting energy from renewable resources helps protect Sustainable Lifestyle.)
the environment and reduce the carbon footprint of
the building. Renewable energy resources can include
geothermal, solar, water, and wind energy. The carbon POWERPOINT
footprint of a building is a measure of the impact the building
Create two PowerPoint slides containing small graphics
has on the environment over its lifetime by producing
and definitions for sustainable, environmentally friendly,
greenhouse gases, which are measured in units of carbon
greenhouse gases, carbon dioxide, photosynthesis,
dioxide, during the construction, maintenance cycle, and
carbon offsets, greenhouse effect, and carbon neutral.
deconstruction of the building. The term footprint is used
to identify the foundation dimensions upon which the
home is constructed. Carbon dioxide has the chemical
formula CO2, and is a colorless, odorless gas present in the
GREEN BUILDING TECHNOLOGY
atmosphere and formed when any fuel containing carbon
SUPPORTS A HEALTHY ARCHITECTURAL
is burned. CO2 is produced by many events that occur on
ENVIRONMENT
Earth. It is breathed out of our lungs during respiration, it Throughout this textbook you will learn how constructing
is produced by the decay of organic matter, it is removed an energy-efficient building involves issues related
during volcanic eruptions, and it is also used by plants in to construction techniques, construction materials,
photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide is also used in refrigeration, and heating, ventilating, and air conditioning design.
fire extinguishers, and carbonated drinks. Photosynthesis Techniques that result in an airtight structure are important
is the process by which green plants and some other when the goal is to design and build an energy-efficient
organisms use sunlight to synthesize foods from carbon home. Controlling the movement of air into and out

24
 Introduction to green building technology

of the structure is an important part of controlling the  Use properly installed high-performance windows and
temperature. Methods used to reduce outside air exterior doors. See Chapter 10, Door and Window
infiltration range from the selection and proper installation Specifications and Installation.
of airtight building materials and insulation to the use of  Use unbleached plasterboard and plaster rather than

2
caulking products and continuous vapor retarders. These chemically produced sheetrock, also referred to as
products and construction methods are described in detail drywall, and materials. See Chapter 15, Finish Work and
in Chapter 9, Insulation and Barriers. Materials.
Controlling indoor air quality and maintaining a healthy  Install a properly designed heat recovery ventilation
living environment is also a very important consideration system, also called an air-to-air heat exchanger. See
when designing and constructing an energy-efficient Chapter 13, Mechanical, Plumbing, and Electrical
home. The system needs to be properly balanced to Systems.
remove the risk of problems associated with poor indoor  Install a high-performance particle air filtration system.
air quality. Air quality issues can range from stale air See Chapter 13, Mechanical, Plumbing, and Electrical
to a buildup of harmful contaminants including radon, Systems.
carbon monoxide, or mold spores. These issues can  Use low-toxicity ceramic tile, hardwood flooring, or
be easily addressed with a well-designed and properly natural fiber carpets rather than synthetic carpets. See
installed heat recovery and ventilation system. Sources of Chapter 15, Finish Work and Materials.
pollutants and methods used to deal with these problems  Use wood sheathing and low-formaldehyde decking.
are discussed in Chapter 13, Mechanical, Plumbing, and See Chapter 6, Floor Framing Materials and
Electrical Systems, with complete coverage of heating, Construction.
ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems.  Consider low-toxicity foam insulation or non-chemical
insulation products. See Chapter 9, Insulation and
The selection of environmentally friendly building
Barriers.
materials and products is equally important. Avoid the
 Use water-based, solvent-free, low-toxicity paints and
use of manufactured wood products such as fiberboard,
finishes. See Chapter 15, Finish Work and Materials.
particleboard, and plywood unless they are manufactured
 Construct a tightly sealed foundation to help keep out
using environmentally safe chemical processes and
radon gas and moisture. See Chapter 5, Foundation
adhesives. Use water-based caulking, paint, and finishes.
Materials and Construction.
Keep synthetic carpeting to a minimum, or eliminate it
 Use an energy-efficient heat pump such as a
completely by using natural fiber products such as wool
geothermal unit that produces no indoor pollutants.
and cotton. Combustion must be complete in appliances
See Chapter 13, Mechanical, Plumbing, and Electrical
that use gas fuel, and they must be properly ventilated
Systems.
to the exterior. Acceptable alternatives include electric
 Install gas appliances and fireplaces that use only
appliances, or sealed combustion appliances. Avoid
outdoor air and exhaust to the outside without any
using treated wood products in the construction of the
downdraft. See Chapter 12, Fireplace Construction.
building envelope. The building envelope consists
 Ultraviolet (UV) lights mounted inside the ductwork
of the roof, exterior walls, and floor of a structure,
can neutralize up to 98% of microorganisms. See
forming a barrier that separates the interior of the
Chapter 13, Mechanical, Plumbing, and Electrical
building from the outdoor environment. Consider steel-
Systems.
frame construction in regions where treated wood is
 Install an electrical system that is designed to reduce
commonly used for termite and rot control, although
stray voltage. Stray voltage is a low voltage present
there is an increased carbon footprint associated with
on grounded metal objects, and can be controlled with
the production of steel.
quality equipment, fixtures, and proper grounding.
The following is a checklist of features, products, and See Chapter 13, Mechanical, Plumbing, and Electrical
chapters within this textbook that can be considered for Systems.
designing and building an energy-efficient and healthy home:  Use a sealed and properly sized metal duct system with
 Design and build a high-performance building ducts insulated on the outside or preferably located in
envelope using quality framing materials and efficient conditioned spaces. Avoid fiberglass insulation inside
construction practices. See Chapter 7, Wall Framing ducts. See Chapter 13, Mechanical, Plumbing, and
Materials and Construction, and Chapter 9, Insulation Electrical Systems.
and Barriers.  Install a central vacuum system that vents particles
 Design and build with high-quality environmentally out of the house into a filtered container in the garage.
friendly insulation, caulking, and vapor barriers. See See Chapter 13, Mechanical, Plumbing, and Electrical
Chapter 9, Insulation and Barriers. Systems.

25
Introduction to green building technology

 Install a garage ventilation system. See Chapter 13,  Requirements for minimizing hot water pipe lengths and
Mechanical, Plumbing, and Electrical Systems. diameters, or insulating hot water pipes to help increase
 Use natural roofing products. See Chapter 8, Roof efficiency.
Framing Materials and Construction.  The elimination of duplication of model energy codes
between the IECC and the International Residential
INTERNATIONAL ENERGY Code, streamlining the process into a single, efficient
CONSERVATION CODE (IECC) path to residential compliance.
 A provision for flexibility and ease of compliance
Energy shortages of the 1970s inspired many states and
enforcement for builders and building code officials.
local jurisdictions to add energy-saving measures to building
 An option for residential compliance using the
codes in an effort to make homes more energy efficient.
Energy Rating Index (ERI) and the Home Energy
Energy codes have been successful in reducing energy
Rating System (HERS) Index. The ERI performance
consumption through the use of energy-efficient windows, path gives builders options for meeting target
added insulation, and improved air-infiltration barriers. energy efficiency scores through a wide range of
States and local jurisdictions normally adopt national model performance options to demonstrate compliance. The
energy codes as a basis for their own codes. ERI performance path allows a state or jurisdiction to
In 1992, the US Congress passed the Energy Policy Act specify the ERI method for IECC compliance. HERS is
that requires all states to review and consider adopting the existing standard by which energy efficiency of
the 1992 Model Energy Code, and energy codes to follow. a home is measured. HERS is also the nationally
In 1998 the first International Energy Conservation Code recognized system for inspecting and calculating the
(IECC) was published by the International Code Council energy performance of a home. The HERS rating is
(ICC). The latest revision is the 2015 International Energy an evaluation of the energy efficiency of a home,
Conservation Code, which introduced the most significant compared to a computer-simulated reference house of
efficiency increase in the history of the national model identical size and shape.
energy code. The 2015 IECC specifies practices that make
new and renovated buildings more energy efficient than
current standards. Most local jurisdictions have adopted NOTE
the IECC as the foundation for their energy codes. Some
Building codes are comprehensive and detailed, and
states and local jurisdictions have modified the IECC to
local codes can vary from the international codes.
deal with specific regional or local concerns.
A complete examination of the codes is beyond the
The following are applications found in the International scope of this textbook. You should consider studying
Energy Conservation Code that affect residential design local and national building codes, or taking codes
and construction: courses that may be offered at your local trade schools,
 A mandatory air infiltration test in all homes to improve community colleges, or local jurisdictions.
building envelope efficiency. An air infiltration test shows
how much air leakage there is in a house. A blower-door
system is commonly used for air infiltration testing. The POWERPOINT
blower-door system uses a fan to blow air into or out of
the building, creating either a positive or negative pressure Create one PowerPoint slide describing the basics of the
difference between the inside and outside. This pressure International Energy Conservation Code.
difference forces air through all holes and penetrations in
the building envelope. The tighter the building envelope,
ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION
the less air is needed from the blower door fan to create
ALTERNATIVES AND PROGRAMS
a change in building pressure. The building envelope
consists of the roof, exterior walls, and floor of a structure, Home shoppers often seek design and construction
forming a barrier that separates the interior of the building options that use high-quality insulation, air infiltration
from the outdoor environment. barriers, proper caulking, energy-rated windows, quality
 A requirement that ducts be tested to a tighter leakage materials, and energy-efficient appliances. Some buyers
standard. Ducts are the tubes used to move hot or cold look for long-term energy and cost-saving upgrades such as
air in a heating, air conditioning, and ventilation system. solar heat or a wind power generator. While some of these
 An increase in requirements for insulation and glazing elements are visible and easy to recognize in a home,
efficiency. The term glazing refers to the glass in doors many green building elements are hidden in the walls and
and windows. not easy to observe.

26
 Introduction to green building technology

Home builders around the country have realized the a building can earn enough points to be awarded certified,
advantages of energy-efficient design and construction, silver, gold, or platinum levels. For more information about
and recognize that having proof of installation of high the LEED program, visit the US Green Building Council
performance elements often makes a home easier to sell. website at www.usgbc.org/leed.

2
The following describes energy conservation architectural
design and construction programs and practices. The LEED for Homes program
LEED for Homes is a rating system that promotes the
The USGBC LEED program
design and construction of high-performance green
The US Green Building Council (USGBC) members came homes. A green home uses less energy, water, and other
together to create a standard for green building, called natural resources; creates less waste; and is healthier
the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design and more comfortable for the occupants. Benefits of a
(LEED) Green Building Rating System. This rating system LEED home include lower energy and water bills; reduced
is a national standard for developing energy-efficient greenhouse gas emissions; and reduced exposure to
sustainable buildings. Green building refers to a structure mold, mildew, and other indoor toxins. LEED certification
and construction processes that are environmentally allows buyers to identify homes that have been third-party
responsible and resource-efficient throughout a inspected, performance-tested, and certified as truly green
building life cycle. Building life cycle refers to the homes that perform better than standard homes. Home
observation and examination of a building over the course builders using LEED are able to distinguish their homes as
of its entire life, including design, construction, operation, among the best energy-efficient homes on the market.
maintenance, renovation, and demolition. Sustainable LEED for Homes certification ensures that a home is
buildings are buildings capable of maintaining their designed and constructed with the highest quality of
desired function into the future. The terms green building environmental and human protection possible in the
and sustainable building can be used interchangeably. industry. This is because LEED for Homes credits are given
The following LEED goals represent the approach to only if the design and construction meet rigid inspection
sustainability, as taken from the USGBC website: and third-party testing of the various components that go
 Define green building by establishing a common into building a home. Other energy-conscious design and
standard of measurement. construction programs offer significant improvement in
 Promote integrated, whole-building design practices. the environmental and sustainable quality of construction
The term whole building refers to the building assembly materials and practices, but they may not have the quality
designed and built to maximize sustainable and inspection control and testing found in LEED-certified
economic function through the use of energy and homes. For more information about the LEED for Homes
other resources, building materials, site preservation, program, visit the US Green Building Council website at
and indoor air quality for a structure to run at its www.usgbc.org/leed/homes. The LEED for Homes ratings
maximum efficiency, provide a comfortable and healthy set a minimum level of performance described in the
environment, and have the minimum impact on the following categories.
environment.
Innovation and design
 Recognize environmental leadership in the building
industry. This category encourages project planning and design
 Stimulate green competition. to improve the coordination and integration of the
 Raise consumer awareness of green building benefits. various elements in a green home. Credits are earned
 Transform the building market. for innovative designs, quality performance, or regional
The LEED building certification program recognizes best practices that can be shown to produce proven
commercial construction projects that demonstrate environmental and human health benefits. Innovation
the highest sustainability performance standards. and design includes involving key representation from
LEED certification requires that the project meet some building design, energy engineering, performance
mandatory requirements and earn additional points for testing, sustainable design, civil engineering, landscape
implementing high performance, healthy, and sustainable architecture, habitat restoration, land use planning, and a
building practices. The points scored are measured using LEED representative in the preliminary and final design.
the LEED rating system. In the LEED program, various
Location and linkages
levels of certification are awarded to new buildings and
rehabilitated structures, based on their point value. When The placement of homes in socially and environmentally
completing their construction and operational objectives, responsible ways in relation to the larger community

27
Introduction to green building technology

provides credits toward LEED certification. The Material and resources

term linkages means that the specific home site is
LEED for Homes credits are given for the use of material-
environmentally linked to the community. Location and
efficient framing methods, environmentally preferable
linkages addresses how builders select site locations
low-emission products, and recyclable waste management
that promote environmentally responsible land-use
practices. Reclaimed materials can be substituted for
patterns and neighborhoods. Location and linkages credits
new materials, saving costs and reducing the use of
reward builders for selecting home sites that have more
natural resources. Recycled-content materials reuse
sustainable land-use patterns and offer advantages over
waste products that would otherwise be deposited in
conventional developments. Land is used more efficiently,
landfills. LEED for Homes promotes the use of local
reducing the acreage needed for new housing. Division of
materials, which supports the local economy and reduces
farmland, forest, and other natural areas is minimized. Well-
the harmful impacts of long-distance transport. Use of
sited developments need fewer roads, water, and sewer
third-party-certified wood promotes good stewardship
lines. These developments promote a range of sustainable
of forests and related ecosystems. Use of low-emitting
transportation options, including walking, cycling, and mass
materials improves the indoor air quality in the home
transit.
and reduces demand for materials with added volatile,
Sustainable sites toxic compounds. Additionally, the builder can separate
construction debris into multiple bins or disposal areas
The sustainable sites category awards projects for allowing easier shipment to recycling facilities or pickup by
minimizing site impacts allowing natural elements to have a a waste management company.
significant environmental influence. Proper placement of the
home on the site can have major long-term effects on local Indoor environmental quality
and regional ecosystems, and reduce demand for water,
This LEED for Homes category can provide a large
chemicals, and pesticides for site management. Good
number of LEED for Homes credits. This category
design decisions can result in attractive, easy-to-maintain
encourages builders to prevent air pollution and improve
landscaping that protects native plant and animal species
air quality and comfort in the homes they build. Pollutant
and contributes to the health of local and regional habitats.
source removal is the most practical way to ensure that
Erosion and chemical and pesticide runoff from rainfall is
harmful chemical compounds are not brought into the
minimized, and rain can be used for potable water and to
home. Evaluating the properties of adhesives, paints,
recharge aquifers. Potable water is water of a quality that
carpets, composite wood products, and furniture, and
is suitable for drinking. An aquifer is an underground bed
selecting materials with low levels of potentially irritating
or layer of earth, gravel, or porous stone that yields water.
gas emissions can reduce occupant exposure. Scheduling
Sustainable sites offer enrichment with trees and plants that
deliveries and sequencing construction activities can
provides shade, aesthetic value, habitat for native species,
reduce exposure of materials to moisture and absorption
and a way to absorb carbon and enrich the soil.
of contaminants. Pollutant source control plans focus on
Water efficiency capturing pollutants that are known to exist in a home. For
example, filtering the supply air removes particulates that
LEED for Homes credits are given for the conservation would otherwise be continuously recirculated through
and reuse of inside and outside water. The use of water- the home. Protection of air-handling systems during
conserving plumbing fixtures and fittings can easily reduce construction and cleaning prior to occupancy reduces
water usage by over 30% in new homes. future problems. Indoor air quality also contributes to
occupant comfort. The proper installation of automatic
Energy and atmosphere sensors and controls to maintain proper temperature,
Credits are available for homes built with energy-efficient humidity, and ventilation in occupied spaces helps
construction methods and materials, and for homes maintain best possible air quality. The use of outdoor air
that reduce CO2 emissions as a result of improving their ventilation, indoor contaminant control, air filtering, and
environmental performance. According to the Green Home radon protection are described in Chapter 14, Indoor Air
Guide website, the average certified LEED home uses Quality and Safety, of this textbook.
30% to 40% less electricity and saves more than 100
Awareness and education
metric tons of CO2 emissions over its lifetime. Modest
investments in energy-saving and other climate-friendly Credits are given for the education of the homeowner or
technologies can yield homes and communities that are tenant, the building manager, and the public. This category
healthier, more comfortable, more durable, energy-efficient, promotes broad awareness among homebuyers and
and environmentally responsible places to live. tenants that LEED homes are built differently and need to

28
 Introduction to green building technology

be operated and maintained in a manner that saves energy, Water efficiency and conservation
water, and other resources through the lifetime of the
The availability of an adequate water supply is a national
home. The long-term benefits of LEED measures might not
concern. Use of indoor and outdoor water conservation
be achieved without proper training.
guidelines reduces water consumption and utility costs.

National Association of Home Builders

Model Green Home Building Guidelines
Occupancy comfort and indoor
environmental quality
2
The National Association of Home Builders (NAHB) has a Effective management of moisture, ventilation, and other
voluntary program called the Model Green Home Building air quality issues can create a more comfortable and
Guidelines. Portions of the following information were healthier indoor living environment.
taken from the NAHB’s Model Green Home Building Operation, maintenance, and education
Guidelines website at www.nahb.org/. Sustainable,
environmentally friendly, and recycled building products, The goals of this category show a builder how to educate
and the education of builders have increased residential homeowners on the features of their new green home. It
is important for homebuyers to learn how to operate and
construction industry acceptance of green building. NAHB
maintain the green home in a manner that saves energy,
members currently build more than 80% of the homes
water, and other resources through the lifetime of the home.
in this country, and are incorporating green practices
into the development, design, and construction of new
homes. NAHB’s voluntary Model Green Home Building POWERPOINT
Guidelines are designed as a tool kit for builders who
want to use green building practices, and for local home Create two PowerPoint slides, with one describing the
builder associations that want to start their own green basics of the LEED for Homes program and the other
building programs. The NAHB Model Green Home Building slide listing the LEED for Homes minimum performance
Guidelines help organize green design and construction categories.
process and help builders incorporate more green building
features into homes. For more information about the NAHB National Green Building Standard
Model Green Home Building Guidelines, visit the National
Association of Home Builders website at www.nahb.org/. In a continuing effort to advance the use of environmentally
responsible technologies in residential construction,
The following discussion describes the NAHB Model Green
the National Association of Home Builders (NAHB), the
Home Building Guidelines categories.
International Code Council (ICC), and the NAHB Research
Center worked together to develop an American National
Lot preparation and design
Standards Institute (ANSI) standard for green home building
Careful site planning can reduce impact on natural features construction practices. The National Green Building
such as vegetation and soil, and improve long-term Standard is for all residential construction work including
performance of a home on the site. single-family homes, apartments and condominiums, land
development, and remodeling and renovation. This is a
Resource efficiency voluntary green home building standard that can be adopted
as a guide by local green home building programs or local
Advanced framing techniques and home designs can
building departments. The new standard builds on the NAHB
effectively optimize the use of building materials. Careful
Model Green Home Building Guidelines with participation
material selection can help reduce the amount of time from a group of over 64 organizations representing various
and money needed for home maintenance. Also, waste interests in residential construction in the United States.
management practices are used to recycle construction
waste materials. NOTE
Energy efficiency Many local code enforcement agencies are incorporating
This category helps the builder create a better building portions of the National Green Building Standard into
envelope and incorporate more energy-efficient mechanical their design and construction requirements. You should
confirm with local code enforcement agencies to
systems, appliances, and lighting into a home. The results
determine if specific aspects of a green guideline are
are long-term energy savings and increased comfort for the
required as building codes.
homeowner.

29
Introduction to green building technology

A home can also be qualified as an Energy Star new

POWERPOINT home using the Builder Option Package (BOP). A BOP
represents a set of prescriptive construction specifications
Create one PowerPoint slide describing the National
for a specific climate zone, based on performance levels
Green Building Standard.
for the thermal envelope; insulation; windows; orientation;
heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) system;
and water heating efficiency for the climate zone.
Energy Star
Energy Star is a joint program of the US Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) and the US Department of Energy POWERPOINT
created to help save money and protect the environment
through energy-efficient products and practices, and Create one PowerPoint slide showing the Energy Star
through superior product energy efficiency. Energy Homes logo and describing the program.
Star–qualified homes must meet strict guidelines for
energy efficiency set by the EPA. These homes include
additional energy-saving features that typically make Earth Advantage certification programs
them 20% to 30% more efficient than standard homes.
The Earth Advantage New Homes certification program
Energy Star homes are independently verified to meet
is a third-party certification program for builders that
the requirements. Energy savings are based on heating,
helps them create energy-efficient, healthy and resource-
cooling, and hot water energy use and are typically
wise homes that add value for the homebuyer. The Earth
achieved through a combination of:
Advantage New Homes standard requires projects to
 Building envelope upgrades. The building envelope achieve a minimum number of points on a scoring sheet
consists of the roof, exterior walls, and floor of a covering five categories over the course of two verification
structure, forming a barrier that separates the interior of visits, including energy efficiency, healthy indoor air quality,
the building from the outdoor environment. resource efficiency, environmental responsibility and water
 High-performance windows. conservation. Projects can qualify for different levels of
 Controlled air infiltration. certification based on the number of points earned. The
 Upgraded heating and air conditioning systems. certification levels are Silver, Gold, or Platinum.
 Tight duct systems.
 Upgraded water heating equipment. Creating a healthier home
These features contribute to improved home quality, Earth Advantage–certified homes offer a healthier living
homeowner comfort, lower energy demand, and reduced environment through the use of sustainable materials and
air pollution. Energy Star also encourages the use of finishes that do not create harmful fumes. Air is filtered
energy-efficient lighting, appliances, and features designed before entering the home, all gas combustion systems
to improve indoor air quality. are sealed, and the home is properly ventilated to remove
Verification of a home’s energy efficiency by a third party remaining harmful pollutants. Earth Advantage homes also
is an essential step in getting the Energy Star label and protect against the health risks associated with excessive
certificate. Verification is generally dependent on the moisture, such as organisms supported by moisture and
construction method used to build the home. Homes rot, including molds, fungi and pests. Air sealing the house
constructed on site are typically verified using Home promotes health by helping to prevent airborne allergens
Energy Ratings Systems (HERS) ratings, or Builder and industrial particles from entering the home. Ventilation
Option Packages (BOP). improves the quality of air in the home and helps reduce
A Home Energy Ratings Systems (HERS) rating, described moisture problems.
earlier, is an evaluation of the energy efficiency of a home, Energy efficiency means lower utility bills
compared to a computer-simulated reference house of
identical size and shape. The home being evaluated must Earth Advantage–certified homes use the Northwest
meet minimum requirements of the Model Energy Code Energy Star program by applying a variety of features and
(MEC). The HERS rating results in a score between 0 techniques to save at least 15% more energy compared to
and 100, with the reference house assigned a score of a home built to code. This allows Earth Advantage–certified
80. The Energy Star–qualified new home is required to homes to also be Energy Star–certified. The Energy Star
be significantly more energy efficient than the reference measures typically include effective insulation systems,
house, by achieving a HERS score of at least 86. high-performance windows, tight construction and sealed

30
 Introduction to green building technology

ducts, efficient heating and cooling equipment, and Energy than homes not designed and built to EnviroHome
Star–qualified lighting and appliances. standards.
Each year the EnviroHome designation is given to a select
Limited impact on land
number of new home projects across Canada. To qualify,

2
The Earth Advantage–certified home reduces the negative each home must be certified to the R-2000 Standard and
impacts that construction can have on the land. Care is include additional air quality and environmental features
taken to preserve natural habitat and features, vegetation, beyond what the R-2000 program requires. R-2000 is
and open space. Construction processes are managed a specific Canadian home building technology that has
to preserve soil from damage, contamination, and earned a worldwide reputation for quality, comfort, and
erosion. Waste is reduced through recycling and accurate environmental responsibility. Every R-2000 certification
calculation of materials needs. Landscaping with native low involves special measures in three main areas of
water vegetation is encouraged. construction: energy performance, indoor air quality, and
use of environmentally preferred materials. R-2000 homes
Safe and durable materials incorporate a range of cost-effective, energy-efficient
Earth Advantage–certified homes use local materials and building practices and technologies, regardless of design or
products containing a high percentage of recycled content size. R-2000 homes are independently certified to meet a
and selected for durability to decrease maintenance and high level of energy efficiency beyond what building codes
replacement costs. require. With an R-2000 certificate, homeowners can have
confidence in the performance of their home. Builders
Reduced water consumption choose to be part of the R-2000 program because they
want access to the best home building technology available
Earth Advantage–certified homes protect and preserve
to offer their customers a better home.
water quality through the use of low flow fixtures and
toilets and tankless water heaters that provide instant
water heating. Water saving irrigation systems can also be
POWERPOINT
used for yards and landscaping. Builders prevent erosion,
protect streams and lakes, and manage storm water during Create one PowerPoint slide describing the EnviroHome
construction. Initiative.

POWERPOINT The Construction Product Sustainability

Information Reporting Guide
Create one PowerPoint slide showing the Earth
The Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) and
Advantage logo and describing the program.
Construction Specifications Canada (CSC) publish detailed
construction specification formats and procedures that
are described in Chapter 3, Drawings and Specifications.
The EnviroHome Initiative, Canadian
A specification is an exact statement describing the
Home Builders’ Association
characteristics of a particular feature of the project. The
The EnviroHome Initiative was established by the Canadian CSI developed the GreenFormat: The Construction Product
Home Builders’ Association (CHBA) and TD Canada Trust Sustainability Information Reporting Guide. GreenFormat is
to recognize and support innovative new home builders a CSI system that allows manufacturers to accurately report
who are specially trained and licensed, and committed to the sustainability measuring properties of their products,
offering consumers homes that are “better for you, better and provides designers, contractors, and building operators
for your community, and better for the environment.” TD with basic information to help meet green requirements.
Canada Trust is a full-service bank that provides home When using GreenFormat, construction product
loans. Canadian Home Builders’ Association EnviroHome manufacturers complete an online GreenFormat reporting
projects showcase the best in new home building questionnaire that collects the sustainable information about
technology and products. EnviroHome builders are the their product. Data collected is presented in a system for
best, highly innovative, skilled professionals who know access when making sustainability design decisions. Access
how to construct exceptional homes that meet the needs to the GreenFormat report is available through www.
of today’s consumers for healthy affordable homes. csiresources.org/practice/standards/greenformat. Users
EnviroHomes are exceptionally comfortable, healthy to live can print reports on specific products with information
in, more energy efficient, and better for the environment grouped in categories covering product sustainability.

31
Introduction to green building technology

New topics are added and outdated topics are removed as the basic concept that makes solar heating possible. Solar
sustainability issues evolve. The structure can be applied to radiation enters a structure through a glass panel and
all construction products and product categories. warms the surfaces of the interior areas. The glass along
with insulating window coverings keeps the heat inside by
absorbing the radiation.
POWERPOINT
Two basic residential and commercial uses for solar
Create one PowerPoint slide describing The Construction energy are heating spaces and hot water. Solar space
Product Sustainability Information Reporting Guide. heating systems are passive, active, or a combination of
passive and active. Passive solar systems, also called
architectural solar systems, use no mechanical devices to
retain, store, or radiate solar heat. Active solar systems,
SMALL FOOTPRINT HOME
also called mechanical solar systems, use mechanical
A small footprint home is a home that is generally devices to absorb, store, and use solar heat. A combination
designed for a small urban lot. A small footprint home is of passive and active solar systems retain, store, or radiate
also referred to as a fit home, because it is designed to solar heat with the aid of some mechanical devices.
fit on lots where traditional designs do not fit. The term The potential reduction of fossil fuel energy consumption
footprint is often used in reference to the foundation and free availability of natural sunlight can make solar heat
dimensions upon which the house is constructed. The word an economical alternative. A number of factors contribute
urban refers to being in the city or town. The other basic to the effective use of solar energy, including energy-
places are suburban, which is the suburb or near the city efficient construction techniques and full insulation of a
or town, and rural, which is in the country. The lots where building to reduce heat loss and air infiltration.
small footprint homes are built can be as small as 25 ×
An auxiliary heating system is often used as a backup or to
50 feet (7,600 × 15,200 mm). These lots are often found
supplement solar heat. The amount of heat needed from
in old neighborhoods where small spaces are sometimes
the auxiliary system depends on the effectiveness of the
available for new homes. Designing small footprint
solar system. The primary and the supplemental systems
homes is a challenge, with proportion, natural lighting,
should be professionally engineered for optimum efficiency
and efficient use of space being keys to quality planning.
and comfort.
Small footprint homes are also commonly designed using
traditional architecture so they blend into older existing A southern exposure provides the best site orientation for
neighborhoods. solar construction. A perfect solar site allows the structure
to have an unobstructed southern exposure. Figure 2.1
To see a complete set of plans for a small footprint home, go to
shows the sun’s path in relationship to the southern
the website for Modern Residential Construction Practices at
exposure of a home on a solar site.
  www.routledge.com/cw/madsen and find the small
footprint or fit home in the group of Complete Sets of
Residential Working Drawings.
POWERPOINT

SOLAR ENERGY DESIGN Create one PowerPoint slide showing the sun’s path in
relationship to the southern exposure of a home on a
Solar energy is produced by sunlight that can be captured solar site.
when it is transferred to something that has the ability to
store heat or energy. Solar energy can be captured and
regulated in order to heat water, air, or the thermal mass Room placement is another factor to consider for taking
of a building, or create electricity. Most areas of the Earth advantage of solar heat. Living areas and communal
receive about 60% direct sunlight each year, and in very spaces, such as the living, family, and great rooms, should
clear areas, up to 80% of the annual sunlight is available be on the south side of the house, while inactive rooms,
for use as solar energy. When the sun’s rays reach the such as bedrooms, laundries, and baths, should be located
Earth, the air and the features on the Earth become heated on the north side where a cooler environment is normally
through thermal radiation. Certain dense materials such as desirable. If possible, the garage should be placed on
concrete can absorb more heat than less dense materials the north, northeast, or northwest side of the home,
such as wood. During the day, dense materials absorb and where it acts as a barrier insulating the living areas from
store solar energy. Then at night, they release the energy cold exterior elements. The inactive rooms, including the
in the form of heat. Some substances, such as glass, bedrooms, baths, laundry, pantry, and garage, shelter the
absorb thermal radiation while transmitting light. This is living area from the colder northern exposure. Masonry

32
 Introduction to green building technology

Figure 2.1  The sun’s path in relationship to the southern exposure of a home on a solar site.

walls also allow the house to be built into a slope on its and electrical permits. Verify the exact requirements
northern side, or berms constructed on the north side as for solar installations with local building officials. During
shelter from the elements. Figure 2.2 shows a floor plan the initial planning process, always check the local
that has good room arrangement for solar orientation. zoning ordinances and CC&Rs (Covenants, Conditions &
Restrictions) to determine the feasibility of the installation.
Living with solar energy systems For example, many areas restrict dwelling height. If the
Solar energy and energy-efficient construction require a planned solar system encroaches on this zoning rule, then
commitment to conserving energy. Each individual must a different approach or a variance to the restriction must
evaluate cost against potential savings and become aware be considered. A variance is a request to depart from
of the responsibility of living with energy conservation. zoning requirements. An approved variance permits the
Solar systems can be designed that provide some heat owner to use the land in a manner not otherwise permitted
from the sun and require little or no involvement from the by zoning ordinances. A variance is not a change in zoning,
occupant to assist the process. Such a minimal energy- but is a specific waiver zoning requirements for the specific
saving design is worth the effort in many cases. Active application.
solar space heating systems are available that can provide a Access to sunlight is not always guaranteed. A solar home
substantial amount of needed heat energy. These systems can be built in an area that has excellent solar orientation,
are automatic and also do not generally require involvement and then a few years later, a tall structure may be built
from the homeowner, although the homeowner should be on adjacent property that blocks the sun. A neighbor’s
aware of operation procedures and maintenance schedules. trees can also grow tall and reduce sunlight. Determine
Alternately, some passive solar heating systems require the possibility of such a problem before construction
much more participation by the occupants. begins. Some local zoning ordinances, laws, or even deed
It can be said that passive systems are for active people. restrictions can protect the right to light. In the past, laws
For example, a mechanical shade must be used by the generally provided the right to receive light from above
homeowner to block the summer sun rays from entering the property but not from across neighboring land. This
southern-exposure windows. During the winter months, situation is changing in many areas of the country.
when the sun is heating the living area, the heat should
be retained as long as possible. In the morning the Passive solar systems
homeowner needs to open window coverings to allow In passive solar architecture, the structure is designed so
sunlight to enter and heat the rooms. In the early evening, the sun directly and indirectly warms the interior. A passive
before the heat begins to radiate out of the house, the solar system allows sunlight to enter the structure and
occupant should close the window coverings to keep the be absorbed into a structural mass. The stored heat then
heat in the home. warms the living space during the day and also when the
sun has receded. Window coverings are used to control
Codes and solar rights
the amount of sunlight entering the home, and vents help
Building permits are generally required for the installation control temperature. The structure is the storage system in
of active solar systems or the construction of passive passive solar construction. The amount of material needed
solar systems. Some installations also require plumbing to store heat depends on the amount of sunlight, the

33
Figure 2.2  A floor plan with good room arrangement for solar orientation. The design has living areas directly
next to the south-facing glass, and areas such as kitchen, laundry, and garage on the north side. Courtesy Chief
Architect Software.
 Introduction to green building technology

desired temperature within the structure, and the ability watch conventional heating and cooling costs rise and
of the material to store heat. Materials such as water, become more concerned about oil and gas shortages.
steel, concrete, and masonry have good heat capacity. A qualified solar engineer should evaluate the site and
Several passive solar architectural methods have been recommend solar design alternatives when preparing a

2
used individually and together, including south-facing glass, preliminary design. Additional assistance is usually available
thermal storage walls, roof ponds, solariums, and efficient from the state or the national Department of Energy.
envelope construction. Active solar systems are part of a group of green power
systems. Green power is electricity generated from
South-facing glass, solariums,
resources such as solar, wind, geothermal, biomass, and
and thermal mass
low-impact hydro facilities.
Direct solar gain is heat created by the sun, which is Active solar systems for space heating use collectors
captured in a structure through south-facing windows. to gather heat from the sun. The heat in the collectors
Large window areas facing south can provide up to 60% of is transferred to a fluid, and moved to an area of heat
a building’s heating needs when the windows are insulated storage. Heat stored in the system is transported to the
at night with tight-fitting insulated coverings. Heat gain living space by transferring the heat to air through insulated
during the day is quickly lost when window insulation is ducts, which are similar to the ducts in a conventional
not used at night. It is important for energy from the sun to forced-air heating system, or by transferring the heat to
be retained in floors constructed of or covered with a high water and pumping it through plumbing fixtures. An active
heat absorbance material such as tile, brick, or concrete, solar heating system generally requires a backup heating
and special walls made of concrete, masonry, or containing system that is capable of handling the entire heating needs
water tubes. Figure 2.3 shows a typical application of of the building when solar gain is reduced to a minimum.
direct-gain, south-facing glass. This is the same home from A suitable backup system could include a forced-air
the floor plan shown in Figure 2.2. system that uses the same ducts as the solar system,
or a mini-split ductless heat pump system. The backup
system is generally fueled by electricity, natural gas, or
oil. Some people rely on wood- or coal-burning appliances
for supplemental heat, but local code regulations need to
be confirmed when this option is considered. Active solar
systems can normally be adapted to existing homes that
use a forced-air heating system.

Solar collectors
Solar collectors convert sunlight to heat, and can be
nearly 100% efficient. The number of solar collectors
Figure 2.3  A typical application of direct-gain, south- needed to provide heat for a home depends on the size
facing glass. This is the same home of the floor plan of the home and the volume of heat needed. These are
shown in Figure 2.2. Notice the deciduous trees on the same requirements for sizing a conventional heating
the south side, which provide shade in the summer system. Collectors are commonly placed in rows on a
months and allow for maximum sun to enter the roof, as shown in Figure 2.4, or on the ground next to the
glass during winter months. Courtesy Chief Architect structure. The best solar collector placement requires an
Software. unobstructed southern exposure. The angle of the solar
collectors should be in proper relationship to the angle
POWERPOINT of the sun during winter months, when the demand for
heat is greatest. The best angle for the solar collector is
Create one PowerPoint slide showing a typical when the winter sun hits at about 90° to the collector. In
application of direct-gain, south-facing glass. general, the solar collector angle should roughly match the
latitude of your location. Latitude is an angle measured
from the point at the center of the Earth, and lines of
Active solar systems latitude are imaginary lines running east to west around
The future looks bright for solar technologies. The costs the Earth. The equator has a latitude of 0° and the North
and efficiencies of high-technology systems are improving. Pole has a latitude of 90°, so your home has a latitude of
Solar alternatives should be considered as homeowners 45° if you are halfway between the equator and the North

35
Introduction to green building technology

by chemical action. In the photovoltaic cells, photons strike

the surface of a silicon wafer, which is a semiconductor
diode that stimulates the release of electric charges that
are guided into a circuit where they become a useful
electric current. Photovoltaic modules produce direct
current (DC) electricity. This type of power is useful for
many applications and for charging storage batteries. An
inverter is used to change DC current to alternating current
(AC). AC is the type of current that powers electrical
systems in the home. Some photovoltaic systems use
the DC current immediately to power DC motors, as in
hot water-pumping systems. The energy produced from
photovoltaic cells must be stored when solar electric
Figure 2.4  Collectors are commonly placed in rows systems are not used immediately, or if an energy reserve
on a roof or on the ground next to the structure. is required for use when sunlight is not available. Batteries
The best solar collector placement requires an are the most common storage devices, allowing the stored
unobstructed southern exposure. electricity to be used when needed.
Pole. The degree symbol is (°). There are several websites DC and AC systems can be used to supply the electrical
that can help you determine the best angle for solar needs of the home, and AC systems can be connected to
collector installation in your area by searching the Internet a utility grid where electricity can be shared. The system
using words such as determine solar collector angle. can draw on the grid for extra electricity if needed during
times of peak power usage. The system can also return
Professional solar collector installers also know the correct
extra unused power to the grid where the electricity can
angle of installation in your area. Some solar collectors are
be purchased by the utility, providing income or electricity
designed to get solar heat by direct and reflected sunlight.
credits for the homeowner. In most areas of the country
Reflecting, or focusing, lenses can help concentrate
the utility (grid) is required to purchase excess power from
sunlight on the collector surface. Figure 2.5 shows an private sources. Because battery storage is expensive
example of solar collector angle. and space consuming, a municipally connected solar
electric system is the most popular and least expensive
POWERPOINT way to take advantage of solar power. The utility grid is
the transmission system for electricity that is a network
Create one PowerPoint slide demonstrating a solar of coordinated power providers and consumers that are
collector application. connected by transmission and distribution lines and
operated by one or more control centers.
Photovoltaic modules
The solar modules need to be located and positioned
Photovoltaic (PV) cells turn sunlight into electricity. The where they receive maximum exposure to direct sunlight
word photovoltaic comes from the Greek word photo, for the longest period of time every day. It is also important
meaning light, and voltaic, meaning to produce electricity to keep distances to electrical loads to a minimum.

Figure 2.5  An example of solar collector angle.

36
 Introduction to green building technology

The electrical loads are the circuits and appliances that Rock storage is often used when the collectors contain air
use electricity. It is also important to confirm that shade rather than water. Heated air flows over a rock storage bed.
from buildings and trees does not block the sunlight. The rock absorbs some heat from the air while the rest of
Photovoltaic solar collectors are constructed by placing the heat is distributed to the living space. When the solar

2
individual photovoltaic cells in groups called modules, and gain is minimal, cooler air passes over the rock storage,
the modules are combined in groups of six to create the where it absorbs heat and is distributed by fans to the
photovoltaic collector, as shown in Figure 2.6. living space. Domestic hot water can also be provided by
an air-to-water heat exchanger located in the rock storage
or in the hot air duct leading from the collector.
Chemicals used in collectors and in storage facilities absorb
large amounts of heat at low temperatures. Chemicals with
very low freezing temperatures can absorb heat when the
outside temperature is low during winter months.

Solar thermal water heating

Solar water heating (SWH) or solar hot water (SHW)
systems comprise several innovations and many
mature renewable energy technologies that have been
well established for many years. SWH uses solar radiation
to heat water or air in buildings. SWH systems are close-
coupled or pump-circulated, and active or passive. A close-
coupled system has a horizontally mounted storage
tank directly above the solar collectors. No pumping is
required because the hot water naturally rises into the
tank. A pump-circulated system has a ground- or floor-
mounted storage tank below the collectors. In this system,
a circulating pump moves water or heat transfer fluid
between the collectors and the tank.
SWH systems can deliver hot water over most of the year.
Figure 2.6  Photovoltaic solar collectors are
There may not be enough solar heat gain to deliver sufficient
constructed by placing individual photovoltaic cells
hot water during winter months in some locations. A gas or
in groups of 36 called modules, and the modules are
electric booster is normally used to heat the water during
combined in groups of 6 to create the photovoltaic
these periods. An active SWH system heats water by using
collector.
a collector, on the roof, ground, or wall facing the sun that
heats working fluid that is pumped, while a passive system
Storage
moves the product by natural convection. Heat is stored in
Active solar collectors transfer heat energy to a storage a hot water storage tank with either system. The solar hot
area and then to the living space during periods of sunlight. water storage tank is normally larger than in conventional
After the demand for heat is met, the storage facilities water heating, because of the need to store more hot water
allow the heat to be contained for use when solar activity during inactive times. The heat transfer fluid (HTF) for the
is reduced, such as at night or during cloud cover. The kind absorber can be the hot water from the tank, but is commonly
of storage facilities used depends on the type of collector a separate loop of fluid containing antifreeze and a corrosion
system. There are water, rock, and chemical storage inhibitor that delivers heat to the tank through a heat
systems. exchanger made of a coil of copper tubing within the tank.
Water storage is excellent because water has a high Residential SWH systems commonly have a backup
capacity for storing heat. Water in a storage tank is used electric, gas, or fuel oil central water heating system
to absorb heat from a collector. When the demand for heat that is activated when the water in the tank falls below
exceeds the collector’s output, the hot water from the a minimum temperature setting. The back-up water heat
storage tank is pumped into a radiator, or through a water- system can come from a wood-burning appliance, allowing
to-air heat exchanger for dispersal to a forced-air system. the hot water system to work all year in cooler climates,
Domestic hot water can be provided by a water-to-water without the supplemental heat requirements from
heat exchanger in the storage tank. electricity or fossil fuels.

37
Introduction to green building technology

ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES
ASSOCIATED WITH SOLAR SYSTEMS POWERPOINT

Solar systems can be enhanced by incorporating specific Create one PowerPoint slide demonstrating an air-lock
design characteristics and construction materials into entry.
the project. Some of these design characteristics and
construction materials can be added to the design without
increasing the cost of the project, while other options can be Roof overhang
expensive. The enhancements can include an air-lock entry, The sun’s angle changes from season to season. The
roof overhang considerations, clerestory windows, skylights, sun is lower on the horizon in the winter and higher
light shelves, thermal storage walls, roof ponds, green roofs, in the summer. An overhang can shield a major glass
solariums, and solar architectural concrete products. or even wall area from the heat of the summer sun
and also allow the lower winter sun to help warm the
Air-lock entry home. Figure 2.8 shows an example of how a properly
An energy-efficient design element is an air-lock entry, designed overhang can aid in the effective use or
known as a vestibule. This is an entry that provides a protection from the sun’s heat.
chamber between an exterior and interior door to the
home. The vestibule should be designed so the interior
and exterior doors are not open at the same time, by a
distance between doors of at least 7 feet (2,100 mm).
This distance forces the occupants to close one door
before they reach the other door. The main idea behind
an air-lock entry is to provide a chamber that is always
closed to the living area by a door. When the exterior
door is opened, the air-lock loses heat, but the heat
loss is confined to the small space of the vestibule and
the warm air of the living area is exposed to minimum
heat loss. Figure 2.7 shows the portion of a floor plan
demonstrating an air-lock entry.
Figure 2.8  An example of how a properly designed
overhang can aid in the effective use or protection from
the sun’s heat.

An overhang that provides nearly 100% window shading

at noon on the longest day of the year can be calculated
with a formula that divides the window height by a factor
determined in relationship to latitude (Table 2.1):

Table 2.1  F value established at various degrees of

north latitude.
North Latitude F North Latitude F
28° 8.4 44° 2.4
32° 5.2 48° 2.0
36° 3.8 52° 1.7
40° 3.0 56° 1.4

The following is an example used to calculate the

recommended southern overhang for a location at 36°
Figure 2.7  The portion of a floor plan demonstrating latitude and provide for a standard window height of 6′-8″.
an air-lock entry. Latitude is the angular distance between an imaginary line

38
 Introduction to green building technology

around the Earth parallel to the equator and including the to protect windows from summer heat and exposing
equator. F is a fixed value established at various degrees of window areas to winter sun.
north latitude shown in the previous table.

2
POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide demonstrating roof

overhang options in solar design.

Overhang protection can be constructed in ways other

than a continuation of the roof structure. For example, an Clerestory windows
awning, porch cover, or trellis can be built to serve the Clerestory windows can be used to provide light
same function as an overhang. Alternative methods of and direct solar gain to a second-floor living area and
shading from summer heat and exposing window areas increase the total solar heating capacity of a home.
to winter sun can be achieved with mechanical devices. Clerestory windows are a row of windows set along
These movable devices require the occupant to be aware the upper part of a wall. Clerestory windows can also
of the need for shade or heat at different times of the be used to help ventilate a structure during the summer
year. Figure 2.9 shows mechanical shading options used months, when the need for cooling is greater than the
need for heating. Clerestory window applications are
often found on contemporary architectural styles as
shown in Figure 2.10.

Skylights
Skylights can be used effectively for direct solar gain.
A skylight is a window in a roof used to allow sunlight to
enter. Skylights placed on a south-sloping roof provide
direct solar gain during the winter. Skylights can cause
the area to overheat in the summer unless ventilation
or a shade cover is provided. Some manufacturers have
skylights that open and can provide sufficient ventilation.
Figure 2.11 shows an application of an operable skylight.

Figure 2.10  Clerestory window applications are

often found on contemporary architectural styles
Figure 2.9  Mechanical shading options used to as seen in this design. Image copyrighted by the
protect windows from summer heat and exposing Garlinghouse Company, Plan No. 26110 and provided by
window areas to winter sun. FamilyHomePlans.com.

39
Introduction to green building technology

level of adjacent rooms is pulled in through vents at the

bottom of the wall. The vents in the Trombe wall must be
closable to avoid losing the warm air at night. The heat
absorbed in the wall during the day radiates back into the
room during the night hours. The Trombe wall also acts
to cool the structure during summer. This happens when
warm air rises between the wall and glass and is vented
to the outside and air currents work to pull cooler air from
an open north-side window or vent. Figure 2.12 shows
how the thermal storage wall system functions to help
heat the home during winter months and cool during the
summer. Large vertical water-filled tubes or drums painted
dark to absorb heat can also be installed as the Trombe
wall. The water tubes store heat during the day and
release heat at night.

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide demonstrating a thermal

Figure 2.11  An application of operable skylights.
storage wall application.

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide demonstrating clerestory

windows and a skylight application.

Light shelves
Light shelves are often placed underneath clerestory
windows to redirect light and solar energy upwards.
Reflected light is light bounced off a ceiling that has
a uniform quality to help reduce the need for artificial
lighting. In solar systems, light shelves can be used much
in the same manner as roof overhangs, to protect the
interior from overheating during summer months, and
allowing sunlight in during winter.

Thermal storage walls

Thermal storage walls are constructed of heat-absorbing
material such as concrete, masonry, or water-filled
cylinders. The storage wall is usually constructed across
from south-facing windows. The thermal wall receives and
stores energy from the sun during the day and releases the
heat slowly at night.
The Trombe wall, designed by a French scientist, Dr.
Felix Trombe, is a thermal storage wall constructed as a
massive dark-painted masonry or concrete wall situated
a few inches inside and next to south-facing glass. The
sun heats the air between the wall and the glass. The Figure 2.12  The thermal storage wall system helps
heated air rises and enters the room through vents at the heat the home during winter months and cool during
top of the wall. At the same time, cool air from the floor the summer.

40
 Introduction to green building technology

Figure 2.13  An example of the roof pond system.

Roof ponds Figure 2.14  Most green roofs cover areas on flat
Roof ponds can be used in residential architecture, but they roofs for residential and commercial buildings, with
are more common in commercial construction. A roof pond more use found in commercial applications.
is usually constructed of containers filled with antifreeze and
water on a flat roof. The water is heated during the winter reduce building temperatures, filter pollution, and lessen
days, and then at night the structure is covered with an water runoff. A green roof reduces the urban heat
insulated blanket, which allows the absorbed heat to radiate island effect and helps temper heating and cooling
into the living space. This process functions in reverse loads in the building. The urban heat island effect means
during the summer, when the water-filled units are covered that city areas are warmer than suburbs or rural areas
with insulation during the day and uncovered at night to due to less vegetation, more land coverage, and other
allow stored heat to escape. It is best for the building to be infrastructure. The green roof also slows storm water
constructed of a good thermal-conducting material such runoff from the roof and lessens the load on the city’s
as steel to assist the radiation of heat at night. Figure 2.13 wastewater system. A green roof installation is shown in
shows an example of the roof pond system. Figure 2.14.

POWERPOINT POWERPOINT
Create one PowerPoint slide demonstrating a roof pond Create one PowerPoint slide demonstrating a green roof
application. application.

Earthen floors
Solariums and sunrooms
Earthen floors are a green building technology that
A solarium is a room with walls of glass that go beyond
combines a mixture of sand, clay soil, and compacted
the eaves. Solariums often have roofs made entirely out
fibers that are poured in place and sealed with linseed oils
of glass. A sunroom is a room with walls of glass that
and waxes to make durable washable surfaces, very similar
stop at the eaves and normally have traditional looking
to linoleum. The finished surface is more comfortable to
roofs. A solarium or sunroom is constructed on the south
walk on than concrete or tile, and can be easily repaired in
side of a home next to the living area. Solar energy is
case of damage. The earthen floor system allows sunlight
absorbed and transmitted to the rest of the building
to enter the structure and be absorbed in the floor. The
through the solarium. A solarium can extend the living
stored heat helps warm the living space at night. Linoleum
area by providing an outdoor-style atmosphere where
is a material consisting of a canvas backing thickly coated
plants grow well all year. A thermal mass can also be used
with a preparation of linseed oil and powdered cork, used
in the solarium to store heat from the sun. Heat from the
especially as a floor covering.
solarium can be circulated throughout the entire home
by natural convection or through a forced-air system. The
Green roof
circulation of hot air during the winter and cool air during
A green roof is also known as a rooftop garden. The the summer allows the solarium to function like a Trombe
green roof has plants over the roof structure to help wall.

41
Introduction to green building technology

GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS
Geothermal heating and cooling systems are
mechanically similar to a conventional air source heat
pump, except that they use available water to cool the
refrigerant or to extract heat, rather than using 90°F
(32°C) air for cooling or 20–40°F (−7–4°C) air for heating
as with an air source heat pump. The conventional
heat pump is described in Chapter 13, Mechanical,
Plumbing, and Electrical Systems. The difference
between air source and ground or water source is that
air temperature can change much more than ground
or water temperatures. This gives the ground or water
source heat pump more capacity and makes it more
efficient. Water can store great amounts of geothermal
energy because of its high specific heat, which is the
amount of energy required to raise the temperature of
any substance 1°F (−17°C). The specific heat of air is
only 0.018, so it can absorb and release only 1/50 of the
energy that can be released by water. To produce a given
amount of heat, 50 times more air volume than water is
Figure 2.15  A solarium can provide an excellent living
required to pass through the unit. Geothermal heating
space that combines the comfort of the indoors with
and cooling equipment is designed to use the constant,
the atmosphere of the outdoors and provides solar
moderate temperature of the ground (50–55°F/10–13°C)
heat and circulates summer cooling.
to provide space heating and cooling, or domestic hot
The possibility of the solarium overheating during water, by placing heat exchangers in the ground or in
summer days can be reduced by mechanical ventilators water wells, lakes, rivers, or streams.
or a mechanical humidifier. Exterior shading devices can The basic types of geothermal systems are water and
also be rolled down over the solarium glass area to help refrigerant based. The water-based geothermal system
reduce overheating. Landscaping with southern deciduous has closed-loop and open-loop options. The closed-loop
trees shading the solarium can also provide for necessary system has water or water-antifreeze fluid pumped through
summer cooling. Figure 2.15 shows how a solarium can polyethylene tubes. The open-loop system has water
provide an excellent living space that combines the comfort pumped from a well or reservoir through a heat exchanger,
of the indoors with the atmosphere of the outdoors and and then discharged into a drainage ditch, a field tile, a
provides solar heat and circulates summer cooling. reservoir, or another well. The refrigerant-based system
is also known as direct exchange where refrigerant flows
in copper tubing around a heat exchanger. Direct exchange
POWERPOINT
represents only a small number of geothermal systems.
Create one PowerPoint slide demonstrating a solarium A geothermal system operates by pumping groundwater
application. from a supply well and then circulating it through a heat
exchanger, where either heat or cold is transferred by
a refrigerant. The water, which has undergone only a
Solar architectural concrete products temperature change, is then returned through a discharge
Solar collectors can be built into a patio, driveway, tennis well back to the strata. Lakes, rivers, ponds, streams,
court, pool deck, side surface of a building wall or fence, and swimming pools can be alternate sources of water.
or tile roof using solar architectural concrete products. A pond-loop system geothermal exchanger is inserted
Solar architectural cement products absorb and collect into a lake, river, or other natural body of water to extract
heat from the sun and outside air and transfer the heat heat by pumping the water up to the heat exchanger.
into water, glycol, or another heat-transferring fluid passing To cool, the geothermal heat pump extracts heat from
through embedded tubes. The finished surface can within the structure and transfers it to the fluid, where the
resemble products such as cobblestone, brick, or roof tiles. heat dissipates into the ground as it circulates. Another
They are manufactured from a specially formulated mixture alternative is to insert a geothermal Freon exchanger
that is strong, dense, very conductive, and waterproof. directly into a well, where the natural convection of the

42
 Introduction to green building technology

groundwater temperature is used to transfer hot or cold WIND ENERGY

temperature as needed. Freon, also called R22, is a
trademark used for a variety of nonflammable gaseous Wind turbines capture energy from the wind. A wind
or liquid fluorinated hydrocarbons employed primarily as turbine is turned by wind passing over propellers that power
an electric generator, creating a supply of electricity. Large-

2
working fluids in refrigeration and air conditioning and
as aerosol propellants. Sometimes the thermal transfer scale applications use several technologically advanced
must be assisted by forcing the Freon to circulate through turbines grouped together in what is referred to as a wind
tubes within the well by a low-horsepower pump. In 1997, farm. This wind power plant generates electricity that is fed
fluorocarbons were added to the Kyoto Protocol, and into a local utility for distribution to customers. Small-scale
are known to deplete the ozone layer. Environmentally wind turbines are also available for home or business use.
friendly building practices avoid fluorocarbon use. The wind speed in an area determines the effectiveness of
The Kyoto Protocol, also known as the Kyoto Accord, is possible power generation by wind. Good wind areas have an
an international treaty among industrialized nations that annual minimum average wind speed of 13 miles per hour.
sets mandatory limits on greenhouse gas emissions. Contact your state or the US Department of Energy, or search
New Freon standards in the United States are part the Internet using words such as “location for wind power,”
of the Clean Air Act, which is enforced by the US to determine the feasibility in your area. The advantage of
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). R22 Freon has wind energy is that the source is a free, renewable, clean
been discontinued for use in new air conditioners and will resource. Limitations to consider include the need for a good
no longer be manufactured by the year 2020. Government location where unobstructed wind is available, the initial
regulations require replacement of R22 Freon with a less cost, possible zoning or home owner association restrictions,
environmentally damaging substance, R410a, referred to some noise from the turbines, and possible hazard for birds
by a the common brand name Puron. The transition from flying into the turbines. The initial cost is balanced out over
R22 to R410a Freon will require Freon R22 air conditioners time when compared with the cost of fuels used for other
and heat exchangers to be replaced. R410a has been systems. In certain states, consumers can take advantage
approved for use in new residential air conditioners. of net-metering, which is the sale of unused energy back
R410a is a hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) that does not to the power grid as shown in Figure 2.17. In this application,
the wind generator is connected to the electric meter, and
contribute to ozone depletion.
nothing else changes inside the home. The wind generator
A geothermal system can assist a solar system that uses works together with the electric utility to power the home.
water as a heat storage and transfer medium. The water When the wind is not blowing, electricity is supplied to
becomes the source for operating the geothermal system the home by the utility company. The home is a net-zero
after being heated by solar collectors and has given up energy home when the amount of electricity sold to the
enough heat to reduce its temperature to below 100°F (38°C). utility matches the amount of electricity purchased. The wind
The Earth can also be used to extract either heat or cold. generator provides clean, quiet electricity for the home when
This application is possible because the ground maintains there is enough wind. When the wind generator creates more
a constant temperature below the frost line. The frost electricity than needed for the home, the system allows the
line is the depth of frost penetrating the soil, and this homeowner to sell electricity back to the utility company,
depth varies with geographic area. Thermal extraction is which produces an energy positive home. The wind
done through the use of a closed-loop system consisting generator can also provide electric energy for remote homes,
of polyethylene tubing filled with an antifreeze solution telecommunications sites, water pumping, and other rural
and circulated through the geothermal system. Another applications, or when it is not possible to connect with the
method is to use a vertical dry-hole well, which is sealed utility company. In this installation, wind generators provide
to allow it to function as a closed-loop system. Figure 2.16 direct current to batteries, which store the energy until it is
shows the installation of a horizontal earth closed-loop needed. Standard residential alternating current appliances
system, a vertical earth closed-loop system, a pond or can be used if the power is run through an inverter before
lake closed-loop system, and a water well open-loop use. Figure 2.18 shows how the wind generator works when
system. supplying DC electricity to batteries for storage and then
through an inverter to provide AC electricity to the home.

POWERPOINT POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide demonstrating geothermal Create one PowerPoint slide demonstrating a wind
systems. energy application.

43
Introduction to green building technology

(a)
(b)

(c) (d)
Figure 2.16  Typical geothermal heating and cooling systems. (a) Installation of a horizontal earth closed-loop
system. (b) A vertical earth closed-loop system. (c) A pond or lake closed-loop system. (d) A water well open-loop
system. Courtesy US Department of Energy.

NET-ZERO ENERGY OR NET METERING energy means that the home generates as much or more
energy than the occupants consume through the course of a
Net-zero energy was introduced previously in the wind year. To accomplish this, the house is connected to the utility
power discussion. Net-zero energy can be achieved with the grid. The energy is fed into the power grid when more energy
help of energy producing systems such as solar collectors, is produced than needed, and the home draws power back
photovoltaic modules, geothermal systems, wind generators, from the grid when not producing enough electricity. The first
small-scale hydroelectric generators, or biopower. Net-zero step to reaching net-zero is consumption reduction. The less

44
 2
Meter
Disconnect
Switch

Skystream provides Home connected

electricity to home to utility grid

Figure 2.17  In certain states, consumers can take advantage of net-zero energy or net-metering, which is the
sale of unused energy back to the power grid. In this application, the wind generator is connected to the electric
meter, and nothing else changes inside the home. The wind generator works together with the electric utility
to power the home. When the wind is not blowing, electricity is supplied to the home by the utility company.
Courtesy © 2016 XZERES Corporation. All Rights Reserved.

Wind
generator

PV array
Batteries provide
electricity to home

Inverter Battery bank

Whisper
Charge
Controller

PV panels provide Whisper provides

electricity to batteries electricity to batteries

Figure 2.18  How the wind generator works when supplying DC electricity to batteries for storage and then
through an inverter to provide AC electricity to the home. Courtesy © 2016 XZERES Corporation. All Rights Reserved.
Introduction to green building technology

power you use in the home, the lower the amount of power turbine and the submersible propeller. Pelton wheel turbines
you need to generate. work best with head of at least 50 feet (15.24 m), but works
well with low flow rates. This system operates when water
is channeled through a pipe and is forced across a series of
HYDROELECTRIC POWER
cups that spin a wheel. The wheel is connected to a turbine
Hydroelectric generators convert the energy from falling that generates electricity. The submersible propeller can
water into electricity. Hydroelectric power for residential operate in water as little as 1 foot (30.48 cm)
and business use depends on a good source of flowing deep, and best with 3–30 feet (0.91–9.14 m) head in
water with specific characteristics. Two key factors for a 50 GPM (189.3 L/min) or more stream flows. The water
good source of flowing water are flow rate and head. Flow flow turns the propellers that operate the turbine that
rate is calculated in gallons per minute (GPM). Head is the generates electricity. Figure 2.19 shows how the small-scale
vertical distance that water falls, measured in feet. The site hydroelectric generator provides electricity for a home.
should be evaluated and tested by a hydrology engineer to Some hydroelectric generators can be placed directly in the
determine its feasibility for generating hydroelectric power. stream, but funneling the stream into an intake pipeline at a
Examples of sites where hydroelectric power generation higher elevation than the turbine can increase the flow rate
is possible include 100 GPM (378.5 L/min) falling 10 feet and the head.
(3 m) through a pipe, or 5 GPM (18.93 L/min) falling 200
feet (60.96 m) through a pipe, can supply enough power
to run a small household. A dam can be constructed to
form a reservoir to help increase the flow rate and head, POWERPOINT
but dam construction is normally very expensive and can
cause additional environmental concerns. Local codes Create one PowerPoint slide demonstrating a
and environmental regulations must be considered before hydroelectric power application.
planning a hydroelectric project. This can be confirmed with
the local planning department, Department of Environmental
BIOPOWER
Quality, or the Department of Natural Resources. Power
produced from hydroelectric sources is clean, and free. Biopower, also referred to as biomass energy, uses
Hydroelectric power limitations include initial cost, and biomass to generate electricity in a way that is cleaner
environmental impact, such as blocking fish passage. and more efficient than most other electricity generation
There are several types of small-scale hydroelectric power techniques. Biomass generating facilities typically use
generators, with the most common being the Pelton wheel natural biofuels to produce steam, which drives a turbine

Figure 2.19  How a small-scale hydroelectric generator provides electricity for a home. Some hydroelectric
generators can be placed directly in the stream, but funneling the stream into an intake pipeline at a higher
elevation than the turbine can increase the flow rate and the head.

46
 Introduction to green building technology

that turns a generator to produce electricity. Biofuel is substance, pollutant, or contaminant. Brownfield
biomass used as fuel. Biomass means natural material, sites can be found in every state and complicate
such as trees, plants, agricultural waste, and other the expansion, redevelopment, or reuse of the land.
organic material. Organic material is any material that Common examples are abandoned gas stations and

2
originated as a living organism. Biomass refers here to dry cleaners, railroad properties, factories, and closed
plant matter grown to generate electricity or produce military bases. Brownfields can also include properties
biofuel, but it also includes plant or animal matter used that are underutilized for various socioeconomic reasons,
for production of fibers, chemicals, or heat. Biomass can such as abandonment, obsolescence, tax delinquency,
also include biodegradable wastes that can be burned and disease.
as fuel. Biomass excludes organic material such as coal
or petroleum, because coal and petroleum combustion
increases the carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere. RESEARCH
In addition to providing clean energy, biopower protects the
environment by preventing scrap lumber, agricultural cuttings,  o to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
G
forest debris, and other organic waste from being open- research options and topics that correlate with the
burned or dumped in landfills. Biopower is twice as effective content of this chapter.
at reducing greenhouse gases as other forms of renewable
energy, and is carbon neutral. Biopower also reduces carbon
dioxide emissions while diverting organic materials that would TEST
otherwise decompose, be open-burned, or accumulate in the
forest as overgrowth material. Biopower improves the forest  o to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
G
health and reduces firefighting costs by clearing forest waste, the test for this chapter.
which otherwise would be fuel for wild fires.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND PROBLEMS

GREEN BUILDING ON BROWNFIELD SITES
 o to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
G
Brownfield sites are parcels of land that have the
the problems for this chapter.
presence or potential presence of a hazardous

47
 CHAPTER 3
Drawings and specifications
Learning objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
 Read the plans found in a complete set of working drawings, including the site plan, floor plans, exterior
elevations, foundation plan framing plans, sections and details, roof plan, interior elevations, and lateral
engineering plan.
 Define terminology related to construction documents.
 Identify inch and metric architectural drawing sheet sizes.
 Find specific information on plans using zoning.
 Read architectural sheet blocks.
 Identify and describe three commonly used legal description systems.
 Find and interpret specifications found on a framing plan.
 Correlate cutting planes with related sections and details.
 Read and interpret schedules.
 Briefly describe the MasterFormat: Master List of Numbers and Titles for the Construction Industry established by
the Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) and Construction Specifications Canada (CSC).
 Create PowerPoint presentations related to drawings and specifications.
 Answer questions related to drawings and specifications.
 Explain the purpose of universal design applications.
 Establish teams based on your course objectives and use team members to read and study the selected scale
model plans, instructions, specifications, and material lists.
 Establish teams based on your course objectives and use team members to read and study the selected
home plans, instructions, specifications, and material lists for the home that will be built at your school or local
construction site.

INTRODUCTION documents contains drawings and specifications. These

combined drawings and specifications are often referred to
The drawings and written information related to a project
as plans or a set of working drawings.
are called documents. Construction documents
are drawings and written specifications prepared and This chapter describes and shows the components of a
assembled by designers, architects, and engineers for complete set of working drawings, referred to as plans or
communicating the design of the project and administering a set of plans needed to get a building permit, and for the
the construction contract. A complete set of construction general contractor and subcontractors to construct a new

49
Drawings and specifications

home. The set of plans can include but is not limited to the
you to see and correlate with textbook content. You
following drawings:
can also use these drawings to continue expanding
 Site plan your ability to read and interpret construction
 Floor plans information after you secure a position in building
 Exterior elevations construction. The following sets of plans are found
 Foundation plan on the companion website:
 Framing plans
One-story slab construction
 Electrical plan
 Sections and details One-story post and beam construction
 Roof plan Small two-story home
 Interior elevations Two-story with multiple foundations
 Lateral engineering plan
Two-story with daylight basement
Each type of drawing is described and illustrated in this
Two-story with full basement
chapter, along with basic construction practices used to
build the features displayed on the plans. More detailed Complex home with framing plans
descriptions and examples are given in the chapters where  o to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
G
specific construction practices are explained throughout this the sets of plans available for you to read and
textbook. reference.
Additional plan features are schedules and specifications
that are included with the drawings or separate from
the drawings. A schedule is a grouping of related items ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING FORMAT
that formats information into rows and columns in order This textbook refers to the reproduction of architectural
to more easily present design information. Examples drawings as prints. Prints are generally made on a printer
include door schedules, window schedules, and finish that is a mechanical process involving the transfer of text,
schedules. A specification is an exact statement images, or designs from a computer file to paper. Blueprint
describing the characteristics of a particular aspect of is an old term sometimes used in the construction business
the project. Specifications can be found within the plans when referring to prints. Blueprinting is an old method that
or in separate documents. Each of these plan features is results in a print with a dark blue background and white lines.
described with examples given throughout this chapter. Another previously used print process is blue-line prints.
The discussion and examples use a set of plans for a Blue-line prints are made using the diazo process. The diazo
typical two-story home. The complete set of plans for this process uses a chemically coated sheet placed under an
home and two other homes are provided for you on the original drawing and both exposed to light that removes the
companion website where you can see the drawings on chemical except under images. The sheet is then exposed
your computer screen or make prints of the drawings for to ammonia vapor that turns the remaining chemical to a
study. blue color. You can find some of these in a museum or in
a company’s drawing archives. The reproduction methods
commonly used today are photocopy reproduction and the
use of computer-aided design and drafting (CADD) files for
POWERPOINT reproducing drawings with large format printers.
Create one PowerPoint slide containing a definition
Sheet sizes
of construction documents, plans, and a set of
working drawings. Also list the drawings found in a Architectural drafting offices generally use inch sheet
set of plans. sizes, such as 34 × 22. The sheet size values are given
with the first number specifying the sheet width and the
second number as the sheet height. Standard sheet sizes
NOTE generally fold into 8-1/2 × 11 or 9 × 12 format. Inch sheet
sizes are also identified by letters A through F as shown
As you use this textbook to study residential
in Table 3.1. The sheet sizes shown in Table 3.1 are based
construction, you will discover the importance of
on the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
being able to read actual architectural drawings that
standards that do not normally match architectural sheet
are used to build homes. Several complete sets of
sizes. Architectural sheet sizes are generally specified as
residential drawings are provided on the website for
ARCH A, ARCH B, ARCH C, ARCH D, and ARCH E with

50
 Drawings and specifications

Table 3.1  Standard inch drawing sheet sizes.

NOTE
Size Designation Size in Inches
Vertical Horizontal The revision history block and any related revision
A 8-1/2 11 (horizontal format) clouds are only created after plans are approved
11 8-1/2 (vertical format) and released for construction. Prior to formal
completion, design changes can be documented and
B 11 17
recorded depending on the specific practice used by
C 17 22

3
the architectural office. A revision cloud is a cloud-
D 22 34
shaped circle around a change made to a drawing
E 34 44 or print after the drawing has been released for
F 28 40 construction, and to highlight the change in the field.

Table 3.2  Standard metric drawing sheet sizes.

Size Designation Size in Millimeters Architectural sheet blocks are generally placed along the
Vertical Horizontal right side of the sheet, or across the bottom of the sheet.
A0 841 1,189 Each company uses a slightly different sheet block design,
A1 594 841 but the following information is found in most sheet blocks:
A2 420 594 Drawing number. This can be a specific job or file
A3 297 420 number for the drawing.
A4 210 297 Company name, address, and phone number.
Project or client. This is an identification of the project
by company or client name, project title, or location.
common dimensions of 12 × 9, 18 × 12, 24 × 18, 36 × 24, Drawing name. This is where the title of the drawing
48 × 36, and 42 × 30. can be placed. For example, MAIN FLOOR PLAN or
The International Standards Organization (ISO) has ELEVATIONS. Most companies omit this information
established standard metric drawing sheet sizes that are from the title block and place it on the face of the
specified using a letter and number code A0 through A4 as sheet below the drawing.
shown in Table 3.2. Scale. Some company title blocks provide a location
for the general scale of the drawing. The scale of
Zoning any view or detail on the sheet that differs from
the general scale is identified below the view title
Zoning is a system of numbers along the top and bottom
and both placed directly below the view. Most
margins and letters along the left and right margins of
companies omit the scale from the title block and
the sheet. Zoning allows the drawing to be read like a
place it on the sheet directly below the title of each
road map. For example, you can refer to the location of a
individual plan, view, or detail.
specific feature as C-5, which means the feature is found at
or near the intersection of C across and 5 up or down. Drawing or sheet identification. Each sheet is
numbered in relation to the entire set of drawings.
Reading architectural sheet blocks For example, if the complete set of drawings has
eight sheets, each consecutive sheet is numbered
Sheet blocks are a group of informational areas normally 1 of 8, 2 of 8, 3 of 8, and so on, to 8 of 8. Drawings
surrounded by border lines and grouped in one consistent can also be divided into major divisions, such as
location on the drawings. Architectural sheet blocks can A (architectural), S (structural), M (mechanical), and
include title blocks and revision history blocks. Most P (plumbing).
architectural firms use one basic sheet size with borders
Date. The date when the drawing or project is
and sheet blocks. A title block provides a variety of
completed.
information about the company, client, and the drawing,
such as company and client name, the title of the drawing, Drawn by. This is where the drafter, designer, or
sheet size, predominate scale, and sheet page number. architect that prepared this drawing places his or her
The revision history block, also called the revision block, initials or name.
is used to record changes to the drawing and is generally Checked by. This is the identification of the individual
located in or next to the title block. that approves the drawing for release.

51
Drawings and specifications

Architect or designer. Most title blocks provide the SITE PLAN

identification of the individual that designed the
A site plan is a scale drawing that describes how a parcel
home or structure.
of land is to be improved. The site can be any size piece of
Revisions. Many companies provide a revision history property ranging from a lot to large acreage. A scale is a
block or column in which drawing changes are measurement unit representing a proportional relationship
identified and recorded. Where changes are made on between a reduced-size drawing and the actual full-sized
the face of the drawing after it has been released for feature. Site plans are normally drawn at a scale of 1” = 10’,
construction, a circle with a revision number or letter 1” = 20’, 1” = 50’, or 1” = 100’ depending on the size of the
accompanies the change. This revision number is site. A lot or plot is a parcel of land that can be an individual
keyed to a place in the drawing title block or revision piece of real estate, but is often one of several lots in a
history block where the revision number, revision plat. A plat is a map of part of a city or township showing
date, initials of the individual making the change, a specific area, such as a subdivision made up of several
and an optional brief description of the revision are individual lots. A subdivision is a parcel of land that has been
located. divided into two or more pieces and developed with roads
Area. With residential construction, many companies and utilities for easier sale. A subdivision is also called a
provide the square footage and total area of the housing subdivision, housing development, or community.
home in the title block, or in a block on the front The site plan includes the outlines of all structures and
page of the plan set. site improvements, such as driveways, parking lots,
Copyright information. House plans and designs are and utility lines and connections. Utility lines include
protected by copyright and important information electrical, phone, cable, and sewer. A site plan also
regarding federal regulations and rights associated shows topography, setbacks, easements, and a legal
with construction documents are often included in description. Topography is shown as contour lines
the title block. representing given heights of the geographical landscape.
Contour lines, also called contours, are lines that join
points of equal elevation (height) above an established
NOTE
zero level, to help demonstrate the general lay of the land.
 o to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
G A setback is the minimum distance required between the
several complete sets of residential plans. Look structure and the property line. An easement is a right
at these plans to find the sheet blocks and related given to a person or entity to access a portion of land that
information. Also, take as many opportunities is owned by another person or entity. Easements can be
as possible to look at actual architectural used to protect sensitive areas of property, for roads and
drawings by visiting local architects, professional pathways or for utility companies to install and access
engineers, architectural designers, and home utility lines. Easements are part of the land and included in
contractors. The following sets of plans are found the legal description, and a property owner cannot obstruct
on the companion website: or build on top of an easement. Legal descriptions are
described later in this section. Figure 3.1 shows a typical
One-story slab construction
site plan with the features labeled. Some site plans can
One-story post and beam construction also show landscaping and underground sprinkler systems,
Small two-story home although these features can be separate from the site
Two-story with multiple foundations plan requirements for a building permit. The term elevation
refers to the height of a feature from a known base, which
Two-story with daylight basement
is usually given as 0 (zero elevation).
Two-story with full basement
Complex home with framing plans NOTE

Actual residential building construction drawings

provided throughout this textbook can be at a small
POWERPOINT
scale when displayed on a textbook page. These figures
Create one PowerPoint slide containing sample give you a representation of each actual drawing.
architectural sheet blocks. These can be found on the Go to the image library at www.routedge.com/cw/
drawings provided on the companion website or by madsen to view these drawings in detail on your
visiting a local architecture or construction office. computer screen.

52
 3

Figure 3.1  Typical site plan. Courtesy Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc. This figure provides a full or partial
representation of the actual drawing. Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen image library to view the
drawing in detail on your computer screen.
Drawings and specifications

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide containing a typical

basic site plan with the characteristics labeled.
This can be found on the drawings provided on the
companion website.

Legal descriptions
A legal description is established for every piece of
property in the United States for legal identification,
making each piece of property unique. Legal descriptions
of properties are filed in local jurisdictions, generally county
or parish courthouses. Legal descriptions are public records
and can be reviewed at any time. There are three types of
legal descriptions: metes and bounds, rectangular survey
system, and lot and block.
Figure 3.2  Reading bearings.
Metes and bounds legal description
The metes and bounds legal description is used to
identify the perimeters of any property using metes that describing land known as the rectangular survey system.
are measurements, and bounds that are boundaries. The Parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude were used
metes are measured in feet, yards, rods (rd), or surveyor’s to establish areas known as great land surveys. Lines of
chains (ch). There are 3 feet (914 mm) in 1 yard, 5.5 yards latitude, also called parallels, are imaginary parallel lines
or 16.5 feet (5,029 mm) in 1 rod, and 66 feet (20,117 mm) running east and west. Lines of longitude, also called
in 1 surveyor’s chain. The boundaries can be a street, fence, meridians, are imaginary lines running north and south.
stream, river, lake, or surveyed line. Surveyed boundaries The point of beginning of each great land survey is where
are established as bearings, which are directions with two basic reference lines cross. The lines of latitude,
reference to one quadrant of the compass. There are 360° or parallels, are termed the baselines, and the lines of
in a circle or compass, and each quadrant has 90°. Degrees longitude, or meridians, are called principal meridians.
(°) are divided into minutes (′) and seconds (″). There are There are 31 sets of these lines in the continental United
60 minutes (60′) in 1 degree and 60 seconds (60″) States and 5 in Alaska. At the beginning, the principal
in 1 minute. Bearings are measured clockwise or meridians were numbered, and the numbering system
counterclockwise from north or south. For example, a ended with the sixth principal meridian passing through
reading 45° from north to west is labeled N45°W, as Nebraska, Kansas, and Oklahoma. The remaining principal
shown in Figure 3.2. Fractions of a degree are used when a meridians were given local names. For example, the
bearing reading requires additional accuracy. For example, meridian through one of the last great land surveys near
S30°20′10″E reads from south 30 degrees 20 minutes the West Coast is named the Willamette Meridian because
10 seconds to east. of its location in the Willamette Valley of Oregon. The
The metes and bounds land survey begins with a principal meridians and base lines of the great land surveys
monument, known as the point of beginning (POB). This are shown in Figure 3.4.
point is a fixed location that is generally an iron rod driven The great land surveys are divided into smaller surveys
into the ground. Figure 3.3 shows an example of a site plan known as townships and sections. The base lines and
laid out using metes and bounds. meridians are divided into blocks called townships. Each
township measures 6 miles square. The townships
Rectangular survey system
are numbered by tiers running north to south. The tier
The states in an area of the United States starting with numbering system is established either north or south of
the western boundary of Ohio to the Pacific Ocean, and a principal base line. For example, the second tier north
including some southeastern states and Alaska, are of the base line is labeled Township Number 2 North,
described as public land states. Within this area the abbreviated T. 2 N. Townships are also numbered according
US Bureau of Land Management devised a system for to vertical meridians, known as ranges. Ranges are

54
Figure 3.3  A metes and bounds site plan. Courtesy Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc. Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen image
library to view the drawing in detail on your computer screen.
3
Figure 3.4  Principal meridians and base lines of the great land survey. Courtesy US Bureau of Land Management. Go to www.routledge.
com/cw/madsen image library to view the drawing in detail on your computer screen.
 Drawings and specifications

established either east or west of a principal meridian. The divided into smaller and smaller pieces of land using the
second range east of the principal meridian is called Range rectangular system. For example, the complete rectangular
Number 2 East, abbreviated R. 2 E. You can locate the system legal description of a 2.5-acre piece of land in
exact township by combining T. 2 N. and R. 2 E. as shown Section 34 reads: SW 1/4, SE 1/4, SE 1/4, SE 1/4 Sec. 34, T.
in Figure 3.5(a). A township is 6 miles by 6 miles or a total 2 N., R. 2 E. of the San Bernardino Meridian, in the County
of 36 square miles. of Los Angeles, State of California. Study Figure 3.7 to see
To further locate the land within a township 6 miles square, the 2.5-acre piece of land described here and a variety of
the area is divided into units 1 mile square, called sections. other examples showing how a section can be divided into
Sections in a township are numbered from 1 to 36. Section 1
always begins in the upper-right corner, and consecutive
numbers are arranged as shown in Figure 3.5(b). The legal
smaller pieces of land.

Lot and block legal description

3
description for section 34 shown in Figure 3.5(b) is identified The lot and block legal description system can be
as Sec. 34, T. 2 N., R. 2 E. A section is 1 mile square. Sections established from either the metes and bounds or the
are divided into acres. One acre equals 43,560 square feet, rectangular system. Generally, when a portion of land is
and one section of land contains 640 acres. subdivided into individual building lots, the subdivision is
Sections are divided into quarters to continue describing established as a legal plat and recorded by name in the
smaller pieces of land in a township, as shown in local county records. The subdivision is given a name and
Figure 3.5(c). The northeast one-quarter of Section 34 is a broken into blocks of lots. A subdivision can have several
160-acre piece of land described as NE 1/4, Sec. 34, T. 2 N., blocks with each block divided into a group of lots. Each
R. 2 E. When this section is keyed to a specific meridian, lot is normally approximately the same size depending on
it can be only one specific 160-acre area. A section can be the zoning requirements of the specific area. Figure 3.8
divided further by separating each quarter into quarters, as shows an example of a typical lot and block system. The lot
shown in Figure 3.6. For example, the SW 1/4 of the NE and block legal description for the shaded area in Figure 3.8
1/4 of Section 34 is 40 acres described as SW 1/4, NE 1/4, reads LOT 24, BLOCK 1, CEDAR RIDGE PLANTATION,
Sec. 34, T. 2 N., R. 2 E. Any section in a township can be COUNTY OF MCCORMICK, STATE OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

Figure 3.5  Townships and sections. (a) The second range east of the principal meridian is called Range Number 2
East, abbreviated R. 2 E. (b) One township has 36 sections. (c) A section is 1 mile square and this section is divided
into quarter sections.

57
Drawings and specifications

restrictions can control minimum setbacks, building height,

and environmental controls. A basic purpose of zoning is to
segregate uses that are thought to be incompatible, such
as residential, commercial, and farmland.

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide containing an example

of a metes and bounds, rectangular, and lot and
Figure 3.6  Dividing a quarter section into quarters. block legal description.

Zoning is used by local governments for land use planning

FLOOR PLANS
based on mapped zones which separate one set of land A floor plan is a scale drawing showing the arrangement,
uses from another. Zoning is used to control population sizes, and location of rooms in one story of a building.
density by establishing maximum lot sizes or building A floor plan is a representation provided by an imaginary
types such as single- or multifamily housing. Other zoning horizontal cut made through the home at approximately

Figure 3.7  Any section in a township can be divided into smaller and smaller pieces of land using the
rectangular system.

58
 Drawings and specifications

Figure 3.8  A typical lot and block system. The lot and block legal description for the shaded property reads LOT
24, BLOCK 1, CEDAR RIDGE PLANTATION, COUNTY OF MCCORMICK, STATE OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

4 feet (1,220 mm) above the floor line. Residential floor the length of the dimension value. Floor plan dimensions
plans are generally drawn at a scale of 1/4″ = 1′-0″. are used to provide the size and location of features on the
The floor plans communicate the overall construction floor plan. Dimensions generally run from exterior walls at
requirements to the builder. Symbols are used on floor the outside face of studs to the center of interior partitions,
plans to describe items associated with the structure of center of windows, and center of doors. Exterior walls are
the home, such as doors, windows, cabinets, plumbing constructed around the exterior perimeter of the home and
fixtures, stairs, and fireplaces. Other symbols are also generally support the roof structure. Interior partitions are
displayed that relate to the construction of the home, such constructed to form the walls within the home and can be
as electrical symbols and circuits, and construction material bearing or non-bearing. Bearing partitions carry structural
sizes and spacing. Floor plans also have dimensions, weight from above and distribute the weight to the ground.
notes, and titles. A dimension is shown on a drawing using Non-bearing partitions do not carry a structural load.
extension lines, a dimension line, and a numerical value Studs are vertical framing members used to construct
giving the measurement. Extension lines originate from walls and partitions. The studs are usually 2 × 4 or 2 × 6
the feature and extend past the dimension line that shows dimensional lumber and spaced 16 or 24 inches on

59
Drawings and specifications

Table 3.3  Typical nominal and milled dimensions for can also see the exterior doors and windows along with
dimensional lumber. floor-to-floor dimensions, building height, and roof slope.
Some elevations show the below-ground structure such
Nominal sizes in inches Milled sizes in inches
as the foundation or basement using dashed lines, also
1 3/4
referred to as hidden lines. These lines are called hidden
2 1-1/2
lines because they represent something hidden from
4 3-1/2
view, such as underground structures or anything that is
6 5-1/2 not visible in the view. Elevations are usually given titles,
8 7-1/4 such as FRONT, REAR, LEFT, and RIGHT to identify the
10 9-1/4 view being displayed. Sometimes elevations are titled
12 11-1/4 with NORTH, SOUTH, EAST, and WEST if their compass
14 13-1/4 orientation is known. Elevations are commonly drawn at
1/4″ = 1′-0″ scale. Sometimes the front elevation is drawn
at 1/4″ = 1′-0″ scale and the other elevations are drawn
center. Dimensional lumber has been milled from 2- to at 1/8″ = 1′-0″ scale. The front elevation often has more
4-inch widths and has less than 19% moisture content. detail than other elevations and features such as trees and
The actual dimensions of dimensional lumber is the milled shadows can be drawn for a more realistic representation.
size. For example, 2 × 4 is referred to as the nominal size Figure 3.10 (on p. 64) shows the front elevation of the
of lumber and 1-1/2 × 3-1/2 inches is the actual finished home floor plans displayed in Figure 3.9. Figure 3.11
milled size. Table 3.3 shows a typical range of lumber (on pp. 65–67) shows the left side, right side, and rear
sizes. The word framing refers to the construction of the elevations of the home floor plans displayed in Figure 3.9.
structural parts of a house. Notes are written information
found on the floor plans to identify specific features or
general features relating to the entire floor plan. Figure 3.9 POWERPOINT
shows a typical complete floor plan, including the main
floor plan, the upper floor plan, and the basement floor Create one PowerPoint slide containing a front
plan. The floor plan symbols and features are labeled in elevation with characteristics labeled. The elevation
Figure 3.9 for your reference. Take time to study the floor can be found on the drawings provided on the
plan drawings and observe the symbols and features used companion website.
to create the drawings.
You must be able to identify floor plan symbols and read FOUNDATION PLAN
dimensions as a contractor or construction worker. You
should also be familiar with standard products the symbols The foundation plan is a scale drawing used to display
represent, such as plumbing fixtures, appliances, windows, construction features and dimensions for the foundation
and doors that are usually available from manufacturers and of the home. The foundation plan scale is normally
local vendors. Some fixtures or materials must be ordered 1/4″ = 1′-0″. The foundation is the construction system
from a manufacturer or supplier far enough in advance used to support the structure loads and distribute the
to guarantee delivery to the job site when needed for loads to the ground. Foundation systems are typically
installation. made of concrete or a combination of concrete and
concrete block along with wood framing members. The
key features of a foundation are the footings, foundation
POWERPOINT walls, stem walls, and piers. Concrete is a construction
material made from cement, sand, gravel, and water mixed
Create one PowerPoint slide containing a basic together and set in a form along with steel reinforcement
floor plan with characteristics labeled. The floor to make a solid structure when cured. Concrete blocks are
plan can be found on the drawings provided on the prefabricated construction blocks made from concrete.
companion website. Standard size concrete blocks are 4 × 8 × 16 inches and
8 × 8 × 16 inches. Footings are the lowest member of
the foundation system used to spread the loads of the
ELEVATIONS
structure on the supporting ground. Foundation walls are
An elevation is a two-dimensional (2D) exterior view of a the vertical walls of the foundation system that connect
building. The elevations are drawn to show how the home between the footings and the structure above. Stem walls
looks from the outside when finished. Elevations show are used at the interior of the foundation system to support
finish materials, such as siding, masonry, and roofing. You structural members at mid-span. The stem wall structure

60
 Cutting plane line Ceiling-mounted light fixture

Dryer Exterior wall

Washer
Window
Wall-mounted light fixture Sliding glass door
Hose bibb
Data outlet

Fan Telephone outlet

Construction framing
Cable outlet

Water closet Base cabinet

Room title
Convenience Upper cabinet
outlet
Interior door
Room dimensions
Sink
Beam
Dishwasher
Range
Refrigerator Fireplace
Pantry
Note

Stairs
Post
Interior dimension

Outline of upper floor

Overhead garage door Interior Double door

partition
Header Recessed light fixture

Masonry veneer

Title Exterior entry door Exterior dimension

Drawing scale Recessed light fixture

(a)
Figure 3.9  Typical complete floor plans. (a) The main floor plan. (b) The upper floor plan. (c) The basement floor plan.
Courtesy Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc. Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen image library to view the
drawing in detail on your computer screen.
3
 Cutting plane line Shower Water closet

Exterior wall
Tub with shower Fluorescent light fixture

Cable outlet Fan Spa Interior partition

Window
Room title

Convenience
Room dimensions
outlet

Recessed light
Vanity
fixture
Sink
Roof
Closet pitch

Note

Post Stairs

Beam Double
door

Skylight

Ceiling-mounted
light fixture

Mechanical chase
Outline of main floor
Outline of roof
Construction
Title Drawing scale framing Exterior dimension

(b)

Figure 3.9  (Continued)

 Cutting plane line

Ceiling-mounted light fixture Window

Water heater Window well

Cut-out Foundation wall

Beam

Furnace

Note Beam pocket

Pier

Stairs
Post

Construction framing
Footing

Edge of slab

Masonry veneer

Title
Dimension
Drawing scale
(c)

Figure 3.9  (Continued)

3
 Note

Roof pitch

Outline of roof

Window
Outline of wall
Gutter

Overhead garage door Stone veneer

Window well
Dimension Exterior entry door

Title

Drawing scale
Figure 3.10  Front elevation of the home floor plans displayed in Figure 3.9. Courtesy Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc.
 Roof pitch

Roof outline

Note

Wall outline

Patio slab

Title
Dimension
Drawing scale

(a)

Figure 3.11  (a) Left side, (b) right side, and (c) rear elevations of the home floor plans displayed in Figure 3.9. Courtesy Alan Mascord Design
Associates, Inc. Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen image library to view the drawing in detail on your computer screen.
3
 Skylight

Window
Gutter

Fireplace

Foundation wall

Footing

Figure 3.11  (Continued) (b)

 Window well

Sliding glass door

(c)

Figure 3.11  (Continued)

3
Drawings and specifications

usually has a continuous footing with either a concrete that are used to support floor systems, wall or roof loads.
foundation wall or a wood frame wall tied to the footing. The beams in a post and beam system generally rest in
The term span refers to the horizontal distance between a pocket provided at the foundation wall, and the top of
two supporting members. A pier is a cylindrical, square, or the beams are flush with the sill anchored to the top of
rectangular structure made of concrete or concrete block the foundation wall. The sill is a continuous pressure-
and used to support individual foundation members. Piers treated wood member that provides a barrier between the
can also be called footings. Figure 3.12 shows the parts of foundation wall and the framing above. Pressure-treated
a typical foundation, stem wall, and pier system. means that wood has had a liquid preservative forced
There are several different types of foundation systems inside to protect against deterioration due to rot or insect
used in residential construction throughout the United damage. Figure 3.13 shows the basic components of the
States and Canada. The basic foundation systems are the post and beam foundation system. Figure 3.14 shows
crawl space, concrete slab, basement, and post and a typical crawl space foundation plan using post and
beam or pole construction. beam construction. Additional detailed descriptions and
The crawl space system has a perimeter footing and illustrations are provided in Chapter 5, Foundation Materials
foundation wall with interior piers and stem walls to and Construction.
support the mid-span structure above. The term crawl Joist construction uses standard dimensional lumber
space refers to a space that is at least 18 inches (450 mm) or engineered wood products as joists that span
between the bottom of the wood structure and the ground between foundation walls and can be supported at
that provides access to install and service plumbing, and mid-span by post and beam or stem walls. Joists are
heating and cooling systems where appropriate. There dimensional lumber such as 2 × 8, 2 × 10, or 2 × 12,
are two basic types of crawl space construction, which or engineered wood products that are spaced 12, 16, or
are the post and beam and joist construction. Post 24 inches on center depending on the span and structural
and beam construction uses wood posts supported by engineering requirements. Engineered wood products
concrete piers or footings with beams above. The beams are a combination of smaller components used to make
are generally spaced 48 inches (1,200 mm) apart and run structural products that have been engineered for specific
between the foundation walls. Wood decking is fastened applications and fabricated in a manufacturing facility and
above and perpendicular to the beams. Posts are vertical delivered to the construction site. The joists generally rest
wood members that connect between a pier or footing and on top of the sill that is fastened to the foundation wall
support the beam above. Posts can be any size depending with anchor bolts. A rim joist is used at the perimeter of
on structural engineering, but they are commonly 4 × 4 the foundation to support the ends of the joists and provide
or 4 × 6. Beams are horizontal construction members for perimeter support. Anchor bolts are steel L-shaped

Figure 3.12  Parts of a typical foundation, stem wall, and pier system.

68
 Drawings and specifications

Figure 3.13  Parts of the post and beam foundation system. (a) Using T&G dimensional lumber subfloor called
decking. (b) Using T&G plywood or OSB subfloor.

bolts that are imbedded in the top of the foundation wall shows the basic components of the joist foundation
and extend out far enough to fasten the sill with a washer system. A typical crawl space foundation plan using joist
and nut at each bolt. Plywood sheathing is fastened to construction is shown in Figure 3.16 (on p. 72).
the floor joists to reinforce the structure and provide a
backing for finish materials. Plywood is sheets of material
generally 4 × 8 feet (1,200 × 2,400 mm) made of thin NOTE
layers of wood called veneer. Veneer is thin sheets of
Additional detailed descriptions and illustrations
wood glued together to form plywood or glued to a wood
are provided in Chapter 5, Foundation Materials and
base material. The veneer is glued together with the grain
Construction.
of adjoining layers at right angles to each other. Figure 3.15

69
Foundation
wall Vent Post Beam Pier Beam pocket

Cut-out

Block out
Cutting plane line

Crawl space access

Note

Edge of slab

Footing Dimension Masonry veneer

Title

Drawing scale
Figure 3.14  Typical crawl space foundation plan using post and beam construction. Courtesy Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc. Go to
www.routledge.com/cw/madsen image library to view the drawing in detail on your computer screen.
 Drawings and specifications

Figure 3.15  Parts of a joist foundation system.

The concrete slab foundation system is used on level

sites in warm climates where the ground does not typically
NOTE
freeze in the winter. Freezing can cause the slab to move
Additional detailed descriptions and illustrations
and crack. The concrete slab foundation system generally
are provided in Chapter 5, Foundation Materials and
uses 3-1/2 inch (90 mm) reinforced concrete that is referred
Construction.
to as a slab, a flat concrete pad poured directly on the
ground or on compact gravel fill over the ground. The
concrete can be thicker depending on specific engineering
The basement foundation uses a concrete footing and
requirements. Steel reinforcing is placed in the slab to
steel reinforced concrete or concrete block foundation wall
help stabilize the concrete and minimize cracking. Steel
that extends from the footing to the floor framing above.
reinforcing is described in detail in Chapter 5, Foundation
The foundation wall is normally treated with waterproofing
Materials and Construction. There is an expanded concrete
on the outside, and there is drain gravel and a drain tile to
perimeter footing and interior footings where required
keep water from entering the basement. The foundation
to support structural loads from above and distribute the
wall can also be insulated with rigid insulation as needed to
loads to the ground. The concrete slab and the footings
meet code and green building certification requirements.
must be placed on firm, undisturbed ground that meets
The basement floor is a concrete slab that rests on the
specific engineering requirements. Compacted gravel is
footing at the foundation wall. Finish materials are placed
often used under the slab to level the site. Concrete slabs
on the slab to complete the basement floor. Figure 3.19
have control joints placed periodically across the slab to
(on p. 75) shows the basic components of a basement
control cracking. Cracking occurs in concrete slabs when
foundation system. A typical basement foundation plan is
the concrete solidifies after being poured. The control
shown in Figure 3.20 (on p. 76).
joints help restrict the cracking to the locations where the
control joints are placed. Control joints can be a cut made
in the slab, or a prefabricated joint that separates the slab
at specific locations. Insulation, plumbing, and heating NOTE
systems are normally installed in the ground before the
Additional detailed descriptions and illustrations
slab is poured. Figure 3.17 shows the basic components of
are provided in Chapter 5, Foundation Materials and
a concrete slab foundation system. A typical concrete slab
Construction.
foundation plan is shown in Figure 3.18 (on p. 74).

71
Figure 3.16  Typical crawl space foundation plan using joist construction. Courtesy Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc. Go to www.
routledge.com/cw/madsen image library to view the drawing in detail on your computer screen.
 Drawings and specifications

Figure 3.17  Parts of a concrete slab foundation system.

Post and beam or pole construction is also referred to as FRAMING PLANS

timber-frame construction or pole buildings, generally
using large posts and beams or timbers for the horizontal A framing plan shows the construction members used in
and vertical members. Pole buildings are constructed floor framing, roof framing, and the framing of construction
using a combination of post and beam, timber framing and features such as decks. There are two basic methods used
conventional stud framing depending on the requirements to show framing on plans. The first technique details the
of the specific building. The vertical poles or posts are used framing members directly on the floor plans, and the second
as the building supports to which the horizontal framing method provides separate framing plans that display only
beams are fastened. The posts or poles can be treated and the floor framing members. It is common for the framing
embedded into the ground, or tied to reinforced concrete members to be shown on the floor plans as in Figure 3.9.
footings on the ground. Pole buildings are commonly used The Main Floor Plan notes the framing found in the structure
for utility buildings and structures such as barns, sheds, above the floor, such as ceiling joists, beams, girders,
shops, warehouses, waterfront piers, and aircraft hangars. headers, and trusses. Ceiling joists are the horizontal
Most agriculture and utility pole buildings are uninsulated members of the floor above or roof that are used to resist
and can have one or more sides left open for easy access. the outward spread of the walls or rafters and to provide a
Pole building construction can also be used to build surface on which to mount the finished ceiling. A girder is
vacation cabins and homes, which are popular on the West a horizontal structural member made of wood, laminated
Coast and tropical locations such as Hawaii. Figure 3.21 wood, engineered wood, or steel that spans between
(on p. 77) shows two options for post or pole construction two or more supports at the foundation level or above any
at the foundation. Figure 3.21(a) shows the pole is floor level. A header is a horizontal structural member that
embedded in the ground. Figure 3.21(b) shows the pole is supports the load over an opening such as a door or window,
anchored to a reinforced concrete piers or footing. or around an opening. A truss is a prefabricated or job-built
construction member formed of triangular shapes used to
support roof or floor loads over long spans. Figure 3.22
(on pp. 78–79) shows the Main Floor Plan (a) and Upper Floor
POWERPOINT Plan (b) from Figure 3.9 with only the framing members
displayed for you to easily see their representations. Notice
Create four PowerPoint slides containing the how joists are shown using a line with an arrow at each end.
following foundation systems with characteristics The line is broken between the ends and labeled with the
labeled: a crawl space using joist construction, a joist size and spacing, such as 2 × 12 FLR. JSTS. @ 12 O.C.
crawl space using post and beam construction, Each component of this note is identified:
a concrete slab foundation, and a basement 2 × 12 is the nominal size of the floor joists, which are
foundation. The floor plan can be found on the 2 × 12 inch construction members.
drawings provided on the companion website.
FLR. is the abbreviation for floor.

73
 Plumbing fixture reference Cutting plane line

Foundation
wall

Note

Footing

Cut-out

Dimension

Edge of slab
Title
Drawing scale

Figure 3.18  Typical concrete slab foundation plan. Courtesy Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc. Go to www.
routledge.com/cw/madsen image library to view the drawing in detail on your computer screen.
 Drawings and specifications

Figure 3.19  Parts of a basement foundation system.

JSTS. is the abbreviation for joists. all the structural beams in the floorplan which refers
@ means at or spaced at. contractors and plans examiners to the structural
O.C. is the abbreviation for on center. calculation used for sizing the beam. The 6 × 12
designates the nominal size of this solid lumber
Look at the Main Floor Plan in Figure 3.22(a) again and find
beam. BM is the abbreviation for beam.
dashed lines with the following labels and identification:
M5–5-1/8″ × 18″ G.L. BM. The M5 designates the
4 × 12: This is a 4 × 12 inch nominal size header over a
name of the beam in the beam key. The 5-1/8″ ×
door used to support the load above.
18″ designates the size of the beam, in this case a
(2) 2 × 12: This is two 2 × 12 inch nominal construction glued-laminated beam, referred to as a glu lam.,
members nailed together as a header and used to gl bm., or glb. A glued-laminated beam is a structural
support an opening. member made up of layers of lumber that are glued
M2–6 × 12 BM: The M2 designates a name for this together. Use of the abbreviation G.L. BM. is this
beam, in the beam key. The beam key is a map of office’s practice for designating glu-lam beams.

75
Figure 3.20  Typical basement foundation plan. Courtesy Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc. Go to www.
routledge.com/cw/madsen image library to view the drawing in detail on your computer screen.
 Drawings and specifications

Post
Pressure treated post
Post anchor

(b) Reinforced concrete

Ground footing
(a)

Concrete footing

Gravel filled hole

3
Figure 3.21  Post or pole construction at the foundation options. (a) Post is embedded in the ground. (b) Post is
anchored to a reinforced concrete footing.

Now look at the Upper Floor Plan in Figure 3.22(b), and find Flush beams are beams that have the joists intersecting
these construction members: the beams and the bottom of the beams are flush with
MFD. TRUSSES 24″ O.C.: MFD. is the abbreviation for the bottom of the joists and hidden in the ceiling, as
manufactured, which means that the trusses are shown in Figure 3.23(b). When the beam height is greater
built at a manufacturing company and delivered to than the joists, then the beam can be partly exposed
the job site. Trusses used on the project are required above or below the joists depending on the desired
to have specific structural engineering design appearance and construction requirements, as shown in
drawings and calculations submitted with the plans. Figure 3.23(c). Bearing locations on the floor framing plan
The 24″ O.C. means that the trusses are spaced are where bearing walls above the floor being framed rest
apart 24 inches on center. on the joists or beams. Bearing locations are shown as
shaded grey in this example framing plan. A sample floor
MFD. SCISSOR TRUSSES 24″ O.C.: A scissor truss is a
framing plan is shown in Figure 3.24 (on p. 81).
truss that has the bottom chord at a slope, creating a
sloped ceiling.
GIRDER TRUSS: A girder truss is a truss used to hold POWERPOINT
trusses that are perpendicular to the girder truss.
The bottom chord of a girder truss is typically a Create one PowerPoint slide containing a floor
larger supporting member. framing plan showing the actual framing layout with
characteristics labeled. The floor framing plan can be
found on the drawings provided on the companion
POWERPOINT website.

Create one PowerPoint slide containing a floor plan

with framing content and framing characteristics
NOTE
labeled. The floor plan can be found on the drawings
provided on the companion website. The following chapters provide detailed descriptions
and illustrations for the construction members
The other method used to display floor framing on plans identified here: Chapter 5, Foundation Materials and
is the use of framing plans that are separate from the Construction, Chapter 6, Floor Framing Materials and
floor plans. Framing plans allow you to see only the floor Construction, Chapter 7, Wall Framing Materials and
framing required for the specific floor construction. When Construction, and Chapter 8, Roof Framing Materials
separate floor framing plans are used, it is common for and Construction.
only a portion of the construction members to be shown
on the floor plan, with everything else shown on the
ELECTRICAL PLANS
framing plans. For example, dropped beams are shown
on the floor plan, and then joists, flush beams, and An electrical plan shows the location and details of
bearing locations are displayed on the floor framing plan. electrical wiring and fixtures. Though outlet and light
Dropped beams are beams that have the joists running locations are sometimes shown on the floor plans,
over the top of the beams and the beams are exposed a specific electrical plan can be used to provide more
in the room below as shown in Figure 3.23(a) (on p. 80). detail. Switch locations, low-voltage fixtures and home
77
 (a)

Figure 3.22  Framing materials shown and labeled on the floor plans. (a) The main floor plan shown in Figure 3.9 with the framing materials
displayed in color. (b) The upper floor plan shown in Figure 3.9 with the framing materials displayed in color. Courtesy Alan Mascord Design
Associates, Inc. Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen image library to view the drawing in detail on your computer screen.
 (b)

Figure 3.22  (Continued)

3
Drawings and specifications

legend on the plan correlates electrical fixtures and wiring

symbols with their name or description.

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide containing an electrical

plan with characteristics labeled. The electrical plan
can be found on the drawings provided on the
companion website.

SECTIONS AND DETAILS

A section is a type of drawing that shows a cut through
the home to display vertical information that is not possible
in a plan view. Vertical relationships and heights of ceilings,
fire blocking, profile of trusses, stair details and information
about the building envelope are common items included in
a section. A section is also referred to as a sectional view
or a cross section. A section can be cut through the entire
house or only through a portion of the house depending on
what needs to be displayed. The section can be referred to
as a building section when it cuts through the entire house.
Section drawings must be correlated to the location where
the cut is made, and this correlation is normally found on one
of the plan views, such as the floor plans. A cutting-plane
line is commonly used to correlate the section drawing to
the location where the cut is made through the building.
Cutting-plane lines show the location of a cut made for the
purpose of creating a sectional view at the specified location.
Cutting-plane lines can be placed on floor plans, foundation
plans, or any place where a section needs to be drawn to
show details of construction. The cutting-plane line can extend
totally through the plan where it is located, or only the ends
of the cutting-plane line can be shown. Cutting-plane lines
Figure 3.23  Dropped beam and flush beam options.
generally have a cutting-plane symbol on one or both ends of
(a) Dropped beams with joists running over the top of
the cutting-plane line. The cutting-plane symbol has a letter
the beams. (b) Flush beams have the same size joists
identifying the section. A is used for the first section, B is
intersecting the beams. (c) When the beam height is
used for the second section, C is used for the third section,
greater than the joists, then the beam can be partly
and additional alphabetical letters are used as needed. Only
exposed above or below the joists depending on the
the identification letter can be used on very simple plans, but
desired appearance and construction requirements.
cutting-plane symbols generally identify the page number of
the sheet where the section is located. Cutting plane lines can
audio systems can be included in a dedicated electrical be jogged to show important information that would not line
plan. Light symbols are connected to wall switches using up with a straight cut through the building. Figure 3.25 shows
curved dashed lines. A switch symbol with a ‘3’ next to it typical cutting-plane symbol options.
designates a three-way switch. A three-way switch is used Look at Figure 3.26 to see the cutting-plane line symbols on the
when two switches control a single light or group of lights. Main Floor Plan from Figure 3.9. Most of the other floor plan
Drawing symbols can be shown and described in a legend. content has been removed, so you can clearly and easily find
A legend is generally placed in a convenient location on the cutting-plane line symbols for sections A, B, C, and D. These
the drawing field and is set up in table form with symbols sections are shown in Figure 3.27 (on pp. 84–87). Figure 3.27(a)
shown and identified with a name or description. Use of shows sections A and B, and Figure 3.27(b) shows sections C
a legend is not required and is provided when desired by and D. Compare the locations of the cutting-plane line symbols
the architectural office creating the drawings. An electrical in Figure 3.26 as you look at the sections in Figure 3.27.

80
 3

Figure 3.24  Typical floor framing plan. Courtesy Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc. Go to www.routledge.
com/cw/madsen image library to view the drawing in detail on your computer screen.
Drawings and specifications

the marker, as shown in Figure 3.29(b). Details can also be

identified by title when the title is an obvious indication of
the construction feature or location. When this practice is
used, the detail drawing is generally placed on the same
sheet where the location is found. Figure 3.30 (on p. 91)
shows a detail titled POST & BM. CONN., referring to
post and beam connection. This detail is placed on the
same sheet as the foundation plan where the construction
application is found.

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide containing two different

details. The details can be found on the drawings
provided on the companion website.

Figure 3.25  Cutting-plane symbol options.

NOTE
POWERPOINT
The following chapters provide detailed descriptions
Create one PowerPoint slide containing a building and illustrations for the construction practices
section with characteristics labeled. The building identified here: Chapter 5, Foundation Materials and
section can be found on the drawings provided on Construction, Chapter 6, Floor Framing Materials and
the companion website. Construction, Chapter 7, Wall Framing Materials and
Construction, and Chapter 8, Roof Framing Materials
and Construction.
Residential building plans often include a typical wall
section that provides more detail than is normally found
in a building section. The typical wall section is normally ROOF PLAN
drawn at a larger scale than the building sections. A scale
The roof plan displays the outline of the roof, roof
such as 1/2″ = 1′-0″, 3/4″ = 1′-0″, or 1″ = 1′-0″ is normally
construction members, roof vents, and roofing
used depending on the detail being displayed. Figure 3.28
materials, as shown in Figure 3.31 (on p. 92). Roof
(on p. 88) shows a typical wall section for the plan found in
plans are generally drawn at a 1/4″ = 1′-0″ scale, but
Figure 3.9.
can be 1/8″ = 1′-0″ if little detail is required. The outline
of the walls below can be shown with hidden lines.
POWERPOINT Dimensions, such as eave and gable overhang are
provided. The eave is the lowest part of the roof that
Create one PowerPoint slide containing a typical wall projects from the exterior wall, also referred to as a
section with characteristics labeled. The typical wall cornice or overhang. A gable is generally a triangular
section can be found on the drawings provided on portion of wall between two edges of a sloping roof. The
the companion website. roof plan can also show the gutters and downspouts.
The gutter is a channel at the edge of the eave for
Details are enlarged sections used to show exact moving rainwater from the roof to the downspout. The
construction requirements at a specific location, such downspout is a vertical pipe that is connected to the
as a footing, connection, or building application. Details gutters for the purpose of moving rainwater from the
range in scale from 3/4″ = 1′-0″, 1″ = 1′-0″, 1-1/2″ = 1′-0″, gutter to the ground or to a drain pipe in the ground. The
or 3″ = 1′-0″ depending on how many small features are downspouts are labeled D.S. in Figure 3.31.
included and how much detail is required. Details can be A primary purpose of the roof plan is to show the roof
correlated to a plan with a detail marker that identifies the framing members and spans. This can be done using
specific detail by number and the page where the detail hidden lines for beams and girders, and arrows labeled
is found, as shown in Figure 3.29 (on pp. 89–91). The with construction materials sizes and spacing as shown
correlated detail drawing is found on the sheet identified in in Figure 3.31. This is the roof plan for the home shown

82
 3

Figure 3.26  Cutting-plane line symbols on a Main Floor Plan for sections A, B, C, and D displayed in color for
easy identification. Courtesy Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc. Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen
image library to view the drawing in detail on your computer screen.
Figure 3.27  Sections A, B, C, and D. (a) Sections A and B. (b) Sections C and D. Compare the locations of the
cutting-plane line symbols in Figure 3.26 as you look at the sections in Figure 3.27. Courtesy Alan Mascord Design
Associates, Inc. Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen image library to view the drawing in detail on your
computer screen.
Figure 3.27  (Continued)
3
Figure 3.27  (Continued)
Figure 3.27  (Continued)
3
Figure 3.28  Typical wall section for the plan found in Figure 3.9. Courtesy Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc.
Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen image library to view the drawing in detail on your computer screen.
 3

Figure 3.29  Detail markers and details. (a) Details can be correlated to a plan with a detail marker that identifies
the specific detail by number and the page where the detail is found. (b) The correlated detail drawing is found on
the sheet identified in the marker. Courtesy Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc. Go to www.routledge.com/
cw/madsen image library to view the drawing in detail on your computer screen.
Figure 3.29  (Continued)
 Drawings and specifications

Figure 3.30  Detail titled POST & BM. CONN., placed

on the same sheet as the foundation plan where
the construction application is found. Courtesy Alan
Mascord Design Associates, Inc.

GIRDER TRUSS: This is a girder truss that was defined

earlier in this chapter.
2 × 8 RIDGE: The ridge is the top horizontal member
connecting two intersecting roofs.
2 × 6-24″ O.C.: These are rafters, even though they
are not labeled as rafters. A typical rafter note would
read 2 × 6 RAFTERS 24″ O.C. Rafters are the
sloped structural members of a roof system used to
support the roof loads and connect to the ridge.
2 × NAILER A nailer is a wood member fastened to
the structure and used for attaching other wood
members.
As you look at Figure 3.31, notice the circles labeled roof
vents. Roof vents are screened venting devices that are
attached to the roof for providing attic ventilation. Building
codes require a specific number of square feet of attic
ventilation for a roof system. Also find the triangles with
numbers on each leg of the triangle labeled roof pitch.
If a triangle has a 12 on each side, this represents a
12/12 roof pitch. This means that the roof has a slope of
12 inches of rise in 12 inches of run. Rise is the vertical
distance and run is the horizontal distance. Roof pitch
Figure 3.29  (Continued) can also be referred to as roof slope. A triangle with the
numbers 9 and 12 represent a roof pitch of 9/12, which is
in Figure 3.9. The following describes some of the 9 inches of rise in 12 inches of run.
construction notes found on the roof plan in Figure 3.31:
The roof plan in Figure 3.31 also has triangular shaded
MFD. TRUSSES 24″ O.C.: These are manufactured areas. These shaded areas represents a roof framed over
trusses spaced 24 inches on center. Defined earlier rafters below. This is done on this roof plan to distinguish
in this chapter. roof over rafters from roof over trusses. The roof plan
MFD. SCISSOR TRUSSES 24″ O.C.: These are in Figure 3.31 also has a SKYLIGHT and a CRICKET. A
manufactured scissor trusses spaced 24 inches on skylight is a window framed into the roof slope that can
center. Defined earlier in this chapter. be fixed or operable. A cricket is generally a small sloped

91
 Cutting plane line

Nailer
Outline of roof
Ridge
Downspout

Outline of gutter
Roof vent

Outline of
Roof pitch upper floor

Construction
framing

Girder Stairs
Note

Skylight

Overhang dimension Cricket

Title

Drawing scale

Figure 3.31  Typical roof plan displays the outline of the roof, roof construction members, roof vents, and roofing materials. Courtesy
Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc. Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen image library to view the drawing in detail on your
computer screen.
 Drawings and specifications

surface or roof built to divert water over an area where Cabinets can be modular or custom. Modular cabinets
water would otherwise collect, such as behind a chimney are designed and built at a manufacturing company and
or a place where a slope roof meets a vertical wall as in delivered to the house for installation during construction.
this plan. Some plans have design notes and legends There are many manufacturers of modular cabinets,
placed with the drawings. The roof plan in Figure 3.31 providing a wide variety of styles and design alternatives.
has the ROOF DESIGN NOTES and LEGEND shown in Custom cabinets are usually designed by the architect,
Figure 3.32. Look at Figure 3.32 and see if you can identify architectural designer, or custom cabinet shop. Custom
the features in Figure 3.31. Notes are written information cabinets are generally built at a local cabinet shop and
that describe features on the plan. Specific notes describe
individual features, and general notes relate to the entire
plan. Design notes are notes that relate to the design
delivered to the project for installation.
Other design features that can require interior elevations are
classified as millwork. Millwork is finished woodwork that
3
characteristics of the plan where they are located. has been manufactured in a milling plant. Milling is the use
of cylindrical or rotational cutting tools used to cut millwork
POWERPOINT in any desired contour or shape. Common examples of
millwork are the casing around doors and windows, fireplace
Create one PowerPoint slide containing a roof plan mantel components, stair components, and any other
with characteristics labeled. The roof plan can be found moldings needed to customize the trim in a home.
on the drawings provided on the companion website. Cabinet elevations and other interior elevations can be
keyed to the floor plans a couple of different ways. The
most basic method is descriptive titles provided below the
As with floor framing plans described earlier, another
cabinet elevations describing the cabinet locations, such
option for a roof plan is to display individual framing
as KITCHEN, BATH, and LAUNDRY. The cabinet elevations
members as shown in Figure 3.33. This is an example
for the floor plans shown in Figure 3.9 are displayed in
of a truss layout provided for a set of plans by a truss
Figure 3.34 (on p. 96) using the room title method. The other
manufacturer. A roof truss layout is required when trusses
technique used to correlate cabinet elevations with the floor
are used in construction, because the truss system is
plan is the use of viewing symbols. For example, a viewing
engineered by the manufacturer. Figure 3.33 shows a
symbol can be a circle or triangle with a letter inside pointing
roof plan with individual framing members for a home
to a specific group of cabinets in the kitchen. The same letter
addition. The existing home is shown with a cross-hatch
and symbol is then displayed with the correlated cabinet
pattern to distinguish it from the new construction. This
elevation as shown in Figure 3.35 (on p. 97).
drawing also provides a building section and a framing
perspective. An addition adds a new portion of building
to an existing structure. The term perspective refers to a POWERPOINT
drawing that shows height, width, depth, and position of
objects when viewed from a specific point. Create one PowerPoint slide containing a kitchen
and bath elevation with characteristics labeled. The
elevations can be found on the drawings provided
NOTE on the companion website.

The following chapter provides detailed descriptions

and illustrations for the construction practices NOTE
identified here: Chapter 8, Roof Framing Materials
and Construction. The following chapters provide detailed descriptions
and illustrations for the construction practices
identified here: Chapter 10, Door and Window
INTERIOR ELEVATIONS
Specifications and Installation, Chapter 11, Stair
Interior elevations provide a 2D view of features inside the Construction, Chapter 12, Fireplace Construction.
home. Interior elevations can include kitchen and bathroom
cabinets, living room cabinets, dining room cabinets,
SNOW, WIND, AND SEISMIC ENGINEERING
laundry room cabinets, fireplace mantel and other design
characteristics, or any special finish items found in the Structural engineering is a branch of engineering that
home. Interior elevations are often drawn using a deals with the design and construction of structures to
1/4″ = 1′-0″ scale, but other scales can be used depending withstand physical forces or displacements without danger
on the required detail. of collapse, or without loss of serviceability or function.

93
Figure 3.32  ROOF DESIGN NOTES and LEGEND for the roof plan in Figure 3.31. Courtesy Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc.
 3

Figure 3.33  A roof plan showing individual framing members for a home addition. The existing home is shown
with a cross-hatch pattern to distinguish it from the new construction. This drawing also provides a building
section and a framing perspective. The roof framing plan is similar to a truss layout provided for a set of plans by a
truss manufacturer. Courtesy Chief Architect Software. Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen image library to
view the drawing in detail on your computer screen.
Drawings and specifications

Figure 3.34  Cabinet elevations for the floor plans shown in Figure 3.9 with descriptive titles provided, such as
KITCHEN, BATH, and LAUNDRY. Courtesy Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc. Go to www.routledge.com/cw/
madsen image library to view the drawing in detail on your computer screen.

Structural engineering for snow loads are considered in and create structural details that are added to the plans to
the design of a roof for the probable amount of snow that satisfy design criteria set by the local jurisdiction.
can be on the roof in a specific location of the country.
Some locations can have little or no snow loads, while
SCHEDULES
other areas can have very heavy snow loads. Structural
wind engineering analyzes effects of wind on a building A schedule is a grouping of related features, products,
and studies the possible damage that can result from or applications. Schedules format information in tables
wind. Common structural engineering related to wind using rows and columns. Schedules can be created as
are wind shear calculations. Wind shear refers to the computer-generated databases or spreadsheets, and can
variation of wind over either horizontal or vertical surfaces. then be correlated with drawings and specifications as
Structural engineers calculate wind shear on a building and needed. The typical types of schedules found in a set of
determine construction methods used to reduce possible residential home plans are the door schedule, window
damage from wind shear. Earthquake engineering, schedule, appliance schedule, and room finish schedule.
also called seismic engineering, is the study of the Schedules typically have columns of information that
behavior of buildings and structures that can be affected include identification, type, size, options, and manufacturer,
by earthquakes. Structural engineers perform calculations for example.

96
 Drawings and specifications

Floor Plan of Kitchen

Kitchen Cabinet Elevations

Figure 3.35  Cabinet elevations correlated with the floor plan using viewing symbols. Go to www.routledge.
com/cw/madsen image library to view the drawing in detail on your computer screen.

Schedule items are keyed to the floor plans using plan and correlated door and window schedules. This
letters and numbers. For example, each door can have architectural designer uses numbers 101, 102, and 103
a number, such as 1, 2, and 3, and each window can to identify doors and windows on the plan and in the
have a letter such as A, B, and C for each individual item. schedules.
Some plans use D1, D2, and D3 for doors, and W1, W2, A schedule can also identify interior finish applications
and W3 for windows. The number or letter identification by listing the rooms in rows and the finish material in
is placed by each door and window on the floor plan, and columns. Check marks, filled circles, or filled boxes can
the same number or letter is placed in the schedules be used to identify the materials used in each room as
to correlate with the plans. Figure 3.36 shows a floor shown in Figure 3.37.

97
Figure 3.36  (a) A floor plan using numbers 101, 102, and 103 to identify doors and windows. (b) The correlated
door and window schedules. Courtesy Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc. Go to the www.routledge.com/
cw/madsen image library to view the drawing in detail on your computer screen.
 Drawings and specifications

Figure 3.36  (Continued)

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide containing a door,

window, and finish schedule. The schedules can be
found on the drawings provided on the companion
website.

SPECIFICATIONS
The drawings that were previously described are used to
locate and identify construction practices and materials.
Drawings include the assembly of components, plan views,
elevations, dimensions, sections, and details. Drawings
have notes used to identify materials and practices.
Symbols used in the set of drawings are represented as
an approved standard and can be shown and labeled in a
legend for reference purposes. Legends are not needed
when all the symbols match recognized architectural
standards. Figure 3.38 shows a legend that displays and
describes specific symbol applications used on a set of Figure 3.37  A schedule can also identify interior
plans. A legend, defined earlier, is a feature on a drawing finish applications by listing the rooms in rows and the
that shows and names symbols used on the drawing. finish material in columns.

99
Drawings and specifications

Figure 3.38  A legend that displays and describes specific symbol applications used on a set of plans. Courtesy
Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc.

Specifications provide detailed written information placed The set of plans, construction specifications, and building
on the drawing or in separate documents and provide exact contract together become the legal documents for the
statements describing the characteristics of particular construction project. These documents should be prepared
aspects of the project. Drawings and specifications are very carefully in cooperation with the architect, client, and
combined to become the complete set of construction contractor. Any variation from these documents should be
documents. Specifications are used to define the specific approved by all three parties. When brand names are used,
quality and type of material, equipment, and installation. a clause specifying or equivalent can be added. This means
The drawings provide quantity, capacity, location, and that another brand of equivalent value to the one specified
general written information in the form of notes, whereas can be substituted with the construction supervisor’s or
the specifications clearly define items such as minimum homeowner’s approval.
requirements, physical properties, chemical composition,
and installation procedures.
NOTE
Information that cannot be clearly or completely
provided on the drawing or in schedules is provided This textbook is designed to describe and illustrate
in construction specifications. Specifications are an information about residential building construction.
integral part of any set of plans. Specifications can be While the following content covering commercial
required when applying for a building permit and for specifications is beyond the scope of this textbook,
loan approval when applying for construction financing. it is important information for you to know so you
Most lenders have their own format for residential can effectively communicate with others in the
construction specifications, although these forms are construction industry.
generally similar. The Federal Housing Administration
(FHA) and the Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation
Specifications for commercial
(FHLMC) have a specification format titled Description
construction
of Materials. This specifications form is used widely
in a modified or identical manner by most residential Specifications for commercial construction projects
construction lenders. The same form is used by the are often more complex and comprehensive than
Farm Home Administration (FmHA) and by the Veterans for residential construction. Commercial project
Administration (VA). Figure 1.1 (pp. 7–10) shows the FHA specifications can provide very detailed instructions for
Description of Materials form for a typical home. The each phase of construction, including time schedules
complete Description of Materials form can be found on for project completion. Commercial specifications can
the student website or by searching the Internet for FHA also include inspections together with or in addition to
Description of Materials. inspections required by the local jurisdiction. Construction

100
 Drawings and specifications

specifications often follow the guidelines of the individual

architect or engineering firm, although a common format
has been established by the Construction Specifications
Institute (CSI) and Construction Specifications Canada
(CSC). The specifications format is called MasterFormat:
Master List of Numbers and Titles for the Construction
Industry. For more information on the CSI, contact:
The Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) Figure 3.39  An example of the four levels found in
99 Canal Center Plaza, Suite 300
Alexandria, VA 22314
the MasterFormat: Numbers and Titles system. Search
the Internet for MasterFormat Numbers and Titles to
see a complete listing of numbers and titles.
3
800-689-2900; 703-684-0300
www.csinet.org
The UniFormat uniform classification system
The MasterFormat: Master List of Numbers and Titles for
the Construction Industry is a master list of numbers and UniFormat is a uniform classification system for organizing
subject titles for organizing information about construction preliminary construction information into a standard
work results, requirements, products, and activities order or sequence on the basis of functional elements.
that are divided into a standard sequence. Construction Functional elements, also referred to as systems or
projects use many different delivery methods, products, assemblies, are common major components in buildings
and installation methods. Successful completion of that perform a known function regardless of the design
projects requires effective communication among the specification, construction method, or materials used.
people involved. Information retrieval is nearly impossible UniFormat can provide consistent comparable data across
without a standard filing system familiar to each user. an entire building life cycle. Building life cycle refers to
Using MasterFormat numbers and titles makes it easy the examination of a building over the course of its entire
to have standard filing and retrieval methods throughout life. The life cycle of a building considers everything about
the construction industry. MasterFormat numbers and the building including design, commissioning, operation,
titles are used for project manuals, organizing cost and decommissioning. The purpose of UniFormat is to
data, referencing keynotes on drawings, filing product provide consistency in evaluation of project economics,
information and other technical data, identifying drawing and to improve reporting design program information. The
objects, and presenting construction market data. Each UniFormat also supports reliability in filing information for
MasterFormat number and title defines a section, and facility management, drawing details, and construction
sections are arranged in levels. The broadest group of market data. UniFormat classifies information into nine
related construction products and activities are level-one level-one categories, which can be used to arrange brief
titles, called divisions. Each division in the MasterFormat: project descriptions and preliminary cost information.
Numbers and Titles is made up of level-two, level-three, The first level-one category is Project Description,
and some level-four numbers and titles. Each level which includes information about the project, through
defines a gradually more detailed area of specified work cost estimating and funding. The other eight level-one
results. Work results are traditional construction practices categories are referred to as Construction Systems and
that typically result from an application of construction Assemblies, which include construction applications and
products, resources, and skills. practices, such as foundation, roofing, exteriors, electrical,
The MasterFormat numbers are established using a six- and plumbing. Each of the Construction Systems and
digit system. Figure 3.39 is an example of the four levels Assembly categories is identified with a letter and title as
found in the MasterFormat: Numbers and Titles system. follows:
Search the Internet for MasterFormat Numbers and A – Substructure
Titles, or go to www.csinet.org/numbersandtitles to see a B – Shell
complete listing of numbers and titles.
C – Interiors
D – Services
POWERPOINT
E – Equipment and Furnishings
Create one PowerPoint slide containing an example F – Special Construction and Demolition
of the four levels found in the MasterFormat: G – Building Sitework
Numbers and Titles system.
Z – General

101
Drawings and specifications

UniFormat has a numbering system that divides each level- protect against discrimination based on disability. The ADA
one category into level-two and level-three. Level-four, and prohibits discrimination and ensures equal opportunity for
level-five titles can be customized and added as needed by persons with disabilities in employment, state and local
the individual user. The following is an example showing government services, public accommodations, commercial
the first three levels of the UniFormat letter and numbering facilities, and transportation.
system for a specific category: Specific universal design applications are described in
Level 1: E Equipment and Furnishings chapters where they apply to specific building construction
Level 2: E20 Furnishings installations such as electrical, plumbing and heating,
ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC).
Level 3: E2010 Fixed Furnishings
 o to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
G
Appendix E for a description of specific universal
INTRODUCTION TO UNIVERSAL DESIGN design applications.
Universal design refers to broad-range concepts meant
to produce buildings, products, and environments that RESEARCH
are characteristically accessible to older people, people
without disabilities, and people with disabilities. Other Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
related terms used around the world include barrier- research options and topics that correlate with
free and design for all (dfa). Barrier-free refers to the the content of this chapter.
modification of buildings or facilities for use by people
who are disabled or have physical impairments. The term
is used primarily in non-English speaking countries, while TEST
in English-speaking countries, terms such as accessibility
are common. The term design for all (dfa) is used to Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
describe a design philosophy targeting the use of products, the test for this chapter.
services, and systems by as many people as possible
without the need for adaptation.
Many countries have enacted legislation governing PROBLEMS
universal design applications. The Americans with
Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
Disabilities Act (ADA) was enacted by the US Congress in
the problems for this chapter.
1990 as a wide-ranging civil rights law that is intended to

102
 CHAPTER 4
Construction site
and excavation
Learning objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
 Define site orientation and identify the key characteristics and factors that influence site orientation.
 Describe site excavation and infill and grading practices.
 Explain slope and grade.
 Identify topography and the use of contour lines on site plans.
 Describe the fundamentals of a site survey.
 Identify and read information found on different types of survey stakes.
 Explain the measurements used to locate survey stakes.
 Describe the difference in material and use of solid lumber beams and glued-laminated beams.
 Read a grading plan and describe the features found on a grading plan.
 Explain the importance of surface runoff control and practices.
 Describe corner staking applications for different types of foundation excavation practices.
 Discuss environmental protection related to site excavation and preparation including a storm water pollution
prevention plan.
 Discuss construction site dust control, noise restrictions, and recycling construction material waste.
 Describe common erosion and sediment control practices.
 Create PowerPoint presentations related to construction site and excavation applications.
 Answer questions related to construction site and excavation practices.
 Prepare a construction site for an actual home team project option for your school.

SITE ORIENTATION of the occupants, such as individual habits, perceptions,

and aesthetic values, are important and also need to be
Site orientation is one of the preliminary factors that an considered. Site orientation combines the values of the
architect, designer, or contractor takes into consideration owner with other factors that influence the location of the
when beginning the design process for a new home. Site home. Site orientation is predetermined in some cases. For
orientation is the placement of a structure on the property example, in a residential subdivision where all lots are 50′ ×
with certain environmental and physical factors taken 100′ (1,524 × 3,048 cm), the street frontage often dictates
into consideration, to help maximize energy efficiency, the front of the house as shown in Figure 4.1. The property
durability, and comfort of the occupants. The specific needs line setback requirements do not allow much home

103
Construction site and excavation

Figure 4.1  Site orientation is often predetermined as Figure 4.2  Terrain from flat in the foreground to
in a residential subdivision where all lots are 50′ × 100′ sloping upward to the hills beyond.
(1,524 × 3,048 cm), the street frontage often determines
the front of the house.

placement flexibility on these lots. In such a case, site

planning has a minimal influence on site orientation. This
chapter presents factors that can influence site orientation,
such as terrain, view, sunlight, wind, and sound.

Terrain orientation
Terrain, also called topography, is the characteristics of the
land, especially as considered with reference to its natural
features such as flat or sloping. Topography is represented
as lines at given heights of the geographical landscape.
Figure 4.2 shows terrain from flat in the foreground to
sloping upward to the hills beyond. Terrain affects the type Figure 4.3  A level construction site is a natural
of structure to be built and the amount of excavation or location for a single-level or two-story home.
infill required on the site. Excavation is any man-made cut,
cavity, trench, or depression in the Earth’s surface formed basement at the opposite side. Figure 4.4 shows a home
by earth removal. This includes the excavation for a house built on a slope site. A single-level home is a poor choice
or other building that is referred to as a dig-out in the on a sloped site because of the extra construction cost for
construction industry. Infill is where extra ground material excavation or building up the foundation. Some builders
is brought onto the site to build up a sloping area, cavity, or have taken advantage of very steep construction sites by
depression in the existing terrain. designing homes on stilts. This requires careful geological
Construction on any site requires that a slope be graded and structural engineering to ensure safe construction.
away from the house. This is to help ensure that water drains
away from the building. The slope, or grade of land, or grade, View orientation
refers to the amount of incline of the Earth’s surface. Grading View orientation provides optimum exposure to a view
refers to the modification of natural topography using earth and can be a major factor in the purchase of property for
removal practices. Grading is used to provide suitable home construction. The view can be of mountains, city
topography for construction and control runoff and erosion. lights, a lake, a river, the ocean, or even a golf course.
A level construction site is a natural location for a single-level Figure 4.5 shows windows placed to take advantage of an
or two-story home as shown in Figure 4.3. Sloped sites are a ocean view. These view sites are usually more expensive
natural location for multilevel or daylight basement homes. than comparable sites without a view. The home is typically
A daylight basement house is typically built on a front to rear designed with large windows taking advantage of the view
slope where the amount of slope allows for a fully exposed from as many rooms as possible. It is best to provide an
basement wall at one side and a completely underground environment that allows the occupants to feel as though

104
 Construction site and excavation

orientation, some energy-saving alternatives should be

considered as described throughout this textbook.

Solar orientation
The sun can be an important factor in home orientation.
Sites with correct solar orientation allow for excellent
exposure to the sun. There should not be obstacles such
as tall buildings, evergreen trees, or hills that have the
potential to block the sun. Generally, a site located on a
south slope can have these characteristics.
When a site has southern exposure that allows for correct
solar orientation, a little basic astronomy can contribute to
proper placement of the home. Figure 4.6 shows how a
southern orientation relative to the sun’s path provides the
4
maximum solar exposure.
Figure 4.4  Homes built on slope sites.

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide showing how a southern

orientation relative to the sun’s path provides the
maximum solar exposure.

Establishing south
A perfect solar site allows the structure to have
unobstructed southern exposure. When a site has
this potential, true south should be determined. This
determination should be established in the preliminary
Figure 4.5  Windows used to take advantage of an planning stages. Other factors that contribute to
ocean view. orientation, such as view, can also be taken into
consideration at this time. If view orientation requires a
they are part of the view. Figure 4.5 shows a dramatic structure be turned slightly away from south, it is possible
example of a view as part of the total environment. that the solar potential will not be significantly reduced.
View orientation can conflict with the advantages of other True north is determined by a line from the North Pole to
orientation factors such as solar or wind orientation. When the South Pole. When a compass is used to establish north-
a buyer pays a substantial amount to purchase a view site, south, the compass points to magnetic north. Magnetic
such a trade-off may be necessary. When the view dictates north is not the same as true north. True north is the same
that a large glass surface face a wind-exposed non-solar as geographic north, which is the North Pole. The difference

Figure 4.6  A southern orientation relative to the sun’s path provides the maximum solar exposure.

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Construction site and excavation

between true north and magnetic north is known as the

magnetic declination. Magnetic north is the direction of
the Earth’s magnetic pole, and is the direction where the
north-seeking pole of a compass points when free from
local magnetic influence. Local magnetic influence is also
called local magnetic disturbance and local attraction. Local
magnetic influence is an abnormality of the magnetic field
of the Earth, extending over a relatively small area, due to
local magnetic influences. Figure 4.7 shows the compass
relationship between true north-south and magnetic north.
Magnetic declination differs between locations on the
Earth. Figure 4.8 shows a map with lines that represent the
magnetic declination at different locations throughout the
Earth. Magnetic declination can also be calculated using a
calculator provided on the National Geographic Data Center
website. An example is a magnetic declination of 16.5°
East, which occurs in northern California, means that the
compass needle points 16.5° to the east of true north, or
16.5° to the west of true south. True south is 16.5° to the
left at this location, as you face toward magnetic south.
Figure 4.7  The compass relationship between true
POWERPOINT north-south and magnetic north.

Create one PowerPoint slide showing how a Solar site-planning tools

southern orientation relative to the sun’s path
Instruments are available that calculate solar access and
provides the maximum solar exposure.
demonstrate shading patterns for any given site throughout

Figure 4.8  A map with lines representing the magnetic declination across the Earth. Courtesy of the National
Centers for Environmental Information.

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 Construction site and excavation

the year. Solar access refers to the availability of direct the solar orientation. Deciduous trees lose their leaves in
sunlight to a home or construction site. Some instruments the winter. The deciduous trees provide shade from the hot
provide accurate readings for the entire year at any time summer sun. In the winter, when these trees have lost their
of day, in clear or cloudy weather. Search the Internet with leaves, the winter sun exposure is not substantially reduced.
the entry Solar Site-Planning Tools to get solar site-planning Figure 4.10 shows a potential solar site with coniferous trees
information and learn more about available tools. on the south side and deciduous trees on the north side.

Solar site location

WIND ORIENTATION
A solar site in a rural or suburban location where there
is space to take advantage of a southern solar exposure The term prevailing winds refers to the direction from
allows for house placement flexibility. Some other factors which the wind most frequently blows in a given area of the

4
can also be considered when selecting an urban solar site. country. For example, if the prevailing winds are said to be
Select a site where zoning restrictions have maximum southwesterly, that means the winds in the area generally
height requirements. This prevents future neighborhood flow from the southwest. There are some locations that have
development from blocking the sun from an otherwise good southwesterly prevailing winds, but during certain times of
solar orientation. Avoid a site where large coniferous trees the year, severe winds can blow from the northeast. The
hinder the full potential of the sun exposure. Coniferous factors that influence these conditions can be mountains,
trees are cone bearing trees that are normally evergreen. large bodies of water, valleys, canyons, or river basins. The
Sites with streets running north-south and having small prevailing winds in the United States are from west to east,
50′ × 100′ (1,524 × 3,048 cm) lots provide limited solar although some areas have wind patterns that differ from this
orientation potential. Adjacent homes can easily block the because of geological and environmental factors.
sun unless southern exposure is possible. Sites that have Wind conditions should be taken into consideration when
streets running east-west, even with small 50′ × 100′ deciding home orientation. In many cases, different site
(1,524 × 3,048 cm) lots can provide solar orientation orientation characteristics can present a conflict. For
potential. Figure 4.9 shows how the east-west street example, the best solar orientation can be in conflict
orientation can provide the maximum solar potential. If the with the best wind orientation. The best view could be
buyer loves trees but also wants solar orientation, consider of the ocean, but the winter winds can also come from
a site where the home could be situated so southern that direction. An excellent view can be on top of a hill
exposure can be achieved with coniferous trees to the north where the house is exposed to wind, while placing the
and deciduous trees on the south side. The coniferous house behind the hill protects from wind but eliminates
trees can effectively block wind without interfering with the view. One of the factors used to evaluate orientation

Figure 4.9  An east-west street orientation can provide the maximum solar potential.

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Construction site and excavation

It can be very difficult to avoid all the negative effects of

winds in a given location. When a site has been selected
and wind continues to be a concern, construction or
landscaping techniques can be used to reduce these
concerns. A subterranean structure can totally diminish
the effects of wind. Underground or partial underground
homes, when placed with the below-grade portion
against the wind, can create substantial wind control.
Some landscape techniques on a level site can allow for
alternatives. For example, the excavation material plus extra
topsoil can be used to construct an earth berm, which is
a mound or built-up area. The advantage of the berm is
to help reduce the apparent height of a second story or
to add earth insulation to part of the home. Building the
structure partly into the ground with a basement or using
berming can be a successful alternative. Proper foundation
Figure 4.10  A potential solar site with deciduous drainage is a factor to consider when these methods are
trees on the south side and coniferous trees on the used. Figure 4.12 shows how wind protection can be
north side. achieved with proper use of the earth. Landscaping can
also make an effective break between the cold winter wind
can outweigh another. Personal judgment may be the final
and the home site. Coniferous trees or other evergreen
ruling factor. A good combination can be achieved if careful
landscaping materials can provide an excellent windbreak.
planning is used to take all of the environmental factors
These trees should be planted in staggered rows. Two
into consideration.
rows are a suggested minimum, but three rows are better.
Wind conditions that influence site location can be found in Some hedge plants can be put in one row to provide wind
almanacs, in the local library, and on the Internet. Look for protection. Figure 4.13 shows how landscaping can protect
subjects such as climate, microclimate, prevailing winds, a home from cold wind.
and wind conditions. Evaluate the direction of prevailing
winds in an area by calling the local weather bureau, by
discussing it with local residents, or by searching the
POWERPOINT
Internet. Select an area where winter winds are at a
Create one PowerPoint slide showing how
minimum or where there is protection from these winds.
landscaping can protect a home from cold wind.
Within a 25-mile (40-km) radius of a given area, wind can be
more of a problem in certain locations than it is in others.
A hill, mountain, or forest can protect the building site from Room placement can also influence wind protection. Place
general wind conditions. Figure 4.11 shows a house built on rooms that do not require a great deal of glass for view
a site where trees protect from prevailing winds. or solar use on the north side or the side toward severe

Figure 4.11  A house built on a site where trees Figure 4.12  Wind protection can be achieved with
protect from prevailing winds. proper use of the earth.

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 Construction site and excavation

Summer cooling winds

Summer winds can be mild and contribute to a more
comfortable living environment. Comfort can be achieved
through design for natural ventilation and through
landscape design. Effective natural ventilation can be
achieved when a home has openings in opposite walls
that allow movement of air through the structure, which
is referred to as cross-ventilation. In a two- or multiple-
story home, the openings can be effectively tied into the
stairwells to provide for continuous ventilation. Figure 4.15
shows an example of how good natural ventilation can be
achieved.
Landscaping applications can also help provide summer
cooling. The discussion of wind protection showed
4
how coniferous trees can protect against cold winter
Figure 4.13  Landscaping can protect a structure from winds. These evergreen trees can also be used in
cold wind. conjunction with deciduous trees to help funnel summer
winds into the home site and help provide natural
winter winds. A garage, even though unheated, is an summer cooling. Fences or other buildings can also help
insulator and can provide an excellent break between cold create a wind funnel. Deciduous trees can serve a
winter winds and the living areas of the home. Bedrooms double purpose. In the summer they provide needed
with fairly small windows can be placed to provide a barrier shade and act as a filter to cool heated wind. In the
between the wind and the rest of the home. A common winter they lose their leaves, allowing the sun’s rays
method of exterior construction design that helps deflect to help warm the house. Figure 4.16 shows how an
wind is a long, sloping roof. A flat two-story surface causes effective landscape plan can be used to provide a total
wind resistance and should be avoided in these locations. environment.
A better alternative is achieved when a long, sloping
roof is used to reduce wind resistance, resulting in more
energy-efficient construction. Figure 4.14 shows how roof
POWERPOINT
construction can effectively deflect prevailing winds.
Create one PowerPoint slide showing how an
effective landscape plan can be used to provide a
total environment.
POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide showing how roof

construction can effectively deflect prevailing winds. SOUND ORIENTATION
If your construction site is located in the country near the
great outdoors, sound orientation may not be a concern.
The sounds that you have are singing birds, croaking frogs,
chirping crickets, and possibly only a few road noises. It
is very difficult to eliminate road sounds from many other
locations. A site within a mile of a major freeway can be
plagued by excessive droning road noise. A building site
that is level with, or slightly below a road can have less
noise than a site that is above and overlooking the sound
source.
A few landscape designs can contribute to a quieter living
environment. Berms, trees, hedges, and fences can all be
helpful. Some landscape materials deflect sounds, while
others absorb sounds. The density of the sound barrier has
Figure 4.14  Roof construction can effectively deflect an influence on sound reduction, although even a single
prevailing winds. hedge can help reduce a sound problem. A mixture of

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Construction site and excavation

Figure 4.15  An example of how good natural ventilation can be achieved.

Figure 4.16  An effective landscape plan can be used to provide a total environment.

materials can most effectively reduce sound. Keep in mind barrier plants. Notice that the garage is placed between
that deciduous trees and plants help reduce noise problems the living areas of the home and the street to help reduce
during the summer, but they are poor sound insulation in the sound at the living areas. Construction methods and
winter when the leaves have fallen off. Figure 4.17 shows materials can also reduce sound transmission into the
a variety of applications used to help reduce sound on a building. For example, heavy construction materials such
home. as masonry are effective in minimizing sound inside the
Trees can provide sound insulation. The greater the width home. Some insulation products, discussed in Chapter 9,
of the plantings for sound insulation, the better the control. Insulation and Barriers, reduce sound transmission. Triple-
Trees planted in staggered rows provide the best design. glazed high-quality windows can also help reduce outside
Figure 4.18 shows the plan view of a site with sound sound.

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 Construction site and excavation

Figure 4.17  A variety of applications used to help reduce sound on a home.

Figure 4.18  The plan view of a site with sound barrier plants.

As you see, a number of differing factors can influence

POWERPOINT site orientation. The priority of these factors can have a
large impact on final site selection. Solar orientation can
Create one PowerPoint slide showing the plan view of
be important to one builder, but another can consider view
a site with the garage placed between the living areas
orientation as the main priority. A perfect construction
of the home and the street to help reduce sound at
site has elements and design features of each orientation
the living areas, and trees planted in staggered rows
characteristic. When a perfect site is not available, the
to provide the best sound barrier design.
challenge is to orient the house to take the best advantage

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Construction site and excavation

of each potential design feature. It is possible to achieve

some elements of good site orientation with excavation
and landscaping techniques. Always take advantage of
natural conditions whenever possible.

TOPOGRAPHY
Topography is a physical description of land surface
showing its variation in elevation, known as relief, and
locating other natural features. Elevation is the vertical
difference between two points. Surface relief can be
represented with graphic symbols that use shading
methods to accent the character of land, or the differences
in elevations can be shown with contour lines. Site plans
that require surface relief identification generally use contour
lines. Contour lines, also called contours, are lines that join
points of equal elevation (height) above an established
zero level, and contours help demonstrate the general lay
of the land. A good way to visualize the meaning of contour
lines is to look at a lake or ocean shoreline. When the water
is high during the winter or at high tide, a high-water line
establishes a contour line at that level. As the water recedes Figure 4.19  Contour lines. The vertical distance
during the summer or at low tide, a new lower-level line is between contour lines is the contour interval. Index
established. This new line represents another contour line. contour lines show the contour elevation above sea level.
The high-water line goes all around the lake at one level,
and the low-water line goes all around the lake at another Figure 4.21 shows a site with contour lines. Site plans do
level. These two lines represent contours, or lines of equal not always require contour lines showing topography. In
elevation. The horizontal distance between contour lines most instances the only contour-related information required
is known as contour interval. When the contour lines are is property corner elevations, street elevation at a driveway,
far apart, the contour interval shows relatively flat or gently and the elevation of the finished floor levels of the home.
sloping land. When the contour lines are close together, the Additionally, in some applications, slope can be identified and
contour interval shows land that is much steeper. Contour labeled with an arrow showing the direction of the slope.
lines have a space placed periodically along the length,
and the numerical value of the contour elevation, above a
specified zero elevation, is inserted in the space. Figure 4.19 SURVEY BASICS
shows sample contour lines. The contour lines that show In construction, a survey is the result of establishing the exact
the elevation values are called index contours. Generally, corners, boundaries, and topography of a piece of land using
every fifth line is used as an index contour line. The other surveying techniques. Surveying has been used to establish
contour lines are referred to as intermediate contours. land boundaries, maps, and construction projects for about
Index contours are generally bolder than intermediate 5,000 years. Surveying for construction is the measurement
contours, much like the numbered lines on a ruler or scale. of dimensional relationships, horizontal distances, elevations,
Figure 4.20 shows a graphic example of land relief in directions, and angles on the Earth’s surface especially for
pictorial form and contour lines of the same area. The term use in locating property boundaries, construction layout, and
elevation refers to the height of a feature from a known site plan drafting. Land surveying is the technique, profession,
base, which is usually given as 0 (zero elevation). and science of accurately determining the three-dimensional
location of points and the distances and angles between
points on the Earth. The location of points, distances, and
POWERPOINT angles between points are used to establish land maps
and boundaries for site plans, construction site locations,
Create one PowerPoint slide showing contour ownership, property legal descriptions, and government
lines are far apart, and contour lines are close documentation. Surveyors are the people who do surveying
together. Include index contours with elevations and using special equipment, geometry, trigonometry, physics,
intermediate contours. engineering, and land law to accomplish their task. Surveying

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 Construction site and excavation

Figure 4.20  A graphic example of land relief in pictorial form and contour lines of the same area.
Courtesy US Geological Survey.

is required in the planning and completing of all construction There are 60 minutes (60′) in 1 degree and 60 seconds
projects, mapping, and the definition of legal boundaries for (60″) in 1 minute. Bearings are measured clockwise or
land ownership. The following leads you through the basics of counterclockwise from north or south. For example, a
a site survey and how to read a site plan and survey stakes reading 45° from north to west is labeled N45°W, as
found on a construction site. shown in Figure 4.23. Fractions of a degree are used when
a bearing reading requires additional accuracy with minutes
Site survey and seconds. For example, S30°20′10″E reads from south
A site survey identifies property corners, border lines, 30 degrees 20 minutes 10 seconds to east.
elevations, and can include the location of construction
corners, building outlines, and corner elevations.
POWERPOINT
Figure 4.22 shows the survey of a small subdivision of land
with six separate lots or sites. Lot number 3 is highlighted, Create one PowerPoint slide showing a bearing reading
showing the corners and boundaries of one site. The of N45°W, and S30°20′10″E similar to Figure 4.23. Also
terms lot and site can be used interchangeably, except show the west property line of Lot 3 in Figure 4.22
that a site can also show the location of the home to be providing the property line, bearing and distance.
constructed. The property lines of each lot are commonly
labeled with distances and bearings. The property lines
are generally displayed as a line with long and two short The site survey begins at a monument, known as the
dashes or as solid lines as shown in Figure 4.22, although point of beginning (POB). This point is a fixed location
other line types can be used. The distances between that is generally an iron rod driven into the ground. Find
corners are generally displayed above each property line as the POB in the lower right corner of Figure 4.22. As
feet and tenths of a foot using the foot (′) symbol, such as you look at Figure 4.22, see the example of property
112.93′. The bearing of each property line is usually placed line labeling on the west property line of Lot 3, which is
below the line. Bearings are directions with reference 85.00 for the length and S02°48′22″W for the bearing.
to one quadrant of the compass. There are 360 degrees Many sites have property lines that are arc-shaped,
(360°) in a circle or compass, and each quadrant has 90 such as the lines around the cul-de-sac in Figure 4.22.
degrees. Degrees are divided into minutes and seconds. A cul-de-sac is a street that is closed at one end and

113
Figure 4.21  A site plan with contour lines. Courtesy Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc.
 Construction site and excavation

usually has a large radius turning area. Property line arcs

are often labeled directly on the property line, such as
R = 50.00 L = 48.39, where R is the radius of the arc,
and L is the length of the arc as shown in Figure 4.24(c).
Another method is to label the arc property line of each
lot with characters such as C1, C2, C3 through C9 as
shown in Figure 4.22. These characters correlate with the
information found in a CURVE TABLE as in Figure 4.22.
Figure 4.24(a) shows how the radius and arc lengths
are measured. Site surveys also typically show a delta
angle for an arc, which is represented by the symbol Δ.

4
The delta angle is the included angle of the arc. The
included angle is the angle formed between the center
and the end points of the arc, as shown in Figure 4.24(b).
Figure 4.24(c) shows the final labeling of the curve.

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide showing how the

radius and arc lengths are measured similar
to Figure 4.24(a), the included angle similar to
Figure 4.24(b), and the final labeling of the curve
similar to Figure 4.24(c).

A complete site plan drawing is shown in Figure 4.25. Look

at the site plan and read the distances and bearings of each
property line. Also notice the other characteristics found
Figure 4.22  The survey of a small subdivision of on the site plan, such as building location, elevations, and
land with six separate lots or sites. Lot number 3 is other construction features.
highlighted showing the corners and boundaries of
one site. The curve data for the arc property lines is Reading survey stakes
provided in the CURVE TABLE.
Survey stakes are used to control alignment and grade of
building corners, roads, erosion control and other features
during construction. Survey stakes are markers surveyors
use in surveying projects to prepare job sites, mark property
boundaries, and provide information about claims on natural
resources such as timber and minerals. Survey stakes are
generally made of natural wood such as fir and hemlock
in different sizes and lengths, but they can be made from
metal, plastic, and other materials. Survey stakes can be
made in a range of sizes and colors for different purposes.
A survey stake has a pointed end to make it easy to drive
into the ground. Surveyors mark or write information on
survey stakes to identify property boundaries, and provide
information about cutting, filling and grading earth to required
specifications. Survey stakes can be purchased from survey
supply vendors. Survey stakes also have specific names such
as alignment stakes, offset stakes, centerline stakes, cut
stakes, fill stakes, grade stakes, slope stakes, hub stakes,
Figure 4.23  Bearings are measured clockwise or marker stakes, and guard stakes. Alignment stakes are
counterclockwise from north or south. used to align a roadway. Offset stakes are placed a desired

115
Construction site and excavation

Figure 4.24  (a) Shows how the radius and arc lengths are measured. (b) Site surveys also typically show a delta
angle for arcs, which is represented by the symbol Δ. (c) The final labeling of the arc.

distance from the actual building corner stakes to prevent used to determine the point at which the proposed slope
the loss of reference information. Offset stakes are placed intersects the existing ground. The terms grade and slope
far enough away so they are not damaged or destroyed can be used interchangeably. Slope is described by the ratio
by equipment being operated in the construction area. of the rise divided by the run between two points on a line or
Centerline stakes represent the centerline of a construction plane as shown in Figure 4.26. Hub stakes are generally
feature such as a driveway, road, or pipe. Cut stakes indicate 2 × 2 × 12 inches with red and blue painted tops, used
a lowering of the ground or elevation. Fill stakes indicate mainly to show specific well-defined survey reference points
raising the ground or elevation. Grade stakes provide such as finish grade. A marker stake, also called a reference
elevation information. On-grade stakes indicate the ground stake, is usually next to a hub stake, and is a short lath stake
is at the desired grade and does not need a cut or fill. The with a marker card attached that provides survey information
term grade can refer to the current condition of the land. for a hub. A guard stake is usually a 48-inch lath with paint
Finish grade means the grade after all required work is and flagging used as visibility marker and protection for the
performed to cut or fill the area. Sub-grade is a preliminary guard stake. Lath is a thin strip of wood, typically available in
grade prior to doing work to finish grade. Slope stakes are 1/4 × 1-1/2 × 48 inches.

116
 4

Figure 4.25  A complete site plan. Courtesy Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc.
Construction site and excavation

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide showing slope, which is

the ratio of the rise divided by the run between two
points on a line or plane.

Measurements provided on survey stakes are in feet, tenths,

and hundredths of a foot using the foot (′) symbol, such as
26.85′, or in meters and centimeters, such as 2.57 m. Table 4.1
lists abbreviations and symbols found on survey stakes.
Most survey stakes are raw wood with color paint or
ribbon to designate a specific location or operation on the
construction site. Common stakes are 1 × 2 × 16 inches,
or lath stakes, which are 1/4 × 2 × 48 inches. The top of a
band of blue paint or a blue ribbon near the bottom of the
survey stake represents the finish grade location. The top
of the survey stake can be painted or can have a ribbon
with a tail streamer. The color designates a specific location
or operation on the construction site. For example, blue
ribbon stakes can represent the foundation line. Follow Figure 4.27  A variety of survey stake colors and
the layout of the blue ribbon stakes to see the foundation information. (a) Survey stake with color code ribbon,
outline. Yellow ribbon stakes can be used to locate a road surveyor log reference number, finish grade elevation,
centerline. Follow the layout of the yellow ribbon stakes to and grade ribbon. (b) Survey stake with location from
see the road centerline, for example. Figure 4.27 shows a hub, centerline symbol, and on grade symbol. (c)
variety of survey stake colors and information. Survey stake with offset distance, color code ribbon,
Hub and guard stakes were briefly defined earlier. The location from hub, cut depth to sub-grade, and grade
2 × 2 × 9, 12- or 18-inch hardwood stakes are used as hubs. ribbon. (d) Survey stake with location from hub, cut
Hubs are important survey starting points or they mark depth at 4:1 slope and offset distance and depth.
important survey points, work points, or reference points,
which are to remain in place for future use. Hub stakes are normally driven flush with the ground and a survey tack is set
in the top of the hub to mark the exact survey point. A survey
Table 4.1  Abbreviations and symbols found on survey tack is a small, sharp, broad-headed nail. The hub is driven
stakes. flush to make it less at risk to damage and its location is
usually marked by a guard stake. Guard stakes are generally
Abbreviation or symbol Meaning
1/2 × 2 × 18 inches and are used to mark and describe
O or OF Offset
hub locations. Guard stakes are driven in the ground at an
C Cut
angle over the hub stake and a flagged lath stake is often
F Fill
placed near to help clearly identify the location to help keep
FG Finish grade the stakes safe from damage. Guard stakes usually have
RP Reference point information describing the point as shown in Figure 4.28.
SG Sub grade
UC Undercut
POWERPOINT
(CL) Centerline
(OO with line through) Grade Create four PowerPoint slides showing (a) Survey
stake with color code ribbon, surveyor log reference
number, finish grade elevation, and grade ribbon.
(b) Survey stake with location from hub, centerline
symbol, and on grade symbol. (c) Survey stake with
offset distance, color code ribbon, location from hub,
cut depth to sub-grade, and grade ribbon. (d) Survey
stake with location from hub, cut depth at 4:1 slope,
Figure 4.26  Slope is described by the ratio of the rise
and offset distance and depth.
divided by the run between two points on a line or plane.

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 Construction site and excavation

Figure 4.27  (Continued)

A grade control station provides a 2 × 2 inch stake offset the cut, and moving earth to another location, which is the fill.
from the construction site and identified with three flagged The grading plan for a specific construction site can be included
lath stakes protecting it from damage. The grade control on the site plan. Figure 4.29 (on p. 122) shows the site plan
station provides grade and offset information to the specif- with grading information for the house excavation. Information
ic grade at construction. found on the site plan and grading plan can include:
 Property boundaries with dimensions and bearings
GRADING PLAN  House perimeter with dimensions
 Driveways, patios, and walkways with dimensions
A grading plan shows the existing and proposed contours,  Retaining walls with specifications and dimensions
elevations, and grades of the construction site before and  Contour lines
after excavation. A grading plan includes the excavation for  Cut and fill specifications
a house or other building that is referred to as a dig-out in  Cutting plane line for profile
the construction industry. The grading plan shows where  Profile drawing
areas need to be cut and filled, and shows structures such as  Roads and streets
retaining walls. This is referred to as cut and fill. Cut and fill is  Title and scale
the excavation process involving the removal of earth, which is  North symbol.

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Construction site and excavation

Figure 4.27  (Continued)

Figure 4.28  Hub stakes are normally driven flush
with the ground and a survey tack is set in the top of
The grading plan usually has a separate profile drawing, the hub to mark the exact survey point. Guard stakes
which is a section view cut through the construction site. are driven in the ground at an angle over the hub stake
A profile can also be called a site section. A profile is a and used to mark and describe hub locations. A flagged
vertical section of the surface of the ground, and underlying lath stake is often placed near to help clearly identify
earth that is taken along any desired fixed line. The profile of the location to help keep the stakes safe from damage.
a construction site is usually through the building excavation
location, but more than one profile can be drawn as needed.
The profile for road construction is normally placed along represented as an arrow and line. The line represents where
the centerline. Profiles are created from the contour lines at the cut is made through the site and the arrow shows the
the section location. The contour map and its related profile line of sight when looking at the site plan–related profile
are commonly referred to as the plan and profile. Profiles section. The cutting plane symbol is generally a circle
can be used to show road grades and site excavation, divided in half with a letter in the top half and a number
among other things. Figure 4.30 shows the profile through in the bottom half. The letter is the section identification,
the grading plan shown in Figure 4.29. The location of the such as C used in this example. There are probably other
profile is established on the grading plan using a cutting- sections A and B found somewhere in this set of drawings.
plane line symbol as shown in Figure 4.29 and detailed The number in the bottom half, such as 7, specifies the page
in Figure 4.31 (on p. 124). Cutting plane symbols are where the section is found in the set of drawing.

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 Construction site and excavation

Look at the grading plan in Figure 4.29 and the correlated borrow materials is obtained if needed. The term borrow
profile in Figure 4.30. The site plan in Figure 4.29 shows the or borrow pit, also known as a sand box, is an area
contour lines of the existing grade and the retaining walls where material such as soil, gravel, or sand has been dug
and contour lines of the proposed excavation. The profile for use at another location. Land grading should be a key
in Figure 4.30 shows a dashed line labeled EXISTING consideration for construction sequencing. Construction
GRADE. The existing grade is the grade before excavation. sequencing is a specified work schedule that manages the
The dashed line below the existing grade line is the final coordination and timing of construction activities and stages
construction grade. Notice the ratio values identified on from the start of land development to final occupancy.
the construction grade slope, such as 2:1. This ratio is the Each stage of construction can also have a sequence. Site
slopes of cut and fill from the excavation site measured preparation, for example, has the sequence of surveying,
in feet of horizontal run to feet of vertical rise called the excavation activities, and the installation of erosion and

4
angle of repose. Two units of run to one unit of rise is sediment control measures. Sediment is earth particles
specified as 2:1. The actual angle of repose for cuts and and other material that drop out of the storm water runoff.
fills is normally determined by approved soils engineering One goal of a construction sequence schedule is to reduce
or engineering geology reports. The slope of cut surfaces on-site erosion and off-site sedimentation and minimize
can be no steeper than is safe for the intended use and exposed soils at any given time during construction.
cannot exceed 1 unit vertical in 2 units horizontal (1:2). Incorporate in the plan any berms, diversions, and other
Alternative designs can be allowed if soils engineering and storm water practices that require excavation and filling. Part
engineering geology reports state that the site has been of the site grading process involves cut and fill described
investigated and give an opinion that a cut at a steeper earlier. See Figures 4.29 and 4.30. Site grading removes
slope is stable and does not create a hazard to property. existing earth down to firm undisturbed soil to provide for
Fill slopes cannot be constructed on natural slopes steeper a solid foundation. Earth removal to firm undisturbed soil
than 1 unit vertical in 2 units horizontal (1:2). In order is common on most sites, but it is sometimes necessary
to provide a bond with the new fill, the ground surface to bring in material to fill or build up a construction
must be prepared to receive fill by removing vegetation, site. When this is done, the new material must be of a
previous unstable fill material, topsoil, and other unsuitable quality specified by a civil engineer and be compacted to
materials. Other requirements include soil engineering specifications required by civil engineering. Site grading is
where stability, steeper slopes, and heights are issues. also used to level and shape the land for landscaping and to
Soil engineering can require benching the fill into sound provide proper drainage to control the flow of storm water.
material and specific drainage and construction methods. A Proper site grading is important to help reduce erosion
bench is a fairly level step excavated into the earth material and keep storm water from entering the foundation and
on which fill is placed. Any grading plan with a cut and fill from adversely impacting adjacent properties or pollute
design must be properly engineered. A civil engineer is downstream waters. Site grading can also include moving
responsible for the proper design and construction. earth to create berms, channels, ditches or vegetated
swales to capture or filter storm water and keep it away
POWERPOINT from the house and adjacent houses. Detention basins
can also be created to temporarily detain storm water and
Create one PowerPoint slide showing how cutting release it slowly; and prevent sediment-laden water from
plane symbols are typically detailed. leaving the site, or both. Another method used to control
water runoff is site benching, where each adjacent site or
lot is graded separately toward the adjoining property line.
Site grading This provides a slight elevation reduction at the property line
Site grading is the construction process of changing allowing water to run off away from the houses. Figure 4.32
the elevation and slope of the land to civil engineering (on p. 125) shows a variety of site grading applications.
specifications and to site survey requirements at and It is best to use surface runoff control methods when
near the proposed construction site. A grading plan possible, because these techniques allow the water runoff
and related drawings is prepared to establish areas of to soak into the soil instead of running away from the site.
the site to be graded, identify drainage patterns, and Alternately, French drains can be used to capture and drain
establish runoff velocities into existing streams, rivers, water away from the structure and direct it to local storm
and lakes. Also included in the grading plan is information water channels. French drains are most often used to drain
about when earthwork will start and stop, establish the surface water when the topography is not favorable to surface
degree and length of finished slopes, and dictate where flow, such as a flat or level site. French drains are common
and how excess material shall be disposed, or where drainage systems that can be used to prevent ground

121
Figure 4.29  The site plan with grading information for the home excavation. The location of the profile is
established on the grading plan using a cutting plane symbol. Courtesy Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc.
Go to the www.routledge.com/cw/madsen image library to view the drawing in detail on your computer screen.
 Existing grade Retaining wall

Fill line

Angle of
repose

Footing Foundation wall Final construction grade

SITE SECTION
S C A L E : 1" = 8'

Figure 4.30  The profile through the grading plan shown in Figure 4.29. A dash line labeled EXISTING GRADE is the grade before excavation. The
dashed line below the existing grade line is the final construction grade. The ratio values identified on the construction grade slope, such as 1:1 and
2:1 is the slopes of cut and fill from the excavation site measured in feet of horizontal run to feet of vertical rise called the angle of repose. Courtesy
Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc. Go to the www.routledge.com/cw/madsen image library to view the drawing in detail on your computer
screen.
4
Construction site and excavation

Figure 4.31  The location of the profile is established on the grading plan using a cutting plane symbol. (a)
Cutting plane labeled vertically. (b) Cutting plane labeled horizontally. (c) Cutting plane labeled on both ends of
cutting plane line.

and surface water from penetrating or damaging building ground water from the adjacent area as shown in Figure 4.34.
foundations. Adjacent topsoil is graded toward the French The grade is sloped toward the catch basin so that water
drain to direct water into the drain as shown in Figure 4.33. naturally flows into the structure. Catch basins are usually
A French drain is a piping system in a ditch with the bottom rectangular concrete boxes with a steel grade on top to help
sloped in the desired direction of water flow. There is normally keep debris from entering the pipe below. The most common
a small drain gravel layer at the bottom of the ditch followed use of catch basins is next to curbs in road construction
by a perforated pipe with a filter fabric sock and additional where they are placed at specific intervals to collect and drain
drain gravel to the surface, with an optional top layer of river rain water from the roadway and adjacent properties. A curb
rock for landscaping appearance. River rock is available is a raised concrete edging to a road, street, or path. Curbs
in many sizes and colors, but small naturally gray rock is can also be constructed with brick, stone, or other decorative
common for this application. A filter fabric sock is a filter materials when used in landscaping applications.
fabric product made to fit over the drain tile to keep material Site grading is performed with heavy equipment, such
from plugging the drain pipe. Filter fabric is a water-filtering as dozers, backhoes, graders, and excavators, shown
porous material and soil stabilization product made to allow in Figure 4.35. Earth can be loaded into dump trucks for
water to pass through, but keep dirt and other materials from removal from the site. Graders and compactors are used
passing through. River rock is smooth and circular, because to level and compact the earth to create a smooth, even
it comes from river and creek bottoms where water force surface, or to cover drainage systems. If a site has poor soil
and friction has removed sharp edges. River rock maintains quality, it can be necessary to remove existing soil and bring
spaces between the rocks allowing water to flow through, in a new layer of topsoil for final landscaping needs.
compared with crushed rock, which is angular rock that
packs tightly and can minimize water flow. French drains can
also be capped with drain fabric and then covered with soil POWERPOINT
and planted with grass. The drain fabric keeps the soil from
entering and clogging the drain system below. This type of Create one PowerPoint slide showing two French
French drain system collects subsurface water but may not drain options similar to Figure 4.33.
collect surface water unless the cover material is porous,
which is the common use of a French drain. A catch basin
CORNER STAKING, EXCAVATION LAYOUT,
can be installed at one end of the French drain system if it
AND FOOTING EXCAVATION
is important for the French drain to collect surface water.
However, it is generally referred to as a regular drain when Corner staking is placing survey stakes at each corner
a catch basin is used. A catch basin is an inlet structure for a of the house. Corner stakes are set by a professional
drain or drain system and is designed to drain excess rain and surveyor, because they must be accurate. The surveyor

124
 4

Figure 4.32  A variety of site grading applications.

Figure 4.33  French drain systems. (a) Small drain gravel layer at the bottom of the ditch followed by a
perforated pipe with filter fabric sock and additional drain gravel to the surface. (b) Drain gravel capped with filter
fabric and then covered with soil.
Construction site and excavation

Figure 4.34  A catch basin with removable grate keeps out debris and allows for cleaning the catch basin.

refers to the site plan to establish the exact house

corners. A building perimeter line is established by
POWERPOINT
running string lines between each corner stake and
Create one PowerPoint slide showing the corner
marking the lines with paint on the ground. For concrete
stakes and offset stakes for a site similar to
slab construction, the footing excavation is done to
Figure 4.36.
the corner stakes. When the house uses crawl space
construction, the surveyor sets 2- to 3-foot (590–
880 mm) offset stakes, which provides for the additional
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
space needed to set concrete forms for footings and
foundation walls. The excavator removes the earth to Protecting existing trees and other vegetation,
the desired depth everywhere inside the offset lines. streams, rivers, lakes, and neighboring green spaces
This is called the dig-out. The dig-out for a crawl space is extremely important when preparing a construction
is generally 18–24 inches (440–880 mm) deep. If the site and throughout construction to final landscaping.
dig-out is for a basement, the depth can be 8–10 feet Environmental protection is part of the design process
(2.4–3 m). Figure 4.36 shows the corner stakes and that continues through the entire construction process.
offset stakes for the site plan shown in Figure 4.29. The Figure 4.37(a) shows the site plan for a proposed house
exact building corner stakes are placed again and a new construction project, and Figure 4.37(b) shows the erosion
outline is established after the excavation is complete. control plan for the same project. As you look at the
Now the concrete crew can set forms for footings and erosion control plan in Figure 4.36(b), notice these erosion
foundation walls. control features:

126
 Construction site and excavation

(d)
4
(a)

(a)

(b)
(e)

 The 15-foot P.  S.D.E. is a storm water easement, which

is a low area or swale between properties that allows
storm water to drain away from homes. P.  S.D.E. stands
for Public or Private Storm Drain Easement.
 The covered stockpiles are noted for a couple of
reasons. One is to provide space on the site for the
stockpiling of materials, and the other is to note that
stockpiles are covered to minimize erosion of the pile.
In this application, the term stockpile refers to the earth
material that is piled and stored during excavation for
later use on the site, such as backfill. Stockpile can
(c) also refer to the on-site storage of other construction
Figure 4.35  Site construction equipment. (a) Dozer. material, such as lumber, or the piling of construction
(b) Backhoe. (c) Excavator. (d) Compactor. (e) Grader. waste for later removal.
 A gravel exit is required to reduce mud and dirt tracking
from vehicle tires onto city streets. No construction or
 The X-X-X line is a silt fence, which is an important part work is allowed outside of the silt fence, even on land
of erosion control. The silt fence stops rainwater runoff that is part of the lot.
from the property. The use of silt fences is described Contractors can be required to have a Storm Water
later in this chapter. Pollution Prevention Plan (SWPPP) as part of their

127
Figure 4.36  The corner stakes and offset stakes for the site plan shown in Figure 4.29. Original site plan courtesy
Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc.
 4

(a)
Figure 4.37  Environmental protection is part of the design process that continues through the entire
construction process. (a) The site plan for proposed house construction project. (b) The erosion control plan for the
same project. Courtesy Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc.
Figure 4.37  (Continued)
 Construction site and excavation

operating procedures. Storm Water Pollution Prevention Some sites have good topsoil and some have poor or
Plans (SWPPPs) are a requirement of the National no topsoil. Topsoil is the upper part of the soil rich in
Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) that degraded vegetation, which is usually rich in nutrients and
regulates water quality when associated with construction most favorable for landscaping lawn and plant growth.
or industrial activities. The SWPPP addresses all pollutants Good topsoil is valuable and should be saved on the site
and their sources, including sources of sediment and respread after construction. After the footings and
associated with construction, construction site erosion, foundation are completed and all groundwork is done,
and all other activities associated with construction the excavated area is backfilled with earth and topsoil
activity and controlled through the implementation as shown in Figure 4.38. Backfill is the refilling of an
of Best Management Practices (BMPs). BMPs are excavated area with material from the excavation or
procedures that provide effective and practical means in trucked in as needed. When a site has poor or no topsoil,

4
achieving construction goals while making the best use trucked-in quality topsoil is recommended for landscaping.
of available resources. Many local jurisdictions and
subdivision projects have environmental protection POWERPOINT
requirements. The civil engineer and contractor must
determine these requirements and include them during Create one PowerPoint slide demonstrating backfill.
the design process and update them daily throughout
the project construction. A SWPPP is not limited to the Natural areas of vegetation should be protected,
following, but can include: because they give natural erosion control, hold storm
 Protection of natural resources such as topsoil, natural water, provide biofiltration, and aesthetic values to a
green areas, and existing trees, ground cover, and plants. site during and after construction. A natural area is a
 Storm water management and control. geographical area that has a physical and cultural originality
 Air quality control, including exhaust emissions and dust developed through natural growth rather than design
control. or planning. Biofiltration is a pollution control technique
 Construction noise control and restricted operation using living material to capture and biologically degrade
hours as needed. process pollutants. Natural areas process higher quantities
 Prevention of releases into the environment of of storm water runoff and have higher filtering capacity,
hazardous materials and wastes. require less maintenance than newly planted areas, and
 Construction waste disposal and recycling. do not require time to establish. Existing root structures
 Protection of historical and archeological sites. are denser, and living root systems help hold soil in place.

Figure 4.38  After the footings and foundation are completed and all groundwork is done, the excavated area is
backfilled with earth and topsoil.

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Construction site and excavation

Natural areas also reduce storm water runoff by catching Construction fuel and other hazardous materials must be
rainfall, holding soil particles in place, maintaining the properly contained and stored so they do not spill into the
ability of soil to absorb water, helping biofiltration, and earth and harm the environment. This kind of soil and water
providing buffers and screens against noise. Natural areas pollution can result in a serious fine, and cleanup can be
also provide immediate habitat for wildlife, enhance local very expensive.
aesthetics, and can increase property value. Many locations have noise restrictions. For example,
Existing trees, especially mature trees, should be construction cannot start before 7 a.m. and must end
protected by designing them into the landscape plan. by 6 p.m. These requirements need to be determined
Mature trees can also increase property value. Trees before construction begins, because an abuse can
need to be protected during construction, because any result in a violation. Additionally, all machinery should be
damage to the trunk, roots, and branches can cause a properly muffled and other noise kept to a minimum.
tree to die even months after construction is complete. It Construction material waste should be recycled when
is best to install a protective fence around trees to help possible. Some materials can be recycled directly into the
keep equipment a safe distance away. The protective same product for reuse. The easiest construction materials
fence should be as far away from the tree as possible, to recycle are lumber, drywall, concrete, plywood, metal,
but no closer than the drip line. The drip line is the area wire, and roofing. Other materials can be reconstituted into
directly located under the outer circumference of the tree other usable products. Recycling construction materials has
branches as shown in Figure 4.39. Tree roots generally the following advantages:
extend to and often beyond the drip line, and trees get
 Conserves natural resources by reducing the demand
most of their water at the roots around the drip line. It is
for raw materials.
also important to keep machinery from compacting the
 Conserves energy and water, because manufacturing
soil near the tree. Water runs off of compacted soils and
with recycled materials requires less processing than
may not provide adequate nutrients for the tree.
using raw materials.
 Reduces air and water pollution, because
POWERPOINT manufacturing from recycled materials is generally a
cleaner process.
Create one PowerPoint slide showing how the drip  Reduces material sent to landfills.
line of a tree is measured.  Protects the environment and health by reclaiming
hazardous waste.
Dust control is required on some projects, which means  Reduces the cost of construction. Reduced waste
that the contractor must water the site to keep dust equals reduced raw material consumption.
from occurring during construction and until the site has A first step for construction waste recycling is waste
landscaping that eliminates future dust problems. reduction. Stockpile partly used materials alongside new
material, so tradesmen can easily see what is available.
Separate remaining waste on-site. Establish a material
sorting plan and have all workers involved. On-site
separation can be done at little or no additional cost, and
there can be companies or non-profit organizations in your
area that schedule construction material pick-up. Non-profit
organizations collect and distribute unused construction
materials to needed projects.
Protection of historical and archeological sites is required
in sensitive areas. Native American and Hawaiian
archeological sites, and other archeological and historic
sites, must be protected and specific local regulations are
critical to follow.

CONSTRUCTION SITE STORM WATER

RUNOFF CONTROL
Figure 4.39  The tree drip line is the area directly
located under the outer circumference of the tree According to the US Environmental Protection Agency
branches. (EPA), uncontrolled storm water runoff from construction

132
 Construction site and excavation

sites can significantly impact rivers, lakes and estuaries. Mulching

Sediment in water bodies from construction sites can
Mulching is an erosion control practice that uses materials
reduce the amount of sunlight reaching aquatic plants, clog
such as grass, hay, wood chips, wood fibers, or straw to
fish gills, smother aquatic habitat and spawning areas, and
stabilize exposed or recently planted soil surfaces and is
obstruct navigation. The most obvious storm water runoff
similar to the use of compost described earlier. Mulching is
control that you have probably seen at or near construction
highly recommended and is most effective to prevent erosion
sites is a silt fence, which is described in detail later in
from starting and to help establish vegetation growth. In
this chapter. There are two main categories of control,
addition to stabilizing soils, mulching can reduce storm water
which are erosion control and sediment control. The many
velocity and improve water absorption. Mulching can also aid
different control methods found in each category are taken
plant growth by holding seeds, fertilizers, and topsoil in place,
in part from the EPA website and described in the following
preventing birds from eating seeds, retaining moisture, and

4
discussion.
insulating plant roots against extreme temperatures.
Erosion control Riprap
Erosion is the process that causes soil and rock to be Riprap is a layer of large rocks used to protect soil from
removed from the Earth’s surface and deposited in other erosion on steep slopes or slopes that are unstable because
locations by natural processes such as wind or water of seepage problems. Riprap can be any large rocks,
flow. Erosion is a natural process, but human activity including boulders, down to 4- to 6-inch (100–150 mm) rock.
has dramatically increased global erosion and has Riprap is commonly used to stabilize stream and river side
caused degradation of certain sensitive areas. Erosion is slopes, inlets and outlets for culverts, bridges, slope drains,
often accelerated during the construction process due grade stabilization structures, and storm drains.
to the removal of vegetation, ground cover, and other
naturally occurring erosion control measures. There Seeding and sodding
are many ways to help control, lessen, and prevent
Seeding or sodding can be used to provide long-term,
erosion. The following briefly describes these methods.
short-term, or immediate grass growth on a desired
Some techniques involve products where manufacturer
area. Seeding is used to control and reduce erosion and
instructions and specifications should be followed.
sediment loss by establishing permanent vegetative
Chemical stabilizers cover, and typically much more effective when used in
conjunction with a cover like mulch or blankets. Seeding
Chemical stabilizers or soil binders provide temporary is economical, adaptable to different site conditions, and
soil stabilization. These are typically sprayed on the allows selection of a variety of plant materials. Sodding
ground to hold soil in place and minimize erosion from is an immediate and permanent erosion control practice
runoff and wind. These materials are easily applied to the where grass sod is installed on exposed soils. Sod, also
surface of the soil, can stabilize areas where vegetation called turf grass, is grass that has already been planted
cannot be established, and provide immediate in sections that are grass and soil held together by roots
protection. or other materials. Sod is available in pieces 16–24 inches
wide × 48 inches long, or rolls 12–18 inches wide ×
Compost blankets
40–60 inches long. Sod is more expensive than seed, but
Compost blankets are a layer of compost material necessary when immediate erosion control is required.
placed on the soil in disturbed areas to reduce erosion.
The compost absorbs, filters, and slows water flow. Soil retention structures
Additionally, seeds can be mixed into the compost before it Soil retention structures, while not for erosion or
is applied to promote revegetation. sediment control, are used to hold soil in place on a
sloped site. Soil retention structures include wood,
Geotextiles
concrete, or steel structures. Reinforced soil-retaining
Geotextiles are porous fabrics also known as filter structures can be effective when sites have very steep
fabrics, road rugs, or construction fabrics. Synthetic slopes or loose, highly erodible soils. Design of soil
construction fabrics are used for a variety of purposes such retention structures often require civil or structural
as separators, turf reinforcement, filtration and drainage, engineering for use at a specific site application. A fairly
and erosion control. For example, turf reinforcement mats inexpensive soil bracing system uses lumber to support
are used to stabilize soil and aid in plant growth by holding the excavated face of a solid soil slope. Continuous
seeds, fertilizers, and topsoil in place. sheeting material, such as steel, concrete, or wood, can

133
Construction site and excavation

be used to continuously cover the entire slope. Retaining Temporary slope drain
walls can be used to provide permanent slope support.
A temporary slope drain can be used to divert storm water
Retaining walls are concrete, masonry, or wood structures
from one elevation to another with a corrugated metal, plastic,
designed to restrain soil on a slope between two different
or concrete pipe extending from the upper to the lower
elevations. Retaining walls can be purely structural or
elevation as shown in Figure 4.41. A berm is constructed to
structural and designed into the finish landscaping as
divert the water into the pipe at the inlet and the outlet is
shown in Figure 4.40.
flared and reinforced with rock and riprap to minimize erosion.
The pipe has watertight seams and is anchored throughout its
POWERPOINT length. Temporary slope drains, also called pipe slope drains,
carry runoff without causing erosion on or at the bottom of
Create one PowerPoint slide showing how a the slope. This technique is temporary and commonly used
retaining wall is used to restrain soil on a slope for less than two years, or until permanent drainage structures
between two different elevations. are installed and slopes are permanently stabilized.

Soil roughening POWERPOINT

Soil roughening is a temporary erosion control practice Create one PowerPoint slide showing a temporary
often used while grading. Soil roughening involves slope drain.
increasing the relief of the soil surface with horizontal
grooves stair-stepping or ripping parallel to the contour of
Sand fence
the slope using construction equipment. Slopes that are
not fine graded and left in a roughened condition reduce Sand fences, also called wind fences, are barriers
erosion. Soil roughening reduces runoff velocity, increases made of small, evenly spaced wooden slats or fabric
water penetration, reduces erosion, traps sediment, and used to reduce wind velocity and to trap blowing sand
prepares the soil for seeding and planting. as shown in Figure 4.42. Sand fences can be used

Figure 4.40  Retaining walls are concrete, masonry, or wood structures designed to restrain soil on a slope
between two different elevations. Retaining walls can be purely structural or structural and designed into the
finish landscaping as shown in this photo. Courtesy of Landscape East & West.

134
 Construction site and excavation

Figure 4.41  Temporary slope drain. Courtesy Tennessee Department of Environment & Conservation.

concentrated flow in a water channel. Multiple check dams

can be placed along the channel to retain sediment as storm
water runoff flows through the channel. Check dams can be
constructed out of gravel, rock, sandbags, logs, or treated
lumber. Rocks used in check dams should be 2–15 inches
(50–380 mm). The elevation at the center of the check dam
should be at least 6 inches lower than its two ends. See
Figure 4.43.

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide showing a drawing or

photograph of a check dam installation.

Figure 4.42  Sand fences used to reduce wind Grass-lined channel

velocity and to trap blowing sand.
A grass-lined channel can be an attractive part of the
landscaping and used to carry storm water runoff. Grass
as perimeter controls around open construction sites or other vegetation lining the channel slows down water
to keep sediments from blowing off-site onto roads, flow. Grass-lined channels are excellent for controlling and
streams, and adjacent properties. The spaces between distributing runoff. Grass channels can include check dams
the fence slats allow wind and sediment to pass through to improve runoff storage, decrease flow rates, and help
but reduce wind speed, and deposit sediment along sediment removal.
the fence. Wind fences are used at construction sites
with large areas of cleared land with loose, fine-textured Slope diversion
soils and in arid or coastal regions where sand and dust Slope diversions are constructed by creating channels
commonly blows off-site. laterally across slopes to intercept the downslope flow
of runoff and reduce the possibility of erosion as shown
Check dam
in Figure 4.44. When placed correctly, slope diversions
Check dams are small, temporary structures constructed slow potential flow velocity and decrease the overall
across a swale or channel. Check dams slow the speed of water volume moving down the slope within a given time

135
Construction site and excavation

Figure 4.43  Check dams used as runoff control. Courtesy Tennessee Department of Environment & Conservation.

frame. Slope diversions can be permanent structures like controlled by watering the ground with sprinklers or
grass-lined channels, or they can be built for temporary spraying the ground with a water truck. Vegetation such
runoff control above and below a construction site. as grass can be planted to stabilize soil in areas of the
A slope diversion can be a berm or a combination berm site where there is no construction activity. Applying
and channel built along the perimeter of and within the compost to an area can help control dust, but watering
disturbed part of a site. A slope diversion can be an earthen may still be necessary to prevent the compost from
perimeter control built as a ridge of compacted soil, often drying out and becoming dust. Protecting construction
accompanied by a ditch or swale with a vegetated lining areas from wind with barriers such as existing trees and
constructed at the top or base of a sloping site. The slope shrubs, or by using hay bales or wind fences, can help.
diversion at the top of a site controls surface runoff from Gravel placed on roadways can help reduce dust problems
entering the site, and can improve working conditions caused by trucks kicking up dirt. Chemical adhesives can
on the construction site. The slope diversion at the base be used to control dust. Products include asphalt, latex
of a construction site helps control runoff from entering emulsion, or resin-water emulsions, and calcium chloride.
adjacent properties. Only use chemical applications that are biodegradable or
water-soluble and determine their possible effect on the
Sediment control environment.

Sediment control is any practice used to detain sediment-

loaded storm water on a construction site, so that it does Brush barrier
not flow on to other properties or cause water pollution Brush barriers are perimeter sediment control structures
in a stream, river, lake, or ocean. Sediment controls are constructed of material such as small tree branches, root
often used with one or more of the previously described mats, stone, or other debris left over from site clearing.
erosion control methods. The following describes the most Brush barriers can be covered with a filter fabric to stabilize
common sediment control applications. the structure and improve barrier efficiency. The edge of
the filter fabric cover should be buried in a trench 4 inches
Dust control
deep and 6 inches wide on the drainage side of the barrier.
Some locations require dust control, especially in Brush barriers are only possible on sites where brush, tree
arid or semi-arid regions. Dust can be a threat to the roots, and rocks are cleared from the site. Brush barriers
environment and to human health. Heavy construction are temporary, because the material decays over time, or is
equipment used in land clearing, excavation, demolition, removed after construction because it is normally unsightly
and construction traffic can cause dust. Dust control and undesirable. To be more efficient, contractors often
measures often depend on topography, existing cover, prefer to remove the material immediately and use other
soil characteristics, and expected rainfall. Dust can be sediment controls.

136
 Construction site and excavation

Compost filter berm

A compost filter berm is a long raised bed of compost
placed along the site contours to slow runoff and control
erosion. The compost filter berm can effectively retain and
block sediment. Compost filter berms are usually placed
along the perimeter of a site, or at intervals along a slope.
Berms can be planted with grass or left unplanted. Grass
filter berms are normally left in place and provide long-
term control and filtration of storm water runoff. When
construction is finished, unplanted berms are often spread
around the site as a soil improvement.

Compost filter sock 4

A compost filter sock is compost in a round or oval-
shaped mesh tube. Compost filter socks can effectively
retain water, and block sediment. Compost filter socks are
usually placed along the perimeter of a site, or at intervals
along a slope or site contours to slow runoff. Staked
compost filter socks can also be used as check dams in
small drainage ditches and above a catch basin to slow
water flow and trap sediment. Compost filter socks can be
planted with grass or left unplanted. Grass filter socks can
be left in place and provide long-term control and filtration
of storm water runoff. Filter socks are flexible and can be
filled in place or filled and moved into position.

Construction exit stabilization

Construction exit stabilization provides gravel on the
exit driveway and road to stabilize the ground to keep
mud and dirt on vehicle tires from leaving the area as mud
attached to vehicles. Filter fabric can be placed under the
gravel to provide additional stabilization. The gravel used
in this application is usually 3- to 4-inch (74–98 mm) clean,
angular rock depending on the ground conditions. Another
advantage of this practice is that the gravel can be used as
the road and driveway base for final pavement or concrete
to complete the driveway. An additional graveled area can
be used as a vehicle washing station at the site entrance.
Wash stations allow workers to remove sediment from
vehicles before they leave the site.

Fiber rolls
Fiber rolls are tube-shaped erosion-control devices filled
with straw, flax, rice, coconut fiber, bark, or composted
material. Each roll is wrapped with UV-degradable
polypropylene netting for long life or with biodegradable
materials like burlap, jute, or outer coconut husks. Fiber
rolls have applications similar to compost filter socks
Figure 4.44  Slope diversions are used to intercept previously described. Fiber rolls are commonly placed
the downslope flow of runoff and reduce the possibility around storm water drains to prevent silt from entering the
of erosion. Photo courtesy of George Hornal. storm water system.

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Construction site and excavation

Gravel filter berm system for a construction site, or permanently designed

into the landscaping to provide long-term sediment control
A gravel filter berm is a temporary ridge made up of
and help slow heavy rain runoff.
loose gravel, stone, or crushed rock used as an efficient
form of sediment control. The gravel filter berm slows
and filters runoff and diverts it from an open traffic area.
POWERPOINT
Gravel filter berms are often used where traffic needs to
Create one PowerPoint slide showing a drawing or
be rerouted because roads are under construction, or in
photograph of a sediment basin.
traffic areas within a construction site. Gravel filter berms
are constructed using 3/4- to 3-inch (19 –76 mm) gravel
Sediment trap
or crushed rock. Multiple berms can be used depending
on the length of the slope. Gravel berms need regular Sediment traps are temporary excavated pools that allow
maintenance because they break down during use. sediment from construction runoff to collect. Sediment
traps are excavated in natural or man-made drainage ways
Sediment basin and rock dam where runoff leaves the construction site. Sediment traps
Sediment basins and rock dams are used to confine are commonly used at the outlets of storm water systems
sediment from storm water runoff in an excavated pool or where additional sediment and waste can be collected.
natural depression. Sediment basins can be designed to
Silt fence
retain water permanently, or to only hold water temporarily
and release it at a determined rate. The pool depth can One of the most obvious storm water runoff controls that
be increased by building an earth or rock and gravel you have probably seen on or near construction sites is the
perimeter dam. Water can be released from the pool with silt fence. Figure 4.46 is an example of a silt fence used for a
a perforated outlet riser and drain pipe that allows the check dam. Silt fence is a temporary sediment barrier made
water to reach a maximum level as shown in Figure 4.45. of porous fabric. Wood stakes of 2 × 2 inches (50 × 50 mm)
A sediment basin can be a temporary sediment control or steel T-posts are placed at 5–8 foot (1.5–2.4 meter) centers.

Figure 4.45  Sediment basins are used to confine sediment from storm water runoff in an excavated pool or
natural depression. Courtesy Thomas Carpenter, 5205 Stonebridge Road, West Des Moines, IA 50265.

138
 Construction site and excavation

Figure 4.46  Silt fence is a temporary sediment barrier made of porous fabric. Courtesy Thomas Carpenter, 5205
Stonebridge Road, West Des Moines, IA 50265.

The stakes are driven into the ground to hold the silt fence The key to proper placement is that silt fence must pond
in place. Silt fence is used anywhere it is desired to control and filter water. For example, the silt fence is improperly
sediment runoff and keep sediment from leaving the placed if water can run around the end or ends. Silt fence
construction site, from flowing onto roadways, and from must be placed where it can store water, with the ends
entering storm sewers. It primarily functions by ponding higher than the interior. The location may not be good
water behind it where sedimentation can take place. If for silt fence use if the space is too small or too steep
you cannot create a ponding effect with the silt fence, it for ponding to occur. An arc shape or J-hook shape is
is probably not an appropriate location for the fence. Silt often used to create a storage area. Figure 4.47 shows
fences keep soil on the construction site until ground work how the J-hook placement creates a ponding area for
is completed and permanent soil stabilization measures are sedimentation. Long runs should be avoided, and broken
in place. up into smaller segments. Long runs usually concentrate
runoff in one area where runoff can overflow the fence.
SILT FENCE INSTALLATION
You should restrict run lengths to less than 200 linear feet
The following is taken in part from the article Proper Silt (61 m). On-site observations and adjustment should be
Fence Installation by Tom Carpenter, Certified Professional made as needed to make sure the silt fence is properly
in Erosion and Sediment Control (CPESC). Properly placed. The first goal in silt fence placement is creating a
installed silt fence is the most effective temporary storage area for runoff and filtration, and the second goal is
sediment control device available. It can withstand storing the greatest quantity of water without overflows. It
concentrated flows, heavy winds, and potentially retain is difficult to place long silt fence runs parallel to contours.
up to 20 tons (18 metric tons) of sediment per run of A better plan is to place multiple arc-shaped runs on a
fence. Silt fence is inexpensive and fairly easy to install. large slope as shown in Figure 4.48. Silt fences can also
Proper silt fence installation has these six practices to be be installed in a circle, such as around a catch basin for
effective: placement, quantity, installation, compaction, a storm drain to keep sediment from entering the inlet.
posting, and attachment. Silt fence placement refers to Figure 4.49 shows a silt fence placement around a catch
where and in what shape silt fence is placed on site. basin. Look carefully at the installation in Figure 4.49. This

139
Figure 4.47  The J-hook silt fence placement creates a ponding area for sedimentation. Courtesy Thomas
Carpenter, 5205 Stonebridge Road, West Des Moines, IA 50265.

Figure 4.48  It is difficult to place long silt fence runs parallel to contours. A better plan is to place multiple
arc-shaped runs on a large slope as shown here. Courtesy Thomas Carpenter, 5205 Stonebridge Road, West Des
Moines, IA 50265.
 Construction site and excavation

Figure 4.49  Silt fences can be installed in a circle, such as around a catch basin for a storm drain to keep
sediment from entering the inlet. This is an example of a technically correct installation, but poor placement,
because the opening in the silt fence circle faces uphill, allowing water to run directly into the storm drain.
The opening should have been on the downhill side, the installation should have been closed off, or the best
installation would have been an arc-shaped silt fence above the catch basin. Courtesy Thomas Carpenter, 5205
Stonebridge Road, West Des Moines, IA 50265.

is an example of a technically correct installation, but poor multiple arc-shaped runs to create multiple storage areas,
placement, because the silt fence opening in the circle which also reduces the flow velocities.
faces up hill, allowing water to run directly into the storm The two generally accepted methods of silt fence
drain. The opening should have been on the downhill side, installation are trenching and static slicing. Trenching is
the installation should have been closed off, or the best the digging of a ditch to a desired width and depth with
installation would have been an arc-shaped silt fence above a trenching machine or excavation machine such as a
the catch basin. backhoe. When trenching is used, the trench is 6–12 inches
Silt fence quantity refers to the length of silt fence used (147–294 mm) wide and 10–12 inches (245–294 mm) deep.
at the control area. A good rule of thumb for silt fence One edge of the silt fence fabric is placed to the bottom
quantity is a maximum of 100 linear feet (30.5 m) per of the trench and the trench is then backfilled over the silt
10,000 square feet (929 m2) of area. A 1-inch (25 mm) per fence in the ditch. The trench is compacted by driving over
hour rain event produces 6,200 gallons (23,470 L) of water with the tires of the tractor or backhoe. Compaction refers
on just 10,000 square feet, so for effective design, use to increasing the soil density by applying pressure. Quality

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Construction site and excavation

compaction has a positive effect on silt fence effectiveness, setting refers to proper post spacing and depth in the soil.
resists washouts, minimizes water saturating the soil, Posts should be 4–5 feet (1.2–1.5 m) apart where water
and stabilizes the installation. Static slicing is done with concentrates, and 6–7 feet (1.8–2.1 m) in low pressure
a tractor using an attached slicing machine that inserts a areas. Posts should be as deep in the ground as the fabric
narrow custom-shaped blade at least 10 inches into the is above the ground. Steel posts are easier to install to the
ground, and at the same time pulls silt fence fabric into proper depth and have a better life span than wood posts,
the opening created, as the blade is pulled through the but hardwood posts are common and less expensive than
ground. The tip of the blade is designed to slightly disrupt steel.
the soil upward, preventing horizontal compaction of the Silt fence attachment refers to properly securing the
soil and at the same time creating the best soil condition fabric to the posts, providing support for at least 18
for compaction. Static slicing installation does not excavate inches (441 mm) of water and sediment. Silt fence fabric
soil or leave the spoil spread out, provides consistent and is attached to steel posts using three plastic ties or wire,
dependable silt fence installation, and reduces many labor- installed diagonally within the top 8 inches (196 mm) of
related installation problems over trench installation. The each post. Silt fence fabric is attached to wood posts
tractor is then used to compact the area by driving over the with multiple staples, or a small lath over the fabric
slice joint with the tires. is used to secure fabric to wood posts with screws.
Post-setting and driving, followed with tying the silt Figure 4.50 shows an illustration of proper silt fence
fence fabric to the posts, finalizes the installation. Post- installation.

Figure 4.50  Proper silt fence installation.

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 Construction site and excavation

POWERPOINT TEST

Create one PowerPoint slide showing proper silt Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access

fence installation. the test for this chapter.

SILT FENCE MAINTENANCE

A silt fence has done its job when it is full of sediment. PROBLEMS
When this happens, a new silt fence should be installed
downslope from the full silt fence, because trying to Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
remove sediment from behind a silt fence can be very the problems for this chapter.
difficult or impossible. A silt fence requires maintenance
by repairing or replacing if it is falling down, or if there is a
washout under the fence. 4
RESEARCH

Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
research options and topics that correlate with
the content of this chapter.

143
 CHAPTER
5
Foundation materials
and construction
Learning objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
 Read foundation plans.
 Define terminology and describe foundation construction practices.
 Identify and describe different types of foundation systems.
 Describe concrete characteristics, concrete forms, and concrete construction applications.
 Explain the use of steel reinforced concrete and the types of steel reinforcing used in concrete construction.
 Identify inch and metric steel reinforcing sizes.
 Describe the use of welded wire reinforcing.
 Identify and explain the use of anchor bolts and hold-down anchors.
 Describe the function of concrete piers and the use of post bases and post caps.
 Define the construction-related terms sub-grade, sub-base, and base.
 Identify and explain the function of concrete slab control joints.
 Describe concrete slab finish options.
 Identify concrete blocks and describe concrete block construction practices.
 Compare and contrast typical wood form systems and automated concrete forms.
 Describe basement foundation construction, including basement slab, expansion joint, footing drain, and wall
waterproofing.
 Explain the use of insulating concrete forms used in foundation construction.
 Describe the installation of under slab electrical, HVAC, and plumbing.
 Continue the Description of Materials form started in Chapter 1 as related to foundation materials and construction
practices.
 Create PowerPoint presentations related to foundation materials and construction applications.
 Answer questions related to foundation materials and construction practices.
 Start the scale model team project option using foundation materials and construction.
 Continue from the site preparation with foundation materials and practices for the construction of an actual home
foundation system.

145
Foundation materials and construction

FOUNDATION SYSTEMS There are several different types of foundation systems

used in residential construction throughout the United
The foundation is the construction system used to support States and Canada. The basic foundation systems are the
the structural loads and distribute the loads to the ground. crawl space, concrete slab, basement, and post and
Foundation systems are typically made of concrete or a beam or pole construction. These foundation systems are
combination of concrete and concrete block along with wood described after the following discussion covering concrete
framing members. The key features of a foundation are the construction.
footings, foundation walls, stem walls, and piers. Concrete
is a construction material made from cement, sand, gravel,
CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
and water mixed together and set in a form along with steel
reinforcement to make a solid structure when cured. Concrete Concrete is a mixture of Portland cement, sand, gravel,
blocks are prefabricated construction blocks made from and water. This mixture is poured into forms that are built
concrete. Standard size concrete blocks are 4 × 8 × 16 inches of wood, steel, or other materials to contain the mix in
and 8 × 8 × 16 inches, as described in detail later in this the desired shape until it is hard. Concrete is delivered to
chapter. Footings are the lowest member of the foundation the construction site in a semi-liquid state and is poured
system used to spread the loads of the structure on the in the concrete forms. Concrete forms are temporary
supporting ground. Foundation walls are the vertical walls of or permanent structures or molds into which concrete
the foundation system that connect between the footings and is poured. Concrete is delivered in a truck with a large
the structure above. Stem walls are used at the interior of the container that keeps the concrete spinning in the semi-
foundation system to support structural members at mid- liquid state so it can easily flow into the forms. A pour is
span. The stem wall structure usually has a continuous footing the process of flowing the concrete into the forms.
with either a concrete foundation wall or a wood frame wall Concrete has initial hardening in about 2–3 hours
tied to the footing. The term span refers to the horizontal depending on air temperature, amount and type of cement
distance between two supporting members. A pier is a in the mix and other environmental conditions. You should
cylindrical, square, or rectangular structure made of concrete stay off new concrete during the first three days as much
or concrete block and used to support individual foundation as possible. Concrete has its most rapid strength gain over
members. Piers can also be called footings. Figure 5.1 shows the first 7 days, so careful construction activities can take
the parts of a typical foundation, stem wall, and pier system. place during this time. Concrete reaches full strength in
28 days. Concrete compressive strength is commonly
specified on the foundation plan and related sections and
POWERPOINT details. A typical specification might read: CONCRETE
TO HAVE A MINIMUM COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF
Create one PowerPoint slide showing the parts of a
2,500 PSI AT 28 DAYS, where PSI is the abbreviation for
typical foundation, stem wall, and pier system.
pounds per square inch and 28 days is when concrete

Figure 5.1  The parts of a typical foundation, stem wall, and pier system.

146
 Foundation materials and construction

reaches full strength. The metric equivalent is megapascal reinforcing are generally more extensive in commercial
(MPa), where 2,500 PSI converts to 17 MPa. Compressive construction. Poured-in-place concrete is the concrete
strength is the force applied by weight. Concrete has construction method previously described where
excellent compressive strength, but poor tensile strength. concrete is poured into forms. The term casting refers to
This is why steel reinforcing is added to concrete to the resulting concrete structure when describing poured-
increase the tensile strength. Tensile strength is the in-place concrete. In addition to the foundation and slab
strength the material has against pulling forces. floor systems, concrete is used for walls, columns,
Lateral soil pressure acting on concrete structures tends and floors aboveground. Concrete is a fundamental
to bend the wall inward, placing the soil side of the wall in material used for building foundations. The foundation
compression and the interior side of the wall in tension. is the system used to support the building loads and is
Steel reinforcing is used to increase the ability of concrete to usually made up of walls, footings, and piers. The term
withstand this tensile stress as shown in Figure 5.2. Steel- foundation is used in many areas to refer to the footing.
reinforced walls and columns are constructed by setting steel The footing is the lowest member of the foundation
reinforcing in place and then surrounding it with wooden system used to spread the loads of the structure across
forms to contain the concrete. The forms are removed when supporting soil. Residential buildings use concrete
the concrete has been poured and allowed to set. foundations with or without steel reinforcing. Figure 5.3
shows a photograph of wood concrete forms ready for
the concrete to be poured. Notice how the forms are
5
POWERPOINT
supported and braced, because concrete applies a lot
Create one PowerPoint slide showing steel of pressure on the forms until the concrete hardens.
reinforcing used to increase the ability of concrete to Figure 5.4 shows a worker pouring concrete into
withstand tensile stress. the forms. Concrete can be poured directly from the
concrete truck if there is good access around the site.
When access is limited, most contractors have the
Poured-in-place concrete concrete delivered with a concrete pump truck. The
The process of pouring concrete into forms is called concrete pump can be truck or trailer-mounted with
poured-in-place concrete. Commercial and residential a remote-controlled boom hose using an articulating
applications for poured-in-place concrete are similar robotic arm to accurately place concrete. Figure 5.5
except that the size of the casting and the amount of shows a worker filling in voids and smoothing the top

Figure 5.2  Lateral soil pressure acting on concrete structures tends to bend the wall inward, placing the soil side
of the wall in compression and the interior side of the wall in tension. Steel reinforcing is used to increase the
ability of concrete to withstand tensile stress.

147
Foundation materials and construction

Soil, excavating, and grading

Earth is generally excavated prior to building a concrete
structure. Excavation refers to removing earth for
construction purposes. Before a concrete structure
can be built, earth needs to be excavated down to
firm, undisturbed supporting soil. Detailed engineering
specifications are often placed on the plans identifying
the amount of bearing pressure required. The bearing
pressure is normally the number of pounds per square
inch of pressure the soil is engineered to support.
Concrete slabs also need firm, undisturbed supporting
soil, or compacted fill that meets specific engineer
requirements. A slab is a concrete floor system, typically
Figure 5.3  Concrete footing forms being set for the made of poured concrete at ground level. In many cases,
concrete to be poured. compacted gravel is specified below the concrete slab.
The gravel provides for a level or accurate slope surface
upon which to pour the concrete slab, and provides for
compaction as needed. A drawing note or specification for
under-slab gravel might read:
4″ MIN. 3/4 MINUS COMPACTED GRAVEL OVER FIRM
UNDISTURBED SOIL

Steel reinforced concrete

Steel added to concrete improves the tension properties
of the material. Concrete poured around steel bars
placed in the forms is known as reinforced concrete.
The steel bars are referred to as rebar. Steel is the
best choice for reinforcing concrete, because its
coefficient of thermal expansion is almost the same as
Figure 5.4  A worker pouring concrete into the forms
cured concrete. The resulting structure has concrete to
from a pump truck hose.
resist the compressive stress, and steel to resist the
tensile stress which is caused by the loads acting on
the structure. Look back at Figure 5.2 to see how steel
reinforcing is used to increase the ability of concrete to
withstand tensile stress.
Steel reinforcing is available in a number of sizes.
Steel reinforcing uses deformed steel bars. Deformed
reinforcing bars have raised ridges to hold better in
concrete, by increasing the bond between the concrete
and steel. See Figure 5.6. Steel reinforcing bars are
sized by number, starting at #3, which is 3/8 inch in
diameter, and increasing in size at approximately 1/8-inch
intervals to #18, which is 2-1/4 inch in diameter. No. 4
rebar is 1/2 inch in diameter, and is commonly used in
residential construction. Typical rebar notes on drawings
Figure 5.5  A worker filling in voids and smoothing the or in specifications might read as shown in Figure 5.7. As
top of the foundation wall after concrete has been poured. you look at Figure 5.7 notice that rebar is represented
with a thick line when shown from the side and as a
of the foundation wall after concrete has been poured. small solid circle when seen from the end. Also notice
Additional information and examples are provided #4 REBAR 24″ OC with the L-shaped symbol with 2′-0″
throughout this chapter. on the side and 12″ on the bottom. This means that

148
 Foundation materials and construction

Welded wire reinforcement

Welded wire reinforcement (WWR) is another steel
concrete reinforcing material. Welded wire reinforcement
is steel wires spaced a specified distance apart in a square
grid, and the wires are welded together as shown in
Figure 5.8. Figure 5.8(a) shows the diameter and spacing
of welded wire reinforcing and a detail drawing of a
concrete slab application. Figure 5.8(b) shows welded wire
reinforcing used in a structural detail. Figure 5.8(c) shows
welded wire reinforcing being used on a construction
project. Welded wire reinforcement is specified by giving
the spacing of the wire grid, such as 6″ × 6″, which means
6″ OC each way, followed by the wire type and size of the
Figure 5.6  Deformed reinforcing bars. wires used in the spacing. Wire spacing can be square or

5
rectangular.

the specified rebar is #4, bent specifically 2 feet on the

vertical leg and 12 inches on the horizontal leg, and POWERPOINT
spaced at 24 inches on center and installed in the forms
to create the concrete foundation shown in the drawing. Create one PowerPoint slide showing the diameter
The other rebar is 3 – #4 CONTINUOUS REBAR, which and spacing of welded wire reinforcing, and a detail
means there are three #4 rebars spaced evenly along the drawing of a concrete slab application with welded
bottom of the footing with 3 inches of clearance from wire reinforcing.
the bottom of the footing and running the continuous
length of the footing. Welded wire reinforcement wire type is given as plain or
deformed. Plain wire is smooth and is designated with a W.
Deformed wire is designated with a D. Deformed steel
POWERPOINT reinforcing was described earlier. A few of the available
wire sizes are W1.4, D1.4, W2.9, D2.9, W11, D11, W15,
Create one PowerPoint slide showing a typical
D15, W20, D20, W45, and D45. Wires are available in
concrete foundation detail.
many sizes from W1.4 (3/16-inch diameter) to W45
(3/4-inch diameter). Most wire sizes are available as
Metric rebar size is the same as inch rebar size converted either plain or deformed. The wire size numbers relate
to millimeters using the formula inch × 25.4 = millimeters, to the wire area. The wire area is determined by dividing
and rounded to the closest 5 mm. For example, #4 rebar the wire designation by 100, for example, W1.4 is 0.014
has a 0.5 inch diameter, and 0.5 inch × 25.4 = 12.7 mm. square inches (1.4 ÷ 100 = 0.014), and W45 is 0.45
Rounding 12.7 to 13 makes a 13M metric rebar square inches. The welded wire reinforcement grid can
specification, where M represents metric. have equally spaced wires and the same wire size, or

Figure 5.7  Typical concrete foundation detail.

149
Foundation materials and construction

Figure 5.9  Welded wire reinforcement is purchased in

sheets.

wire is MW19, for example. The wire spacing is given in

millimeters. A metric welded wire reinforcement callout is:
WWR 102 × 102-MW20 × MW20
Welded wire reinforcement is purchased in sheets
as shown in Figure 5.9. Sheet sizes can vary, but are
normally 8 × 15 feet and 8 × 20 feet, and some can
go to 12-foot widths and 40-foot lengths, depending
on shipping and handling equipment to lift and move
bundles of sheets. Sheet sizes can also be controlled by
state requirements, where restrictions exist for greater
than standard loads of 8 × 40 feet and 40,000 pounds.

NOTE

ASTM The American Society of Testing Materials

(ASTM) (www.astm.org) document A615/A615M,
Standard Specification for Deformed and Plain Carbon-
Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement provides
(c)
standards related to steel reinforcing bars. ASTM
Figure 5.8  Welded wire reinforcement. (a) The A496/A496M, Standard Specification for Steel Wire,
diameter and spacing of welded wire reinforcing. (b) Deformed, for Concrete Reinforcement, and ASTM
A detail drawing of a concrete slab application with A497/A497M, Standard Specification for Steel Welded
welded wire reinforcing. (c) Welded wire reinforcing Wire Reinforcement, Deformed, for Concrete, provide
used on a concrete slab construction project. standards related to welded wire reinforcement.
CRSI Consult the Manual of Standard Practices,
published by the Concrete Reinforcing Steel
the spacing and size can be different each way. Sample Institute (CRSI) (www.crsi.org), for complete
welded wire reinforcement callouts are written: information and examples related to steel concrete
WWR 6 × 6-W15 × W15 reinforcing.
or WRI Refers to the Wire Reinforcement Institute
WWR 4 × 18-D20 × W8 (WRI) (www.wirereinforcementinstitute.org/)
documents TECH FACTS, Excellence Set in Concrete
Metric welded wire reinforcement specifications have
for detailed information about welded wire
an M preceding the W or D and the wire area is given in
reinforcement.
square millimeters. The metric equivalent for a W2.9-inch

150
 Foundation materials and construction

Anchor bolts and hold-down anchors concrete foundation or structural slab by an embedded or
adhesive-installed anchor bolt at the bottom. The hold-down
The foundation wall has anchor bolts embedded in the is connected to a wood post with screws, nails, or bolts at
concrete and projecting out far enough to fasten through the top. See Figure 5.11. In structural engineering, a shear
the mud sill as shown in Figure 5.10. Anchor bolts are wall, also called a braced wall line, is a wall composed of
steel L-shaped bolts that are imbedded in the top of the shear panels, also known as braced panels, to counter the
foundation wall and extend out far enough to fasten the effects of lateral load acting on a structure. A shear panel
mud sill with a washer and nut at each bolt. The mud sill is typically part of a wood frame stud wall that is covered
is a continuous pressure-treated wood member that with structural sheathing such as plywood, but other
provides a barrier between the foundation wall and the materials such as diagonal bracing systems, sheet steel,
framing above. Pressure-treated means that wood has and steel-backed shear panels can be used. All exterior walls
had a liquid preservative forced inside to protect against and some interior walls have braced panels depending on
deterioration due to rot or insect damage. The mud sill is structural engineering requirements. Interior shear walls can
generally 2X pressure-treated material, such as 2 × 4, be bearing or non-bearing. The plywood sheathing on a shear
2 × 6, or 2 × 8 depending on the design requirements. panel is securely nailed to the stud wall framing at the edges

5
Anchor bolts are also sized and spaced to design and in the field with nails of a specific size and spacing
requirements, and a typical note on plans or specifications based on structural engineering. An engineered shear
might read: 1/2″ × 10″ ANCHOR BOLTS W/ FLAT WASHER wall has the strength and stiffness to make the structure
AND HEX NUT 48″ OC AND 12″ MIN FROM ENDS AND safe against lateral loads. The construction of a structural
SPLICES, where 1/2″ is the diameter, 10″ is the length, with plywood-reinforced shear wall is shown in Figure 5.12
(W/) a flat washer and hexagon nut, 48″ is the spacing on (on p. 153). A lateral load is a force working on a structure
center, and an anchor bolt a minimum (MIN) from the ends applied parallel to the ground, and diagonally to the structure.
and splices of the mud sill. Wind and seismic loads are the most common lateral loads.
Seismic loads are caused by earthquakes.
POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide showing an anchor bolt POWERPOINT

with a washer and nut.
Create one PowerPoint slide showing the
components of a hold-down anchor system.
Hold-down anchors, also called hold-downs or holdowns,
are used in a variety of construction applications. This
discussion about hold-down anchors refers to fasteners that
are embedded in concrete foundation walls and attach to POWERPOINT
wood structural walls above, or attach wood structural walls
Create one PowerPoint slide showing the construction
between floors, and especially at shear walls to control
of a structural plywood-reinforced shear wall.
uplift in the wall system. The hold-down is connected to the

Figure 5.10  Anchor bolt.

151
Foundation materials and construction

Other types of structural systems can be used to anchor

posts to footings and beams. These are called post bases
and post caps and are used to provide a rigid connection
between the footing and post and between the post and
beam above as shown in Figure 5.15 (on p. 156). The
concrete footings, called piers, are cylindrical or cube-
shaped and placed to provide mid-span support for beams
and joists. Piers are cylindrical, square, or rectangular
structures made of concrete or concrete block and used to
Horizontal Installation support individual foundation members.
(Plan View)
POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide showing post bases

and post caps used to provide a rigid connection
between the footing and post and between the post
and beam above.

CRAWL SPACE FOUNDATION

The crawl space system has a perimeter footing keyed
to a foundation wall to support the outside structure, with
Vertical Installation interior piers and stem walls to support the mid-span
Figure 5.11  The components of a hold-down anchor structure above. The footing and foundation wall can be
system. © 2013 Simpson Strong-Tie Company Inc. and/ formed and poured at one time, which is referred to as
or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. monolithic. Monolithic means formed and poured as a
single unit. More often the footing is formed and poured
first and then the foundation wall is formed over the footing
A shear wall can also be constructed with diagonal and poured at a different time. The term keyed means that
wood or metal T-bracing by cutting a diagonal slot in the the footing is keyed to the foundation wall to keep the wall
studs where the bracing can be inserted and screwed connected to the footing. The key is a slot in the footing
or nailed to the studs as shown in Figure 5.13. The that is created when the footing is poured. Additionally, the
structural engineer determines the system to be used foundation wall can be connected to the footing with steel
and provides drawings and specifications included on the reinforcing bars set in the footing and extending upward into
set of plans. the foundation wall. Steel reinforcing bars are called rebar
An interior braced wall can also be constructed as in the construction industry. The term crawl space refers
needed for shear panels by using a continuous stem to a space that is at least 18 inches (450 mm) between the
wall or pony wall at mid-span in the foundation. Stem bottom of the wood structure and the ground that provides
wall or pony wall is a general term used to describe any access to install and service plumbing, and heating and
short height wall, or partial wall, also called a knee wall. cooling systems where appropriate. Crawl space foundation
This discussion describes a pony wall constructed at the examples are shown in Figure 5.16(a), (b), and (c)
interior of a foundation to support the mid-span of joists (on p. 157). Crawl space ventilation is used to prevent
above and to act as an interior shear wall as shown in moisture build-up and possible moisture damage to floor
Figure 5.14. A structural engineer provides the shear wall construction materials and other structural elements exposed
construction requirements and nailing specifications on to the crawl space. Ventilation also helps to prevent the
the plans. possible build-up of gases within the crawl space. Crawl
space vents are generally placed along the top of the
foundation wall based on locations and specifications found
POWERPOINT on the foundation plans. Foundation vents are available in
standard sizes that match foundation plan specifications and
Create one PowerPoint slide showing pony wall
are made of steel, aluminum, or plastic. Foundation vents are
constructed at the interior of a foundation to support
closable with built-in doors, louvers, or insulating foam inserts.
the mid-span of joists above and to act as an interior
This allows the foundation vents to be closed during the
shear wall.
winter. A typical foundation vent is shown in Figure 5.16(d).

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 Foundation materials and construction

Figure 5.12  The construction of a structural plywood-reinforced shear wall.

There are two basic types of crawl space construction, which

POWERPOINT are the post and beam and joist construction.
Post and beam construction uses wood posts supported
Create one PowerPoint slide showing crawl space
by concrete piers or footings with beams above. The
foundation with three options: Monolithic footing
beams are generally spaced 32–48 inches (800–1,200 mm)
and foundation wall. Foundation wall keyed to
on center and run between the foundation walls. Wood
footing. Foundation wall keyed to footing with
decking is fastened above and perpendicular to the beams.
steel reinforcing bar (rebar) placed in footing and
The decking is 2 × 6 tongue and groove (T&G) over 48
extending upward into the foundation wall.
inches on center beams, or 1-1/8-inch T&G plywood more

153
Foundation materials and construction

Figure 5.13  A shear wall can also be constructed with diagonal wood or metal T-bracing.

commonly used today over 32 inches on center beams. the mud sill anchored to the top of the foundation wall. The
Posts are vertical wood members that connect between mud sill is a continuous pressure-treated wood member
a pier or footing and support the beam above. Posts can that provides a barrier between the foundation wall and
be any size depending on structural engineering, but the framing above. Pressure-treated means that wood has
they are commonly 4 × 4 or 4 × 6. Beams are horizontal had a liquid preservative forced inside to protect against
construction members that are used to support floor deterioration due to rot or insect damage. The mud sill is
systems, wall, or roof loads. The beams in a post and fastened to the foundation wall with anchor bolts. Anchor
beam system generally rest in a pocket provided at the bolts are steel L-shaped bolts that are embedded in the top
foundation wall, and the top of the beams are flush with of the foundation wall and extend out far enough to fasten

154
 Foundation materials and construction

Figure 5.14  A pony wall constructed at the interior of a foundation to support the mid-span of joists above and
to act as an interior shear wall.

the mud sill with a washer and nut at each bolt as shown to make structural products that have been engineered
in Figure 5.10. Figure 5.17 (on p. 158) shows the basic for specific applications and fabricated in a manufacturing
components of the post and beam foundation system, and facility and delivered to the construction site. Engineered
a partial foundation plan of the same construction. wood products used as joists are called I-joists, because
they are I-shaped as shown in Figure 5.19 (on p. 160).
I-joists offer ease of installation, economy, dimensional
POWERPOINT stability, strength, and versatility when used for floor joist
construction. I-joists consist of top and bottom flanges of
Create one PowerPoint slide showing the basic
different widths, connected to engineered wood webs in a
components of a post and beam foundation system.
variety of depths. The flanges resist bending stresses, and
the web provides shear performance.
Joist construction uses standard dimensional lumber or
engineered wood products as joists that span between
foundation walls and can be supported at mid-span
POWERPOINT
by a post and beam system or a stem wall. Joists are
Create one PowerPoint slide showing the difference
dimensional lumber such as 2 × 8, 2 × 10, or 2 × 12,
between joist systems using dimensional lumber
or engineered wood products that are spaced 12, 16, or
and engineered wood products.
24 inches on center depending on the span and structural
engineering requirements. Figure 5.18 (on p. 159) shows
the difference between joist systems using dimensional The joists generally rest on top of the mud sill. A rim joist is
lumber and engineered wood products. Engineered wood used at the perimeter of the foundation to support the ends
products are a combination of smaller components used of the joists and provide for perimeter support. Plywood

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Foundation materials and construction

Typical Post Base Installations

Typical Post Cap Installations

Figure 5.15  Post bases and post caps. © 2013 Simpson Strong-Tie Company Inc. and/or its affiliates. All Rights
Reserved.

sheathing is fastened to the floor joists to reinforce stake and marking the lines with paint on the ground.
the structure and provide a backing for finish materials. The surveyor then sets 2–3 foot (590–880 mm) offset
Plywood is sheets of material generally 4 × 8 feet (1,200 × stakes, which provides for the additional space needed
2,400 mm) made of thin layers of wood called veneer. The to set concrete forms for footings and foundation walls.
veneer is glued together with the grain of adjoining layers The excavator removes the earth to the desired depth
at right angles to each other. Figure 5.20 (on p. 161) shows everywhere inside the offset lines. The excavation for a
the basic components of the crawl space foundation system crawl space is generally 18–24 inches (440–880 mm) below
using joist construction, and a partial crawl space foundation grade. Now the concrete crew can set forms for footings
plan using joist construction. and foundation walls.

POWERPOINT Crawl space foundation forms

and pouring concrete
Create one PowerPoint slide showing the basic
components of the crawl space foundation system After excavation is finished, it is time to set concrete forms
using joist construction. for footings and pour concrete footings. A string line is
run along the outside footing perimeter at the finished
footing height and a laser level is used to make sure all
Staking and excavating the crawl space
forms are set straight and level. Properly set forms are a
For a crawl space foundation, corner stakes are set by critical step in establishing a good foundation. A successful
a professional surveyor using the site plan to establish construction project depends seriously on an accurate
the exact house corners. A building perimeter line is foundation. Steel reinforcing is placed in the footing and
established by running string lines between each corner foundation wall based on the construction specifications

156
 Foundation materials and construction

later in this chapter. The forms for the footing are set first
Foundation wall as shown in Figure 5.21 (on p. 162). The forms in this
example are made out of wood panels. Vertical stakes are
driven into the ground to hold the forms. Diagonal bracing
Footing is used to provide additional support and strengthen the
structure. After the forms are securely set, the concrete
is poured, leveled, and smoothed to the top of the forms.
The footing key is set while the concrete is soft. The key
is a slot that runs down the center of the footing and
along the entire length of the footing. The key is made
(a) with a form, a board, such as a 2 × 4 on edge, or by
pressing the end of the 2 × 4 into the concrete at frequent
Foundation wall intervals.
The foundation wall forms can be set when the footing
Footing
concrete has hardened for a day and the footing forms
have been stripped, which means the forms are removed.
Plywood is often used to make foundation wall forms,
and aluminum or steel prefabricated form systems are
5
Separate key also popular. The first step is to mark the foundation wall
location on the top of the footing. This is done by driving a
(b)
nail in the footing at outside foundation wall corner points
and then making a chock line between the points to show
Foundation wall where the wall forms are placed. Outside and inside forms
are placed at the same time, generally working from a
foundation corner. Spacers are used to keep the form
Footing panels evenly spaced along the wall thickness. The form
panels are leveled, braced, and reinforced together the
correct distance apart at the top as installation continues.

Steel reinforcing POWERPOINT

bar (rebar)
(c) Foundation
vent Create one PowerPoint slide showing the forms for
a footing set and the footing concrete poured with a
key created.

If rebar is required, the rebar is placed after the footing

forms are set, or at the same time. Sometimes it is easier
to set the outside form, set the rebar and then set the
inside form so the inside form structure is out of the way
for placing rebar. Rebar is set in the forms exactly as
specified in the plans. For example, the plans might have a
(d) note that points to the foundation detail and reads: 3 – #4
Figure 5.16  The crawl space foundation. (a) Monolithic CONTINUOUS REBAR EQUALLY SPACED. As you look
footing and foundation wall. (b) Foundation wall keyed at the foundation detail in Figure 5.22(a) you will also see
to footing. (c) Foundation wall keyed to footing with steel a dimension that reads: 1-1/2″ CLR. This means that the
reinforcing bar (rebar). (d) A typical foundation vent. rebar needs to be set a minimum of 1-1/2 inches from the
bottom of the footing. The rebar needs to be placed as
shown and noted on the drawing, and the rebar needs to
as described later in this chapter. Steel reinforcing is not be stable so it does not move when pouring the concrete.
always used in residential construction. Rebar can be positioned with prefabricated supports
Concrete forms for residential construction are commonly sometimes called chairs, or by using pieces of construction
made from solid wood or plywood, but steel forms are material such as concrete block or brick pieces. Place
also available, and insulated forms are described in detail enough of the properly sized supports or blocks under the

157
Foundation materials and construction

Figure 5.17  The basic components of a post and beam foundation system, and a partial foundation plan of the
same construction.

rebar to keep it from sagging. The rebar should be wired fastened to spacers used to set the forms. Steel or wood
together and overlap at a splice. The amount of overlay is spreaders are used throughout the forms and at the top of
often specified on the plans. Cut wire from a roll and twist the forms to keep the forms stable and spaced the desired
the wire around the rebar with a pliers, or use prefabricated distance apart. Anchor bolt brackets are also placed at the
wires or snap ties. Wire and supplies can be purchased top of the forms to act as spacers and proper placement
from a concrete supply company. Vertical rebar is specified for anchor bolt locations. Figure 5.23(a) (on p. 163) shows
on the drawings in Figure 5.22(a) (on p. 162). The note reads: the foundation wall forms set on the footing. Figure 5.23(b)
#4 REBAR 24″ OC, and the rebar is bent having a 24-inch shows the forms set for a crawl space foundation wall.
vertical leg and an 8-inch horizontal leg. Enough pieces Look closely and you can see the footings have already
of rebar need to be bent to this specification in advance been poured and the forms stripped. The foundation wall
and ready to install. The vertical rebar is then wired to the forms are in place. Figure 5.23(c) shows a concrete pump
horizontal rebar exactly as shown and dimensioned on the truck used to easily distribute concrete to the site.
plans. See Figure 5.22(b), on p. 162. You are now ready to Prefabricated concrete forms help speed up the forming
pour the reinforced concrete footings. Use caution when process and produce accurate foundations. Figure 5.24
pouring the first concrete around the rebar to make sure (on p. 163) shows the foundation wall prefabricated forms
the bars stay in place. The concrete should be tamped set on the footing. Additional discussion and examples are
while being poured to help the semi-liquid material flow provided later in this chapter in the basement foundation
completely around the rebar and fill all voids. wall construction process.

POWERPOINT CONCRETE SLAB FOUNDATION

The concrete slab foundation system is used on level
Create one PowerPoint slide similar to Figure 5.22.
sites in warm climates where the ground does not typically
freeze in the winter. Freezing can cause the slab to move
The vertical steel reinforcing is already set in the footing and crack. There is an expanded concrete perimeter footing
as previously described, but horizontal wall rebar needs and interior footings where required to support structural
to be placed as the wall forms are assembled, if required. loads from above and distribute the loads to the ground.
Horizontal wall rebar can be tied to the vertical rebar or The concrete slab and the footings must be placed on

158
 5

Figure 5.18  The difference between joist systems using dimensional lumber and engineered wood products.
(a) Dimensional lumber joist foundation system. (b) Engineered wood products joist foundation system.
Foundation materials and construction

construction-related terms are sub-grade, sub-base, and

base. Sub-grade is the firm undisturbed excavated soil, or
compacted soil. Sub-base is a layer of compacted gravel,
such as crushed rock with 10–20% fines, on top of the
sub-grade. Base is the layer of compacted gravel, such as
3/4 minus, on top of the sub-base and directly under the
concrete slab. A base layer on top of the sub-base makes
it easier to get a final flat grade, and maintain uniform slab
thickness. The base also allows the concrete slab to slide
easily as it shrinks and contracts while drying. This helps
reduce the possibility of cracks in the slab. The sub-base
and base material must be compacted and at least 4 inches
(100 mm) thick. The sub-base and base thickness and
compaction specifications need to be designed for the site
and structure by a civil or structural engineer. Figure 5.25 (on
p. 164) shows perimeter footing options and the features of
concrete slab construction, and the related partial foundation
plan drawing.

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint showing perimeter

footing options and the features of concrete slab
construction.

Figure 5.19  Engineered wood products used as Concrete piers are placed below the slab within
joists are called I-joists, because they are I-shaped. This the perimeter at locations where needed to support
photo also shows a construction worker screwing the structural loads distributed to the ground below.
OSB (Oriented Strand Board) subfloor to the I-joists. Concrete piers can be cylindrical, cubed, or rectangular
The OSB (Oriented Strand Board) subfloor is glued structures to support a concentrated load such as a post
to the I-joists before fastening with screws. Courtesy as shown in Figure 5.26 (on p. 165). A continuous pier
Louisiana-Pacific Corporation. footing is used to support a lineal load such as a bearing
wall as shown in Figure 5.27 (on p. 165).
Concrete slabs have control joints placed periodically
firm undisturbed ground that meets specific engineering across the slab to control cracking. Cracking occurs in
requirements. The concrete slab foundation system concrete slabs when the concrete solidifies after being
generally uses 3-1/2″ (90 mm) reinforced concrete that poured. The control joints help restrict the cracking to the
is referred to as a slab that is a flat concrete pad poured locations where the control joints are placed. Control joints
directly on the ground or on compacted gravel over the can be a cut made in the slab, or a prefabricated joint that
ground. The concrete can be thicker depending on specific separates the slab at specific locations. Control joints also
engineering requirements. Compacted gravel can be used provide a clean surface to bond between pours, to control
as needed to even out the grade by filling in low places expansion, and to isolate stress in the concrete. Between
and provide a uniform elevation for the concrete slab. The pours means that it is often necessary to pour a portion of
gravel is generally 3/4 inch minus. The term 3/4 inch minus the slab either when the concrete truck is empty or at the
refers to the size of the rock, where 3/4 inch (19 mm) is the end of the day, and then continue the slab with another
largest piece that fits through a 3/4-inch screen, and the truck at a later time. The joint between pours can be
approximate amount of fines in a product. Minus material arbitrary or designed in the plans. The slab edge between
can have 60% to 70% fines. The term fines describes small pours must be clean and can be a straight-flat edge or a
miscellaneous gravel, dirt, and debris sizes found in any detailed construction joint as shown in Figure 5.28 (on p. 165).
gravel and crushed rock. All gravel has fines, but the amount The joints are also commonly spaced throughout the slab
of fines allowed depends on the gravel specifications. to help control cracking. Concrete slabs can crack due to
Some specifications require clean gravel be used and expansion when the concrete solidifies after being poured,
compacted to civil engineering requirements. Additional and if settling occurs. Any cracking can be isolated at the

160
 5

Figure 5.20  The basic components of the crawl space foundation system using joist construction, and a partial
crawl space foundation plan using joist construction. Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen image library to
view the drawing in detail on your computer screen.
Foundation materials and construction

joints. Proper groundwork, sub-base and base compacting

and reinforcing steel help reduce settling and cracking in
concrete slabs.

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint showing concrete slab

control joints.

Steel reinforcing is placed in the slab to help stabilize the

concrete and minimize cracking. Welded wire reinforcing is
the most commonly used reinforcing for concrete slabs, but
a square rebar pattern can also be used depending on the
structural engineering requirements. Figure 5.29 (on p. 166)
Figure 5.21  Typical foundation wall forms being set
shows the basic components of a concrete slab foundation
with concrete footing already poured.
system, and the partial concrete slab foundation plan.

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint showing the basic

components of a concrete slab foundation system.

Staking and excavating for concrete

slab construction
For concrete slab construction, the footing excavation is
done to about 12 inches (300 mm) past the corner stakes
to provide room for setting concrete forms. A string line
is run at finished floor height and a laser level is used to
make sure all form boards are set level and at the correct
elevation. Pier locations are also marked on the ground
and excavated to the proper size and depth at this time.
Insulation, plumbing, and heating systems are normally
installed on the ground before the slab is poured. This is
described in more detail later in this chapter.

NOTE

Slab insulation is used against the exterior of the

slab and footing before backfilling, or under the slab
and along the inside of the foundation wall as shown
in Figure 5.10. Slab insulation techniques vary in
different regions, so you should always confirm local
building code requirements. The building plans should
accurately show and specify insulation placement if the
plans are created to local requirements. Exterior slab
insulation should be avoided or carefully considered
in areas of the country where termites are a problem.
Termites can dig through exterior slab insulation and
(b) access the wood framing in the walls. Local building
codes can prohibit using foam insulation in contact
Figure 5.22  (a) Typical foundation detail. (b) Rebar
with the ground.
placed in forms.

162
 Foundation materials and construction

5
(c)
Figure 5.23  (a) Foundation wall forms set on the
footing. (b) Forms set for a crawl space foundation
project. Courtesy Madsen Designs Inc. (c) A concrete
pump truck used to easily distribute concrete to the
site. Courtesy Madsen Designs Inc.

(a)

Figure 5.24  A foundation wall using prefabricated

forms set on the footing. Product designed and
manufactured by Alsina Forms Co.

Concrete slab foundation forms

and pouring concrete
Concrete slab foundation forms are often plywood panels
or aluminum or steel prefabricated forms. Accurate stakes
and string lines are set exactly to the foundation corners
and to the top of the slab. The top of outside foundation
forms are set to the slab elevation. Foundation forms are
staked and braced in place, and a professional surveyor can
return to confirm the accuracy.
Most concrete slab foundation systems have steel
(b) reinforcing used to help stabilize the concrete and

163
 Foundation Plan

Foundation Plan

Foundation Plan

Foundation Plan

Figure 5.25  Concrete slab perimeter footing options, and the related partial foundation plan drawings.
 5
Figure 5.26  Concrete piers can be cylindrical, cubed, or rectangular structures to support a concentrated load
such as a post.

Figure 5.27  A continuous pier footing is used to support a lineal load such as a bearing wall.

Figure 5.28  Concrete slab joint options.

Figure 5.29  The basic components of a concrete slab foundation system, and the concrete slab foundation plan.
 Foundation materials and construction

minimize cracking. Welded wire reinforcing is the most concrete slab foundation being poured. Figure 5.31(a)
commonly used reinforcing for concrete slabs, but rebar shows the concrete truck in position ready to pour
spaced in a square pattern is also often used. Perimeter concrete. The worker moves the chute to where
footings and pier footings often have rebar to help the concrete will be placed. Notice the welded wire
support the structural loads. Carefully read the plans for reinforcing on the grade and the forms in the foreground.
drawings and specifications showing and describing the Color-coded plumbing pipes are also in the slab and
required steel reinforcing. The steel reinforcing must project out at the perimeter. Figure 5.31(b) shows a
be accurately set in the foundation and in the slab so worker pouring concrete into the slab from a pump truck
it does not move when the concrete is poured. Rebar boom. This allows easy concrete pour access to all areas
and welded wire reinforcing is placed with required of the slab. The steel reinforcing must be placed and
ground clearance with prefabricated supports or chairs strongly secure, because the workers walk on the rebar
as previously described. Intersecting rebar is wired while pouring concrete. Figure 5.31(c) shows a worker
together in its exact position and for stability when the pouring concrete into the slab area and to the top of the
concrete is poured. Figure 5.30 shows a concrete slab forms. Figure 5.31(d) shows a worker initially smoothing
foundation detail and the same concrete forms and and leveling concrete poured in the slab using a screed.
steel reinforcing placed prior to pouring the concrete.
Figure 5.31 shows several photographs of an actual
A screed is a flat board, or specially made aluminum tool
as shown here, used to smooth a concrete slab after it 5

(b)
Figure 5.30  (a) Concrete slab foundation detail. (b) The concrete forms and steel reinforcing placed prior to
pouring the concrete.

167
Foundation materials and construction

has been poured in the forms. Screed is the process of as previously described unless the concrete shall be
using a screed to level and remove excess wet concrete broomed, stamped, or have an exposed aggregate
to the top surface of a slab and to the accurate grade. finish. Broomed concrete has the surface textured with
Figure 5.31(e) shows a worker finishing the concrete
slab by smoothing with a trowel. A trowel is a flat-
bladed tool used for leveling, spreading, shaping, and
smoothing concrete and mortar. Figure 5.31(f) shows
a worker smoothing the concrete slab with a power
trowel. A power trowel has a base with rotating trowel
blades for use when concrete is just hard enough for
walking on the surface. A power trowel does the final
smoothing of the top of the concrete floor. There are
walk-behind power trowels used by most residential
contractors as shown here, and riding power trowels
for larger commercial projects. Mortar is a mixture of
cement, sand, lime, and water used to bond masonry
such as bricks, concrete blocks, or rock-work.
Finishing is the final concrete process. Concrete
finishing generally involves smoothing the surface

(a) (c)

(b) (d)

168
 Foundation materials and construction

method of finishing concrete by washing the cement

and sand away from the top surface of the concrete,
exposing the aggregate immediately under the surface.
Exposed aggregate provides an excellent appearance on
driveways, patios, and other exterior surfaces. Concrete
for exposed aggregate is generally ordered with special
gravel that gives a quality appearance when exposed.
The exposed aggregate process requires a skilled
craftsperson to be done correctly.
In addition to surface smoothing and the other surface
preparations described previously, concrete edges and
joints are formed with an edging trowel to produce a
radius along the slab edge that helps resist chipping and
damage after the forms are removed. Slab edging is done
immediately after surface smoothing. Edging is done
(e)
especially on patios, curbs, sidewalks, and driveways,
where the process creates an attractive edge that is
resistant to chipping. There are hand-edging trowels that
5
require kneeling next to the slab to perform the edging
operation, and edging trowels that attach to a handle,
allowing the worker to walk alongside the slab to edge
the concrete. Edging trowels are available that produce
edge radii from 1/8 to 1 inch (3–25 mm). Concrete
slabs that do not use expansion joints often use narrow
grooves made with a special trowel when finishing the
concrete. The joint trowel creates a groove without
extending the opening through the concrete. This groove
provides enough space for the expansion of the top of
the concrete without cracking. This joint works well with
narrow concrete slabs such as sidewalks, but wider
floor and driveway slabs should have expansion joints.
Figure 5.32 shows a concrete joint trowel being used on a
construction project. The joint and edging trowel are used
(f)
in a similar manner.
Figure 5.31  Photographs of a concrete slab
foundation being poured. (a) The concrete truck is in
position pouring concrete. (b) A worker pours concrete
into the slab from a pump truck boom. (c) Worker is
pouring concrete into the slab area and to the top of
the forms. (d) Workers smoothing and leveling concrete
poured in the slab using a screed. (e) A worker is
smoothing the concrete with a trowel. (f) A worker is
smoothing the concrete slab with a power trowel.

a broom while still wet. A broomed finish improves

traction or to create a distinctive texture on the concrete
surface. Stamped concrete is a process of using rubber
molds pressed into the concrete to create patterns
resembling brick, slate, cobblestone, flagstone, or
tile. When used with concrete colors, the stamped
surface has a decorative appearance without the cost Figure 5.32  A concrete joint trowel being used on a
of natural stone. Exposed aggregate concrete is a construction project.

169
Foundation materials and construction

BASEMENT FOUNDATION foundation wall can also be insulated on the outside with
rigid insulation or on the inside as needed to meet code and
The basement foundation uses a steel reinforced concrete green building certification requirements. The basement floor
footing keyed to a steel reinforced concrete or concrete block is a concrete slab that rests on the footing or on compacted
foundation wall that extends from the footing to the floor gravel fill at the foundation wall. Finish materials are placed on
framing above. The foundation wall is normally treated with the slab to complete the basement floor. Figure 5.33 shows
waterproofing on the outside, and there is drain gravel and the basic components of a basement foundation system, and
a drain tile to keep water from entering the basement. The a partial basement foundation plan of the same construction.

Figure 5.33  The basic components of a basement foundation system, and a partial basement foundation plan of
the same construction. Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen image library to view the drawing in detail on
your computer screen.

170
Figure 5.33  (Continued)
5
Foundation materials and construction

cell is then filled with grout or concrete to form a bond

POWERPOINT beam within the wall. The bond beam solidifies and ties
the concrete block structure together. A typical bond beam
Create one PowerPoint showing the basic
concrete block structure is detailed in Figure 5.35.
components of a basement foundation system.
Figure 5.36 shows typical concrete block reinforcing
methods. Openings for windows and doors require steel
reinforcing for both poured-in-place and concrete block
construction. See Figure 5.37, on p. 176.
Concrete block construction
When the concrete blocks are required to support a load
Poured-in-place concrete construction is commonly used from a beam, a pilaster is often placed in the wall to help
for crawl space and basement foundations, but concrete transfer the beam loads down the wall to the footing.
block construction can also be used for foundation walls. A pilaster is a reinforcing column built into or against a
Concrete block construction can also be used for building masonry or other wall structure. Pilasters are also used
exterior walls. Concrete block construction is one of the to provide vertical support to long walls by providing
applications of masonry construction that includes other reinforcing columns placed periodically throughout the
products such as brick, rock, stone, and glass blocks. A length of the wall. Concrete block pilaster examples are
concrete block is also called a concrete masonry unit shown in Figure 5.38 (on p. 177). A concrete block pilaster
(CMU), cement block, or foundation block. A concrete structural detail is shown in Figure 5.39 (on p. 178).
block is a rectangular concrete form used in construction.
Concrete block construction is often used for residential Staking and excavating for basement
foundations but is also used in aboveground construction. foundation construction
In commercial applications, concrete blocks are used
to form the wall systems for many types of buildings. A basement dig-out can be 8–10 feet (2,400–3,000 mm)
Concrete blocks provide a durable construction material deep depending on the design requirements. Corner
and are relatively inexpensive to install and maintain. In stakes are set by a professional surveyor using the site plan
residential and light commercial applications, foam-filled to establish the exact house corners. A building perimeter
blocks provide excellent insulating characteristics and are line is established by running string lines between each
often used in desert climates. corner stake and marking the lines with paint on the
ground. The surveyor then sets 2- to 3-foot (590–880 mm)
Blocks are commonly manufactured in nominal size
offset stakes, which provides for the additional space
modules of 8 × 8 × 16 inches, 4 × 8 × 16 inches, or 6 ×
needed to set concrete forms for footings and foundation
8 × 16 inches. There are also modular units of 2, 4, 6, 8,
walls. The excavator removes the earth to the desired
10, 12, and 16 inches. The metric conversion of a nominal
depth everywhere inside the offset lines.
8 × 8 × 16 inch concrete masonry unit is 200 × 200 ×
400 mm. The actual size of the block is smaller than the
Basement foundation forms and pouring
nominal size, so mortar joints can be included in the final
concrete
size. A mortar joint is also called a grout joint. Mortar is
a combination of cement, sand, and water used to bond After excavation is finished, it is time to set concrete forms
masonry units together. A mortar joint is a mortar-filled for footings and pour concrete footings. A string line is run
space between concrete blocks, bricks, and other masonry along the outside footing perimeter at the finished footing
materials. An architect or building designer determines height and a laser level is used to make sure all forms
the size of the structure based on modular principles are set straight and level. Properly set forms are a critical
of concrete block construction. Wall lengths, opening step in establishing a good foundation. Steel reinforcing
locations, and wall and opening heights must be based is placed in the footing and foundation wall based on the
on the modular size of the block being used. Failure to construction specifications.
maintain the modular layout can result in a big increase in Basement foundation construction is similar to crawl space
labor costs to cut and lay the blocks. Figure 5.34 shows foundation construction except that the foundation wall is
standard concrete block sizes and specifications. much higher for a basement foundation wall and additional
Concrete blocks are often reinforced with a wire mesh at rebar can be used for the basement wall. Concrete forms
every other course of blocks. Where the risk of seismic for residential construction are commonly made from
activity must be considered, concrete block structures solid wood or plywood, but aluminum or steel forms are
are often required to have reinforcing steel placed within also available, and insulated forms are described in detail
the wall to help tie the blocks together. The steel is placed later in this chapter. The forms for the footing are set first
in a block that has a channel or cell running through. This as shown in Figure 5.21. The forms in this example are

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Figure 5.34  Standard concrete block sizes and specifications.

Foundation materials and construction

Figure 5.35  A typical bond beam concrete block structural detail.

made out of wood panels. Vertical stakes are driven into example, the plans might have a note that points to
the ground to hold the forms. Diagonal bracing is used to the foundation detail and reads: 3 – #4 CONTINUOUS
provide additional support and strengthen the structure. REBAR EQUALLY SPACED. As you look at the foundation
After the forms are securely set and the rebar is installed, detail in Figure 5.22(a) you will also see a dimension that
the concrete is poured, leveled, and smoothed to the top reads: 1-1/2″ CLR. This means that the rebar needs to
of the forms. The footing key is set while the concrete be set a minimum of 1-1/2 inches from the bottom of
is soft. The key is a slot that runs down the center of the the footing. The rebar needs to be placed as shown and
footing and along the entire length of the footing. The key is noted on the drawing, and the rebar needs to be stable
made with a form, a board, such as a 2 × 4 on edge or by
so it does not move when pouring the concrete. Rebar
pressing the end of the 2 × 4 into the concrete at frequent
can be positioned with prefabricated supports sometimes
intervals.
called chairs, or by using pieces of construction material
The foundation wall forms can be set when the footing such as concrete block or brick pieces. Place enough of
concrete has hardened for a day and the footing forms the properly sized supports or blocks under the rebar to
have been stripped. Plywood is often used to make keep it from sagging. The rebar should be wired together
foundation wall forms, and aluminum or steel prefabricated
and overlap at a splice. The amount of overlay is typically
form systems are also popular. The first step is to mark the
specified on the plans. Cut wire from a roll and twist the
foundation wall location on the top of the footing. This is
wire around the rebar with pliers, or use prefabricated
done by driving a nail in the footing at outside foundation
wires or snap ties for rebar connections. Wire and
wall corner points and then making a chock line between
supplies can be purchased from a concrete supply
the points to show where the wall forms are placed.
Outside and inside forms are placed at the same time, company. Vertical rebar is specified on the drawings in
generally working from a foundation corner. Spacers are Figure 5.22(a). The note reads: #4 REBAR 24″ OC, and
used to keep the form panels evenly spaced along the the rebar is bent having a 24-inch vertical leg and an
wall thickness. The form panels are leveled, braced, and 8-inch horizontal leg. Enough pieces of rebar need to be
reinforced together the correct distance apart at the top as bent to this specification in advance and ready to install.
installation continues. The vertical rebar is then wired to the horizontal rebar
Rebar is always used in the footings and foundation exactly as shown and dimensioned on the plans. See
walls for basement foundations. Rebar is placed after the Figure 5.22(b). You are now ready to pour the reinforced
footing forms are set, or at the same time. Sometimes concrete footings. Use caution when pouring the first
it is easier to set the outside form, set the rebar, and concrete around the rebar to make sure the bars stay in
then set the inside form. This is done so the inside form place. The concrete should be tamped while being poured
structure is out of the way for placing rebar. Rebar is to help the semi-liquid material flow completely around
set in the forms exactly as specified in the plans. For the rebar and fill all voids.

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Figure 5.36  Typical concrete block reinforcing methods. (a) Standard unit with web knockout slots. (b) Standard
unit with sections of end and cross webs removed to allow reinforcing placement. (c) Open end unit with
horizontal channel. (d) Typical reinforced concrete masonry construction reinforcement and core fill placed as wall
is laid. (e) Typical reinforced concrete masonry construction using horizontal joint reinforcement to provide lateral
reinforcement rather than using bond beams.
Foundation materials and construction

Figure 5.37  Openings for windows and doors require steel reinforcing for poured-in-place and concrete block
construction.

Vertical steel reinforcing is already set in the footing as wall forms set on the footing. Look closely and you can
previously described, but horizontal wall rebar needs to see the footings have already been poured and the footing
be placed as the wall forms are assembled. Horizontal forms stripped. The foundation wall forms are in place.
wall rebar can be tied to the vertical rebar or fastened to Figure 5.40 shows a concrete pump truck used to easily
spacers used to set the forms. Steel or wood spreaders distribute concrete to the site.
are used throughout the forms and at the top of the forms
to keep the forms stable and spaced the desired distance
Automated concrete forms
apart. Anchor bolt brackets are also placed at the top of
the forms to act as spacers and proper placement for As previously discussed, concrete forms are commonly
anchor bolt locations. Figure 5.40 shows the foundation made from wood framing and plywood panels. High-volume

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Figure 5.38  Concrete block pilaster examples.

Foundation materials and construction

Figure 5.39  A concrete block pilaster structural detail.

concrete foundation contractors often use automated system that allows you to accurately and quickly join and
concrete forms designed for quick installation and removal. align the panels. Prefabricated bracing systems are also
A selection of automated concrete form manufacturers available as shown in Figure 5.42. Figure 5.43 shows the
is available in the industry providing similar applications. smooth concrete surface achieved after the concrete is
Examples of automated concrete forms are aluminum poured and the automated forms are removed.
frame, galvanized steel frame with plywood face, and
steel frame modules. Automated concrete forms provide Basement slab
long service life and create a clean and smooth concrete The basement concrete slab is similar to the slab on grade
surface. Automated concrete form systems provide reusable foundation system previously described. Ground work is
concrete form modules for fast, simple and safe installation necessary before the basement slab can be poured. The
and removal as shown in Figure 5.41. basement slab must be poured on firm undisturbed soil or
Quick and easy assembly is done with clamps that join, compacted gravel fill just like the foundation slab system.
align and tighten the modular panels. A typical joint and The basement slab can be poured after the foundation
alignment system is made using a clamp or fastener walls, or poured later in the construction project, such

178
 Foundation materials and construction

Figure 5.42  A typical joint and alignment system is

Figure 5.40  Foundation wall forms set on the footing.

made using a clamp or fastener system that allows
you to accurately and quickly join and align the
panels. Product designed and manufactured by Alsina
5
Look closely and you can see the footings have already Forms Co.
been poured and the forms stripped. The foundation
wall forms are in place. Notice the concrete pump truck
used to easily distribute concrete to the site.
Courtesy Madsen Designs Inc.

Figure 5.43  A smooth concrete surface is achieved

after the concrete is poured and the forms are removed.
Product designed and manufactured by
Alsina Forms Co.
Figure 5.41  Automated concrete form systems
provide reusable concrete form modules designed for
fast, simple and safe installation and removal. Product through the slab, can reduce possible moisture-related
designed and manufactured by Alsina Forms Co. mold and mildew growth or even block gases that can
be a health risk in the home. Vapor barriers are specified
as after the roof is on the house. The reason for waiting by their permeability, which is the ability to let water
is to avoid damaging the slab with construction work in vapor pass through. Permeability is expressed as perms.
progress. The slab should be carefully protected from The acceptable amount of permeability depends on the
damage during construction if poured immediately after application, such as 0.3 perms normally recommended for
the foundation walls. After the sub grade and grade residential construction. There are several products that
pre-slab fill are brought to the correct elevation, a vapor can meet vapor barrier specifications and the type and
barrier or vapor diffusion retarder is installed that lies value of vapor barrier specified on the plans.
between the grade and the slab. Vapor barriers help Depending on the design requirements, there can be an
prevent moisture from transferring from the ground expansion joint used between the concrete slab and the

179
Foundation materials and construction

foundation wall to help reduce pressure on the wall from reinforcing. Figure 5.44 shows a basement slab with and
slab expansion. Alternately, perimeter insulation and without an expanded perimeter.
under slab insulation can be specified on the plans. This It is often desirable to backfill the foundation as soon as
insulation is usually rigid insulation that comes in sheets. possible. Backfill is the earth or other material used in
The slab can be designed with an expanded perimeter the process of backfilling, which closes the large space
resting on the foundation footing. The expanded slab created by the excavation. Backfill makes it easier to
perimeter supports the slab, and reduces settling and access the structure for continuing construction. Additional
cracking. Basement slab rebar or welded wire reinforcing preparations need to take place before the foundation
can be used to reduce cracking depending on the plan can be backfilled. First, it is very important to tie the top
requirements. Not all residential basement slabs use of the foundation in place with the floor framing. Failure

Figure 5.44  (a) Basement slab without an expanded perimeter. (b) Basement slab with an expanded perimeter
resting on the foundation footing.

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 Foundation materials and construction

to do this can cause the foundation wall to bend, tip, otherwise specified on the plans. Filter fabric is placed
or fall. The framing process begins by bolting down the over the drain gravel before the remaining backfill is placed
mud sill followed by constructing the floor joist system. in the excavated area. The drain pipe and drain gravel acts
Floor framing is described in detail in Chapter 6, Floor as a drainage system to keep water from entering the
Framing Materials and Construction. Figure 5.45 shows basement. Figure 5.46 shows the complete basement
the possible effect of backfilling the foundation too soon, foundation system, floor framing, basement slab, and
and also shows components of the floor framing system. waterproofing system.
Additional work is required on the foundation before the
excavation can be backfilled. The exterior of the foundation
POWERPOINT
gets a waterproof coating to keep moisture and water from
entering the basement. There are many products available Create one PowerPoint showing a complete
that can be used for foundation waterproofing. The plans basement foundation system with floor framing,
should specify what to use and subcontractors are available basement slab, and waterproofing system.
to professionally perform this application. Rigid insulation
can also be placed on the outside of the foundation wall to

5
add additional waterproofing and to insulate the basement INSULATING CONCRETE FORMS (ICF)
wall. The ability of insulation to act as waterproofing Insulating concrete forms (ICF), also called insulated
depends on the product. The use of basement insulation concrete forms, are created by combining a high-density
depends on the local area. Basements can be insulated plastic structural web embedded in two outer layers of
on the outside or on the inside depending on the plan foam. This web provides a support structure for each
requirements. Insulation is described in Chapter 9, side of the form and for reinforcing materials. The wall
Insulation and Barriers. is created by sandwiching concrete between each of
A perforated drain pipe is placed along the footing. The these layers. ICFs are designed to provide stronger, more
drain pipe usually has a filter fabric covering, called a comfortable, quiet- and high energy-efficient structures
sock, over it to keep fines from clogging the perforations than conventional concrete walls or wood-framed buildings.
and entering the pipe. Drain gravel is then placed over ICFs are easy to construct and their life span is hundreds of
the pipe and fills two-thirds of the excavation, unless years longer compared to regular construction methods.

Figure 5.45  (a) Possible effect of backfilling the foundation too soon. (b) Floor framing system stabilizes the
structure for backfill.

181
Foundation materials and construction

Figure 5.46  The complete basement foundation system, floor framing, basement slab, and waterproofing sys-
tem. Requirements vary depending on local area. Confirm the exact requirements with the specific plans.

ICF foundation walls are constructed using a common size along with various accessories and fittings. Some blocks
of 4 feet long and 16 inch high interlocking blocks. Height are fully reversible, adding to the ease of construction.
and length can vary depending on the manufacturer. ICFs allow for unlimited design flexibility. Radius walls,
A cavity is created with evenly spaced webs that give the multiple elevations, and other architectural features
blocks their strength. The cavity width can vary from 4 to are easily constructed using ICFs. Figure 5.47 shows
12 inches. Common wall widths are 6 and 8 inches for installation of the ICF interlocking blocks for a crawl space
residential walls. Most manufacturers offer corner blocks, foundation wall. Notice the cavity created with evenly
45-degree blocks, brick ledge forms, and taper top blocks spaced webs that give the blocks their strength.

182
 Foundation materials and construction

Figure 5.48  Horizontal rebar is installed and tied to

vertical rebar as the ICF forms are being placed.
Courtesy BuildBlock Building Systems, LLC.
5

Figure 5.47  Installation of the ICF interlocking blocks

for a crawl space foundation wall. Courtesy BuildBlock
Building Systems, LLC.

Horizontal rebar is installed and tied to vertical rebar as the

ICF forms are being placed as shown in Figure 5.48.
Bracing or alignment systems made specifically for ICFs
are installed when a wall is too high to reach from the
ground. Most bracing systems have adjusting turnbuckles
used to make the walls perfectly straight as the pour is
finished. Concrete is poured in the forms as shown in
Figure 5.49. A turnbuckle is a device for adjusting the
tension or length of ropes, cables, or rods, and generally
made of two threaded fasteners, one with a left-hand
thread and the other with a right-hand thread.
ICFs meet or exceed standards set by building codes.
The foam protects the concrete and remains in place Figure 5.49  Concrete is poured, generally one level
after the pour, so the building season can be extended at a time. Courtesy BuildBlock Building Systems, LLC.
in cold climates. The ICF forms provide a moist cure
of the concrete, which creates stronger concrete than a 70% noise reduction compared to conventional home
conventionally poured walls that have forms stripped construction. ICF walls can achieve up to a 4-hour fire
usually within a day of pouring. ICF walls can withstand rating. ICF construction can often be accomplished with
hurricanes and tornado force winds. ICF walls offer roughly little or no increase in cost over conventional practices.

183
Foundation materials and construction

ICF walls are almost immediately ready for interior and Setting and pouring a pier foundation
exterior finishes. Most ICF manufacturers offer training and
technical support in addition to providing installer manuals, The pole building foundation is generally a pattern of
pre-engineered tables, CAD details, and engineering reinforced concrete footings with post bases used to
models. Figure 5.50 shows typical ICF construction details support the vertical posts. The exact location of each
provided by an ICF manufacturer. footing is critical. It is best to have a survey crew
professionally locate each pier to the centers. Piers
can be located to their centers regardless if they are
PIER FOUNDATION round, square, or rectangular, because the post base is
generally placed in the center of the pier. String lines
A pier foundation is used to support post and beam or
can be run between centers with the string line stakes
pole construction. Post and beam or pole construction
out of the way so they are not disturbed during pier
is also referred to as timber-frame construction or pole
excavation. Figure 5.53 (on p. 189) shows string lines
buildings, generally using large posts and beams or
set to locate the pier centers. Spray paint can be used to
timbers for the horizontal and vertical members. The term
provide temporary center marks at each pier location. The
post and beam was used earlier with the post and beam
string lines can be moved as needed to get excavation
foundations system. This post and beam construction
equipment on the site. Piers are usually cylindrical
practice is similar, but the foundation system is much
or cubic in shape. Excavating to firm undisturbed soil
different. Pier foundations are a good option where it
is very important as with any footing excavation. The
is difficult to access the site for a conventional crawl
construction crew often uses a backhoe to dig the holes
space foundation, because excavation requires much
for large footings, or the entire area is excavated to
less earth removal, and less concrete for the foundation.
firm undisturbed soil. Footings can also be dug with an
Pole buildings are constructed using a combination of
auger or by hand. Each hole is excavated large enough
post and beam, timber framing, and conventional stud
to contain the forms without crowding and to give room
framing depending on the requirements of the specific
to adjust the forms to their exact centers. Forms are
building. The vertical poles or posts are used as the
constructed out of wood or prefabricated forms are used
building supports to which the horizontal framing beams
after the footings are excavated. Prefabricated forms are
are fastened. The posts or poles can be treated and
typically cylindrical in shape, but cube-shaped forms are
embedded into the ground, or tied to steel reinforced
also available. Using the correct size prefabricated forms
concrete footings on the ground. Pole buildings are
saves time, but very large and custom size footings can
commonly used for utility buildings and structures such as
require forms made with wood. Rebar can be placed as
barns, sheds, shops, warehouses, waterfront piers, and
required when the forms are set in their exact locations.
aircraft hangars. Most agriculture and utility pole buildings
Now the concrete can be poured in the forms and post
are uninsulated and can have one or more sides left open
bases placed and leveled. The concrete is smoothed and
for easy access. Pole building construction is also used
leveled around the post bases to complete each footing.
to build vacation cabins and homes, which is popular on
Figure 5.54 (on p. 189) shows pier footings formed and
the West Coast and tropical locations, such as Hawaii.
concrete ready to be poured. The excavated soil around
Pier foundations with post and beam construction is also
the footings can be used for backfill after the forms are
commonly used to build decks. Figure 5.51 shows two
removed.
options for post or pole construction at the foundation.
Figure 5.51(a) shows the pole embedded in the ground.
Figure 5.51(b) shows the pole anchored to a reinforced UNDER-SLAB ELECTRICAL, HVAC,
concrete pier or footing. AND PLUMBING
The pole building foundation is generally a pattern of The concrete slab foundation system was described
reinforced concrete footings with post bases used to earlier in this chapter, including excavation, form setting,
support the vertical posts. Figure 5.52 shows a partial rebar placement, and pouring and finishing the concrete
pole building foundation system and one of the footings slab. There can also be under-slab electrical; under
detailed. slab heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC);
and under-slab plumbing depending on the plans and
specification. Each of these installations is performed by
POWERPOINT the specific electrical, HVAC, or plumbing subcontractor.
Careful coordination is necessary, because the work of
Create one PowerPoint slide showing a pole building
one subcontractor can interfere with the others. These
foundation footing.
under-slab features need to be roughed in before the rebar

184
 5

(a)
Figure 5.50  Typical ICF construction details provided by an ICF manufacturer. (a) A typical ICF construction detail
for an 8-inch ICF basement wall. (b) This ICF construction detail demonstrates how ICF construction can be used
to build complete wall systems, eliminating the need for wood framing applications, providing increased strength,
and improved insulation. Courtesy BuildBlock Building Systems, LLC.
Figure 5.50  (Continued) (b)
 Pressure treated post

Post

Reinforced
concrete
footing
Ground
(b)

Post anchor

Gravel filled hole

(a) Concrete footing

Figure 5.51  Two options for post or pole construction at the foundation. (a) The pole is embedded in the ground.
(b) The pole is anchored to a reinforced concrete pier or footing. 5

Figure 5.52  (a) A partial pole building foundation system. (b) One of the footings detailed.
Foundation materials and construction

Figure 5.52  (Continued)

or welded wire reinforcing is installed. Locations for these conduit, also called conduit, is an electrical piping system
features also need to be excavated below grade by using used to protect and rout electrical wiring. Electrical
a trencher or backhoe. The footing and foundation forms conduit can be made of metal, plastic, fiber, or fired clay.
are generally in place before this ground work starts. Flexible electrical conduit is also available for special
If the forms are in place, a section of the forms needs purposes. Bedding is often used under the conduit to
to be removed or left off the foundation for excavation bring the bottom of the trench to grade, and provide a
equipment to access inside the foundation area. firm, stable and uniform support for the conduit. Bedding
The electrician trenches and installs the under slab is usually 4 inches (100 mm) or less thick. Bedding is
electrical conduit and fittings in the locations shown specific material used under pipe and other ground work
on the plans. The electrician is the subcontractor who for uniform grade, protection, and support. Specific
performs the electrical work for the project. Electrical bedding requirements can be specified on the plans

188
 5

Figure 5.53  String lines set at pier centers.

Figure 5.54  A pier footing formed with steel rebar placed and ready for concrete to be poured.
Foundation materials and construction

Figure 5.55  Electrical conduit buried under concrete

slab grade and projecting out for desired installation.

and the types of bedding material are described later

in this discussion. Figure 5.55 shows electrical conduit
in a trench. The conduit is backfilled with dirt that came
from the excavation if the dirt is clean and free of rocks
that could damage the conduit, or backfilled with sand to
protect the pipe. Forty-five to ninety degree turns, called
sweeps, can be made in the conduit as long as they have
a large radius that makes it easy to pull wire through the
conduit during the electrical work.
The mechanical subcontractor performs the ground work
by installing the ductwork for the heating, ventilating,
and air conditioning (HVAC) under-slab system. The term
mechanical is used to describe the HVAC system and the
subcontractor who performs the installation. Ductwork is
round or rectangular metal or plastic pipes that are solid Figure 5.56  Ductwork in a trench ready for backfill.
or flexible, and installed for distributing warm or cold air
from the furnace or air conditioning system to rooms
in the home and back to the furnace or air conditioning during and after backfill. Bedding is usually used under
system. The mechanical subcontractor trenches locations the plumbing to bring the bottom of the trench to grade,
for the ductwork, installs the ductwork, and backfills and provide a firm, stable and uniform support for the
around the ductwork using clean material from the trench pipes. Bedding is usually 4 inches (100 mm) or less thick.
excavation. Bedding is often used under the ductwork Figure 5.57 shows plumbing in a trench that has been
to bring the bottom of the trench to grade, and provide partially backfilled.
a firm, stable and uniform support for the ductwork. Backfilling can take place after bedding material has
Bedding is usually 4 inches (100 mm) or less thick. been placed and the electrical, mechanical, and plumbing
Figure 5.56 shows ductwork in a trench that has been systems have been installed. Quality backfilling is
partially backfilled. important to provide a firm, stable and uniform support
The plumber is a subcontractor who performs the for the conduit, ductwork, and plumbing. The backfill also
ground work by installing the plumbing for the house. needs to be properly compacted to support the concrete
Plumbing is the pipes, fixtures, and other equipment of a slab above and minimize the possibility of cracks in the
water, gas, or sewage system in a building. The plumber slab. Backfilling should take place in two stages in most
trenches locations for the plumbing, installs the plumbing, cases. Initial backfill places material to a level of 6–12
and backfills around the plumbing using clean material inches (150–300 mm) above the top of the installation.
from the trench excavation or sand to protect the pipes The initial backfill is compacted to give side support

190
 Foundation materials and construction

NOTE

Building inspections are required throughout the

construction process. Be sure to confirm the necessary
inspections and when they are required. Failure to have
an inspection at the right time or skipping inspections
can result in the building official putting a stop work
order on your project along with possible fines. The
building official could require an engineer to verify
that the uninspected portion of the project meets
code requirements, which can be expensive. Review
Chapter 1 about building inspections and confirm the
required inspections with the local building department.
Figure 5.57  Plumbing in a trench that has been

5
partially backfilled. Q&A

Q: What if I accidently miss a required inspection?

for the installation with care taken not to damage the A: Call the building official as soon as you realize
installation. The final backfill provides material above the the mistake and explain the situation. The inspector
initial backfill to final under slab grade. The final backfill will probably evaluate the construction project in an
is compacted for supporting the concrete slab with care effort to determine if the missed inspection portion
taken not to damage the installation. Deep trenches can is built to code. The inspector may be satisfied by
require more than two levels of backfill. Specific backfill asking specific questions, or may require a portion
instructions are sometimes provided on the plans or in of the construction be exposed for observation.
the specifications. Regardless, the inspector needs to be confident that
Bedding and backfill materials can be specified on the the construction is completed to code.
plans, in the specifications, or accomplished by following
general practices. General practices typically specify that
materials must be free of sharp objects, sticks, large RESEARCH
clumps, frozen material, organic materials, and rocks.
Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
Materials used in bedding and backfilling are specified
research options and topics that correlate with
as Class 1 through 5 by the American Society for Testing
the content of this chapter.
Materials (ASTM). Class I is angular crushed rock, graded
1/4 to 1-1/2 inches (6–38 mm) in size with little or no fines.
Class II is clean, coarse-grained material, such as gravel, TEST
coarse sands and gravel sand mixtures 1-1/2 inches
(38 mm) maximum in size. Class III is coarse-grained Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
materials with fines including more than 50% silt or clay the test for this chapter.
gravels or sands with 1-1/2 inches (38 mm) maximum in
size. Class IV is fine-grained material, such as fine sand
and soils containing 50% or more clay or silt. Class V PROBLEMS
material includes organic silts and clays, peat and other
Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
organic materials, and is not recommended for use as
the problems for this chapter.
bedding material.

191
 CHAPTER 6
Floor framing materials
and construction
Learning objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
 Read floor framing materials and floor framing construction practices found on plans.
 Describe dimensional lumber and engineered wood products used in floor framing.
 Explain and use metric conversions.
 Identify types of subflooring materials and applications.
 Describe steel floor framing materials and construction methods.
 Define and use steel framing materials terminology.
 Identify and describe floor framing terminology, systems, and construction practices.
 Explain the use of hold-down anchors and other fastening methods in floor framing systems.
 Describe the difference in material and use of solid lumber beams and glued-laminated beams.
 Read keynotes, legends, and general notes found on plans.
 Describe subfloor and underlayment materials, installation, and fastening.
 Explain the importance and use of moisture barriers in floor framing applications.
 Identify the difference between platform and balloon framing practices.
 Describe timber-frame construction practices used in floor framing.
 Continue the Description of Materials form started in previous chapters as related to floor framing materials and
practices.
 Create PowerPoint presentations related to floor framing applications.
 Answer questions related to floor framing practices.
 Continue floor framing on the scale model team project option started in previous chapters.
 Continue floor framing on the actual home team project option started in previous chapters.

INTRODUCTION
Chapter 5, Foundation Materials and Construction, throughout the United States and Canada. The basic
covered common foundation systems used in residential foundation systems are the crawl space, concrete slab,
construction. To recap, the foundation is the construction basement, and post and beam or pole construction.
system used to support the structural loads and distribute Different types of floor framing systems were also
the loads to the ground. There are several different types described during the foundation systems discussion,
of foundation systems used in residential construction because it was important for you to know how the

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Floor framing materials and construction

foundation system and floor system tie together. The

foundation systems were described in detail, while the
floor framing systems were introduced. This chapter will
expand on floor materials and construction practices.

WOOD FLOOR FRAMING MATERIALS

Wood framing materials are generally dimensional lumber
and engineered wood products.

Dimensional lumber
Dimensional lumber is lumber that is cut and planed
to standard width and depth specified in inches, and
lengths specified in feet. For example, one piece of
lumber might be specified as 2 × 8 × 12, which is 2
inches × 8 inches × 12 feet. The term planed means to
plane lumber by using a planer, which is a machine with
cutters that remove material from the surface of the
lumber to desired smoothness and finished dimensions.
Lumber dimensions are specified by the American
Softwood Lumber Standards based on nominal and
actual sizes. Nominal size lumber is the size before it is
planed, which is also referred to as rough sawn lumber.
The nominal size is also the size that is commonly used Figure 6.1  Nominal and actual lumber size.
when referring to lumber in the construction industry.
For example, a 2 × 6 piece of lumber is 2 inches × 6
inches and is called a 2 × 6. The actual size of lumber is Table 6.1  Nominal and actual lumber sizes.
the dimensional lumber after it is planed. So, the 2 × 6 Nominal Size (inches) Actual Size (inches)
nominal size lumber is actually 1-1/2 inches × 5-1/2
1 3/4
inches, or 1-1/2 × 5-1/2 as shown in Figure 6.1. Actual
2 1-1/2
size lumber can also be referred to as S4S, which means
3 2-1/2
surfaced on four sides. Lumber that is 1-inch and 2-inch
4 3-1/2
thick is commonly kiln dried. Kiln dried is the reduction
of moisture content in wood by controlling the heat, air 5 4-1/2
circulation, and humidity. Lumber over 2 inches thick 6 5-1/2
is generally air dried, which is referred to as green 7 6-1/2
lumber. Nominal and actual sizes of lumber are shown 8 7-1/4
in Table 6.1. You can also use the following general rules 9 8-1/4
to determine actual lumber sizes: 10 9-1/4
 Lumber less than 2 inches, subtract 1/4 inch for actual 11 10-1/4
dimension. 12 11-1/4
 Lumber 2 through 7 inches, subtract 1/2 inch for actual 13 12-1/4
dimension. 14 13-1/4
 Lumber greater than or equal to 8 inches, subtract 15 14-1/4
3/4 inch for actual dimension. 16 15-1/4
Lumber length is specified in feet. Most dimensional
lumber comes in length increments of 2 feet. Standard
lumber lengths are 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, and 24 Most construction materials used in Canada are
feet in the United States and Canada. Industry standard manufactured in metric modules using millimeters (mm)
lengths help architects, contractors, and suppliers make as the unit of measurement. Modules are a selected
planning, estimating, and construction easier, and reduces unit of measure used as a basis for the planning and
waste during construction. standardization of building materials. The base metric

194
 Floor framing materials and construction

module is 100 mm. You will learn later that Canadian screwed to the floor joists. The plywood or OSB is tongue-
plywood, for example, is manufactured in sheets that and-groove (T&G) material, and the thickness depends
are 1,200 × 2,400 mm. Plywood in the United States is on the joist spacing and structural requirements. Thickness
manufactured in 4 × 8 foot sheets. Converting 4 × 8 foot varies from 3/4 to 1-1/8 inches (20–30 mm). Oriented strand
sheets to 1,200 × 2,400 mm is referred to as soft metric board (OSB) is structurally engineered board manufactured
conversion, where the actual metric conversion of 4 × from cross-oriented layers of thin, rectangular wooden
8 feet = 1,219 × 2,438 mm is rounded to the nearest strips compressed and bonded together with wax and
100 mm modules, resulting in 1,200 × 2,400 mm. While resin adhesives. OSB is used for subflooring, exterior
this modular system is typical with most construction wall sheathing, and roof sheathing. In most applications,
materials, it does not apply to lumber sizes, because OSB is dimensionally stronger and stiffer than comparable
Canada supplies a large amount of lumber to the United dimensional plywood. Designers and builders commonly
States. When the same materials, such as lumber, are used use OSB for increased strength and for cost, which is
in the United States and Canada, the metric equivalent less than plywood. Figure 6.2 shows plywood or OSB
is referred to as a hard conversion to metric units. Hard subfloor used over floor joists and engineered wood joists.
conversion means that the typical inch units are converted Most structural plywood and OSB has T&G edges where
directly to metric. For example, a 2 × 4 that is milled to one joining edge has a tongue that fits into the groove of
1-1/2 × 3-1/2 inches converts directly to 38 × 89 mm using the other joining edge as shown in Figure 6.3. The T&G
the hard conversion method. To convert from inches to provides a strong connection that prevents one sheet or
millimeters, use the formula 25.4 × inches = millimeters.

6
board from moving up or down at the joint.
Plywood and OSB is manufactured in 4 × 8 foot sheets
Engineered wood products for use in the United States, and 1,200 × 2,400 mm
sheets for use in Canada. The 4 × 8 foot sheets are used
As introduced in Chapter 5, Foundation Materials and
over floor joists spaced 12, 16, 24, or 36 inches on center
Construction, engineered wood products are a combination
depending on the structural requirements. The 1,200 ×
of smaller components used to make structural products
2,400 mm sheets are used over floor joists spaced 100,
that have been engineered for specific applications,
200, 300, 400, or 600 mm on center depending on the
fabricated in a manufacturing facility, and delivered to the
structural requirements.
construction site. Floor framing applications for engineered
wood products were introduced in Chapter 5 and there is
additional discussion later in this chapter. STEEL FLOOR FRAMING MATERIALS
Most residential construction uses wood framing materials
Subflooring materials
and practices, because of traditional knowledge with
The subfloor is a layer of structural material fastened builders. While steel construction is less common in
on top of the floor joists to tie the floor joists together residential construction, there are advantages over wood
and to provide support for the finished floor. Residential construction for the contractors who gain experience with
construction typically uses plywood or oriented strand the materials and practices used in steel construction.
board (OSB) subflooring that is glued and nailed or Cold-formed steel (CFS) is primarily used for residential

Figure 6.2  Plywood or OSB subfloor used over floor joists and engineered wood joists.

195
Floor framing materials and construction

Figure 6.3  Tongue and groove (T&G) lumber, structural plywood, and OSB.

framing. CFS is the common term for formed by cold popularity with builders, because of its historic use in
processes of rolling, pressing, and stamping thin gauge residential construction. Steel construction requires
sheet steel into products. Gauge is a range of numbers different practices, skills, and tools than those used in
from 10 to 26 specifying thickness for sheet metal and wood construction. Builders who gain experience with
wire. The sheet metal gets thinner as the gauge number steel construction can take advantage of the following
gets larger. For example, 10 gauge is 0.1345 inches (3.416 benefits of steel framing:
millimeters), and 26 gauge is 0.0179 inches (0.4547  Wood construction material prices change dramatically
millimeters) thick. Sheet metal gauge values vary with the with the economy and timber markets, while steel
manufacturer. Sheet steel thickness is also measured in prices remain fairly constant.
mils, where one mil equals one one-thousandth of an inch.  Steel products have excellent dimensional tolerances
Sheet steel thickness is the thickness of the base metal, and stability without shrinkage, while wood can shrink
which excludes protective coatings. CFS products used depending on moisture content, and wood quality is not
for construction generally have protective coatings such as consistent as steel.
as galvanize to help prevent corrosion. Galvanize is a zinc  Steel construction members are lightweight and precut
coating. to desired lengths, making easy assembly.
The same features of a home constructed using wood can  Steel construction members have pre-formed holes for
be built using CFS, including floor, wall, and roof systems. easy installation of plumbing, electrical, and mechanical
Wood construction has the advantage of familiarity and lines.

196
 Floor framing materials and construction

 Steel framing is non-combustible. Web: The part of a C-shape or track that connects the
 Steel framing is completely resistant to rot and wood- two flanges.
destroying insects. Web Stiffener: Additional material attached to the web
The construction members used in wood and steel framing to strengthen the members.
are similar in function, but some of the terminology is
different between wood and steel construction members. FLOOR FRAMING SYSTEMS
Figure 6.4 shows steel floor framing members used over a This discussion starts with crawl space construction
concrete foundation wall. that is commonly used in residential building. Crawl
The following terminology found in Figure 6.5 is space construction was introduced in Chapter 5,
different from the terminology used in wood-frame Foundation Materials and Construction, as related to
construction: the foundation. The term crawl space refers to a space
Flange: The part of a C-shape or track that is that is at least 18 inches (450 mm) between the bottom
perpendicular to the web as shown in Figure 6.5. of the wood structure and the ground that provides
access to install and service plumbing, and heating and
Lip: The part of a C-shape that extends from the
cooling systems where appropriate. Two types of crawl
flange at the open end as shown in Figure 6.5. The
space construction are post and beam framing, and
lip increases the strength characteristics of the
joist framing systems described and illustrated in the
member and acts as a stiffener to the flange.
following.
Punchout or web opening: A hole or opening in
the web of a steel-framing member allowing for
the installation of plumbing, electrical, and other
Post and beam construction uses wood posts supported
by concrete piers or footings with beams above. The
beams are generally spaced 32–48 inches (800–1,200
6
utilities. A punchout can be made during the millimeters) on center and run between the foundation
manufacturing process, or in the field with a hand walls. Wood decking is fastened on top of and
punch, hole saw, or other suitable tool. perpendicular to the beams. The decking is 2 × 6
Track: Used for applications such as band or rim joists, tongue-and-groove (T&G) over 48 inches on center
or flooring systems. A track has a web and two beams, or 1-1/8-inch T&G plywood or oriented strand
flanges, but no lips. Track web depth measurements board (OSB) more commonly used today over 32 inches
are taken to the inside of the flanges. on center beams. Posts are vertical wood members that

Figure 6.4  Steel floor framing members used over a concrete foundation wall.

197
Floor framing materials and construction

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide showing the basic

components of post and beam construction.

Joist construction uses standard dimensional lumber or

engineered wood products as joists that span between
foundation walls or supported between other construction
systems such as a post and beam system or a stem
wall. Span refers to the horizontal distance between two
supporting members. Joists are dimensional lumber such as
2 × 8, 2 × 10, or 2 × 12, or engineered wood products that
are spaced 12, 16, or 24 inches on center depending on the
span and structural engineering requirements. Joist sizes,
spacing, and span are determined by structural engineering
and shown on the plans. Figure 6.7 shows the difference
between joist systems using dimensional lumber and
engineered wood products. Engineered wood products
are a combination of smaller components used to make
structural products that have been engineered for specific
Figure 6.5  Steel floor framing members, applications and fabricated in a manufacturing facility
components, and terminology. and delivered to the construction site. Engineered wood
products used as joists are called I-joists, because they
are I-shaped as shown in Figure 6.8 I-joists offer ease of
connect between a pier or footing and support the beam installation, economy, dimensional stability, strength, and
above. Posts can be any size depending on structural versatility when used for floor joist construction. I-joists
engineering, but they are commonly 4 × 4 or 4 × 6. consist of top and bottom flanges of different widths,
Beams are horizontal construction members that are used connected to engineered wood webs in a variety of depths.
to support floor systems, wall or roof loads. The beams in The flanges resist bending stresses, and the web provides
a post and beam system generally rest in a beam pocket shear performance.
or a steel hanger provided at the foundation wall, and
the top of the beams are flush with the top of mud sill
anchored to the top of the foundation wall. The beam POWERPOINT
pocket is a recessed area to hold the end of a beam in
a concrete or masonry wall, and is created by pouring Create one PowerPoint slide showing the difference
concrete around a mold inserted in the concrete forms. between joist systems using dimensional lumber
A steel hanger is a pre-manufactured steel bracket used to and engineered wood products.
hold and support a construction member such as a beam
or joist. Steel hangers are widely used in construction to Joists generally rest on top of the mud sill. A rim joist
fasten construction members together and provide quick is used at the perimeter of the foundation to support
and easy support systems for a variety of applications the ends of the joists and provide for perimeter support.
that you will discover throughout this textbook. The mud Plywood or oriented strand board (OSB) subflooring is
sill is a continuous pressure-treated wood member that fastened to the floor joists to reinforce the structure
provides a barrier between the foundation wall and the and provide a backing for underlayment and finish floor
framing above. Pressure-treated means that wood has materials. Plywood is sheets of material generally 4 ×
had a liquid preservative forced inside to protect against 8 feet (1,200 × 2,400 mm) made of thin layers of wood
deterioration due to rot or insect damage. The mud sill called veneer. The veneer is glued together with the
is fastened to the foundation wall with anchor bolts. grain of adjoining layers at right angles to each other. The
Anchor bolts are steel L-shaped bolts that are imbedded in underlayment is construction material used over floor
the top of the foundation wall and extend out far enough sheathing and under the finish floor material to provide a
to fasten the mud sill with a washer and nut at each bolt. base for finish floor material. The underlayment is usually
Figure 6.6 shows the basic components of post and beam glued and screwed to the subfloor. Underlayment is
construction. generally 1/2 inch × 4 feet × 8 feet sheets of particle

198
 Floor framing materials and construction

Figure 6.6  The basic components of post and beam construction at foundation wall. (a) Beam pocket at
foundation wall. (b) Beam hanger at foundation wall.
6
board when used under finish floor such as carpet or weight from above and distribute the weight to the
wood. Particle board is wood fibers that are glued and ground. Beams are horizontal construction members that
pressed into 4 × 8 foot sheets. Underlayment used under are used to support floor systems and wall or roof loads.
finish floor material such as tile is usually concrete board, A header is a horizontal structural member that supports
which is concrete pressed into sheets. the load over an opening such as a door or window, or
When it is desired to reduce the floor elevation or around an opening. Figure 6.10 (on p. 202) shows the floor
height, the floor joists can be supported in joist hangers framing over a basement and the second floor.
at the foundation wall rather than being placed on top of
the mud sill as previously described. This construction Using hold-down anchors
practice uses steel hangers fastened to the mud sill.
The joists are supported in the steel hangers and no rim Attaching the mud sill to the foundation wall and the
joist is used. You can see how this application reduces use of hold-down anchors was introduced in Chapter 5,
the floor height in Figure 6.9, which shows the basic Foundation Materials and Construction. Hold-down
components of the crawl space system using joist anchors, also called hold-downs or holdowns, are used
construction. in a variety of construction applications. This discussion
about hold-down anchors refers to fasteners that are
embedded in concrete foundation walls and attach to
POWERPOINT wood structural walls above, or attach wood structural
walls between floors, and especially at shear walls
Create one PowerPoint slide showing the basic to control uplift in the wall system. When used at the
components of the crawl space framing system foundation, the hold-down is connected to the concrete
using joist construction. foundation or structural slab by an embedded or adhesive-
installed anchor bolt at the bottom. The hold-down is
connected to a wood post or studs with screws, nails, or
Floor framing for the first floor over a basement and for bolts at the top as shown in Figure 6.11 (on p. 203). When
the second and third floors of a home is similar to the floor used between floors, there is a steel bracket attached to
framing previously described in joist construction. Any a stud or post below and one above, with a threaded rod
floor construction uses joists that are standard dimensional connected to each bracket and extending between floors.
lumber or engineered wood products that span between A nut on the threaded rod located at each bracket is used
foundation walls, exterior walls, bearing partitions, to tighten the rod and secure the system as shown in
beams, and headers. Bearing partitions carry structural Figure 6.12 (on p. 203).

199
Figure 6.7  The difference between joist systems using dimensional lumber and engineered wood products.
(a) Dimensional lumber joist foundation system. (b) Engineered wood products joist foundation system.
 Floor framing materials and construction

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide showing a hold-

down used between floors, there is a steel bracket
attached to a stud or post below and one above,
with a threaded rod connected to each bracket and
extending between floors.

Floor framing at partitions

The specific framing practice always depends on structural
Figure 6.8  Engineered wood products used as engineering and as represented in the set of plans and
joists are called I-joists. Courtesy Louisiana-Pacific specifications for the home. There are basic methods used
Corporation. where floor joists intersect perpendicular or run parallel to
bearing and non-bearing partitions. Non-bearing partitions do
not carry a structural load. Figure 6.13(a) (on p. 204) shows
POWERPOINT how double solid blocking is used when floor joists cross

6
over a bearing partition below and under a bearing partition
Create one PowerPoint slide showing a hold-down
above. Solid blocking is generally the same size lumber or
connected to a wood post or studs with screws,
engineered wood product as the joists where the blocking is
nails, or bolts at the top.
placed. Solid blocking is placed between floor joists to help

Figure 6.9  The basic components of the crawl space system using joist construction at the foundation wall.
(a) Joist framing above the mud sill. (b) Joists framed in steel hangers resting on the mud sill.

201
Figure 6.10  The floor framing over a basement and the second floor.
 Floor framing materials and construction

provided to secure the edges of finish material where joists

intersect partitions. Figure 6.13(c) shows the framing used
when floor joists cross over a bearing partition below and
there is no partition above. A double floor joist is normally
provided between bearing partitions below and above when
the bearing partitions run parallel to the joists as shown in
Figure 6.13(d).

POWERPOINT

Create two PowerPoint slides showing double solid

blocking used when floor joists cross over a bearing
partition below and under a bearing partition above,
blocking providing a nailing surface for the edge of
the finish material when placed at each edge of the
top plate, framing used when floor joists cross over
a bearing partition below and there is no partition
Figure 6.11  Hold-down anchors used at the above, and a double floor joist provided between
foundation. © Simpson Strong-Tie Company Inc. bearing partitions below and above when the
and/or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. bearing partitions run parallel to the joists.

Typical framing is less complex when a non-bearing

6
partition is placed perpendicular above floor joists as
shown in Figure 6.14(a). Minimum 2 × 4 blocking is used
between floor joists that run parallel to a non-bearing
partition below as shown in Figure 6.14(b). Also notice
the nailer that provides a nailing surface for the edge
of the finish material below. A nailer is a wood member
fastened to the structure and used for attaching other
wood members or finish materials. Figure 6.14(c) shows
three different methods for framing when non-bearing
partitions run parallel to the floor joists below.

Framing floor openings

Openings are framed into the floor joists for anything
that needs to go through the floor, such as a stairwell or
chimney. The stairwell is the opening in the floor where
the stairs are located. A chimney is a structure containing
a passage through which smoke and gases escape from
a fireplace, furnace, vent, or other application. Framing
at a floor opening requires additional structure to support
Figure 6.12  Hold-downs used between floors. the empty space. The extra framing is provided by
© Simpson Strong-Tie Company Inc. and/or its double joists parallel to the opening and double headers
affiliates. All Rights Reserved. perpendicular to the opening as shown in Figure 6.15 (on
p. 206). The double header is two structural members that
resist lateral loads, to prevent joist rotation, and to provide are the same size material as the joists used to support
nailing surface for the bottom plate of a wall or partition the ends of the joists at the opening. A single header
framed above. The blocking provides a strong structural can be used at small openings. The two parallel joists are
support to stabilize the joists and strengthen between nailed together to fasten and strengthen the structure.
the bearing partitions below and above. The blocking also The first header is nailed to the joist ends and the second
provides a nailing surface for the edge of the finish material header is nailed to the first header to fasten the structure.
when placed at each edge of the top plate as shown in Specific nailing requirements can be found on the plans or
Figure 6.13(b). Always make sure there are nailing surfaces in specifications. Depending on structural requirements,

203
Figure 6.13  Bearing partition and joist framing techniques. (a) Double blocking is used when floor joists cross
over a bearing partition below and under a bearing partition above. (b) Nailing surfaces provided to secure the
edges of finish material where joists intersect partitions. (c) Framing used when floor joists cross over a bearing
partition below and there is no partition above. (d) A double floor joist is normally provided between bearing
partitions below and above when the bearing partitions run parallel to the joists.
 6

Figure 6.14  Non-bearing partition and joist framing techniques. (a) The typical framing when a non-bearing
partition is perpendicular above floor joists. (b) Minimum 2 × 4 blocking is used between floor joists that run
parallel to a non-bearing partition below. (c) Three different methods for framing when non-bearing partitions run
parallel to the floor joists below.
Figure 6.15  Framing floor joist openings. (a) Framing double joists parallel to the opening and double headers
perpendicular to the opening. (b) Hangers can be used where the headers meet the double joists and where the
joists meet the header.
 Floor framing materials and construction

joist hangers can be specified where the headers meet or engineered wood product as the joists where the
the double joists and where the joists meet the headers as blocking is placed, but can be smaller dimensional lumber
shown in Figure 6.15(b). depending on the application. Solid blocking is used
when floor joists cross over a bearing partition below and
under a bearing partition above. Solid blocking is placed
POWERPOINT between floor joists to help resist lateral loads, to prevent
joist rotation, and to provide nailing surface for the bottom
Create one PowerPoint slide showing framing a floor
plate of a wall or partition framed above. The blocking
opening.
provides a strong structural support to stabilize the joists
and strengthen between the bearing partitions below and
Framing a cantilever above. The blocking also provides a nailing surface for the
edge of the finish material when placed at each edge of the
A cantilever is a structure that is supported at one end top plate. Refer to the examples shown in Figures 6.13 and
and is self-supporting on the other end where it projects 6.14. In addition to these applications and examples, solid
into space as shown in Figure 6.16. A cantilever design blocking should be used 8 feet (2,400 mm) apart between
can be used as a balcony, deck, or any desired self- 2 × 10 or larger floor joists to prevent joist rotation and to
supporting structure. Figure 6.16(a) shows the cantilever strengthen the structure.
structure framed perpendicular to the floor joists. The
Solid blocking provides more support and stiffness than
joists of the cantilever structure generally extend at least

6
cross bracing, but cross bracing prevents joist rotation
two joist spaces to where they are attached to a double
and stiffens the structure while allowing plumbing pipes
joist that acts as a header. The sizes and specific length
and electrical wires to be run between floor joists.
of the cantilever joists and the distance of the cantilever
Cross bracing can be easier to install than solid blocking.
are established by structural engineering. Solid blocking is
Two types of cross bracing are 1 × 4 lumber and pre-
provided between the cantilever joists above the exterior
manufactured metal ties nailed in a crossing system
bearing wall or partition. Notice the joist hangers in
between floor joists. Figure 6.17 shows solid blocking and
Figure 6.16(a) that are commonly used to attach joists to
cross bracing applications.
headers. A single or double header is nailed to the ends
of the cantilever joists to act as a rim joist. Figure 6.16(b)
shows the cantilever structure framed parallel to the floor
joists. Solid blocking is provided between the cantilever
POWERPOINT
joists above the exterior bearing wall or partition. A single
Create one PowerPoint slide showing solid blocking
or double header is nailed to the ends of the cantilever
and cross bracing applications.
joists to act as a rim joist.

POWERPOINT Framing at bearing partitions

and beams
Create one PowerPoint slide showing framing a
The floor joist span refers to the horizontal distance
cantilever.
between two supporting members. Floor joist size and
spacing determine the distance the joists can span.
Bracing used in floor framing The joist size, spacing, and span are all characteristics
determined by structural engineering and provided as
Bracing can be used in locations throughout the floor information on the plan drawings and notes. The floor joists
framing to provide stiffness to a floor system, to resist can span between foundation walls when the foundation
lateral loads, to prevent joist rotation, to provide a nailing walls are close enough together as shown in Figure 6.18(a)
surface for the bottom plate of a partition framed above, or (on p. 210). When the foundation walls are too far apart
to support plumbing and heating equipment. The two types for the floor joists to span, then a bearing partition
of floor joist bracing commonly used in construction are or supporting beam is needed somewhere between
solid blocking and cross bracing. the foundation walls to reduce the span as shown in
The use of solid blocking was introduced in the previous Figure 6.18(b). A bearing partition carries structural weight
discussion about partitions and joist framing, and cantilever from above and distributes the weight to the ground. The
framing. Solid blocking is generally the same size lumber bearing partition is a stud wall structure. Studs are vertical

207
Floor framing materials and construction

Figure 6.16  Framing a cantilever. (a) The cantilever structure framed perpendicular to the floor joists.
(b) The cantilever structure framed parallel to the floor joists.

framing members used to construct walls and partitions, A supporting beam is used in place of the bearing
and are usually 2 × 4 or 2 × 6 and spaced 16 or 24 inches partition when an open area is desired below. A beam is
on center. Wall framing is described in detail in Chapter 7, a horizontal construction member used to support floor
Wall Framing Materials and Construction. systems, and wall or roof loads. Beams are generally solid

208
 Floor framing materials and construction

are not commonly available today. An equivalent size

glued-laminated beam is stronger than a solid beam, is
generally better quality, and is more dimensionally stable.
Glued-laminated beams can span long distances using
lighter-weight members with fewer supports than solid
beams. Glued-laminated beams can be manufactured
curved, making them more versatile than solid wood
beams. A typical drawing note for a glued-laminated beam
might read like this on the plans: M4–5-1/8″ × 12″ GLB.
The 5-1/8″ × 12″ is the width and depth of the beam,
and GLB is the abbreviation for glued-laminated beam.
M4 is a keynote name for the beam, which refers to
the sizing calculation sheet. A keynote is a note found
on the drawings. Each keynote has a letter or number,
or combination of letters and numbers or symbols next
to or pointing at a specific feature on the drawing that
correspond to the description of the keynote in a legend
or in a general note. For example, the M4 in the glued-

6
laminated beam example refers to a keynote somewhere
on the drawing that identifies the engineering calculations
used to establish the beam size. A keynote can provide
specific instructions on materials or practices to be used
in a part of the construction. A keynote can be a symbol
such as a hexagon containing a number or letter. A legend
is generally found in the corner of a drawing, such as
the lower left or lower right corner, and contains a list of
symbols or characteristics and a brief description of each
found on the drawing. A general note is a note grouped
with other general notes somewhere on the drawing, such
as in the lower left or lower right corner. A general note
refers to a characteristic applied to the entire drawing.
This compares with a local or specific note that is a note
referring to a specific feature on the drawing. Figure 6.19
Figure 6.17  Solid blocking and cross bracing show a solid wood beam and a glued-laminated beam.
applications.
Special hardened nails are used to fasten the hanger to
the joist and beam. The beam is supported on its ends
lumber or glued-laminated beams. Solid lumber beams by bearing walls or posts and can be supported along its
have sizes such as 4 × 12 or 6 × 14, but the beam size length with posts. The floor joists can be framed over the
depends on structural engineering and is determined beam as shown in Figure 6.20(a) (on p. 212), or intersecting
by the span and loads on the beam. A typical drawing the beam and secured to the beam with joist hangers as
note for a beam might read like this on the plans: 6 × 14 shown in Figure 6.20(b). The easiest framing method is
BEAM. Glued-laminated beams, referred to as glu-lams running the floor joist over the beam and placing blocking
or glulams, are popular in framing. A glued-laminated between the joists over the beam, but this technique
beam (glu-lam) is an engineered wood product structural results in reduced headroom below the beam. Framing
member made up of layers of small-size lumber that are the floor joist flush with the top of the beam with joist
glued together. The individual pieces of lumber are end- hangers intersecting the beam helps reduce the beam
joined to create long lengths referred to as laminations. exposure and increases the headroom below. A joist
Glued-laminated beams have many advantages over hanger is a manufactured metal angle, bracket, or strap
solid lumber. For example, glued-laminated beams are used to support and attach the ends of floor joists to
environmentally friendly, because quality large size and beams as needed for structural engineering. Posts are
length solid lumber beams are very difficult and expensive vertical wood members that connect between a pier or
to obtain because they are cut from old-growth logs that footing and support the beam above.

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Figure 6.18  Floor joist spans. (a) Floor joists can span between foundation walls when the foundation walls are
close enough together. (b) A bearing partition can be used between the foundation walls to reduce the span.
 Floor framing materials and construction

shows plywood or OSB subfloor used over floor joists and

engineered wood joists. Most structural plywood and OSB
has T&G edges where one joining edge has a tongue that
fits into the groove of the other joining edge as shown
in Figure 6.3. The T&G provides a strong connection that
prevents one sheet or board from moving up or down at
the joint. The plywood and OSB used for subflooring is
manufactured in 4 × 8 foot (1,200 × 2,400 mm) sheets
and the floor joists are spaced 12, 16, 24, or 32 inches
(300–800 mm) on center. This spacing allows the subfloor
material to be supported and fastened to evenly spaced
floor joists below. Also, the subfloor edges meet exactly on
the center of a floor joist where they are securely fastened.
Softwood plywood is manufactured using an A–D
grading system. A grade stamp is found on plywood and
OSB that identifies the grade, thickness, span design,
and other information as shown in Figure 6.21. Softwood
plywood is structural material made of layers of softwood

6
veneer glued together, under heat and pressure, with
the grains of adjoining layers placed at right angles.
Hardwood plywood is generally not used for construction,
because it is usually more expensive and manufactured
for other than structural applications, such as cabinets,
furniture and finish surfaces. Hardwood plywood is
manufactured using the same veneer system as softwood
plywood, except hardwood is used as the facing surface
veneer for a quality wood appearance. The A–D plywood
Figure 6.19  A solid wood beam and a glued-
letter grading system is used to indicate the quality of
laminated beam.
the exterior veneer panel. The main difference between
grades is the number of knot holes and voids in the
POWERPOINT layers of veneer, which are defects that happen naturally
in softwood veneer. The number of defects and the
Create one PowerPoint slide showing a solid wood work needed to fix the defects determines the plywood
beam and a glued-laminated beam. grade. A–B grades are the highest quality plywood with
few repaired patches and voids, and is used when an
exposed or painted surface is needed. The plywood used
POWERPOINT for subflooring is typically C–D grade where the C veneer
is placed face up and the D side is fastened to the joists.
Create one PowerPoint slide showing floor joists C–D grades are economical and often used when the
framed over the beam, and intersecting the beam plywood is covered with other materials. The subfloor
and secured to the beam with joist hangers. material, either plywood or OSB, is laid with the longest
dimension perpendicular to the floor joists as shown in
Figure 6.22 (on p. 214). Sheets are also placed over at
Installing subflooring and underlayment
least two joist spaces and end joints are staggered at the
The subfloor is a layer of structural material fastened center of adjacent sheets. The subflooring is generally
on top of the floor joists to tie the floor joists together glued and nailed or screwed to the joists. Gluing and
and to provide support for the finished floor. Residential nailing subflooring to the floor joists provides stiffer
construction typically uses plywood or oriented strand floor construction and minimizes squeaks in the floor.
board (OSB) subflooring that is glued and nailed or screwed The subfloor thickness, gluing, and nailing requirements
to the floor joists. The plywood or OSB is tongue-and- are shown and noted on the plans. It is common for the
groove (T&G) material, and the thickness depends on nailing along the edges to be spaced closer than the
the joist spacing and structural requirements. Thickness nailing in the field. The field is the internal area of the
varies from 3/4 to 1-1/8 inch (20–30 mm). Figure 6.2 plywood between the edges. A note that can be found

211
Floor framing materials and construction

Figure 6.20  Floor joist framing at a beam. (a) Framing floor joists over a beam. (b) Framing floor joists
intersecting a beam with joist hangers.

on the plans reads: 3/4″ C-D PLYWOOD SUBFLOOR For example, the 8d nail is 2-1/2 inches long and the 16d
GLUED AND NAILED TO FLOOR JOISTS WITH 8d NAILS nail is 3-1/2 inches long. Table 6.2 gives common nail size
6″ OC AT EDGES AND 12″ OC IN THE FIELD. This note conversions. Historically, the term penny is from one
means that C–D grade plywood is used for subflooring, hundred 2-1/2-inch nails costing eight pennies, resulting
the subfloor is glued and nailed to the joists with 8d nails in the 8d designation. This is your first introduction to
spaced 6 inches apart at the edges and 12 inches apart nails. Nails typically used for installing subflooring are
in the field. The d in the 8d nail specification refers to 6d and 8d, with a ring shank specification often given.
penny, which is an old term still used to specify nail sizes Ring shank nails have ridges or grooves along the shank,
today. The nail size gets larger as the number gets larger. which is the body of the nail that penetrates the wood.

212
 Floor framing materials and construction

Similar to a screw, ring shank nails have better holding

power than nails with a smooth shank, because the rings
act as wedges to keep the nail firmly in place. Other nail
terminology includes box, common, finish, and sinker.
A box nail is a small diameter nail typically used in making
boxes. A common nail has a smooth uncoated shank less
than one-third the diameter of the nail head and is most
commonly used in framing. A finish nail is a thin nail with
a small head designed for setting below the surface of the
wood. A sinker nail is used for framing and is thinner than
a common nail with a funnel-shaped head, a grid stamped
on the top of the head, and coated with adhesive for
smooth driving and to improve holding. A nail head is the
normally flat round enlarged top of a nail, but can be a
slightly enlarged and rounded end as on a finish nail. Nail
terminology and types are shown in Figure 6.23. A nail gun
is typically used to fasten the subfloor to the floor joists
as shown in Figure 6.24 (on p. 216).

6
Screws are popular for installing subflooring to floor joists,
using 1-3/4- to 2-1/2-inch deck screws depending on the
subfloor thickness. The screw specifications are generally
given on the plans. Screwing the subfloor to the joists has
advantages over nailing. Screws can help make tighter
contact between the subfloor material and the floor joists.
(a) A tighter application allows the glue to secure better and
reduces the possibility of having a squeaky floor. Screw
installation is quick and easy when using an automatic
standup screw gun as shown in Figure 6.25 (on p. 216).
Wood screws are manufactured in gauge sizes from 0 to
24 and in lengths of 1/2-inch increments. Screws used for
subfloor installation are generally #8 gauge, which has an
approximate 5/32-inch shank diameter. The wood screw
point is sharp for easy starting and has a helical thread
that allows the screw to quickly penetrate the wood. A flat
head is common on wood screws allowing the screw
head to recess flush with or below the wood surface.
Several different drive configurations are available.
Figure 6.26 (on p. 217) shows the parts of a typical wood
screw and the different drive types. The drive types refer
to the type of driver tool used to drive or turn the screw
into the material.

Table 6.2  Common nail size conversion table.

Nail Length in Inches
4d 1-1/2
6d 2
8d 2-1/2
10d 3

(b) 12d 3-1/4

16d 3-1/2
Figure 6.21  A grade stamp is found on plywood and
20d 4
OSB. (a) Plywood grade stamp. (b) OSB grade stamp.
Courtesy APA – The Engineered Wood Association. 30d 4-1/2

213
Floor framing materials and construction

Figure 6.22  Installing subfloor material.

Underlayment material flooring material, can provide insulation, and can reduce
noise. Each type of finish floor material requires specific
Underlayment is material that is normally manufactured
underlayment material and application. Proper selection
in sheets or rolls and is placed between the structural and installation of underlayment is important because it can
subfloor and the finish flooring material. This section affect how the finish flooring feels, looks, and wears. The
describes the use of underlayment as part of the floor type of underlayment used for a flooring project should be
system, but underlayment is not installed during rough based on the installation environment, such as moisture,
framing. Underlayment is generally one of the last and type of finish flooring. Always follow finish flooring
construction materials to be installed in the home, after manufacturer instructions about the type of underlayment
all framing is complete, rough utilities are installed, and to use, how to install the underlayment, and how to
the roof is finished. The house must be clean and dry prepare the underlayment surface before installing the
before installing underlayment to protect the quality and finish flooring. Improper installation can shorten the finish
performance. Finish floor material is generally installed floor life and can void the manufacturer warranty. The most
shortly after the underlayment. Underlayment is used to commonly used underlayment materials are particleboard,
smooth out imperfections and roughness that can exist plywood, OSB, cement board, and technologically
on subfloors, provides a hard surface to support the finish advanced materials for specific applications.

214
 Floor framing materials and construction

Common Wood shingle

Box Roofing

Sinker head Ring shank roofing

Ring shank, neoprene

Finish washer roofing

Ring shank Drywall

Screw shank Duplex head

Typical Types of Nails

1
122 1
122 1
112 1
112 1
104 1
104

6
Wire Gage 9 9 8 6 5 4 3 3

4d 5d 6d 7d 8d 9d 10d 12d 16d 20d 30d 40d 50d 60d

1
2
Typical Lengths
3
4
5
6

Typical Sizes of Common and Box Nails

Figure 6.23  Nail types and sizes.

The following describes a variety of underlayment materials Carpet is popular in living areas and bedrooms because
and their applications. it is soft, quiet and warm. Resilient flooring, also called
vinyl flooring, is either sheet or tile vinyl material that is
Particleboard underlayment firm and flexible. Resilient flooring is a good economical
Particleboard is a non-structural hard, smooth material hard surface that is commonly used in kitchens and utility
made in rigid sheets or panels from compressed wood rooms.
chips and resin. Particleboard is commonly used as
Oriented strand board (OSB) underlayment
an underlayment for carpet and resilient flooring.
Particleboard should be avoided in areas where moisture OSB was defined earlier in this chapter. OSB looks similar
can occur. Particleboard edges can swell and seams to particleboard, but OSB is a structural underlayment that
separate when moisture is present. Carpet is a finish floor is fire and impact resistant, and helps control temperatures
material made from woven fabric, such as nylon or wool. and sound. OSB is also moisture-resistant, but not

215
Floor framing materials and construction

Figure 6.25  Using an automatic standup screw gun.

Courtesy Louisiana-Pacific Corporation.

natural materials, with a photographic layer under a clear

Figure 6.24  A nail gun is typically used to fasten the protective layer. Standard foam is thin foam placed under
subfloor to the floor joists. the wood or laminate finish flooring, and is the least
expensive underlayment for this application. Standard foam
underlayment should be avoided in areas where moisture
waterproof. OSB has advantages over particleboard for can be present.
underlayment, but it is more expensive than particleboard. Combination film and combustion foam is an underlayment
with a sheet of moisture barrier attached, and is used on
Plywood underlayment projects where moisture can rise from concrete.
Plywood is an excellent underlayment material for use Cork underlayment, also referred to as acoustic
under resilient flooring and carpet. Exterior plywood can underlayment, is used under wood and laminate floors
be used in areas where moisture can be present. Plywood when noise reduction is desired between floors.
is not usually necessary under carpet unless moisture is Acoustic underlayment can be cork, recycled rubber, or a
expected. combination of cork and recycled rubber and foam.

Foam underlayment Cement board underlayment

Foam underlayment is commonly used under wood and Cement board, also called backer board, is a combination
laminate floors. Wood flooring is any finish flooring of cement and reinforcing fibers formed into 1/4- to 1/2-
product manufactured from wood. Wood flooring provides inch thick 4 × 8 foot (1,200 × 2,400 mm) sheets, or 3 × 5
a natural beauty, durability, and restorability. Laminate foot (900 × 1,500 mm) sheets, that are typically used as a
flooring, also called floating wood floor, is a multi-layer tile underlayment. Cement board can be nailed or screwed
synthetic flooring product fused together with a lamination to wood or steel joists to create an underlayment for tile
process. Laminate flooring simulates wood, or other floors, or fastened to studs for vertical tile applications.

216
 Floor framing materials and construction

Figure 6.26  A typical wood screw and drive types.

6
Advanced technology underlayment for tile and stone your requirements. Moisture barrier products are generally
is available in rolls for lightweight shipping and handling. non-toxic plastic sheeting or recycled plastic sheeting.
A product such as Schluter-DITRA provides underlayment
support and load distribution for tile flooring, with Carpet pad
waterproofing and vapor-control. This is a polyethylene Carpet pad is not an underlayment that fits the descriptions
product with a grid structure of square cavities, and an previously given, but is described here because it is installed
anchoring fleece laminated to the base, and installed over under carpet as the finish floor material. The carpet pad
a layer of thin-set mortar. Thin-set mortar, also called thin- is installed between the underlayment and the carpet.
set or thin-bed mortar, is used to adhere tile to the floor Selecting the proper carpet pad for the carpet being used is
or wall, with a very thin layer of cement often containing important to provide desired cushion, comfort, and prolong
other additives, such as acrylic for strength. Mortar is a carpet life. The following briefly describes the types of carpet
mixture of sand, cement, and water, and can contain lime. pad commonly used. Rebond carpet pad is made from
The Schluter-DITRA anchoring fleece provides a mechanical high density foam that is bonded together to make a variety
bond to the thin-set. Tile is installed over the product using of densities and thicknesses. Frothed foam carpet pad is
another thin-set layer that becomes mechanically anchored made of densely packed urethane, designed for use under
in the square cavities of the underlayment. any carpet, and wears under heavy traffic and weight. Foam
carpet pad is made from urethane that is not designed for
Moisture barriers used with underlayment use in high traffic areas. Waffle rubber carpet pad is rubber
A moisture barrier, also called a vapor barrier, is material pressed into a waffle shape that provides a soft
waterproof material used to protect the finish flooring from cushion that is not designed for use in high traffic areas.
moisture coming up from the subfloor. A moisture barrier Slab rubber carpet pad is a single thickness of rubber
helps prevent moisture from transferring to the flooring, material that stands up under pressure for a long period of
can reduce possible moisture-related mold and mildew time, and is used in high traffic areas. Fiber carpet pad is
growth or even block gases that can be a health risk in made from a nylon that provides a high-density product.
the home. Installing a moisture barrier over underlayment Installing underlayment
can be required by the flooring manufacturer. A variety of
moisture barrier materials are available, including common Most underlayment such as particle board and plywood are
6 mil polyethylene sheeting. Check the specification of the manufactured in 4 × 8 foot (1,200 × 2,400 mm) sheets
moisture barrier products to find the material that best fit that are commonly installed over the same size plywood

217
Floor framing materials and construction

or OSB subfloor. If this is the case, you should stagger the

underlayment covering the seams of the subfloor, and also
stagger underlayment end joints at the center of adjacent
sheets. The underlayment should be glued to the subfloor
and use ring-shank nails or wood screws to fasten the
underlayment to the subfloor. Nail or screw spacing should
be 6–8 inches (150–200 mm) at the edges and 10–12 inches
(250–300 mm) in the field, unless otherwise specified. Nail
or screw heads must be flush with or recessed below the
surface of the underlayment. Always confirm underlayment
installation with finish flooring manufacturer instructions,
because different finish floor materials require alternate
applications. Advanced technology products typically have
very specific installation instructions and requirements.

PLATFORM AND BALLOON FRAMING

Throughout this chapter you have seen residential framing
applications described and illustrated without providing
general terminology used historically in the construction
industry. The framing method used in joist construction
found previously in this chapter is called platform framing.
Platform framing, also called light-frame construction, is
the most popular residential framing practice used in the
United States and Canada. Platform framing is like building
a box where the floor joists and rim joist form the sides
of the box and the subfloor is attached as the top of the
box. This floor box rests on the mud sill for the first-floor
framing as shown in Figure 6.27(a) and 6.28(a). The floor
box and joists establish the platform upon which the wall
structure is built as shown in Figure 6.27(b). Wall framing is
described in detail in Chapter 7, Wall Framing Materials and
Construction. The platform construction is repeated at each
floor. For example, the second floor platform is framed over
the top of the wall framing as shown in Figure 6.27(c).

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide showing typical

platform framing.

Balloon framing is a construction system that was used in

the United States and Canada in the 1800s through around
1955. Balloon framing uses continuous studs that rest on
the mud sill at the foundation and run through each floor
and to the top plate at the roof. The floor joists rest on the
sill at the first floor, or on the top plate for second and third
floors, and attach to the studs as shown in Figure 6.28(b).
Balloon framing is stronger than platform framing, Figure 6.27  Platform framing. (a) Platform framing is
because the studs are an integral part of the structure like building a box. (b) The floor box and joists establish
from sill to roof, and the joists are fastened directly to the platform upon which the wall structure is built. (c) The
the studs. Platform framing took the place of balloon second floor platform is framed over the top of the wall
framing.
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 Floor framing materials and construction

Figure 6.28  A comparison between platform and balloon framing. (a) Platform framing. (b) Balloon framing.

framing, because platform framing makes it much easier to when you work on a remodeling project. Remodeling
construct one individual floor at a time. It is also difficult to is changing an existing structure, either internally or
find the long studs needed for balloon framing. Figure 6.28 externally. Remodeling can be building an addition, which
compares platform and balloon framing. While it is not adds a new portion of building to an existing structure.
important for you to know about balloon framing for new Remodeling can also be renovation, which is improving by
construction, you might find balloon framing in an old home renewing and restoring.

219
Floor framing materials and construction

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide showing typical balloon

framing.

TIMBER-FRAME CONSTRUCTION
You were introduced to the pier foundation in Chapter 5,
Foundation Materials and Construction. A pier foundation
is used to support post and beam, timber-frame, or
pole construction. The term post and beam was used
earlier with the post and beam foundations system, and
has similar characteristics as timber-frame construction
described in this section. Timber-frame construction
uses generally large posts and beams, or timbers, for
the horizontal and vertical members of the structural
system. Timber-frame buildings are constructed using
a combination of post and beam, timber framing and
conventional stud framing depending on the requirements
of the specific building. The vertical timbers or posts are
used as the building supports to which the horizontal
framing beams are fastened. Timber-frame construction
is a general term for building with heavy timbers rather
than the dimension lumber that has been described
throughout this textbook for use in conventional
construction. The term conventional construction used
here is the typical wood-frame construction practices
used in most residential construction. Dimensional lumber
is lumber that is cut and planed to standard width and
depth specified in inches, and lengths specified in feet. Figure 6.29 The difference between rough sawn lum-
A 6 × 12 dimensional beam, for example, is not actually ber and dimensional lumber. Length is in 2-foot mod-
6 × 12 inches. A 6 × 12 dimensional beam is planed to ules starting at 8 feet.
finish measurements of 5-1/2 × 11-1/2 inches. The lumber
used in timber-frame construction is usually rough sawn
(RS) lumber. When logs are cut into lumber, they are
sawn to their nominal size. Nominal size lumber is the Timber-frame construction practices go back thousands of
size before it is planed, which is also referred to as rough years when homes and other buildings were built using
sawn lumber. So, the 6 × 12 inch beam example is 6 × heavy, carefully fitted mortise and tenon joined timbers
12 inches when rough sawn. The surface of rough sawn with joints secured by large wooden pegs. Historically, the
lumber is rough, while the surface of dimensional lumber timbers were hand-made square or rectangular from logs,
is smooth. Timber-frame construction typically uses rough or the logs were stripped of bark and used in their round
sawn lumber for the structural components because of shape, especially for the vertical supports. This practice is
the desire to show the natural characteristics of the wood. still used today in the construction of pole buildings. Pole
Figure 6.29 shows the difference between rough sawn buildings are similar to timber-frame buildings except the
lumber and dimensional lumber. vertical supports are used directly from the round tree.
Timber-frame construction practices allow craftsmen to
demonstrate the beauty of exposed wood in the home.
The timber-frame structure can also be built without any
POWERPOINT interior supports, allowing the vertical posts, bracing and
rafter system to support the entire building. A mortis and
Create one PowerPoint slide showing the difference
tenon joint is commonly used when construction members
between rough sawn lumber and dimensional
connect at a 90-degree angle. Also used in furniture
lumber.
construction, the mortis and tenon joint is simple and strong.

220
 Floor framing materials and construction

There are many joint variations, but the basic characteristics Timber-frame floor framing
are the mortise, which is a rectangular hole and the tenon,
which is cut to fit the mortise hole exactly as shown in There are many possible methods for framing the floor
Figure 6.30(a). A shoulder can be made that allows the tenon system in timber-frame construction. The basic application
additional support when inserted and resting in the mortise. is to have horizontal girders connect between vertical
Authentic timber-frame construction uses wooden pegs to square or round posts that are placed at building corners
fasten joints as shown in Figure 6.30(b). Pegs are cylindrical and mid-support locations. The vertical posts run all the way
wooden fasteners driven into a hole that connects between from the foundation footings or piers to the roof structure.
two or more construction members. The girders can be joined to the posts with mortise and

Figure 6.30  Mortis and tenon joint. (a) The basic mortise and tenon. (b) A shoulder can be made that allows
the tenon additional support when inserted and resting in the mortise. Authentic timber-frame construction uses
wooden pegs to fasten joints.

221
Figure 6.31  Basic timber-frame construction options. (a) Girders connected to posts using a joint system such as
mortise and tenon. (b) Double girders connected on each side of posts using a lap joint and bolt fasteners.
 Floor framing materials and construction

tenon joints, other joints, or by connecting with large

bolts or other steel connectors. Bracing is often used to
RESEARCH
strengthen the connection between the posts and girders
Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
and reduce lateral movement in the structure. Floor beams
research options and topics that correlate with
are then placed over the girders and are spaced apart a the content of this chapter.
distance such as 32 inches on center to support plywood or
other subfloor material above. Figure 6.31(a) shows girders
connected to posts using a joint system such as mortise
TEST
and tenon. Figure 6.31(b) shows double girders connected
on each side of posts using a lap joint and bolt fasteners. Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
The bolt fastener is generally a large hexagon head bolt the test for this chapter.
with a washer at the head and at the hexagon nut on the
other side. A lap joint is a joint where one or both members
have a groove cut through that allows the other member PROBLEMS
to fit exactly. This method is commonly used in pole house
Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
construction, because it is easier to use a lap joint when
the problems for this chapter.
connecting girders to round posts.

223
 CHAPTER 7
Wall framing materials
and construction
Learning objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
 Describe platform and balloon framing systems.
 Identify wall framing materials and define related terminology.
 Calculate pre-cut stud length.
 Describe typical wall framing practices.
 Discuss the use, function, and installation of house wrap, sheathing, and siding.
 Describe the difference between single-wall and double-wall construction.
 Name and describe typical types of siding.
 Describe the use of hold-down anchors in wall framing.
 Identify typical wall corner and intersection framing practices.
 Define and describe shear wall framing.
 Explain and show energy-efficient wall framing methods.
 Identify advanced header framing techniques.
 Specify how to use rigid insulation in wall construction.
 Discuss the use of structural insulated panels (SIP).
 Define and use steel framing materials terminology and framing techniques.
 Discuss masonry materials and masonry wall construction practices.
 Continue the Description of Materials form started in previous chapters as related to wall framing materials and
practices.
 Create PowerPoint presentations related to wall framing applications.
 Answer questions related to wall framing practices.
 Continue wall framing on the scale model team project option started in previous chapters.
 Continue wall framing on the actual home team project option started in previous chapters.

INTRODUCTION
This chapter introduces you to wall framing materials Wall framing can begin after the floor framing is complete.
and their applications, along with common wall framing The walls are typically vertical structures made from wood,
construction practices. Framing techniques that help steel, concrete, or masonry used to enclose, or divide the
improve energy efficiency are also described in this chapter. floor area based on the design provided in the plans. There

225
Wall framing materials and construction

are exterior and interior walls. Exterior walls establish Wall framing with dimensional lumber
outside surfaces of the home and are covered with siding
material to protect the interior of the home from the outside Typical home wall framing materials and methods are
elements and weather. Exterior walls have windows and shown in Figure 7.1. The principle components making up
exterior doors. Interior walls are called partitions. There are the wall structure include the following.
bearing and non-bearing partitions as described in previous Studs are vertical framing members used to construct
chapters. Walls are normally framed flat on the floor and walls and partitions, and are usually 2 × 4 or 2 × 6 and
then tilted into place where they are nailed and fastened spaced 16 or 24 inches (400 or 600 mm) on center. A wall
to the floor and structure with hold-down anchors where constructed using studs is often referred to as a
specified by structural engineering requirements. stud wall. The 16- or 24-inch stud spacing is standard to
provide an evenly spaced nailing surface for typical
48 × 96 inch (1,200 × 2,400 mm) exterior sheathing
WALL FRAMING SYSTEMS and interior drywall. Studs of 2 × 6 spaced 16 or 24 inches
The two basic wall framing systems used in the United on center are commonly used to frame exterior walls,
States and Canada, platform and balloon framing, were providing adequate depth to meet insulation code
introduced in Chapter 6, Floor Framing Materials and requirements. Keeping stud spacing at the maximum
Construction. It is important for you to know these practices 24 inches on center helps increase wall insulation value by
as you continue to learn about wall framing materials and decreasing the amount of wood used in the framing. Wood
construction in this chapter. The following provides a brief does not have good insulation value. However, the use
review of platform and balloon framing practices. of 24-inch stud spacing requires that structural sheathing
or siding be rated for 24-inch stud spacing and must be
Platform and balloon framing confirmed by structural engineering. Studs of 2 × 4 spaced
16 or 24 inches on center can be used for framing interior
Platform framing, also called light-frame construction, is the partitions where there are no insulation code requirements.
most popular residential framing practice used in the United Interior partitions containing plumbing, such as the partition
States and Canada. Platform framing is like building a box, behind a toilet, are usually framed using 2 × 6 or 2 × 8
where the floor joists and rim joist form the sides of the box studs to accommodate the diameter of the plumbing pipes.
and the subfloor is attached as the top of the box. This floor A jack stud is a partial stud nailed next to king studs to
box rests on the mud sill for the first-floor framing as shown support the header at door or window openings as shown
in Figure 6.27(a), on p. 218. The floor box and joists establish in Figure 7.2. The king stud is nailed to the header and
the platform upon which the wall structure is built as shown the jack stud is nailed to the full king stud. Figure 7.2(a)
in Figure 6.27(b). The platform construction is repeated at shows the jack stud used at a rough door opening and
each floor as shown in Figure 6.27(c). Figure 7.2(b) shows the jack stud used at a rough window
Balloon framing is a construction system that was used opening. A rough opening (RO) is any unfinished opening
in the United States and Canada in the 1800s through that is framed to specific measurements to accommodate
around 1955. Balloon framing uses continuous studs that the finish product. The rough opening for a window is given
rest on the mud sill at the foundation, running through by the window manufacturer for each specific window. For
each floor and to the top plate at the roof. The floor joists example, one manufacturer specifies framing the rough
rest on the sill at the first floor, or on the top plate for opening 72 × 36 inches for their 71-1/2 × 35-1/2 inch
the second and third floors, and attach to the studs as window frame. This allows for 1/4 inch of clearance on each
shown in Figure 6.28. Balloon framing is stronger than side of the window, making it very important to frame the
platform framing, because the studs are an integral part of rough opening perfectly plumb, level, and square. Plumb
the structure from sill to roof, and the joists are fastened is the term used to describe true vertical. Level is the term
directly to the studs. Balloon framing is not used in new used to describe true horizontal. Used in construction,
construction today, but you can find balloon framing in an the term square is any four-sided shape with four straight
old home when you work on a remodeling project. sides, four right angles, and equal diagonal measurements
as shown in Figure 7.3. King studs, shown in Figure 7.1,
are studs used to support and trim both ends of a header,
WOOD FRAMING MATERIALS
and run from the sole plate to the top plate. A cripple is a
The most commonly used wall framing material is short stud framed above a door rough opening, above and
dimensional lumber, but walls are also framed with below a window rough opening between the header and
engineered wood products and steel. Walls can also be a top plate, or between the sill and sole plate as shown in
constructed using concrete and masonry. Figure 7.1.

226
 Wall framing materials and construction

7
Figure 7.1  Typical home wall framing materials and methods.

POWERPOINT This dimension is 8 feet for a typical home, but

can vary depending on the architectural design.
Create one PowerPoint slide showing the wall The pre-cut stud length is calculated to provide 8
framing features shown in Figure 7.1 and Figure 7.2. feet plus 1/8-inch tolerance from the top of 1/2-inch
underlayment to the bottom of 1/2-inch finish ceiling
drywall, and by subtracting the top and sole plate
POWERPOINT thickness like this and as shown in Figure 7.4:
96-1/8: 8 feet plus 1/8-inch tolerance
Create one PowerPoint slide showing how to square
− 1/2 inch: underlayment
a rough opening.
− 1/2 inch: ceiling drywall
− 1-1/2 inch: sole plate
NOTE − 3 inches: top plate
= 92-5/8-inch pre-cut stud lengths
When the home you are framing has a standard
floor-to-ceiling height, then pre-cut studs can be
ordered and delivered to the construction site by the POWERPOINT
lumber company. This saves construction time by not
having to cut every stud to the correct length before Create one PowerPoint slide showing how to
framing. Stud length is determined by the dimension calculate the length of a standard 92-5/8-inch pre-cut
from the top of underlayment to the finish ceiling. stud.

227
Wall framing materials and construction

Figure 7.2  Framing door and window openings. (a) Framing a door rough opening with a solid or insulated
structural header. (b) Framing a window rough opening with an open header using cripples.

The terms sole plate, sill plate, or bottom plate are all has a 6″ (150 mm) 20-gauge galvanized steel plate
used to describe the single bottom horizontal member centered over each lineal splice and fastened with six 8d
of a wall or partition to which the vertical members are nails on each side of the splice as shown in Figure 7.5(b).
attached as shown in Figure 7.1 and Figure 7.2. The sole Figure 7.5(c) shows a 3 × 6 inch 20-gauge steel plate nailed
plate is the same size material as the intersecting studs. with three 8d nails on each side for single plate corners
There is no sole plate at a door opening. A sole plate used and intersecting walls.
on a concrete slab must be pressure treated lumber or a
vapor barrier must be used under the slab. Confirm this
requirement with the plans and specifications. POWERPOINT
The top plate, shown in Figure 7.1 and Figure 7.2, is a
framing member on top of a stud wall on which joists rest Create one PowerPoint slide showing the top plate
to support an additional floor or to form a ceiling, or upon framing options shown in Figure 7.5.
which rafters rest to form a roof. The top plate is generally
constructed using double stacked dimensional lumber that
matches the stud size. Initially, the first top plate lumber Headers have been described previously in this textbook
is nailed to the ends of the studs and then the second top and continue to be discussed in several applications
plate lumber is nailed to the first. Splices in the top double found in the home framing system. A header, found
top plate must be staggered at least 24 inches (600 mm) in the wall framing system, is a horizontal structural
to help maintain the strength of the entire top plate. See member that supports the load over an opening such as
Figure 7.5(a). A single top plate can be used if permitted by a door, window, or any other opening. Headers framed in
the structural requirements. The single top plate normally a load-bearing wall are either solid dimensional lumber,

228
 Wall framing materials and construction

Plumb

Equal
Level

Figure 7.3  Frame the rough window opening

perfectly plumb, level, and square.

a glued-laminated member, or two pieces of dimensional

lumber separated by rigid insulation. A load-bearing wall,
also called a bearing wall, is a wall that supports the
weight of the structure resting on it from above and
transfers the weight to the foundation structure. The
size and type of header construction depends on the Figure 7.4  Calculating the length of standard pre-cut
opening span and the structural load. This information is studs for a typical 8-foot floor-to-ceiling height.
detailed and specified on the plans. Modern insulation
codes typically requires the header to be insulated. dimensional lumber or engineered wood is found on the
Figure 7.6(a) shows a solid header and Figure 7.6(b) plans. The header framing shown in Figure 7.6(b) uses a
shows an insulated header over rough openings in a header framed with a king stud and a jack stud to support
load-bearing wall. The insulated header is constructed the ends. Removing unnecessary wood framing within
using two 2X dimensional lumber or engineered wood walls can increase energy efficiency of the wall system.
separated by rigid insulation. The specifications for the A method used to reduce wood members in header

229
Figure 7.5  Typical top plate framing. (a) Staggered splices in double top plate. (b) Single top plate with steel
plate centered over each splice. (c) A steel plate used for single plate corners and intersecting walls.
Figure 7.6  Typical header framing in a bearing wall. (a) Solid dimensional lumber or engineered wood header.
(b) Header framed with rigid insulation. (c) Header framed with steel hangers.
Wall framing materials and construction

construction is to replace the jack studs with steel header

hangers as shown in Figure 7.6(c). Notice in this example
that the single top plate technique is used to decrease King stud
additional wood framing. Structural engineering is needed
2X header
to support these applications.
Insulation

Cripple
POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide showing the header

framing options shown in Figure 7.6.

Jack stud
A header framed in a non-load-bearing wall uses less
wood because it does not have the structural requirements
of a header framed in a load-bearing wall. A non-load-
bearing wall is a wall that supports only its own weight
and does not support structural weight from above. Less
wood used in the framing allows for more insulation to
be used, and helps reduce hot and cold spots in the wall
framing system. A common framing technique for a non-
bearing header is to use a single piece of dimensional
lumber placed flat and framed with cripples connecting it
to the top plate as shown in Figure 7.7(a). A king stud and
jack stud are used to strengthen the opening and support
the header in this example. When the opening is 8 feet
(2,400 mm) or less wide and the distance from the header
to the top plate is 24 inches (600 mm) or less, then the jack
stud can be omitted and a single flat 2X can be used as a
header in an exterior or interior non-load-bearing wall as (a)
shown in Figure 7.7(b). Cripples are not required above the
header using this method and the full cavity is insulated on Figure 7.7  Headers framed in a non-load-bearing
the exterior walls. wall. (a) Option for framing a non-bearing header.
(b) Optional framing when the opening is 8 feet
(2,400 mm) or less wide and the distance from the
POWERPOINT header to the top plate is 24 inches (600 mm) or less.

Create one PowerPoint slide showing the header beams (glu-lam), laminated veneer lumber (LVL), I-joists,
framing options shown in Figure 7.7. plywood, and rim board. Engineered wood offers cost,
environmental, and quality advantages over dimensional
lumber. The initial cost of engineered wood studs can be
Rough window openings are framed with a header on top
more than or equal to dimensional lumber, but savings is
and a sill on the bottom as shown in Figure 7.2(b). The word
found in less waste and reduced labor costs, especially
window sill is also spelled windowsill, but is referred to
when pre-assembled framing components are used. Use
as a sill in the construction industry. The sill is the bottom
of engineered wood studs helps protect the environment
member of the window framing rough opening, and is the
by using material made from young trees and different
same size material as used for the studs.
tree species than trees used for dimensional lumber.
Engineered wood studs provide improved appearance,
Wall framing with engineered
strength, stability, wind resistance, and uniformity with
wood products
fewer defects than dimensional lumber. Engineered wood
Engineered wood products were introduced in Chapter 6, studs can be used to construct any wall framing system,
Floor Framing Materials and Construction, as related to but are especially useful when framing high walls with
use in floor framing systems. Engineered wood products long studs. Quality long dimensional lumber studs are
include oriented strand board (OSB), glued-laminated difficult or impossible to buy and can be very expensive if

232
 Wall framing materials and construction

homes. Double-wall construction provides improved

appearance, insulation, vapor barrier, and noise reduction.
Siding is an exterior covering of finish material on a home.
A vapor barrier is a layer of material used between the framing
and siding to help prevent moisture from transferring from
the outside through the exterior walls, can reduce possible
moisture-related mold and mildew growth, and can even
block gases that can be a health risk in the home. Historically,
tar paper was used as a vapor barrier, but technically
advanced products called house wrap are commonly used
today. Tar paper is a thick product that is manufactured in
rolls and is made by impregnating paper with tar, producing
a waterproof material. House wrap is the term that describes
a variety of synthetic products that have replaced tar paper
for use as a vapor barrier. House wrap is lightweight and
manufactured in wide rolls for easy use in construction.
House wrap provides a weather-resistant barrier that prevents
rain from getting into the wall, while allowing water vapor to
pass to the exterior. A few of the many brand names for
house wrap are Tyvek, Typar, WEATHERMATE, Grip-Rite, and
HomeGuard. Siding can be wood, metal, plastic, composite,
stucco, or masonry materials. The type of siding can be used
to define or enhance the architectural style. Siding is selected
for its architectural style, appearance, and durability. A few of
the large variety of siding materials are shown in Figure 7.9
7
and described in the following.
 Bevel siding is bevel-shaped wood, metal, composite,
or plastic material applied with each horizontal row
overlapping the previous row. Figure 7.9(a) shows
horizontal bevel wood siding used on a home.
Figure 7.7  (Continued) Figure 7.9(b) shows metal horizontal bevel siding
being installed on a home. The metal siding is durable,
requires less maintenance than wood siding, and often
available. Long engineered wood studs are available at an
has an insulation backing.
economical cost and provide straight and uniform framing
 Lap siding has a notch on one side that allows each
materials with exceptional strength. The wall framing
piece to lap over the previous as shown in Figure 7.9(c).
methods previously described throughout this chapter
 Board and bat siding is installed with wide vertical
apply equally to using engineered wood products.
boards placed next to each other with a small narrow
board fastened over each joint between the large
Wall sheathing and siding boards, providing a rustic appearance.
Sheathing is fastened to the exterior wall studs to reinforce,  Shingle siding is installed using wood shingles,
support, and strengthen the structure and provide a backing which are thin, tapered pieces of wood placed side-by-
for finish materials. Wall sheathing is generally 1/2-inch side in rows with each row overlapping the row below
structural exterior plywood or OSB. Sheathing is often as shown in Figure 7.9(d). Shingle siding is often used
fastened to the wall framing using 8d common or ring shank on coastal or rustic architecture.
nails. The nail spacing can be specified on the plans or in the  Stucco siding is composed of cement, sand, and lime,
specifications. Two types of exterior wall construction are and is applied while wet. The stucco dries to a hard
double-wall construction and single-wall construction, durable material for exterior and interior walls, and is
which are compared in Figure 7.8. When the home has commonly used on Southwest architecture and other
double-wall construction, the sheathing is commonly C–D dry climate areas as shown in Figure 7.9(e).
grade exterior plywood with a vapor barrier placed over  Masonry is one of the most durable, long-lasting,
the plywood and then covered with a finish siding material. and maintenance-free sidings available. The
Double-wall construction is typically used on high-quality material is referred to as masonry units, which

233
Figure 7.8  A comparison between double-wall construction and single-wall construction.

(a) (b)
Figure 7.9  Siding materials. (a) Horizontal bevel siding. (b) Metal horizontal bevel siding being installed on a
home. (c) Lap siding. (d) Shingle siding. (e) Stucco siding. (f) A combination of brick and stone masonry.
 Wall framing materials and construction

(c) (d)

(e) (f)
Figure 7.9  (Continued)

are laid next to each other and bound together Single-wall construction uses structural plywood or
by mortar. Common masonry materials for masonry OSB siding over a vapor barrier placed over the exterior
construction are brick, stone, marble, granite, studs. The structural plywood or OSB siding serves as
travertine, limestone, cast stone, concrete the sheathing and siding all in one layer. Plywood or OSB
block, glass block, and tile. Figure 7.9(f) shows a home siding is manufactured in 4 × 8 foot (1,200 × 2,400 mm)
constructed using a combination of brick and stone sheets. The most common structural plywood siding is
masonry. Masonry wall construction is described in T1–11 siding that has a textured finish exterior veneer
detail later in this chapter. that provides the appearance of traditional solid-wood
siding. Vertical grooves are cut into the face of the sheet
NOTE to provide an additional siding appearance. T1–11 siding
can be ordered with 4, 6, 8, or 12 inch on center vertical
Siding is described here because it relates to wall grooves depending on the manufacturer and supplier.
construction. However, siding for double-wall T1–11 siding can also be ordered without grooves when
construction is generally not installed during the it is desirable to install 1 × 2 equally spaced vertical
framing process. Siding is installed near the end of the
boards to give the appearance of board and bat siding.
construction process as one of the last applications to
Similar OSB products are available with a rough sawn
complete the home building project. Siding installation
appearance and vertical grooves. The OSB siding has
is normally done by a subcontractor who specializes in
a hardboard exterior face that protects and provides a
professional siding installation.
durable outer surface.

235
Wall framing materials and construction

POWERPOINT NOTE

Create one PowerPoint slide showing single-wall and A sinker nail is a type of nail typically used in wood-
double-wall construction. frame construction. A sinker nail is thinner than a
common nail, and coated with adhesive for easier
driving and to enhance holding power. A sinker nail
has a funnel-shaped head with a grid stamped on the
Wall framing techniques head. A common nail has a smooth uncoated shank
An excellent place to layout the framing members for each less than one-third the diameter of the nail head and
wall and partition is on the flat framed subfloor. The sole is most commonly used in framing. A 16d nail is
plate and top plates are cut to exact lengths, laid out on commonly used in framing and is 3-1/2 inches long.
their edges, and marked for the stud and header locations. The d in a nail specification refers to penny, which is
All of the full-length studs are then placed on edge and an old term still used to specify nail sizes today. The
aligned with their marked locations on the sole and top nail size gets larger as the number gets larger.
plates. The sole plate is fastened to the ends of each stud
with two 16d sinker nails. The first board of the top plate
is fastened to the ends of each stud with two 16d sinker Locations for hold-down anchors are prepared by drilling or
nails, and then the second top plate board is nailed to the other means as needed to later fasten the anchor systems.
first with 16d sinkers. The exact number of nails used can The wall is tilted in place after the wall is framed and
be based on standard practice, such as staggered squared, and the sheathing or structural siding is installed.
12 inches (300 mm) apart, or as specified on the plans. The A long wall can be very heavy and jacks must be used, for
term staggered means to alternate the nail placement so safety, to tilt the wall in place. The wall is properly aligned
they are not in a straight row. Jack studs are placed and in its location and the sole plate is nailed to the structure
nailed to the sole plate followed by the king studs after all below with 16d sinkers placed at least 12 inches (300 mm)
full studs are nailed in place. The 16d sinkers are commonly apart. Confirm nailing with the structural engineering
used for these framing applications, but other nails can be on plans and specifications. The wall is then plumbed
required by the plans and specifications. Next, the headers and braced with long, equally spaced boards that are
are nailed in place, followed by locating and nailing the temporarily nailed near the top of several studs and placed
sills and cripples. The wall framing is carefully squared at an angle down to the floor where they are temporarily
after all of the wall members are nailed in place. Squaring nailed to the subfloor. This wall bracing is very important
the wall frame is done by making diagonal measurements to keep the wall standing until the entire wall system is
and adjusting the layout until each diagonal dimension framed in place and ceiling joists are installed to secure the
is exactly the same. Now, the wall sheathing or siding is structure. Hold-down anchors are properly fastened based
nailed to the framework. For double-wall construction, the on manufacturer instructions.
sheathing is laid on the framework and nailed in place. The Standard height straight walls can normally be framed as
sheathing is cut to fit around rough openings. Nailing can previously described, but custom wall designs are often
vary depending on the plans and specifications, but 8d framed in place one board at a time. Walls can be framed
common or ring shank nails are generally spaced 6 inches with or without installing the sheathing and windows
(150 mm) apart on the edges and 12 inches (300 mm) depending on the complexity of the structure or the type
apart in the fields. The vapor barrier can be placed over the of windows. The framing for the home in Figure 7.10 was
sheathing now, or after the wall is tilted into place. Wall completed before sheathing and windows are installed.
vapor barriers are described later in this chapter. Windows
can be carefully placed, aligned, squared and fastened to
FRAMING CORNERS
the wall framing at this time, or they can be installed after
the wall is in place. Always follow manufacturer instructions Exterior wall corners are framed to create a strong
for correct window installation. For single-wall construction, connection between intersecting walls and to provide
the vapor barrier is installed over the framed wall, windows nailing surfaces for exterior sheathing and siding, and
are carefully placed, aligned, squared, and fastened to the interior drywall or other interior finish materials. This
wall framing, and then the structural siding is nailed to the is done using a minimum number of corner studs to
framework in the same manner described for installing the allow for maximum insulation at the corners of the
sheathing on double-wall construction. Galvanized nails are home. Drywall is also called gypsum board, gyprock,
typically used to fasten the structural siding, because they plasterboard, sheetrock, or wallboard, and is a plaster
do not corrode when exposed to the elements. panel made of gypsum pressed between two thick

236
 Wall framing materials and construction

The exterior two-stud corner, shown in Figure 7.11, has

the least number of studs and allows for the maximum
amount of insulation in the corner. This corner framing has
two studs that provide nailing surfaces for the exterior
sheathing and siding and for one surface of the interior
drywall. Drywall clips or other nailing brackets are used
to secure the other drywall material edge at a corner that
has no framing support. Drywall clips are placed on the
edge of the drywall sheets and fastened to the stud with a
nailing strip that is fastened to the studs with nails, staples,
or screws and placed every 16 inches along the stud.
See Figure 7.12. Drywall clips can also be used to secure
the top edge of drywall along the top plate. An alternate
practice uses a 1 × 6 nailer in place of the drywall clip
Figure 7.10  Walls can be framed with or without when framing the two-stud corner as shown in Figure 7.13.
installing the sheathing and windows depending on A nailer is a wood member fastened to the structure and
the complexity of the structure or the type of windows. used for attaching other wood members or finish materials.
The framing for this home was completed before
sheathing and windows are installed.
POWERPOINT
sheets of paper. Gypsum is a soft white or gray mineral
Create one PowerPoint slide showing three two-stud
consisting of hydrated calcium sulfate and is used to

7
corner framing options.
make plaster, which is mixed with water and allowed
to harden for various applications such as making
drywall. Other interior wall materials can include solid
wood boards, metal, plastic, or plywood paneling with NOTE
an outer hardwood veneer. Paneling is material used
Drywall is described here because it relates to
to cover an interior wall, and usually manufactured in
wall construction, and specific framing techniques
4 × 8 foot (1,200 × 2,400 mm) sheets. Many different
must be used to accommodate drywall installation.
types of paneling are available with a variety of surfaces
However, drywall is not installed during the framing
or patterns for a desired appearance. Plywood paneling
process. Drywall is installed near the end of the
is made with hardwood or softwood veneer. Hardwood
construction process as one of the last applications
paneling can be selected with one of many attractive
to complete the home building project. Drywall
and exotic hardwood veneers for quality architectural
installation is normally done by a subcontractor who
appearance. One of the three following different exterior
specializes in professional drywall installation and
corner framing methods are commonly used in home
finish.
construction.

Figure 7.11  Two-stud exterior corner framing.

237
Wall framing materials and construction

Sheathing installation and does not require drywall clips for interior
Corner studs surface fastening. Figure 7.14(b) uses three studs, with
Drywall clip two studs placed for exterior sheathing and siding nailing,
and requires drywall clips to be used to fasten the edge
of one sheet at the inside corner.

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide showing a three-stud

corner.

Interior partitions usually do not require insulation unless

insulation is used to reduce sound between rooms. Interior
corner framing can be done without the concern for
providing maximum insulation as important with exterior
corner framing. A common interior partition corner framing
method uses three studs as shown in Figure 7.15(a).
A traditionally common interior corner framing technique
Drywall
uses three studs with two of the studs separated by
Figure 7.12  Two-stud corner framing with drywall blocking to reduce material as shown in Figure 7.15(b).
clips.

POWERPOINT
The three-stud corner uses three studs to secure and
Create one PowerPoint slide showing options for
strengthen the exterior corner and provide a nailing
framing interior corners.
surface for sheathing, siding, and interior drywall or other
interior finish materials. There are two basic three-stud
corner systems that only differ in the way the studs are
FRAMING INTERSECTING PARTITIONS
placed as shown in Figure 7.14. The corner framing in
Figure 7.14(a) uses three studs, with two studs placed to A T-intersection occurs when an interior partition
provide a nailing surface for the interior drywall or other intersects an exterior wall, and the number of studs
finish material. This three-stud corner framing method used needs to be kept to a minimum for the maximum
is called a California corner or open corner in case amount of insulation to be used. One framing option for
you hear this terminology used in the industry. This is the T-intersection is the use of 1 × 6 or 2 × 6 horizontal
commonly used, because it allows for good insulation blocking placed 24 inches (600 mm) on center behind the

Figure 7.13  Two-stud corner framing with a 1 × 6 nailer in place of drywall clips.

238
 Wall framing materials and construction

Figure 7.14  The three-stud corners. (a) Corner framing with three studs, with two studs placed to provide a
nailing surface for the interior drywall. (b) Corner framing with three studs, with two studs placed for exterior
sheathing and siding nailing, and drywall clips.

intersecting interior partition as shown in Figure 7.16(a). FRAMING SHEAR WALLS

Another T-intersection option is the use of a full-length
Shear wall and shear panel construction was introduced
vertical 1 × 6 or 2 × 6 behind the intersecting interior
in Chapter 6, Floor Framing Materials and Construction, as
partition as shown in Figure 7.16(b).
related to floor framing. Framing shear walls is an important
One of the previously described framing methods can part of home construction, with information repeated here
be used when interior partitions intersect, or a four-stud for your review and understanding. A shear wall, also called
intersection can be used as shown in Figure 7.17. The a braced wall line, is a wall made of a shear panel to oppose
commonly used four-stud intersection has four studs next the effects of lateral loads acting on a structure. A shear
to each other and is easy to frame. panel, also called a braced panel, is typically part of a wood
frame stud wall that is covered with structural sheathing
such as plywood, but other materials such as steel and
bracing systems can be used. Hold-down anchors, also called
POWERPOINT hold-downs or holdowns, are an important part of shear wall
construction. Hold-down anchors are fastening systems
Create one PowerPoint slide showing options for
that are embedded in concrete foundation walls and attach
framing interior partition intersections.
to wood structural walls above, or attach wood structural

239
Wall framing materials and construction

Figure 7.15  Framing interior partition corners. (a) Three stud corner. (b) Three stud corner using blocking.

walls between floors, and especially at shear walls to control securely nailed to the stud wall framing at the edges and in
uplift in the wall system. The hold-down is connected to the the field with nails of a specific size and spacing based on
concrete foundation or structural slab by an embedded or structural engineering. An engineered shear wall has the
adhesive-installed anchor bolt at the bottom. The hold-down strength and stiffness to make the structure safe against
is connected to a wood post with screws, nails, or bolts at lateral loads. The construction of a structural plywood-
the top as shown in Figure 7.18. In structural engineering, a reinforced shear wall is shown in Figure 7.19. A lateral load is
shear wall, also called a braced wall line, is a wall composed a force working on a structure applied parallel to the ground,
of shear panels, also known as braced panels, to counter the and diagonally to the structure. Wind and seismic loads are
effects of lateral load acting on a structure. A shear panel is the most common lateral loads. Seismic loads are caused by
typically part of a wood frame stud wall that is covered with earthquakes.
structural sheathing such as plywood, but other materials
such as diagonal bracing systems, sheet steel, and steel-
backed shear panels can be used. All exterior walls and some POWERPOINT
interior walls have braced panels depending on structural
Create one PowerPoint slide showing construction of
engineering requirements. Interior shear walls can be bearing
a structural plywood-reinforced shear wall.
or non-bearing. The plywood sheathing on a shear panel is

240
 Wall framing materials and construction

2X6 exterior studs 24" OC

Sheathing

1X6 or 2X6 horizontal

blocking 24" OC

Insulation

2X4 interior stud

Sole plate

Drywall

Sole plate
(a)

2X6 exterior studs 24" OC

Sheathing

1X6 or 2X6 vertical

7
full length blocking

Insulation

2X4 interior stud

Sole plate

Drywall

Sole plate
(b)

Figure 7.16  T-intersection framing for the maximum insulation. (a) Horizontal blocking placed 24 inches
(600 mm) on center behind the intersecting interior partition. (b) A full-length vertical blocking behind the
intersecting interior partition.

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide showing the

components of a hold-down anchor system.

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide showing the construction

of a structural plywood-reinforced shear wall.

A shear wall can also be constructed with diagonal wood

or metal T-bracing by cutting a diagonal slot in the studs
Figure 7.17  A four-stud intersection is commonly where the bracing can be inserted and screwed or nailed to
used at a T-intersection between interior partitions. the studs as shown in Figure 7.20 (on p. 244). The structural

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Wall framing materials and construction

ENERGY-EFFICIENT WALL FRAMING

METHODS
The discussions and examples used throughout this chapter
represent advanced framing practices that are becoming
an industry standard and used to meet current and future
energy code requirements. These framing techniques help
increase energy efficiency without compromising structural
integrity by eliminating unnecessary framing members. The
following reviews and expands on the previous information
Horizontal Installation
(Plan View) and is demonstrated in Figure 7.22 (on p. 246).
Homes should be designed using 24 inch (600 mm)
modules, which means that every dimension is a 24-inch
increment, such as 30 feet × 48 feet (9,000 × 14,600 mm).
The use of 2 × 6 exterior studs 24 inches (600 mm) on
center rather than 2 × 4 or 2 × 6 exterior studs 16 inches
(400 mm) on center reduces the amount of wood used and
helps increase the amount of insulation that can be placed in
the exterior walls. Additional insulation increases the energy
efficiency of the home. Insulation and barriers used in home
construction to achieve quality energy efficiency is described
Vertical Installation in Chapter 9, Insulation and Barriers. See Figure 7.22.
When structural engineering permits the use of 2 × 6
Figure 7.18  Hold-down anchors embedded in
studs 24 inches on center, the framing members below
concrete foundation wall and attach to wood structural
and above should also be framed 24 inches on center
walls above, or attach wood structural walls between
to align with the studs. This practice helps increase
floors. © Simpson Strong-Tie Company Inc. and/or its
energy efficiency between walls, floors, and ceilings.
affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
This structural alignment method also improves structural
effectiveness, decreases drywall cracking, and reduces
engineer determines the system to be used and provides
material waste as shown in Figure 7.22.
drawings and specifications included on the set of plans.
Use of the exterior corners and T-intersections between
An interior braced wall can also be constructed as needed
interior partitions and exterior walls as described in this
for shear panels by using a continuous stem wall or pony
chapter helps reduce the amount of wood used in framing
wall at mid-span in the foundation. Stem wall or pony and maximizes the amount of insulation that can be used in
wall is a general term used to describe any short height the exterior walls as shown in Figure 7.22.
wall, or partial wall, also called a knee wall. This discussion
Advanced header framing techniques previously described
describes a pony wall constructed at the interior of a
allow for partial insulation to be used at headers for exterior
foundation to support the mid-span of joists above and bearing walls. Headers used in non-bearing exterior walls can
to act as an interior shear wall as shown in Figure 5.14. be framed to allow for full insulation as shown in Figure 7.22.
A structural engineer provides the shear wall construction
requirements and nailing specifications on the plans. Mid-
span is structural support provided at or near the center of POWERPOINT
the joists or other construction members.
Create one PowerPoint slide showing advanced
header framing options.
POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide showing pony wall Using rigid insulation sheathing
constructed at the interior of a foundation to support
Home design and construction continues to move
the mid-span of joists above and to act as an interior
toward the development of high energy-efficient
shear wall.
sustainable building systems. The word sustainable

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 Wall framing materials and construction

Figure 7.19  Construction of a structural plywood-reinforced shear wall.

is commonly used today to describe anything that is sheets. Additional information about insulation is
capable of being continued or maintained with minimum described in Chapter 9, Insulation and Barriers. When
or no long-term effect on the environment. Sustainable properly installed, rigid insulation improves energy
buildings are efficient, durable, economically practical, efficiency and reduces the possibility of condensation
and are able to maintain their desired function into the within exterior wall systems. Condensation is water that
future. collects when humid air comes in contact with a cold
Advances in wall construction use rigid insulation with surface, and can cause many problems within a wall,
sheathing or in the place of sheathing to help increase such as mold, mildew, and rot. There are several options
energy efficiency. Exterior rigid insulation sheathing is for using rigid insulation as sheathing. Plywood or OSB
manufactured in a variety of dimensions from 3/4- to sheathing can be installed over the stud framing, followed
2-1/2-inch thick and 4 × 8 foot (1,200 × 2,400 mm) by house wrap, followed by rigid insulation, and finally

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Wall framing materials and construction

Figure 7.20  A shear wall constructed with diagonal wood or metal T-bracing.

the finish siding installed as shown in Figure 7.23(a). Rigid (c), and (d) eliminate the need for structural plywood
insulation can be used over house wrap that is installed or OSB sheathing. However, the structure must be
directly on the stud framing as shown in Figure 7.23(b). engineered to accept one of these applications. These
Rigid insulation can be installed over the stud framing, rigid insulation systems used with advanced framing
followed by house wrap as shown in Figure 7.23(c). Rigid practices can provide cost savings by reducing building
insulation sheathing is available that has an integral vapor materials, such as fewer studs, less top plate material,
barrier or house wrap attached by the manufacturer, and and the elimination of plywood or OSB sheathing. These
can be installed directly over the stud framing as shown practices can also save in labor costs and reduce waste in
in Figure 7.23(d). The options shown in Figures 7.23(b), the construction project.

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 Wall framing materials and construction

7
Figure 7.21  A pony wall and interior shear wall.

If optimum energy efficiency is the goal, then walls can be

NOTE constructed using staggered studs or double-wall systems.
This practice increases insulation but also increases
Rigid insulation sheets are available with interlocking
construction costs by doubling the amount of wall framing
edges that provide a tight seal between sheets.
materials. One option is to use either a 2 × 6 or 2 × 8 top
It is very important to install house wrap and
plate and sole plate with 2 × 4 studs staggered 24 inches
rigid insulation carefully following manufacturer
(600 mm) on center as shown in Figure 7.24 (on p. 248).
instructions in an effort to maintain quality and
This system increases the amount of insulation that can
performance, and to make sure the wall system has
be used in the wall, coupled with a layer of rigid insulated
no air or water leaks.
sheathing place at the face of the exterior studs.
A double-wall system can also be framed that allows you to
double the amount of insulation in the wall. This wall system
POWERPOINT is framed with two separate 2 × 4 stud systems with studs
staggered 24 inches (600 mm) on center next to each other
Create one PowerPoint slide showing rigid insulation
or spaced with a 1″ (25 mm) gap between framing as shown
options shown in Figure 7.23.
in Figure 7.25 (on p. 249). This wall construction also uses
a layer of rigid insulated sheathing placed at the face of the
exterior studs for added insulation value.
Framing staggered studs and
double-wall systems
The wood used in wall framing systems has little POWERPOINT
energy efficiency. This is why it has been recommended
Create one PowerPoint slide showing two double-
throughout this chapter that wood used in walls be kept
wall framing options.
to a minimum and insulation increased to the maximum.

245
Figure 7.22  Advanced framing methods used to reduce wood framing members and increase insulation to help
improve energy efficiency.
 Wall framing materials and construction

Figure 7.23  Options for using rigid insulation as part of the wall framing system. (a) Plywood or OSB sheathing
over the stud framing, house wrap, rigid insulation, and siding. (b) Rigid insulation over house wrap on the stud
framing. (c) Rigid insulation over stud framing, followed by house wrap. (d) Rigid insulation sheathing with
integral vapor barrier over stud framing.

Structural insulated panels (SIP) construction time and less construction waste. Long-term
saving is also found with energy savings when a home
Structural insulated panels (SIP), also called a panelized is constructed using SIPs. The SIP system has no studs,
wall system, is a high energy-efficient building system plates, or headers that reduce energy efficiency through
for residential and light commercial construction that is the wood in a conventional stud-framed wall. The result
custom manufactured for each home and delivered to the is a wall system with twice the insulation value and less
project site for installation. The panels are made with a rigid possibility of air leaking as with a traditional exterior wall.
insulating core between two structural outer sheets as SIP products vary between manufacturers, but custom
shown in Figure 7.26. The outer sheets can be sheet metal, panels can be made up to 8 × 24 feet (2,400 × 7,000 mm)
plywood, cement board, or typically oriented strand board with tongue-and-groove edges for easy and tight assembly.
(OSB). SIPs are manufactured under factory controlled Panel thickness is the same as traditional stud wall framing
conditions and can be fabricated to fit nearly any building thickness, allowing for the use of standard doors and
design. The result is a building system that is extremely windows. SIPs are manufactured to match the home
strong, energy efficient and cost effective, while reducing design, making panels ready to install when delivered to
sound between rooms. Building with SIPs generally costs the project site. At the job site, each panel is laid out using
about the same as building with wood-frame construction an arrangement based on manufacturer instructions. The
when you consider the labor savings resulting from shorter panels are tilted into place, with all joints sealed and properly

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Wall framing materials and construction

Figure 7.24  Framing an energy-efficient wall with 2 × 4 studs staggered 24 inches (600 mm) on center along and
rigid insulated sheathing.

fastened. The walls for the new home are now ready for STEEL WALL FRAMING MATERIALS
finish work. Figure 7.27 shows structural insulated panels AND METHODS
being installed at a home construction project.
Steel framing is also called cold-formed steel (CFS) framing.
Steel wall framing has advantages over wood framing,
POWERPOINT including being less expensive than wood, providing
materials that are straight, have no defects, and do not
Create one PowerPoint slide showing the shrink or split. Most steel wall framing materials are
components of a structural insulated panel. lightweight, and easy to store. When the home is complete,
the metal structure is fire resistant, insect resistant, and
will not rot. Steel framing can reduce energy performance
NOTE efficiency because of heat loss through the metal framing.
Even though wood has poor insulation value, steel has even
When using SIPs on a construction project, a less. For this reason, practices should be used to provide
location needs to be prepared for delivery. SIPs insulation between the steel framing and the exterior of the
must be protected from exposure to the elements home when using steel construction.
and must not be stored directly on the ground. SIPs
are bulky and heavy. Manpower is enough to move Steel wall framing materials
small panels, but larger panels often require a forklift
Steel wall framing materials include studs, cripples, jambs,
or crane.
bottom track, top track, headers, and sheet metal

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 Wall framing materials and construction

Figure 7.25  An energy-efficient double wall.

Figure 7.26  Structural insulated panels (SIP).

Figure 7.27  Structural insulated panels being installed.

screws for fastening members together. The bottom
track used in steel wall framing replaces the sole plate Figure 7.28. Sheet metal screws have deep spiral threads
used in wood framing, and the top track replaces the top along the entire body length, and have a pointed end for
plate used in wood framing. The horizontal bottom track easy start when threading as shown in Figure 7.29. Sheet
and top track fit tightly over the vertical studs and are metal screws can have a variety of head types, but the
fastened together using sheet metal screws as shown in most common are the hex slotted head and the truss

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Wall framing materials and construction

Figure 7.29  Sheet metal screws.

in steel wall framing replaces the king stud used in wood

wall framing. The steel wall framing jamb is normally made
by placing two steel studs with the returns touching each
other.

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide showing the

components of a typical steel-frame wall.

Steel wall framing methods

The steel wall framing layout is similar to wood framing,
except some of the terminology is different between steel
and wood framing. The tools, techniques, and skills used
in steelwork are also different from those used in wood
framing. Figure 7.30 shows the typical layout used to frame
a door and window opening in a steel frame wall.

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide showing framing a

Figure 7.28  Steel wall framing materials. typical steel-frame opening.

Steel wall frame bridging

head for use when the screw head needs to have a low
profile. Sheet metal screws can be installed in a pilot hole Continuous steel wall frame bridging is used in bearing
or directly into the metal when they have a self-tapping walls to provide lateral bracing called bridging. Continuous
end. A pilot hole is a small hole drilled through the metal bridging between studs in a load bearing wall is important
with a diameter designed to accommodate a specific to protect the structure against buckling and rotation.
screw size. Self-tapping is the ability of a screw to create Buckling is bulging, bending, bowing, or kinking of the steel
its own thread without the need of a pilot hole. A jamb is studs as a result of compression stress on the structure.
a vertical framing member that forms the sides of a door Rotation is an action of studs rotating around their axis
opening, window opening, or other opening. The jam used caused by tension applied to the wall system by wind

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 7

Figure 7.30  Steel door and window framing.

Wall framing materials and construction

or seismic activity. Tension is caused by stretching. The

bridging must be continuous between anchorage points.
A continuous steel wall frame bridging application, called
a tension system, is designed to resist the stud buckling
from tension forces. This framing system uses a tightly
installed flat strap attached to both flanges of the studs
with blocking at intervals within the wall to provide
resistance to rotation of the studs. The flat strap is typically
attached to each stud flange within 12 inches (300 mm)
below the top track. Blocking is placed to resist rotation
and is attached to the flat strap on each side of the wall as
shown in Figure 7.31. The blocking is located at intervals
determined by structural engineering.
A bridging system designed to resist buckling of the stud
in tension and compression is the cold rolled channel
system that uses a continuous cold rolled steel channel as
bridging that runs continuously through aligned knockouts
in the studs. The cold rolled steel channel is attached Figure 7.32  Cold rolled channel steel framing system.
to the studs using pre-manufactured clips as shown in
Figure 7.32. Knockouts are pre-punched holes at regular
intervals to allow rapid installation of electrical conduit, POWERPOINT
mechanical, piping, and structural applications. The term
Create one PowerPoint slide showing steel-frame
cold rolled refers to a steel forming process when the cold
bridging and blocking.
metal is rolled into sheets or other shapes such as steel
framing members.
Steel wall frame deflection track
NOTE Vertical movement can occur in a wall as a result of seismic
activity, foundation settling, and pressure caused from
The specifications of bridging member sizes, spacing
movement in the structure above. This vertical movement
locations, and fastener quantity and sizes are
is referred to as deflection. Deflection is the movement
determined by structural engineering and provided
of a structure as a result of stress applied to the assembly.
on the plans or in specifications.
Possible deflection is considered when framing steel non-
load-bearing partitions. This is done by allowing the top track
to move freely as deflection occurs in the structure. A variety
of deflection products are designed and manufactured to
allow for vertical movement while maintaining wall quality
and fire protection. The top track is called a deflection
track when used in this application. A deflection track is
designed and installed to allow vertical movement of the
structure without damage to the wall system and wall finish
material. One application uses a deep flange track that has
2″ (50 mm) minimum high flanges. The steel studs are cut
1/2 to 1 inch (25–50 mm) shorter than full length. The top
track is placed tightly over the studs and held in place by
friction as shown in Figure 7.33. When using any of the
methods described here, the drywall is not fastened to the
top track, allowing the track to move freely with vertical
movement without damaging the studs or drywall. Another
option, shown in Figure 7.34, is a slotted deflection track that
provides positive attachment between the top track and stud
Figure 7.31  A continuous steel wall frame bridging flanges to prevent the transfer of forces into the drywall. The
application, called a tension system. steel studs are cut 1/2 to 1 inch (25–50 mm) shorter than

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 Wall framing materials and construction

Figure 7.33  A deflection track system.

Figure 7.35  Double top track deflection system.

level or laser line level to perfectly align the top track plumb
over the bottom track. Mark all stud and jamb locations along
the bottom track. Plumb and install a stud at each location by
clamping the stud and tracks tightly with C-clamps or locking
pliers. Drill a pilot hole for each screw and then install each
7
screw or use self-tapping screws. Use at least one screw
in the middle of each assembly location unless otherwise
specified by the plans and specifications. Measure and cut
headers and cripples for rough door openings and install
the components with brackets and screws as needed.
Make sure all components are accurately installed, level,
and plumb. Measure and cut headers, sills, and cripples for
rough window openings and install the components with
Figure 7.34  A slotted deflection track system. brackets and screws as needed. Install any required bridging
and deflection track using manufacturer instructions and
full length. In this application, screws are fastened through engineering specifications. A laser level is an instrument
a slot in the top track flanges and loosened after tightening, used in construction and surveying and normally mounted
which allows the top track to move vertically as needed. on a tripod and generates a laser beam that projects a fixed
Also available are bushings placed in the top track flange red or green beam along the horizontal and vertical axis.
slots allowing the screws to be tightened into the studs. The A laser line level is an instrument that combines a spirit
bushings allow freedom of movement between the top track level and plumb bob with a laser to display an accurate
and the studs. Another option is a double top track system horizontal or vertical illuminated line on a surface upon which
where one top track is attached to the studs and another the laser line level is attached. A spirit level is a tool used to
top track fits over the first track and is attached to the ceiling establish true horizontal or vertical by centering a bubble in
structure with a gap between the two tracks, which allows a glass tube mounted on the tool. A plumb bob is a pointed
for vertical movement as shown in Figure 7.35. The separate weight that is suspended from a string and used as a vertical
tracks are used to connect to the top of the wall and to the reference line, or plumb-line.
next floor and then held together by friction.

Steel wall framing MASONRY WALL CONSTRUCTION

When framing a steel frame wall, measure and cut the Masonry is one of the most durable, long lasting, and
bottom and top tracks to length. Screw the bottom track to maintenance free construction materials available. The
the floor and screw the top track to the ceiling, using a laser material is referred to as masonry units, which are laid

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Wall framing materials and construction

next to each other and bound together by mortar. Common and clay masonry units can be solid or hollow, and can
masonry materials are brick, stone, marble, granite, have a variety of surface finishes for different appearances.
travertine, limestone, cast stone, concrete block, glass block, Clay masonry units are what you normally think of as
and tile. Homes constructed using masonry are attractive, bricks. Bricks are commonly made from clay, but can
durable, easy to maintain, quiet, and fire-resistant. Masonry be made from other natural minerals. Bricks are made
homes generally display a quality that is unmatched in by extruding soft clay into the typical rectangular shape
any other exterior appearance found in home architecture. or other shapes. The clay shapes are heated to 1,200°F
Homes can be built with structural masonry walls, or more (650°C) in a kiln for hardening and to add optional coloring
commonly with masonry veneer. Structural masonry walls and glazing. A kiln is a furnace or oven used to heat
are typically constructed using concrete masonry units. products to a desired temperature. Additional surface
Masonry veneer walls are made of a single non-structural preparation and cutting can be done to create desired
exterior layer of masonry that takes the place of traditional products. Brick sizes can vary between manufacturers, but
siding over wood-frame construction. Masonry work is done standard sizes are established by the American Society
by a specialty subcontractor known as a mason, who is for Testing and Materials (ASTM). Brick dimensions are
skilled in masonry construction. Masonry units are laid by shown in Figure 7.37. There are a variety of different brick
the mason. The term laid means placing one masonry unit at sizes classified by actual size, nominal size, and by brick
a time to build the masonry structure. Masonry units are laid type. Actual size, also referred to as specified size, is the
with mortar surrounding each unit and continuing to desired physical dimension of each brick. Nominal size is the actual
heights and lengths. The masonry structure gains strength size plus the width of the mortar joint. Typical mortar joints
as the mortar cures or hardens, along with any structural are 3/8 or 1/2 inch. Most bricks are manufactured so the
steel or ties describe later in this chapter. nominal sizes fit into a 4-inch grid, which is the same as the
modules of other building materials, construction spacing,
Masonry is a good thermal mass that can be heated
and building modules. The following is a list of typical bricks
and cooled by exposure to the sun and the exterior
and their actual sizes:
temperatures. A good thermal mass is a dense material
that can effectively absorb and store heat, and release Brick Type Actual Sizes in inches Depth × Height × Length
the heat as the home cools at night. This makes masonry Standard 3-5/8 × 2-1/4 × 8
construction a good choice for solar architectural design. Modular 3-5/8 × 2-1/4 × 7-5/8
Masonry is cool when the outside temperature is cool, Norman 3-5/8 × 2-1/4 × 11-5/8
making it necessary to insulate inside the masonry cavity
Roman 3-5/8 × 1-5/8 × 11-5/8
or to provide an insulated interior wall.
Jumbo 3-5/8 × 2-3/4 × 8
Masonry also provides excellent fireproof construction, and
is typically used when designing and building a firewall. Economy 3-5/8 × 3-5/8 × 7-5/8
A firewall is a wall or partition designed to deter or prevent Engineer 3-5/8 × 2-13/16 × 7-5/8
the spread of fire in the home. King 2-3/4 × 2-5/8 × 9-5/8
In addition to other characteristics, masonry walls Queen 2-3/4 × 2-3/4 × 7-5/8
provide excellent sound insulation when used in home Utility 3-5/8 × 3-5/8 × 11-5/8
construction. The acoustical performance of masonry is
Visiting the showroom of a brick manufacturer or
improved by filling the masonry unit cavities with insulation
construction materials supplier, you can discover a large
or by insulating between wythes.
variety of brick colors, finishes, and shapes. Bricks can also
have different appearances and architectural applications
Common masonry construction
based on the orientation used when they are laid. Common
materials
orientation patterns are shown in Figure 7.38 and described
The most common types of masonry materials are in the following:
concrete and clay masonry units. Masonry construction  Stretchers are the most common brick pattern, with
was introduced in Chapter 5, Foundation Materials and units oriented horizontally with the full face exposed.
Construction, where concrete masonry units (CMU)  Headers are used to break up the typical stretchers by
were described and demonstrated for use in building providing units oriented perpendicular to the face of the
foundation systems. Concrete masonry units, also called wall with the end of each brick exposed.
concrete blocks, can be used to build the exterior walls of  Soldiers also add accent style to the brick wall by
a home above grade. Standard concrete block sizes and placing units oriented vertically with the full face
specifications are shown in Figure 7.36. Concrete blocks exposed.

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 7

Figure 7.36  Standard concrete block sizes and specifications.

Wall framing materials and construction

Figure 7.37  Brick dimensions and terminology.

 Rowlocks are oriented perpendicular to the face of the as shown in Figure 7.40(b). Multiple wythes can be built
wall similar to headers, except they are used with the without being linked together and with the space between
end and face exposed at sills and at the top of walls. wythes filled with mortar as shown in Figure 7.41(a) or
 Herringbone brick placement provides an interesting connected using metal ties or masonry units as shown in
pattern by placing bricks in angular rows of parallel groups Figure 7.41(b).
with any two adjacent rows angled in opposite directions.
The terms course and wythe refer to the masonry POWERPOINT
structure as shown in Figure 7.39. A course is a row of
bricks, and courses are multiple rows of bricks laid on Create one PowerPoint slide showing characteristic
top of each other to build up a structure such as a wall. masonry wall construction.
Bricks are laid with staggered vertical joints for appearance
and strength. A wythe is a continuous vertical section Bricks are selected based on the desired application, and
of masonry one unit in thickness. A wythe can be separate standards that establish strength, durability, and aesthetic
from or linked with adjacent wythes. A single wythe used requirements. Brick specifications are established by the
for appearance and is not structural is called veneer. ASTM in the United States, and the Canadian Standards
Masonry walls can be single or multiple wythe. A multiple- Association (CSA) in Canada. The following describes the
wythe wall can be constructed with a one type of masonry basic brick specifications:
unit laid to increase wall thickness and structural strength,  Building bricks are typically used as backing material
or different masonry units can be used for economy and in nonstructural and structural applications where
appearance, such as a concrete block wythe for a structural appearance is not a requirement. Backing material is a
application and an architectural brick wythe for appearance. comparatively low-quality brick used behind face brick or
When building a single wythe wall, such as brick veneer, other masonry. Face brick is used for visual quality on the
headers and rowlocks must be cut for the length to match exposed surface of a building wall or other structure.
the width of the wythe as shown in Figure 7.40(a). A header  Face bricks are used in nonstructural and structural
or rowlock used over a double wythe is laid full length applications where appearance is a requirement.

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 Wall framing materials and construction

Figure 7.38  Common brick orientation patterns.

 Glazed bricks have a glaze surface. Glaze is a layer appearance include amount of chips, dimensional
or coating that has been fused to a ceramic object tolerances, distortion, and squareness. Dimensional
through firing to high temperatures in a kiln. A glaze tolerance refers to how tightly the manufactured brick is
can provide color, beauty, strength, and waterproofing. held to its nominal size. The following appearance letter
 Hollow bricks are used in the manufacture of designations can be applied to brick manufacturing:
building bricks and facing bricks. Hollow brick  X specifies extreme or extra control.
cavities are used to place wall anchoring and for
 S refers to standard production.
steel reinforced masonry where the cavities have
 A designates architectural or aesthetic specifications.
steel reinforcing and are filled with grout. The voids
in hollow bricks are often cylindrical holes that can Masonry grade relates to durability, where Grade SW stands
be called cores or cells. Brick with hollow spaces are for severe weathering and is recommended in most areas
easier to extrude than solid bricks. Hollow bricks are of the United States and Canada. Grade MW refers to
also lighter, making them easier to carry and handle. moderate weathering for use in areas where freezing cycles
 Paving bricks are used as the wearing surface of are not expected. Grade NW are negligible weathering units
patios, walks, and roads for people and vehicle traffic. for use in air-conditioned and moisture-free locations.
 Thin veneer bricks have normal face dimensions with
reduced thickness for application to surfaces with Mortar for masonry construction
adhesive. The use of mortar was introduced in Chapter 5, Foundation
Clay masonry units are classified by characteristics such Materials and Construction, where concrete masonry
as appearance and grade. Factors related to masonry units (CMU) were described and demonstrated for use in

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Wall framing materials and construction

types depending on the required strength. Mortars for new

construction are classified as Types M, N, and S. Type O or
polymer mortars can be required to duplicate the original
mortar for repairs to older buildings. The following briefly
describes new construction mortars and their use:
 Type M mortar is used for below grade applications.
Type M mortar yields high compressive strength and
has the highest proportion of Portland cement, with
3 parts Portland cement, 1 part lime, and 12 parts sand.
 Type N mortar is the most common mortar used
for non-structural above-grade masonry veneer
applications. Type N mortar has good bond qualities and
resistance to water penetration. Type N mortar uses
1 part Portland cement, 1 part lime, and 6 parts sand.
 Type S mortar is used in structural masonry
applications. Type S mortar mixes use 2 parts Portland
cement, 1 part lime, and 9 parts sand.
The mortar components are mixed with water at the
construction site to reach a paste-like mixture. Additional
water can be added as needed to maintain workability.
Mortar that is unused after two hours from the initial
mix should be discarded, because the ability to bond is
reduced. A portable concrete mixer, shown in Figure 7.42
Figure 7.39  Course and wythe terminology. has a revolving drum to contain and mix mortar and
is commonly used to mix mortar components at the
building foundation systems. Mortar, also called grout, is a
construction site, and continues turning to maintain the
mixture of Portland cement, sand, lime, and water. Mortar
workability of the mortar. The concrete mixer gives the
becomes a paste-like material after mixing the components
mason time to use the mortar before it cures.
with water, and hardens to create a strong solid structure
when it cures. Mortar is used in construction to bond
Common masonry wall practices for
together any type of masonry units. A mortar joint is a
residential construction
mortar-filled space between masonry units. The mortar
component proportions can change depending on the Masonry construction applications for homes are masonry
desired construction properties. There are different mortar veneer and structural masonry. Masonry veneer walls are

Figure 7.40  (a) Single wythe headers and rowlocks. (b) A header or rowlock double wythe.

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 7

Figure 7.41  (a) Multiple wythes mortared together. (b) Multiple wythes connected using brick masonry units.
(c) Concrete masonry unit wythe connected to brick masonry unit wythe using metal ties.
Wall framing materials and construction

grade for appearance. Figure 7.44(b) shows a standard

width concrete foundation wall with an expanded
concrete footing and an economical concrete block ledge
below grade to support the masonry veneer on the
concrete footing. The following describes each masonry
veneer construction component above the concrete or
concrete block ledge as shown in Figure 7.44.
Flashing between the concrete or concrete block ledge
and the masonry veneer acts to collect and divert moisture
from the wall. The flashing projects past the foundation
wall to keep moisture from entering the wall. Moisture
from condensation and rain can be a serious problem in
masonry wall deterioration if quality flashing material and
installation are not used. Copper flashing is widely used for
corrosion resistance, and its flexibility in forming leak-free
corners and ends. Flashing must be installed watertight,
with special care taken to seal seams, corners, and at
the end of masonry. End dams, also called side dams,
are made by bending the end of flashing up to stop water
Figure 7.42  A portable concrete mixer is commonly from flowing across the flashing and into the adjacent
used to mix mortar at the construction site, and continues construction. Special door and window flashing assemblies
turning to maintain the workability of the mortar. are made for use where masonry is used around rough
openings. Other flashing products include stainless steel,
made of a single non-structural exterior layer of masonry lead-coated copper, and synthetic material available from
that takes the place of traditional siding over wood- your masonry supplier. Carefully check manufacturer
frame construction, metal framing, or structural masonry. warranties to confirm reliability of flashing applications and
Masonry veneer over wood-frame construction, shown materials. House wrap is used over the exterior sheathing
in Figure 7.43(a), is the most commonly used masonry as previously described in this chapter. It is important for
application for home construction. Structural masonry the house wrap to overlap the flashing by at least 6 inches
walls are typically constructed using reinforced concrete (150 mm) to be an effective part of the moisture control
masonry units as shown in Figure 7.43(b). Masonry veneer system.
and structural masonry walls must be laid on a concrete Masonry veneer can be any of the masonry materials
footing when bearing on grade, or on a structural steel and patterns described in this chapter and used for
beam or reinforced concrete beam when supported by the architectural appearance, such as brick and stone. The first
structure. masonry course rests directly on the concrete or concrete
block ledge over the flashing. Wall ties are used to
Masonry veneer construction
transfer lateral forces, such as wind loads, on the masonry
Masonry veneer provides an attractive and durable veneer wall back to the wood-frame structure. Corrugated
exterior covering that replaces traditional siding on wall ties are normally used for residential masonry veneer
wood- or steel-frame construction. Masonry veneer over wood-frame construction, and are not recommended
can be used to cover the entire exterior of a home, to for brick veneer over steel stud construction. Corrugated
provide an attractive front elevation, or for architectural wall ties are strong and easy to attach, and are available
accent on specific locations of the home. Masonry in 16, 18, and 22 gauge galvanized steel for durability and
veneer can also be used to cover or create an corrosion resistance. Corrugated wall ties are generally
interior partition. The most common masonry veneer spaced at each stud location horizontally and 16 inches
construction is over wood-framing, but masonry veneer (400 mm) on center vertically. Wall ties for brick veneer
can be used over any construction practice. The masonry over steel stud construction are specially designed for the
veneer wall rests on an expanded concrete foundation application where deflection in steel construction can be
wall or concrete footing as shown in Figure 7.44. transferred to masonry veneer and cause cracks in the
Figure 7.44(a) shows an expanded concrete 7 foundation masonry. Carefully follow the engineering found on plans
with a ledge to support the masonry veneer. The and specifications for proper construction applications.
expanded concrete foundation wall is below grade for Figure 7.45, on p. 263 shows brick veneer construction
structural support and the masonry veneer is above used on an expanded concrete footing with a concrete

260
 7

Figure 7.43  (a) Masonry veneer over wood-frame construction. (b) Structural masonry walls using reinforced
concrete masonry units.
Figure 7.44  Masonry veneer construction options. (a) An expanded concrete foundation with a ledge to support
the masonry veneer. (b) A standard width concrete foundation wall with an expanded concrete footing and a con-
crete block ledge below grade to support the masonry veneer.
 Wall framing materials and construction

Figure 7.45  Brick veneer construction used on an expanded concrete footing with a concrete slab floor. The
7
connecting wall system uses steel stud framing and special flexible wall ties which allows the steel structure to
flex as needed. Wood framing can also be used with a pressure treated sole plate.

slab floor. The connecting wall system uses steel stud

framing and special flexible wall ties which allows the
POWERPOINT
steel structure to flex as needed.
Create one PowerPoint slide of masonry veneer
Weep holes are openings in the first course of masonry construction displayed in Figure 7.45.
that allow water to drain out through the bottom of the
wall, and help dry the structure by providing air circulation
behind the masonry veneer. Weep holes are usually made CONTROLLING VERTICAL MOVEMENT FOR MASONRY
by leaving the mortar out between every third or fourth VENEER
masonry unit along the first course. Masonry movement can be caused by expansion and
An air space between the masonry veneer and the house shrinkage from changes in temperature and moisture,
wrap on the exterior sheathing allows for ventilation, allows settling, and forces of nature. Movement joints are used to
moisture from condensation and rain to drain down the separate masonry construction into segments in an effort
weep holes, and aids in keeping the structure dry. The to prevent wall damage such as buckling and cracking.
recommended air space between masonry veneer and Movement joints are applied to masonry walls to control
wood-frame construction is 1 inch (25 mm), with up to vertical and horizontal movement. Masonry veneer walls are
2 inches (50 mm) of air space used for steel-frame and supported vertically at the base of the wall by the concrete
other masonry structures. foundation and footing, and the wall ties transfer lateral
forces on the masonry veneer wall back to the wood-frame
structure as described earlier. The masonry veneer wall is
otherwise self-supporting up to heights of about 12 feet
POWERPOINT (3,600 mm) or as determined by structural engineering.
Masonry veneer used on one-story homes generally
Create one PowerPoint slide of masonry veneer
requires only the foundation support and the wall ties, but
construction displayed in Figure 7.44.
multi-story homes can require additional vertical support and

263
Wall framing materials and construction

expansion control for the masonry veneer typically provided control joint. Figure 7.47(c) shows a waterproof sealant,
at each floor line. This support, called a shelf angle, is a backer rod, and neoprene pad used as a control joint.
horizontal steel angle that provides a break in the veneer for Neoprene is synthetic material similar to rubber and is
movement when the masonry expands and the connected resistant to heat, and weathering. Figure 7.47(d) shows
structure shrinks, or other movement occurs in the wall. a waterproof sealant, backer rod, and copper waterstop
This is done with a shelf angle bolted to the wood-frame used as a control joint. A copper waterstop is a pre-
structure at the desired height as shown in Figure 7.46. manufactured copper product that fits into the joint.
Copper is a soft metal that easy compresses. The foam
pad, neoprene pad, or copper waterstop are also used to
POWERPOINT keep mortar or debris from entering the joint. A general
definition for waterstop is a component of a concrete or
Create one PowerPoint slide showing how to control
masonry structure, intended to prevent the passage of
vertical movement in a brick veneer wall.
water running continuously through the joints.

CONTROLLING HORIZONTAL MOVEMENT FOR

MASONRY VENEER
POWERPOINT
Horizontal movement in a masonry veneer wall can be Create one PowerPoint slide showing how to control
controlled using expansion joints. Expansion joints horizontal movement in a brick veneer wall.
are used to control horizontal movement by separating
masonry into sections to prevent cracking, and stop
water penetration and air infiltration in the masonry wall.
Masonry veneer construction supported
Expansion joints are made using elastic materials placed
by the structure
in a continuous, unobstructed vertical joint through the Masonry veneer walls must be laid on a structural bearing
masonry wythe as shown in Figure 7.47. Figure 7.47(a) support directly on grade, or on structural steel or structural
shows a waterproof sealant and backer rod used as a concrete when supported by the structure. Structural steel
control joint. A backer rod is a round open- or closed-cell is manufactured in a variety of shapes for use as load-
polyethylene or polyurethane foam product used to fill bearing structural members in building construction or other
joints between building materials. Figure 7.47(b) shows a structures. Common structural steel shapes are shown in
waterproof sealant, backer rod, and foam pad used as a Figure 7.48. The wide flange beam and angle are commonly

Figure 7.46  A shelf angle used to provides a break in the veneer for the masonry to expand and the connected
structure to shrink.

264
 Wall framing materials and construction

7
Figure 7.47  Expansion joint options. (a) A waterproof sealant and backer rod used as a control joint. (b) A waterproof
sealant, backer rod, and foam pad used as a control joint. (c) A waterproof sealant, backer rod, and neoprene pad
used as a control joint. (d) A waterproof sealant, backer rod, and copper waterstop used as a control joint.

Figure 7.48  Common structural steel shapes.

used in residential construction to support masonry veneer used as a lintel to support masonry veneer over a typical door
over openings and directly on wood-framing. Lintel is the or window opening, and Figure 7.49(b) shows a steel wide
term used in masonry construction to describe the horizontal flange beam used to support masonry veneer over a large
support over an opening. Figure 7.49(a) shows a steel angle span opening.

265
Wall framing materials and construction

Figure 7.49  (a) A steel angle used to support masonry veneer over a typical door or window opening. (b) A steel
wide flange beam used to support masonry veneer over a large span opening.

Structural concrete is a specific concrete mixture that is

POWERPOINT reinforced with steel for use in structural load applications.
While structural concrete is mostly used in commercial
Create one PowerPoint slide showing masonry
construction, concrete beams can be used in residential
veneer construction over an opening using a steel
building. Two types of structural beams are precast
angle.
and prestressed concrete. Precast concrete beams

266
 Wall framing materials and construction

are made by casting concrete with steel reinforcing in a out of wood and plywood. The template has two matching
form or mold. The cured concrete beam is delivered to sides placed apart equal to the desired masonry width.
the construction site and lifted into place where needed A surface is created with consecutive short pieces of
in the building. A prestressed concrete beam has steel wood, such as 2 × 4s placed along the top edge of the arc,
reinforcing stretched from both ends in the concrete form or by bending a plywood strip along the top edge of the
or mold. The steel reinforcing is released after the concrete arc. The template structure needs to be solid and stable to
cures. The finished concrete beam has a slight arch, called hold the weight of the masonry units during construction.
camber, that makes it better for supporting heavy loads Masonry units are laid over the template starting with a
than precast concrete. The prestressed concrete beam central key brick in the top center and an equal number
is delivered to the construction site and lifted into place of masonry units laid on each side down to the supporting
where needed in the building. The camber is always on top structure.
when the beam is placed in position. Figure 7.50 shows a
prestressed concrete beam used as a header to support Structural masonry construction
masonry veneer over an opening. Structural masonry is a structural system for home or
commercial building construction that can be combined with
Masonry arch construction
wood, steel, and reinforced concrete applications. Structural
A masonry arch is a self-supporting curved masonry masonry is more commonly used in commercial construction
structure over an opening that provides support for the than for home building. Structural masonry walls are typically
structure above. A typical arch is constructed with tapered constructed using reinforced concrete masonry units
bricks called voussoirs. Voussoirs can be cut at the job that must be laid on a concrete footing bearing on grade.
site or ordered from the masonry manufacturer for use in Concrete masonry walls are normally reinforced horizontally
typical arch applications. The side angles of the voussoir and vertically. Horizontal reinforcement is normally
masonry units are determined by the arch radius. A pillar
or wall is needed to support the structure at the base
where the forces of the arch push outward as shown in
prefabricated welded wire products that are manufactured for
specific CMU sizes. The horizontal reinforcing is mortared into
the joints as shown in Figure 7.52. The horizontal reinforcing
7
Figure 7.51. A pillar is a vertical structure of stone, wood, or improves strength of the masonry and controls cracking from
metal, used as a support or decoration. The masonry arch shrinkage. Vertical reinforcement is placed in CMU cells and
can be built over a prefabricated steel angle formed in the the cells are filled with mortar to strengthen the structure as
desired arch. Traditionally, masons build an arch template shown in Figure 7.52.

Figure 7.50  A prestressed concrete beam used as a header to support masonry veneer over an opening.

267
Wall framing materials and construction

Single-wythe concrete masonry construction shown in

Figure 7.52 can be used for light commercial construction
where insulation and interior finish is not required. Wood or
steel framing can be added to the inside of the structure to
provide insulation and support for interior wall material as
shown in Figure 7.53. The following describes the features
found in Figure 7.53:
 Steel or wood framing is used on the interior with
insulation placed between studs. A steel bottom track is
used with steel studs and a pressure treated sill is used
with wood studs.
 Structural plywood or OSB sheathing is used over wood
framing.
 A vapor barrier is applied to the exterior surface of the
concrete block wall to help keep moisture from entering
the wall.
 A stainless steel, aluminum, or plastic termination bar
is used to secure the top edge of the flashing to the
sheathing or steel stud framing. The termination bar
is placed under the vapor barrier and the top edge is
sealed.
 Rigid insulation can be used to provide desired energy
efficiency to the structure.
 A 1″ (25 mm) minimum air space is required and a 2″
(50 mm) air space is recommended.
 A copper, aluminum, stainless steel, or galvanized
steel drip edge is placed at the edge of the concrete
foundation wall, and the flashing is sealed over the drip
edge.
A double-wythe wall is more common for most applications
where concrete block construction is combined with
masonry veneer and rigid insulation included as shown in
Figure 7.54. The following describes the features found in
Figure 7.54:
 Reinforced concrete block wall has horizontal and
vertical reinforcing as previously described.
 A vapor barrier is applied to the exterior surface of the
concrete block wall to help keep moisture from entering
the wall.
 A stainless steel, aluminum, or plastic termination bar
is used to secure the top edge of the flashing to the
concrete block wythe. The termination bar is placed
under the vapor barrier and the top edge is sealed.
 Rigid insulation is used to provide desired insulation
value to the structure.
Figure 7.51  (a) Characteristics of a masonry arch.  A 1″ (25 mm) minimum air space is required and a 2″
(b) Arch construction. (50 mm) air space is recommended.
 A copper, aluminum, stainless steel, or galvanized
POWERPOINT steel drip edge is placed at the edge of the concrete
foundation wall, and the flashing is sealed over the drip
Create one PowerPoint slide showing horizontal and
edge.
vertical reinforcing used in a single-wythe concrete
 The masonry veneer wythe is constructed as described
masonry wall.
earlier.

268
 Wall framing materials and construction

7
Figure 7.52  A single-wythe concrete masonry wall with horizontal reinforcement is mortared into the joints to
improve strength of the masonry and control cracking from shrinkage. Vertical reinforcement is placed in CMU
cells and the cells are filled with mortar to strengthen the structure.

POWERPOINT POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide showing construction of Create one PowerPoint slide showing a control joint
a double-wythe masonry wall similar to Figure 7.54. used in a concrete masonry wall.

USING ISOLATION JOINTS IN MASONRY CONSTRUCTION

USING CONTROL JOINTS IN CONCRETE BLOCK
CONSTRUCTION Isolation joints are used in concrete block and masonry
veneer construction to create a joint between the masonry
Concrete block walls are constructed with control joints,
and other material that allows both structures to contract
which are vertical joints at specific locations in the wall.
and expand independently. Isolation joints are used where
Control joints allow the concrete masonry wall structures
masonry adjoins other building materials or where new
to shrink independently between joints, and to transfer
masonry adjoins existing masonry. Figure 7.56(a), on p. 272
lateral wind loads from one side of the joint to the other.
shows an isolation joint used at two adjoining concrete
Figure 7.55 shows a typical control joint in a concrete block
block walls with a steel anchor embedded in mortar-filled
wall. Sash blocks and shear lugs are used at control joints
cores, transferring loads and allowing the walls to move
to transfer lateral wind loads across the joint. A sash block
independently. Figure 7.56(b) shows a steel isolation joint
is a concrete block unit manufactured with a vertical groove
anchor used between two adjoining masonry walls.
where the shear lug is placed. Shear lugs are made with
hard rubber or plastic and placed in the sash block groove
running the entire height of the concrete block wall to POWERPOINT
transmit externally applied loads to the structure. Mortar
is left out of the control joint and caulking is used to seal Create one PowerPoint slide showing isolation joints
along the exterior of the joint. used at a corner and at a wall intersection.

269
Wall framing materials and construction

Figure 7.53  Single-wythe concrete masonry construction with wood or steel framing on the inside of the structure
to provide insulation and support for interior wall material.

TOP OF WALL APPLICATIONS POWERPOINT

A bond beam can be used to complete the
top of a masonry wall for attaching the roof Create one PowerPoint slide showing a bond beam
construction. A bond beam is a horizontal reinforced used in a masonry wall construction.
concrete or concrete masonry beam used to strengthen
and tie a masonry wall together at the top or in other Figure 7.59 (on p. 274) shows additional detail for proper
locations where needed. The bond beam shown in eave construction at a masonry veneer wall. Eave is
Figure 7.57 demonstrates how solid bottom lintel concrete the term used to describe the lowest part of the roof
masonry units are filled with concrete and with continuous that projects from the exterior wall, also referred to as
reinforcing used to create a bond beam around the top of a cornice or overhang. Detailed information about eave
the wall perimeter. construction is provided in Chapter 8, Roof Framing
Anchor bolts can be embedded in the bond beam for Materials and Construction. The 3/4″ (20 mm) minimum
attaching a 2 × 4 or 2 × 6 pressure-treated sill where space between the top of the masonry veneer and wood
the roof framing system is connected as shown in framing allows for movement in the masonry veneer. A
Figure 7.58. frieze board is used between the bricks and the eave for

270
 Wall framing materials and construction

Figure 7.54  A double-wythe wall is more common for most applications where concrete block construction is
combined with masonry veneer and rigid insulation.

appearance and to seal the gap between the bricks and

the eave. The frieze board can be 1X or 2X material that
is placed over flashing to keep the wood from moisture
decay and prevents insect access. A caulking sealant is
applied at the corner where the frieze board meets the
masonry to provide additional moisture control.

MASONRY CONSTRUCTION AT OPENINGS

Special construction applications are important at
masonry openings to stop water from entering the
structure. Figure 7.60 (on p. 275) shows a construction
detail for proper masonry veneer drainage wall system
construction at a window opening. The same methods
Figure 7.55  Concrete masonry control joint. apply over door openings and at other openings in the

271
Wall framing materials and construction

Mortor filled cells Isolation anchor Existing masonry wall

Joint

Joint

Isolation anchor

New masonry wall

(a) (b)

Figure 7.56  (a) An isolation joint at adjoining concrete block walls. (b) A steel isolation joint anchor used
between two adjoining masonry walls.

Figure 7.57  Solid bottom lintel concrete masonry units are filled with concrete and with continuous reinforcing
used to create a bond beam around the top of the wall perimeter.

masonry veneer. Window frames, door frames, and other the masonry. The masonry rowlock sill at the base of
openings must be attached to the framing, not attached the window is laid at a minimum angle of 15 degrees
to the brick veneer. As you look at Figure 7.60 notice from horizontal, or 1/4 inch/1 inch (25 mm/100 mm).
that the house wrap is carefully folded over the wood Weep hopes are provided in the rowlock sill to allow
framing. This is done around the entire opening to help water to flow out over the flashing. It is important to seal
keep moisture from entering the wood. The through- around window and door frames with a recessed foam
wall flashing, also called a sill pan at the bottom, is a backer rod covered by a sealant. A minimum 1/4″ (6 mm)
special fabricated flashing with sealed seams to keep wide sealant joint is recommended around window
water from entering the structure and allow rainwater and door openings, and minimum of 1/2″ (13 mm) is
to flow out. A space is provided between the masonry recommended between the sill and the bottom of the
veneer and the wood frame to allow for movement in window frame.

272
Figure 7.58  Anchor bolts can be embedded in the bond beam for attaching a 2 × 4 or 2 × 6 pressure-treated sill
where the roof framing system is connected.
Figure 7.59  Detail for eave construction at a masonry veneer wall.
 7

Figure 7.60  A construction detail for proper masonry veneer drainage wall system construction at a window
opening.
Wall framing materials and construction

RESEARCH

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research options and topics that correlate with
the content of this chapter.

TEST

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the test for this chapter.

PROBLEMS

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the problems for this chapter.

276
 CHAPTER 8
Roof framing materials
and construction
Learning objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
 Read roof plans and roof framing plans.
 Identify and describe typical roof styles.
 Describe conventional roof framing materials, practices, and terminology.
 Identify soffit and overhang framing and finish practices and terminology.
 Discuss dormer framing applications.
 Describe skylight terminology, framing, and installation practices.
 Discuss framing cathedral and vaulted ceilings.
 Describe truss roof framing materials, practices, and terminology.
 Describe timber-frame roof framing materials, practices, and terminology.
 Discuss light steel roof framing practices and terminology.
 Identify roofing materials and discuss roofing installation practices.
 Explain the use of roof vents.
 Continue the Description of Materials form started in previous chapters as related to roof framing materials and
practices.
 Create PowerPoint presentations related to roof framing applications.
 Answer questions related to roof framing practices.
 Continue roof framing on the scale model team project option started in previous chapters.
 Continue roof framing on the actual home team project option started in previous chapters.

INTRODUCTION symbol of the home. There are many different roof types
and combinations that define the architectural style of the
This chapter introduces you to roof framing materials home. You will also discover materials and methods for roof
and their applications, along with common roof framing
framing along with information about roofing materials and
construction practices. Framing techniques that help their applications.
improve energy efficiency are also described in this chapter.
Roof framing starts after wall framing is complete. A roof
ROOF STYLES
is the supporting structure and exterior surface on top of a
home or other building. The roof does more than cover and There are many different roof styles for use on a home.
protect the home. The roof also represents an architectural The roof style selected by the architect or home designer is

277
Roof framing materials and construction

important to establish the architectural style of a home. You today. Modern and contemporary architectural examples
can see different roof styles on homes as you drive around are wide and varied because of their unique characteristics.
neighborhoods in your local community. The roof styles What these homes have in common is irregular shapes
you see are often determined by the age of the homes in a with frequent flat vertical surfaces with extensive large
specific neighborhood. Homes built in the 1930s and ’40s windows, and flat or shed roofs as shown in Figure 8.7 (on
likely have traditional architecture with steep gable and p. 282). Contemporary homes of the twenty-first century
hip roof styles. Homes built in the 1950s and ’60s probably often incorporate green design with an effort to fit into the
have low slope hip, gable, or flat roofs. Homes constructed environment without distraction in the surroundings.
in the 1970s and ’80s often have steeper roof pitches in a
shed style. As the age of neighborhoods approach 2000 and
beyond, architecture has commonly evolved to a Craftsman
style where roofs again take on a historic traditional style POWERPOINT
with steep hip and gable roofs. These observations are
generalities that do not always hold true, because you also Create one PowerPoint slide showing the use of a
see contemporary and modern architecture where roof typical roof slope symbol.
style is unique and as different as the architectural creativity.
The point is that architectural style changes throughout
the years and roof styles change to represent the trends. A flat roof for a home is constructed almost horizontal or
Roof slope, also called pitch, is the amount of rise a roof level with a slight slope that allows for rain water drainage.
has compared to a horizontal measurement called the run. The flat roof is often used in modern and contemporary
Figure 8.1 shows a 5/12 roof slope, which means that the architecture. Figure 8.7 shows a home with a flat roof.
roof rises 5 inches for every 12 inches of run. The roof slope A shed roof has a single slope that is often used in modern
symbol in Figure 8.1 is typically displayed throughout a set and contemporary architecture. Figure 8.8 (on p. 282)
of drawings wherever the roof slope is shown. The term shows a home with a shed roof.
traditional architecture used here refers to architectural A gable roof is a roof system that slopes downward both
styles that evolved from the early American influence and ways from a central horizontal ridge so as to leave a gable at
from regions around the world. Styles often associated each end. A gable is the vertical triangular wall built on each
with traditional architecture are Colonial in Figure 8.2, end of a home with a gable roof. The gable roof style is one
Cape Cod in Figure 8.3, Tudor in Figure 8.4, and Victorian of the most popular used in home design and construction.
in Figure 8.5. Craftsman-style architecture, shown in A gable roof home is shown in Figure 8.9 (on p. 283).
Figure 8.6 is influenced by the use of natural materials and
The A-frame roof is an architectural home style with
colors, heavy posts and wood beams, trim boards, masonry
steep roof planes that also function as walls and meet at
veneer accents, and wide porches. Modern architecture
a central horizontal ridge. The two roof slopes commonly
refers to a unique architectural style that is different from
start at or near the foundation line and meet at the ridge,
other styles and can be seen in any time period. The term
forming A-shaped gable ends. A-frame homes became
contemporary architecture is the modern architecture of
an option for mountain and seaside cabins as shown in
Figure 8.10 (on p. 283).
A hip roof has the ends and sides sloping with the same
pitch. The hip roof style, shown in Figure 8.11 (on p. 284)
is one of the most popular used in home design and
construction.
The Dutch hip roof is a combination hip and gable roof,
with the gable portion at the top as shown in Figure 8.12
(on p. 284).
A Gambrel roof has a double slope on each side, where
the lower slope is normally steeper than the upper slope
as shown in Figure 8.13 (on p. 285). The Gambrel roof style
is sometimes used in home design, but you will often see
a Gambrel roof used on barns if you take a drive in farm
country.
The upper story of a mansard roof home is generally
Figure 8.1  Roof slope, also called pitch. designed under the lower slope of the roof as shown in

278
 Roof framing materials and construction

Figure 8.2  Colonial architecture.

Figure 8.14 (on p. 285). A mansard roof has a double-hip A solarium is a room with walls of glass and often have
roof on each face with a steeper lower portion. The roof roofs made with extensive glass. A solarium can extend
above the double-hip can be flat. the living area by providing an outdoor-style atmosphere
A dormer is a small structure extending out from the where plants grow well all year. A thermal mass can
slope of the main roof of a home. The dormer is generally also be used in the solarium to store heat from the sun.
designed and built to provide additional space and a Heat from the solarium can be circulated throughout the
window for a room framed under the main roof slope. entire home by natural convection or through a forced-
Dormers have walls and a roof of their own. The front air system. Forced-air refers to a system that uses a
face generally has a window, and the roof can be a mechanical blower to circulate air throughout the home.
gable or hip, designed to match the architectural style Forced-air systems are described in Chapter 14, Indoor
of the home. A home with three dormers is shown in Air Quality and Safety. Figure 8.16 (on p. 286) shows
Figure 8.15 (on p. 286). how a solarium can provide an excellent living space that

279
Figure 8.3  Cape Cod architecture.

Figure 8.4  Tudor architecture.

 8
Figure 8.5  Victorian architecture.

Figure 8.6  Craftsman-style architecture.

Roof framing materials and construction

Figure 8.7  A flat roof is often an example of contemporary architecture.

Figure 8.8  A home with a shed roof.

combines the comfort of the indoors with the atmosphere reduce building temperatures, filter pollution, and lessen
of the outdoors and provides solar heat and circulates water runoff. A green roof reduces the urban heat
summer cooling. island effect and helps temper heating and cooling
A green roof is also known as a rooftop garden. The loads in the building. The urban heat island effect means
green roof has plants over the roof structure to help that city areas are warmer than suburbs or rural areas

282
 Roof framing materials and construction

Figure 8.9  A gable roof home.

due to less vegetation, more land coverage, and other

infrastructure. The green roof also slows storm water
8
runoff from the roof and lessens the load on the public
wastewater system. A green roof installation is shown in
Figure 8.17 (on p. 287).
The number of floors in a home also influences the
architectural style. A one-story home has one level of
living space with no stairs as shown in Figure 8.9. The
roof over a one-story home is generally over an unusable
attic space, and the rafters are typically fairly low-pitch but
can be any desired pitch to match the style. These types
of homes are commonly called ranch style homes in the
United States. A two-story home has two floors with two
full-height walls built with the second floor framed above
the first floor, and stairs for access between floors. See
Figure 8.6. A one and a half story home has one level of
living space on the main level with one full-height wall, and
with a second floor or living space under the rafters. See
Figure 8.3.

ROOF FRAMING MATERIALS AND

TERMINOLOGY
Dimensional lumber is the most commonly used material
for roof construction, but light steel materials are an option
for designers and contractors using steel products for home
Figure 8.10  An A-frame home. construction. It is important for you to learn roof framing

283
Figure 8.11  A hip roof home.

Figure 8.12  Dutch hip roof.

 Roof framing materials and construction

Figure 8.13  A gambrel roof.

terminology and at the same time you can discover the many
8
options and techniques used in roof framing applications.
The most basic components of the roof framing system are
the rafters, ridge, joists, and collar ties. Look at Figure 8.18
(on p. 288) as you discover the following roof framing
members and terminology. The construction practiced using
individual roof members is called stick framing, because
one board or stick is used at a time to assemble the
structure. A rafter is the sloped structural members of a roof
system used to support the roof loads and connect from
the wall top plate to the ridge. There are different types of
rafters explained and shown throughout this discussion. The
main rafter in the roof system is called a common rafter.
Common rafters are typically dimensional lumber such as
2 × 6 or 2 × 8 spaced 16 or 24 inches (400–600 mm) on
center that run at the desired roof pitch from the wall top
plate at the bottom to the ridge at the top. The ridge is the
very top of the roof and is framed with a ridge board that
runs horizontally and provides support for the upper ends of
the rafters. The ridge is generally 2X dimensional lumber that
is 2 inches (50 mm) deeper than the rafters. This allows the
full end of rafters to rest on the ridge board where the rafters
are nailed to the ridge. The bottom of the rafters, called
the tails, generally extend past the exterior wall a desired
Figure 8.14  A mansard roof. distance to create an eave or overhang. The terms eave

285
Figure 8.15  Dormers provide additional space and a window for rooms framed under the main roof.

Figure 8.16  A solarium combines the comfort of the indoors with the atmosphere of the outdoors and provides
solar heat and circulate summer cooling.
 Roof framing materials and construction

8
Figure 8.17  This is a small-scale green roof installation. Courtesy LiveRoof, LLC.

and overhang, also called cornice, refer to the lower portion the area under the rafters is an unused attic space. An attic
of the roof construction beyond the exterior wall. The rafter is a space or room under the roof of a home. Blocking is
ends can be cut different ways depending on the desired used between the ceiling joists at the bearing partition top
finish, which is described in more detail later. A notch is plate to stabilize the joists, and at the exterior wall top plate
cut out of the rafter at the location where the rafter meets to enclose the space between rafters. Screened vents are
the wall top plate. This notch, called a birdsmouth, allows provided in the blocking to help ventilate the attic space.
the rafter to fit exactly on the top plate. The top of the Ventilation options are described in more detail later in
rafter is cut at an angle to match perfectly with the face of this chapter. Collar ties are used depending on structural
the ridge. Another rafter is fastened to the ridge directly engineering requirements to help tie the rafters together
across, and this rafter runs down to the opposite exterior and support the ridge. Collar ties are typically 1X or 2X
wall. Ceiling joists are generally 2X dimensional lumber or dimensional lumber fastened to the rafters in the upper
engineered wood products fastened to the rafters at the one-third of the attic space at every, every other, or every
wall top plates extending across the entire structure. In third set of rafters. Additional roof framing terms relate to
addition to providing structural support for the ceiling below, structure dimensions as shown in Figure 8.18. The span
the ceiling joists are critical construction members used to is the horizontal dimension across the building measured
tie the outside walls together and keep downward forces from the outside of top plates. The total run is half the span
on the roof from spreading the structure apart. The ceiling measured from the outside of a top plate to the center of
joists are nailed to the rafters and toe nailed to the top the ridge. The total rise is the vertical dimension from the
plate. The steel strap shown in Figure 8.18(b) or the steel top of the top plate to the top of the ridge. Pitch was defined
fastener shown in Figure 8.18(c) can be used if required by earlier in this chapter and is shown in Figure 8.18 with the
structural engineering. The ceiling joists act as support for characteristic symbol demonstrating a 6/12 pitch, which is
the ceiling material and tie the outside walls together when 6 inches of rise for every 12 inches of run.

287
Figure 8.18  Roof framing system components and anchoring methods for fastening roof and wall system.
(a) Roof framing terminology. (b) A steel strap. (c) Steel fastener.
 Roof framing materials and construction

The example in Figure 8.18 shows the ceiling joists running

NOTE all the way across between exterior walls without mid-
span support. This application is possible in some cases,
The roof framing system rafters, ridge, joists,
but it is common to have one or more interior bearing
and collar tie sizes are determined by structural
partitions supporting the ceiling joists at mid-span as
engineering based on roof loads and other engineering
shown in Figure 8.19(a). In this example, the joists are
factors with dimensions given on the plans.
either continuous across the partition or join at the center
of the partition when two members meet. Structural
engineering can require a steel strap or other steel gusset
POWERPOINT where two members meet at the partition. A gusset is
a steel or other material plate used to strengthen a joint
Create one PowerPoint slide showing the roof
in the structure. When a header supports an opening in
framing characteristics shown in Figure 8.18.
the bearing partition, the ceiling joists can cross or meet

Figure 8.19  Bearing partition framing options. (a) Interior bearing partition supporting the ceiling joists.
(b) Ceiling joists can intersect over the header. (c) Ceiling joists connected to the header with steel joist hangers
when the header is framed above the top plate.

289
Roof framing materials and construction

over the header as shown in Figure 8.19(b). The header in

this example is exposed or covered by drywall and visible
POWERPOINT
from below. If a flush ceiling is desired with no exposed
Create one PowerPoint slide showing how tail joists
header, then the header is framed above the top plate and
are used to tie the outside wall to the adjacent
ceiling joists are connected to the header with steel joist
joists when the main joists run perpendicular to the
hangers allowing the bottom of the joists to be even with
rafters.
the bottom of the header as shown in Figure 8.19(c). This
option extends the header into the attic space, which can
be acceptable.
Framing a hip roof
Hip roof framing is more complex than framing a gable
POWERPOINT roof. A hip roof system has hip rafters, valley rafters,
and jack rafters. Look at Figure 8.22 as you discover the
Create one PowerPoint slide showing the roof following hip roof framing members and terminology. If
framing characteristics shown in Figure 8.19. a hip roof is longer than it is wide, then part of the roof
system is the same as framing a gable roof with common
rafters that connect the top plate to the ridge. The hip
The ceiling joists can also act as floor joists when the roof framing starts when the roof slopes to an inside or
area under the roof structure is used for storage or for outside corner of the home. On a hip roof, the hip is the
living space. In this case, the floor joists are covered with corner of an external angle formed by two intersecting
subflooring and finished flooring as desired. Figure 8.20(a) exterior roof surfaces. The hip rafter is the rafter that forms
shows construction of a finished attic area used for the hip and runs from the ridge to the top plate. On a hip
storage. When the attic area is used only for storage, then roof, the valley is the corner of an interior angle formed by
subfloor and rafters do not need to be covered. When the two intersecting interior roof surfaces. The valley rafter is
finish area below the rafters is used for living space, then a the rafter that forms the valley and runs from the ridge to
60″ (1,524 mm) minimum clearance is required by framing the top plate. A jack rafter is any rafter that is shorter than
stub walls at that rafter height as shown in Figure 8.20(b). a common rafter and connects to a hip rafter or a valley
The rafters can be framed to the stub walls’ top plate if the rafter. The jack rafter that connects to the hip is also called a
floor joists below are engineered to carry the combination hip jack rafter, and the jack rafter that connects to a valley
of floor and roof load. The rafters can be framed without is also called a valley jack rafter.
connection to the stub walls’ top plate if the rafters are
engineered separately to carry the roof load. A window or
door is also required that provides lighting, ventilation, and POWERPOINT
escape to the outside. This window is normally framed into
a dormer described later. Create one PowerPoint slide showing typical hip roof
framing and terminology.

POWERPOINT
Framing the eave
Create one PowerPoint slide showing the roof
framing characteristics shown in Figure 8.20. There are a variety of options for framing the eaves
depending on the desired results and the architectural
style. Modern architecture often has a large overhang,
Ceiling joists typically run parallel to the rafters as shown while traditional architecture usually has a short overhang.
in Figures 8.18, 8.19, and 8.20, which is especially true Long overhangs are also used to protect the exterior
for gable roof construction. However, in some cases, walls from weather and provide shade from the summer
especially in hip roof construction, ceiling joists can run sun. The eave can be open or enclosed. An open eave is
perpendicular to the rafters. Tail joists, also referred to generally found on homes where it is important to reduce
as lookout joists, are used to tie the outside wall to the cost, and enclosed eaves are common on high-quality
adjacent joists when the main joists run perpendicular homes where appearance and quality is more important
to the rafters as shown in Figure 8.21. Plywood or than cost. An open eave, also called an open soffit, is
OSB subflooring, steel straps, steel joist hangers, or a shown in Figure 8.23 (on p. 294). Soffit is the term used
combination can be used to tie the tail joists to the main to describe the underside of any architectural feature,
joists depending on structural requirements. such as a beam, arch, ceiling, overhang, or vault. The

290
 8

Figure 8.20  Attic construction. (a) Construction of an attic area under rafters. (b) When the finish space below
the rafters is used for living space, then a 60-inch minimum clearance is required by framing stub walls. Structural
engineering is required to confirm framing dimensions and spans.
Roof framing materials and construction

Figure 8.21  Tail joists are used to tie the outside wall to the adjacent joists when the main joists run
perpendicular to the rafters.

term cornice can also be associated with overhangs, but bottom of gutters for taking rainwater down to a system
cornice has varied meanings in architectural applications. of underground rain drain pipes that take the water away
A cornice is generally any horizontal decorative molding from the home and generally into a storm water system.
that is commonly found over a door or window, or along Figure 8.23(b) shows an option with rafter tails cut at an
the corner where a wall meets the ceiling. This kind of angle with a fascia installed and no gutter used. Gutters
decorative cornice is described in Chapter 15, Finish Work are typically required, but some locations do not require
and Materials. The term cornice, in this discussion, is a gutters. The roof sheathing is generally 1/2-inch CDX
projection out from the building to protect the home from plywood or OSB down to the blocking and ACX plywood
weather, and generally has decorative moldings used in the or OSB over the exposed open soffit. The A grade veneer
finish construction. is fastened face down at the soffit to provide the best
Figure 8.23(a) shows the construction of an open soffit appearance. CDX refers to C grade veneer on one side,
where the rafter tails are cut for a fascia and gutter to D grade veneer on the other side and the X indicates
be installed. A fascia is usually 1X dimensional lumber, exterior application.
plastic, or other material installed over the ends of rafters An enclosed soffit is generally used on high-quality home
as a finish or trim. The fascia is optional on an open soffit. construction where it is desired to hide the rafter tails and
A gutter is normally installed directly over the rafter ends provide a better finished appearance. Figure 8.24 shows
when there is no fascia used, or over the fascia. A gutter typical enclosed soffit options. In Figure 8.24(a), the
is a metal or plastic trough that runs horizontally along the enclosed soffit construction uses a 2 × 4 horizontal ledger
edge of the roof overhang to catch rainwater and divert fastened to the siding directly across from the bottom of
the water to downspouts. The gutter also has an attached the rafter tails. The ledger is used to support lookout joists
flashing that goes under the roofing to keep rainwater that connect to each rafter tail. The ledger and lookout
from entering the roof structure. Downspouts are vertical system is used to attach the enclosed soffit material. There
square, rectangular, or round pipes that connect to the are a variety of soffit materials that can be used, such as

292
 Roof framing materials and construction

8
Figure 8.22  Hip roof framing members and terminology.

1 × 4 tongue-and-groove wood, plastic, or metal. There also be used at the joint for additional sealing. Any type of
is normally a continuous screened vent placed near the prefabricated decorative molding or dimensional lumber
center of the soffit for providing ventilation to the attic or can be used depending on the desired appearance.
joist space. Continuous screened soffit vents are part of The soffit option shown in Figure 8.24(b) is used when a
a roof ventilation system that circulates cool air in from small overhang is desired as commonly seen in traditional
the soffit vents into the attic space and moves hot air out architecture. In this example, the soffit material is fastened
through vents high in the roof and in gable ends in some directly to the cut ends of the rafter tails and no lookout
cases. The continuous soffit vent is usually a prefabricated joists are used. Everything else is constructed as described
aluminum, plastic, or steel perforated product that runs and shown in Figure 8.24(a).
the full length of the soffit. Additional information about
roof ventilation is provided later in this chapter. Blocking is
provided at the top plate between the rafters to support POWERPOINT
the rafters. The blocking material is 2X with a width that
Create one PowerPoint slide showing an example of
allows 2 inches (50 mm) of air space between the top of
an open soffit and another example with an enclosed
the blocking and the roof sheathing. CDX plywood or OSB
soffit.
sheathing of 1/2 inch is used over the entire rafter system,
because the appearance of ACX plywood is not needed
for an enclosed soffit. A horizontal molding is generally Framing the overhang at a gable end is typically done as
placed along the seam where the soffit meets the wall shown in Figure 8.25 (on p. 296). The last common rafter,
to finish the installation and seal the corner. Caulking can just before the gable end, supports lookout rafters that

293
Roof framing materials and construction

Figure 8.23  An open eave, also called an open soffit. (a) Open soffit with rafter tails cut for a fascia and gutter
installation. (b) Rafter tails cut at an angle with a fascia and no gutter.

extend out over the gable top plate the desired distance of lumber one size larger than the lookout rafters. There is
the overhang. The lookout rafters support the bargeboard often an additional trim board placed at the top of the
and roof sheathing at the rake. A bargeboard is attached bargeboard used to cover the exposed roof sheathing. This
to the ends of the lookout rafters and used to trim the trim board is called a fascia, rake board, or rake molding.
gable end overhang. The bargeboard is often dimensional The bargeboard can also add ornate detail to the gable end

294
 8

Figure 8.24  Framing a typical enclosed soffit. (a) Soffit framed with lookout joists and ledger. (b) Soffit framed
to rafter tails.
Roof framing materials and construction

Ridge

Sheathing Gable wall top plate

Collar tie

Ceiling joist

Trim board
Common rafter
fascia

Top plate
Gable end wall

Exterior wall top plate

Blocking

Bargeboard
Eave

Lookout rafter
Rafter tail

Blocking Blocking

Stud

Figure 8.25  Framing a typical gable end overhang.

as is historically the purpose of a bargeboard in traditional Framing a flat roof

architecture. The term rake refers to the slant edge of a
gable roof at the end wall of the house. Blocking is placed Flat roofs are used on homes most commonly in dry
between the lookout rafters to stabilize the structure and climates where rain and weather changes are minimal,
block the opening. The gable end overhang can be open because the flat roof is more difficult to insulate and
with the lookout rafters exposed, or soffit material can be construct weathertight than a home with a sloped roof.
attached to the bottom of the lookout rafters to enclose the Flat roofs are not generally framed perfectly flat. A slight
overhanging structure. ACX plywood or OSB sheathing is roof slope of at least 1/4 inch per foot is used to allow for
commonly used to provide a quality appearance. drainage. The slight roof slope is created by framing walls
and top plates parallel to the roof slope, or by framing all
As you look at Figure 8.25, also notice how the gable end
walls the same height and using sloping engineered wood
wall is framed above the exterior end wall of the home.
joists that are manufactured for the specific roof slope
The last ceiling joist is framed next to the inside face of
desired. Flat roof rafters are called roof joists because
the gable end wall. The top plate of the gable end wall
they serve as rafters and ceiling joist for the rooms
runs at the same angle as the roof pitch and the top
below. Figure 8.26 shows flat roof framing materials and
surface is exactly at the bottom of the adjacent common
methods. Continuous roof joists or roof joists spliced
rafters. The studs for the gable end wall are individually
at interior bearing partitions run between exterior walls
cut and nailed at the exterior wall top plate and the gable
and provide the desired overhang where they run past
wall top plate.
their exterior walls. A double roof joist called a trimmer
is used to support lookout roof joists. A trimmer is any
construction member that runs parallel to other framing
POWERPOINT members and used as support or to strengthen the
perimeter of an opening. The double trimmer is generally
Create one PowerPoint slide showing typical gable
framed at least two joist spaces from the parallel exterior
end framing.
wall as determined by structural engineering. The lookout

296
 Roof framing materials and construction

Figure 8.26  Flat roof framing materials, methods, and terminology.

8
roof joists fasten to the double trimmer with steel joist Some flat roof designs use a parapet constructed around
hangers and extend past the exterior wall the desired the outside perimeter of the roof. A parapet is a protective
overhang distance. Blocking is used above the top plate wall along the edge of a roof or other structure. A parapet
between each roof joist for stability and to seal the space is often designed on a flat roof to maintain a clean vertical
between roof joists. A bargeboard is attached to the appearance in the architecture. Parapet construction
outside face of the roof joists for support, and to cover the is shown in Figure 8.28. Figure 8.28(a) shows parapet
ends. An additional fascia is placed over the bargeboard to construction along the top of the slope and sides of the flat
provide a finished appearance, and for attaching flashing roof, and Figure 8.28(b) shows the parapet construction at
and gutter. the bottom slope of the flat roof where gutter outlets and a
gutter is installed for the roof drainage system.

POWERPOINT
Framing a dormer
Create one PowerPoint slide showing typical flat roof
A dormer is a small structure extending out from the slope
framing and terminology.
of the roof of a home. The dormer is generally designed
and built to provide additional space and a window for a
The amount of overhang depends on the architectural style. room framed under the main roof slope. Dormers have
Some architectural designs have little or no overhang on walls and a roof of their own. The front face generally has a
the flat roof. Quality eave construction is very important on window, and the roof can be a gable, hip, or shed designed
a flat roof to keep the structure dry and to ventilate the roof to match the architectural style of the home. Dormers are
joist space. Figure 8.27 shows typical eave construction often associated with one and a half story homes as shown
for a flat roof overhang. The overhang distance can be in Figure 8.15, but they can be framed into any roof where
increased or reduced as desired. A minimum overhang adequate space is available below the rafters. A common
allows for only the continuous screened vent to be installed home remodeling project is the design and construction of
at the soffit. a dormer to make a new room in the attic’s existing space.

297
Roof framing materials and construction

Figure 8.27  Typical eave construction for a flat roof overhang.

Framing a dormer is like framing a small structure with its system. The front wall face of the dormer is framed over
own roof intersecting the main roof. Figure 8.29(a) shows the double header, and a typical window rough opening is
the method and terminology associated with framing a framed for the dormer window. The dormer side walls are
gable dormer connecting directly to the ridge of the main framed along the pitch of the trimmers. Dormer walls have
roof. An opening is required in the main roof system to allow their own sole plate, studs, and top plate, just like a small
for the width of the dormer. This opening is provided by building. The only difference is the sole plate runs along
leaving out the necessary number of common rafters in the the roof slope on top of the trimmers, and the studs are
desired area. A double or triple trimmer is framed on each cut to match each location along the sloping sole plate. The
side of the opening to provide extra support for the dormer dormer roof is framed with a dormer ridge fastened to the
structure and for the main roof at the dormer. The number of main ridge and dormer rafters framed the same as framing
trimmers depends on the sole plate and stud lumber used. any roof. Dormer ceiling joists extend horizontally between
Double trimmers can be used under a 2 × 4 wall, and triple dormer top plates and are nailed to the dormer rafters. The
trimmers under a 2 × 6 wall. Blocking can be used between last dormer ceiling joist is doubled as a header to connect
two solid trimmers to reduce the amount of solid lumber in with the collar ties or ceiling joists of the main roof system.
a three-trimmer system. A 2 × 4 or 2 × 6 nailer is fastened Figure 8.29(b) shows the same dormer framed without
along each trimmer to provide a nailing surface for roof connecting to the main roof ridge. This system requires a
sheathing at the dormer. A double header is framed below double header framed at the top of the dormer opening.
the front wall face of the dormer to support the dormer wall The double header supports the dormer roof and is used to
and to attach the lookout rafters that extend down to the top attach the jack rafters to the main roof ridge.
plate of the exterior house wall below. The lookout rafters The dormer overhang is framed and finished the same
are nailed to the double header and to the top plate where as previously described for the main roof eave and gable
they are also attached to the floor joists of the floor framing end as shown in Figure 8.24 and Figure 8.25. Dormer

298
 Flashing
Siding
Sheathing

Blocking
Flashing

Blocking

Underlayment Top plate

Roofing

Sheathing

Drywall
Sheathing
Roof joist
House wrap

Siding
Insulation

1X ledger

Continuous stud

8
(a)

Gutter outlet

Gutter

Downspout

(b)

Figure 8.28  Wood frame parapet construction. (a) Parapet construction along the top of the slope and sides
of the flat roof. (b) Parapet construction at the bottom slope of the flat roof where gutter outlets and a gutter is
installed for the roof drainage system.
Roof framing materials and construction

Figure 8.29  Dormer framing options. (a) Framing a gable dormer connecting directly to the ridge of the main
roof. (b) A dormer framed without connecting to the main roof ridge.

overhang is generally very small. The gable end overhang A shed roof dormer is the easiest to frame and can be
can be framed with lookout rafters, or the roof sheathing used on a home if it matches the architectural style.
can extend out to where the bargeboard and fascia are Figure 8.32 (on p. 304) shows a shed roof dormer framing
attached. The roof sheathing can be a product such as 1 × 4 application. The front wall of the dormer is framed above
T&G for a quality appearance. See Figure 8.30. Figure 8.31 a double header attached to the double trimmers framed
shows framing a hip roof dormer. at the bottom sides of the dormer. The double header
supports the front dormer wall and roof system, and is
used to attach the lookout rafters that go down to the
POWERPOINT exterior wall top plate of the home below. Depending on
the design, the front wall of the dormer can also be framed
Create one PowerPoint slide showing framing a
directly above the exterior wall of the home, in which case
gable dormer not connected to the main ridge.
the double header framing is not used. Side dormer walls
are framed along the double trimmers with studs and a
top plate framed to meet the pitch of the dormer rafters.
POWERPOINT Dormer rafters are framed from the main ridge to the top
plate at the dormer front wall. The ceiling joists or collar ties
Create one PowerPoint slide showing framing a hip
of the main roof structure also meet next to the dormer
dormer.
rafters at the dormer front wall top plate. The top of the

300
 Roof framing materials and construction

Figure 8.29  (Continued)

dormer rafters can also be framed to a double header if the parallel to the chimney surface. The measurements between
main top ridge is not used. the double trimmers and the double headers are the rough
opening dimensions. A 2″ (100 mm) air space is required
between the chimney and wood framing, making the rough
POWERPOINT
opening: chimney width plus 4 inches (200 mm) × chimney
Create one PowerPoint slide showing framing a shed depth plus 4 inches. The chimney rough opening is also
dormer. framed in the same manner at the ceiling structure below.

Framing a roof opening POWERPOINT

An opening through the roof framing is required around a Create one PowerPoint slide showing framing a roof
chimney or for framing a skylight rough opening. Figure 8.33 opening for a chimney.
(on p. 305) shows how to frame an opening through the
roof. Any opening through a roof system can be framed Installing a skylight in a roof system is a way to get
by using double trimmers to establish the width of the sunlight to an interior room. Framing a skylight rough
opening. Double headers are used at the top and bottom opening is similar to framing a chimney opening through
of the opening to establish the opening depth. The double the roof, except the double headers at the top and bottom
headers are framed plumb with the inside face of the headers of the opening are framed perpendicular to the double

301
Roof framing materials and construction

Figure 8.30  Framing a dormer overhang.

trimmers at the sides of the opening. Confirm the rough that allows light to transmit from the skylight to the living
opening dimensions with the skylight manufacturer space below. In Figure 8.34, the studs at the left are
specifications. An opening is also framed at the ceiling perpendicular to the rafters, but they can angle inward
joists below by using double trimmers and double headers. to create a bigger opening. The studs at the right can be
The rough opening through the rafters is established vertical as shown here, but they can angle outward from
by the skylight specifications, but the opening at the the opening to create a bigger opening. The size of the
ceiling is normally bigger. The bigger ceiling opening is skylight determines how much light can enter the home,
established by framing studs from the roof opening down but the size of the chamber and the opening through the
to the ceiling structure as shown in the SECTION VIEW in ceiling establishes how much sunlight is dispersed to the
Figure 8.34 (on p. 306). This structure creates a chamber living area below.

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 Roof framing materials and construction

Ridge

Hip rafter Rafter

Hip jack rafter

Hip

Blocking

Top plate

Figure 8.31  Framing a hip roof dormer. 8

as rough lumber, which is the size before it is planed.
POWERPOINT Glu-lam beams are more common, because of their
structural performance, quality, and availability. The ridge
Create one PowerPoint slide showing framing a roof
beam supports the roof structure and keeps the roof
opening for a skylight.
joists from pushing the exterior walls outward. Roof
joists are generally 2X dimensional lumber or engineered
Framing a roof for a vaulted ceiling wood products spaced 16 or 24 inches (400–600 mm)
on center. The roof joists need to be sized big enough
A vaulted ceiling can have unequal sloping sides, a single to support the roof load and to provide enough space
sloping side, an arch shape, or other design possibilities. for insulation requirements. The roof joists have a
Vaulted ceilings can have the same pitch or a different pitch birdsmouth at the exterior wall top plate where they are
than the roof. A vaulted ceiling can angle upward from the anchored to the top plate with steel anchors or straps as
plate to the ridge, or stop at a flat ceiling part way to the determined by structural engineering. The eaves can be
ridge. A cathedral ceiling has equal sloping sides that meet constructed with an open or closed soffit as previously
at a ridge, or stop at a flat ceiling part way to the ridge. described. A screened vent block is placed at each roof
A vaulted ceiling can be framed with only roof joists as joist space, or a continuous soffit vent is used to provide
shown in Figure 8.35 (on p. 307). This is done by using ventilation to the roof system. Ventilation is critical to
a ridge beam that is solid lumber or a glu-lam beam. The keep the structure dry. Insulation is installed in each
ridge beam is supported at each end with a post that roof joist space leaving a minimum 1″ (25 mm) air space
distributes the load to the foundation system. A solid between the top of the insulation and the sheathing. It is
dimensional lumber beam can be used if the desire is very important for the insulation to be properly installed
a natural wood appearance, and an option is a rough- without blocking the air space. A plywood or OSB baffle
sawn beam for a rustic appearance. The term rough sawn is placed at an angle from the base of each eave block to
lumber refers to nominal size lumber, also referred to the bottom of the air space at each roof joist space. The

303
Roof framing materials and construction

Figure 8.32  Framing a shed roof dormer.

baffle is used to keep the insulation from plugging the

screened vents. The roof joists are cut at the top to fit
POWERPOINT
over the ridge beam, and each pair of roof joists is framed
Create one PowerPoint slide showing framing a roof
directly across from each other. A 1/2″ (13 mm) air space for a vaulted ceiling.
is provided between the roof joist ends allowing for air to
circulate from the eave block vents through the air space
and around the roof joists. Alternately, a notch can be A cathedral ceiling can be framed to provide an
cut near the top of each roof joist to provide ventilation, architectural style with a combination of sloped and flat
depending on engineering specifications. A steel strap ceiling in one or more rooms of the home. Figure 8.36 (on
is typically used to tie the roof joists together and p. 308) shows a cathedral ceiling framing where rafters run
strengthen the structure, depending on engineering from the top plate to the ridge with sloped exposure up
specifications. Structural plywood or OSB sheathing is to collar ties fastened to the rafters near the lower one-
used over the roof joists. The underside of the roof joists third of the structure. Structural engineering for the collar
can be finished with any material such as drywall, or tie placement and fastening is typically detailed in the
something like 1 × 6 T&G cedar or other desired wood plans. Open or closed soffits can be framed as previously
can be used for a natural appearance. described.

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 Roof framing materials and construction

Figure 8.33  Framing a chimney opening through a roof.

POWERPOINT
There are many different truss designs available as shown in
Figure 8.38 (on p. 310). The fink truss and scissor truss are
8
the most common. The fink truss provides the typical pitch
Create one PowerPoint slide showing framing a roof
roof and flat ceiling. The scissor truss provides a pitch roof and
for a cathedral ceiling.
sloped ceiling for a cathedral design. Custom trusses can be
manufactured, but they become more expensive and the cost
FRAMING WITH ROOF TRUSSES should be compared with stick framing as an option.

A roof truss is a manufactured structural support for the

roof system. The roof framing practices previously described POWERPOINT
throughout this chapter are referred to as stick framing,
because one board or stick is used at a time to assemble Create one PowerPoint slide showing a typical home
the structure. A roof truss combines all of the individual construction roof truss and related terminology.
components together into one structural unit. Figure 8.37
(on p. 309) shows a typical home construction roof truss When using roof trusses for home construction, the walls
and related terminology. Manufactured roof trusses are are framed and ready for the roof system before the trusses
structurally engineered for each specific home design and are delivered to the site. Trusses are delivered on a truck with
are fabricated using quality materials providing uniform a crane that lifts trusses onto the top plates individually or in
pitch and size. A complete home roof structural system is groups of three or four as shown in Figure 8.39 (on p. 311).
delivered to the project on a crane truck and each roof truss After all trusses are placed by the crane, the framer sets each
is placed directly on the framed walls where they are quickly truss in place and supports the trusses with continuous lateral
assembled to create the roof structure. Trusses are commonly bracing as shown in Figure 8.40 (on p. 311). Continuous lateral
made using 2 × 4 dimensional lumber and steel truss plates bracing allows the trusses to be accurately spaced and
that act as gussets to strengthen and support each joint. stabilizes the roof system. The truss manufacturer delivers the
The use of manufactured roof trusses can save about 25% complete truss system as a kit that includes everything needed
in construction time. A disadvantage of trusses is there for the entire roof framing system, including a gable end
can be no attic space or other practical use under the roof. truss, gable end lookout rafters, and bargeboard as shown in

305
Roof framing materials and construction

Figure 8.34  Framing a skylight.

Figure 8.41 (on p. 312) Figure 8.42 (on p. 312) shows a framer wood. A timber-frame roof system can be one of the most
finishing the roof truss system for a home. impressive forms of construction found in the home building
industry. Classic timber-frame structures are fabricated using
wood joints such as mortise and tenon described in earlier
TIMBER-FRAME ROOF CONSTRUCTION
chapters. When this is done, roof construction members
As you have discovered throughout this textbook, timber- are joined together with the precision used in furniture
frame construction offers the natural beauty of exposed construction as shown in Figure 8.43(a), on p. 313,

306
 Roof framing materials and construction

Figure 8.35  A vaulted ceiling can be framed using roof joists. (a) Open soffit. (b) Closed soffit.

and structures are often self-supporting as shown in beams are rafters that connect from the headers to the
Figure 8.43(b). Alternately, connections between framing ridge where they are fastened together with a wood joint
members can be done with steel brackets, hangers, and or steel connector. Spacing between roof beams depends
straps that are structurally engineered for each application. on structural engineering, but 4 or 8 feet (1,200–2,400 mm)
There are a variety of construction options for the timber- is common. Collars are attached to each set of roof beams
frame roof system. Figure 8.44 (on p. 314) shows a to strengthen the structure and keep the roof beams from
common method and terminology used to build a timber- pushing outward at the headers. Purlins are horizontal
frame roof truss. The posts run from the foundation to the lateral members that extend the length of a roof, used to
roof system. Horizontal headers connect between posts support and tie roof beams together and can be used to
to support tie-beams and roof beams. Tie-beams connect attach roof decking depending on the installation practice.
horizontally across the structure between posts. The roof Another timber-frame roof construction method is shown

307
Roof framing materials and construction

Figure 8.36  Framing a cathedral ceiling.

in Figure 8.45 (on p. 315) where posts support headers and on each side to insert a bolt with washer and nut. A
roof beams at the eaves. Posts also support the ends of a spotface is cut where the through hole meets the inside
ridge beam that runs between gable ends. Additional interior face between the intersection of the ridge beams.
posts can be used as needed to support the ridge beam to A round shear plate is inserted in each spotface at this
the foundation. Roof decking is quality tongue-and-groove location. A counterbore is a flat-bottomed cylindrical
(T&G) lumber placed perpendicular over the roof beams enlargement of the mouth of a hole with enough
as shown in Figure 8.45(a), or perpendicular to perlins as depth to hide the bolt head or washer and nut below
shown in Figure 8.45(b). T&G wood decking is selected for the surface. A spotface is a flat-bottomed cylindrical
appearance, structural requirements where it is designed enlargement of the mouth of a hole with slight depth to
to span between roof beams or perlins, and wood species insert a washer or shear plate below the surface. A shear
such as cedar, pine, fir or hemlock. Standard 2 × 6 V-joint plate is a special round plate inserted in the face of a
T&G decking is shown in Figure 8.46(a) on p. 316, and 3 × 6 timber to improve shear resistance in the wood-to-wood
or 4 × 6 V-joint T&G decking is shown in Figure 8.46(b). joint. Figure 8.48 (on p. 318) shows basic options for
connecting ridge beams to posts using steel fasteners.
Figure 8.48(a) shows a steel angle bracket bolted on
POWERPOINT each side of a roof beam connecting to the header and
the same used to connect the post to the header below.
Create one PowerPoint slide showing a common
Figure 8.48(b) shows a steel strap used to connect
method and terminology used to build a timber-
between a post, header and roof beam to secure the
frame roof truss.
structure and protect against uplift in windy conditions.

A variety of steel fabrication systems can be used in

LIGHT STEEL ROOF FRAMING
timber-frame construction. Prefabricated products are
APPLICATIONS
available for use in nearly every application, but custom
steel fastening systems are often used and painted The methods and terminology used in light steel roof
black to match an old-world appearance. Figure 8.47(a), framing is similar to wood framing practices that you have
on p. 316 shows the use of a steel strap connecting learned throughout this chapter. The most common light
over the top of roof beams and a steel plate connecting steel roof framing member is the structural C-shape shown
to each side of the roof beams above the ridge beam. in Figure 8.49 (on p. 317). There is a wide range of available
Figure 8.47(b) shows roof beams connected above a sizes and thicknesses available for structural steel framing
ridge beam by drilling a through hole with a counterbore applications for any roof system. Standard structural steel

308
 Roof framing materials and construction

Figure 8.37  A typical home construction roof truss and related terminology.

C-shape is available with web sizes ranging from 2-1/2 for uplift protection against wind conditions. A C-shape
to 14 inches. Return depths are 3/8, 1/2, 5/8, and 1 inch. blocking is provided between the rafters at the eave, and
Flanges are available in 1- 3/8 to 3-inch sizes. Heavy duty the overhang and rafter ends can be treated as desired.
steel framing members are also available that provide The ridge is framed with a C-shape inserted into a track
added material thickness and dimensions for specific member, where the flanges on the track are screwed to the
structural engineering applications. C-shape flanges. The rafters intersect the ridge beam and
Light steel framing uses the C-shape rafters and ceiling are fastened to the ridge beam with a clip angle as shown in
joists as shown in the Figure 8.50 (on p. 317) eave detail Figure 8.51(a), on p. 318. A C-shape collar tie can be used to
where the rafter and ceiling joist meet at the top track. The strengthen the structure and keep the rafters from spreading
rafter and joist web faces are fastened together above the apart. Another ridge connection option has the rafters
top track, and a clip angle is fastened between the rafter overlap at the ridge where they meet. The lower flange is
and joist, securing the roof system to the wall top track cut away on one of the rafters to allow the C-shape web

309
Roof framing materials and construction

Figure 8.38  Basic roof trusses.

faces to meet where they are screwed together as shown in

Figure 8.51(b). A C-shape collar tie is used to strengthen the POWERPOINT
structure and keep the rafters from spreading apart.
Create one PowerPoint slide showing steel
construction where a ridge is framed with a C-shape
POWERPOINT inserted into a track member, the flanges on the track
are screwed to the C-shape flanges, and the rafters
Create one PowerPoint slide showing a common
intersect the ridge beam and are fastened to the
method used for steel framing where a rafter and
ridge beam with a clip angle.
ceiling joist meet at the top track.

310
Figure 8.39  Trusses are delivered on a truck with a crane that lifts trusses onto the top plates individually or in
groups.

Figure 8.40  After all trusses are placed by the crane, the framer sets each truss in place and supports the trusses
with continuous lateral bracing. Courtesy U.S. Air Force/Staff Sgt. Sarah Hanson.
Figure 8.41  The truss manufacturer delivers the complete truss system as a kit that includes everything needed
for the entire roof framing system.

Figure 8.42  A framer finishing the roof truss system for a home.
 (a)

(b)
Figure 8.43  Classic timber-frame structures are fabricated using wood joints such as mortise and tenon.
(a) When this is done, roof construction members are joined together with the precision used in furniture
construction. (b) Structures are often self-supporting.
Roof framing materials and construction

Figure 8.44  A common method and terminology used to build a timber-frame roof truss.

Light steel roof trusses ROOFING MATERIALS AND

INSTALLATION
Light steel roof trusses are available for home construction
and can be designed and manufactured for any roof style You can dry-in the home after the roof is framed and
or complexity. Steel trusses are lightweight and easy to the roof sheathing is installed. Be sure to confirm
handle, as shown in Figure 8.52 (on p. 319). Figure 8.53 (on with your local code enforcement to determine if any
p. 319) shows the installation of cold-formed metal trusses inspections are required before you dry-in. Dry-in is a
installed using a rafting technique. Rafting is a system term used to describe placing a roofing underlayment
where trusses are erected, braced, and sheathed on the that is a weatherproof layer of material over the roof
ground, then an entire section of truss framing is hoisted in sheathing in an effort to keep the home dry before
place. The main benefit of this type of installation is safety, the final roofing material is installed. Historically, the
where a majority of the work is done on the ground rather material used to dry-in the home is a layer of overlapping
than on the upper level of the building. The installation roofing felt that is the sub-layer for most standard
shown in Figure 8.53 is a commercial construction project, home roofing materials. The home can also be dried-in
but this procedure can be used in residential construction. using the complete final roofing material. Roofing felt,
also commonly called tar paper, is a heavy-duty material
made in rolls by impregnating paper with tar to make
NOTE a waterproof underlayment for roofing material. Typical
roofing felt is being replaced by alternate products such
Construction options presented throughout this
as rubberized asphalt, fiberglass, synthetic, and organic
chapter are based on typical applications that are
materials. Some products have an anti-slip surface to help
used in the home construction industry. The actual
keep roofers from sliding on the material. A roofer, or
practices used to build a home are found on the plans
roofing contractor, is the person who installs the roofing
and specifications where construction members are
material. Modern roofing underlayment can be installed
properly sized, fastening systems are specified, and
for longer periods of time prior to final roofing than was
specific construction details are provided.
possible with traditional roofing felt. Always confirm

314
 8

Figure 8.45  Posts are used to support headers and roof beams at the eaves, and support the ends of a ridge
beam. (a) Roof decking is placed perpendicular over the roof beams. (b) Roof decking is placed perpendicular to
perlins.
Roof framing materials and construction

Figure 8.46  T&G wood decking. (a) Standard 2 × 6

V-joint T&G decking. (b) 3 × 6 or 4 × 6 V-joint T&G
decking.

installation instructions and use with manufacturer

specifications. Continued home construction phases such
as the heating, ventilating, air conditioning, plumbing, and
electrical typically require the home be dried-in before
work can start.
There is a wide selection of roofing materials available
today. Typical home roofing materials include asphalt,
wood, clay, concrete, plastic, rubber, and steel products.
Selecting a roofing material for new home construction
involves finding a product that looks good with the
architectural style, lasts a long time, is cost-effective,
and meets fireproof construction material codes where
required. Figure 8.47  Options for connecting roof beams at
ridge. (a) A steel strap connecting over the top of roof
Wood roofing beams and a steel plate connecting to each side of the
Wood was historically used as a fairly inexpensive roofing roof beams above the ridge beam. (b) Roof beams
material, because of an abundance of trees and a desire connected above a ridge beam using a bolt, washer,
of homeowners to have a natural wood roof as shown in nut, and shear plate.
Figure 8.54 (on p. 320). This is not true today, because of
limited availability of quality trees, the high cost of wood
roofing material, and wood roofing as a fire hazard. The natural architecture such as on a mountain home where
two types of wood roofing material are wood shingles a rustic appearance is preferred. The types of wood
and wood shakes. Wood shingles are sawn from a slab typically used to make shingles and shakes are western
of wood called a bolt. Each shingle has a taper, making red cedar, Alaskan yellow cedar, and eastern white cedar.
one end thicker than the other. Wood shakes are split Wood roofing weathers over time, making the natural
from bolts of wood, making them rougher and less wood color turn gray. The wood can be preserved and the
uniform than wood shingles. A bolt is a straight-grained, color can be restored by washing and oiling with a natural
knot-free section of log pre-cut to the desired length wood-finish product.
of the shingle or shake. Wood shingles are commonly Wood roofing requires air circulation to maintain the
used on architecture where a smooth and refined wood intended life of the material. Air circulation is achieved
appearance is desired. Wood shakes are typically used on by laying the wood roofing on space sheathing. Space

316
 Roof framing materials and construction

Roof beam

Header

Steel angle
bracket
each side

Post

(a)
Figure 8.50  Eave detail where the rafter and ceiling
joist meet at the top track.
Roof beam

sheathing is wood boards such as 1 × 4 or 1 × 6 spaced

Header
a few inches apart to provide air circulation behind the
roofing. In the past, space sheathing was nailed directly
to the roof rafters, but this practice is not as common
today due to the use of plywood or OSB sheathing for
structural requirements. Other products are used today to
maintain structural requirements and provided the needed

8
Steel strap
air circulation. Wood roofing shingles or shakes are placed
in rows with full pieces overlapping staggered joints as
Post shown in Figure 8.55 (on p. 320) using space sheathing
over a fiberglass underlayment that is installed over
plywood roof sheathing.
(b)

Figure 8.48  Basic options for connecting ridge beams Composition roofing
to posts. (a) A steel angle bracket bolted on each side
Composition roofing is also called composite roofing,
of a roof beam connecting to the header and the same
comp roofing, and asphalt roofing. Composition roofing
used to connect the post to the header below. (b) A 
is the most widely used roofing material for home
steel strap used to connect between a post, header,
construction. Composition roofing is a durable long-
and roof beam.
lasting roofing product made from a variety of materials
such as asphalt, fiberglass, and natural materials
depending on the manufacturer. The surface can have
ceramic crystals embedded to provide texture and relief.
There are various grades of composition roofing starting
with the traditional three-tab roofing that is commonly
used on less expensive homes, and architectural roofing
used on more expensive homes. Three-tab roofing is the
most popular type of asphalt shingle, usually 12 × 36
inches with three profile sections along the bottom
of the shingle called tabs. Architectural roofing, also
called three-dimensional roofing, looks similar to the
appearance of real wood, slate, or tile shingles as shown
Figure 8.49  Structural C-shape steel framing member. in Figure 8.56 (on p. 321).

317
Figure 8.51  Steel ridge framing. (a) Steel ridge is framed with a C-shape inserted into a track member, and the
rafters are fastened to the ridge beam with a clip angle. (b) C-shape rafters overlap at the ridge. The lower flange
is cut away on one of the rafters to allow C-shaped web faces to meet where they are screwed together. C-shape
collar ties or joists tie the structure together.
Figure 8.52  Steel trusses being installed on a project. Courtesy TrusSteel.

Figure 8.53  Steel truss installation using a rafting technique, by which the trusses are erected, braced and
sheathed on the ground then an entire section of truss framing is hoisted in place. Project: Westminster School
Academic Center, Simsbury, Connecticut. TrusSteel Fabricator: Reliable Truss, New Bedford, MA. Courtesy TrusSteel.
Figure 8.54  Wood shingles used as a roofing material. Confirm that wood roofing materials and installation
meets manufacturer specifications and code requirements. Check with local code officials to confirm materials,
structural engineering, and construction practices, before installation.

Figure 8.55  Wood roofing shingles or shakes are placed in rows with full pieces overlapping staggered joints.
(a) Wood shingle installation. (b) Wood shake installation. Alternate installation practices can be used. Confirm
installation with plans, specifications, manufacturer instructions, and local building codes.
 Roof framing materials and construction

Figure 8.56  Architectural roofing, also called three-dimensional roofing, imitates the appearance of real cedar
wood, slate, or tile shingles.
8
Figure 8.57 shows a typical composition shingle roofing of the roofing from leaks and provides a double layer for
installation. Composition roofing is installed over a layer extra strength at the bottom. The first course of roofing
of roofing underlayment. The roofing underlayment used material is placed over the starter course with the bottom
in Figure 8.57 is rolls of material that start with the first edge even with the bottom edge of the starter course.
row at the bottom of the roof and then overlapping each Each consecutive course of roofing is offset from the
consecutive row by 4 inches (100 mm) over the previous first with half of a roof shingle tab over the groove in the
row. The roofing underlayment typically has parallel lines previous shingle. Each shingle is placed the same distance
printed on by the manufacturer. These lines allow you from the bottom edge of the previous shingle by using
to keep the material parallel to the bottom edge of the the shingle groove length as a guide. This overlapping and
roof and each row parallel to the previous row. The lines installation system continues as you work up the roof
continue to guide accurate roofing installation during the as shown in Figure 8.57. Confirm the installation of each
roofing process. A drip edge is nailed along the edge of roofing product with manufacturer instructions. Roofers
the sheathing at the bottom of the roof. The drip edge is typically use a roofing stapler to install composition
an L-shaped galvanized steel or aluminum flashing that shingles. Each shingle is fastened to the roof with at least
keeps water from penetrating the edge of the sheathing four equally spaced staples, with some shingles requiring
at the bottom of the roof. A starter course of roofing six staples. Confirm the correct nailing application with
is placed next along the bottom edge of the roof and local code and manufacturer requirements.
hanging over the roof edge by at least 1/2″ (12 mm).
A starter course is made by placing the top edge of a
full shingle along the entire bottom edge of the roof. You
Concrete and clay tile roofing
can also use a product purchased specifically as a starter Concrete and clay tiles are the second most commonly
course if you do not want to use shingles from your finish used roofing material, providing a beautiful and long-lasting
roofing material. The starter course seals the bottom edge appearance as shown in Figure 8.58. Concrete and clay

321
Figure 8.57  Typical composition shingle roofing installation.

Figure 8.58  Concrete and clay tiles provide a beautiful and long-lasting appearance.
 Roof framing materials and construction

roof tiles are fire, hail, and moisture resistant. Air can metal installed on the roof to support and fasten the roofing
circulate under roofing tiles, which helps improve energy tiles. Figure 8.60 shows the vertical and horizontal battens
efficiency in the home by making homes warmer in the upon which the roofing tile is being laid. Specific batten
winter and cooler in the summer. Clay tile is made by installation depends on tile manufacturer requirements
baking molded clay shapes in a kiln. Tiles can be glazed, based on tile type, roof slope, and environmental conditions
which is a coating of colored, opaque, or transparent such as rainfall, temperature, and wind. Figure 8.61 shows
material applied to the tile before firing. Tiles can also be how roofing tiles are loaded and distributed on the roof
made with a surface texture. Concrete tiles are made prior to installation. This is common practice for all roofing
using Portland cement, sand, and water that is mixed materials to equally distribute the weight on the roof. Slate
and extruded in molds under high pressure. Roofing roof tiles are usually installed with nails, or with hooks
tiles are available in many architectural styles and colors. fastened to the tiles as shown in Figure 8.62. Battens are
Tile manufacturers typically provide separate ridge, hip, also used as described with roofing tiles.
hip intersection, gable end, and finial accessory tiles of
various shapes that match the field tiles as shown in Metal roofing
Figure 8.59. Slate is another type of roofing tile. Slate is
Metal roofing is typically manufactured in sheets using
a natural occurring material composed of clay or volcanic
steel, aluminum, or copper. The most commonly used metal
ash. Most slate is mined in Spain. Slate is processed into
roofing is called standing-seam roofing. This metal roofing
roofing tile by splitting the stone into thin sheets. Slate
material is manufactured in long sheets that are installed
provides an excellent natural appearance, has low water
vertically on the roof all the way from the ridge to the eave.
absorption, and is resistant to freezing.
The standing seam terminology comes from the raised
The roof structure needs to be engineered to carry the seam between each parallel sheet where one sheet is
weight of tile roofing material. There are different methods joined to the next, creating an interlocking, watertight seam
used to install roofing tiles and manufacturer instructions as shown in Figure 8.63. Another option for metal roofing
should be followed. A tile roof is typically installed over is metal shingles. Metal shingles provide the appearance
solid plywood or OSB sheathing that is at least 5/8-inch of slate, tile, or wood with the strength and protection
thick, unless otherwise specified by structural engineering.
Roofing underlayment is placed over the sheathing. Vertical
battens are fastened to the roof over each rafter or truss
of metal as shown in Figure 8.64 (on p. 326). Steel is the
most common metal roofing material. A variety of surface
coatings or finishes are available on metal roofing, including
8
below. Equally spaced horizontal battens are fastened to galvanize, paint, and powder coating. Powder coating is
the vertical battens. Battens are strips of wood, plastic or a process where a polyester or epoxy powder is placed on

Figure 8.59  Tile manufacturers typically provide separate ridge, hip, hip intersection, gable end, and finial
accessory tiles of various shapes that match the field tiles.

323
Figure 8.60  Vertical and horizontal battens upon which the roofing tile is being laid.

Figure 8.61  Roofing tiles are loaded and distributed on the roof prior to installation. This is common practice for
all roofing materials to equally distribute the weight on the roof.
Figure 8.62  Slate roof tiles are usually installed with nails, or with hooks fastened to the tiles as shown here.

Figure 8.63  Standing seam roofing terminology comes from the raised seam between each parallel sheet where
one sheet is joined to the next, creating an interlocking and watertight seam.
Roof framing materials and construction

Figure 8.64  Metal shingles provide the appearance of slate, tile, or wood with the strength and protection of
metal.

the surface and then heated to fuse with the metal forming The standing seam of the second panel is fastened over the
a protective layer. Stainless steel roofing is an option standing seam of the first panel and then screws are used
where corrosion resistance is important, but stainless steel through the standing seam to fasten both panels to the roof.
is very expensive for use as a roofing material. Stainless Always follow manufacturer instructions provided for roofing
steel is steel containing chromium, which is used to resist installation to ensure proper leak-free installation.
tarnishing and rust. Aluminum roofing is lightweight and
is more corrosion-resistant than standard steel roofs.
Copper roofing is very expensive, but the tarnished blue- ROOF VENTS
green appearance of weathered copper is desired for some Roof vents are installed on the roof during the roofing.
architectural applications, such as an accent roof on a bay A ventilation roof vent is a screened louver installed on a
window. gable end or a small screened dome mounted near the
Standing seam metal roofing is installed over solid plywood ridge of the roof to allow the passage of air from the eave
or OSB sheathing and roofing underlayment, with a drip vents through the attic and out through the roof. Building
edge and gable flashing used as previously described. Each codes have specific roof ventilation requirements that are
roofing panel runs from the ridge to the eave and must 1 square foot of vent area per 150 square feet of attic area.
be installed square with the roof structure. The first panel The requirements change to 1 square foot of vent area per
is carefully aligned with the drip edge and gable end rake 300 square feet of attic area when ventilation is balanced
board. Flat head screws with waterproof gasket are used between the eave and ridge ventilation, or a vapor barrier is
to minimize leaks. One screw is fastened through the pan used on the warm-in-winter side of the ceiling assembly in
at the top of the panel to hold it in place while panel clips climate zones 6, 7, and 8. Search the Internet to determine
are secured. Pan is the term used to describe the flat part the location of these climate zones. Climate zones are
of the metal roofing that comes in contact with the roof. divisions of the Earth’s climates into general areas

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 Roof framing materials and construction

according to average temperatures and rainfall. The roof

vent requirements for your project should be accurately
RESEARCH
found on the plans, but you can still confirm with local
Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
building officials. A continuous ridge vent is another option
research options and topics that correlate with
if you do not want to use the traditional dome-style roof
the content of this chapter.
vents. A ridge vent is a low-profile roof venting system that
runs the entire length of the roof on the ridge, and matches
the roofing material for an attractive appearance.
TEST
Additional roof vents are installed for mechanical
equipment exhaust such as the chimney required Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
to exhaust a furnace. Figure 8.65 shows an exhaust the test for this chapter.
chimney vent installed in a roof. Plumbing vents are also
installed through the roof before the roofing material
is laid. A plumbing vent is a pipe above a waste pipe or
soil pipe that allows gas to escape from the plumbing PROBLEMS
system. Plumbing waste and soil pipes are described
Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
in Chapter 13, Mechanical, Plumbing, and Electrical
the problems for this chapter.
Systems.

Figure 8.65  An exhaust chimney vent installed on a roof.

327
 9
Insulation and barriers
Learning objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
 Describe the purpose of insulation and insulation rating systems.
 Identify types of insulation and insulation installation practices.
 Describe house wrap and vapor barrier installation practices and terminology.
 Identify soffit and overhang framing and finish practices, and terminology.
 Discuss radiant barrier installation applications.
 Describe caulking and caulking applications.
 Continue the Description of Materials form started in previous chapters as related to insulation and barrier materials
and practices.
 Create PowerPoint presentations related to insulation and barrier applications.
 Answer questions related to insulation and barrier practices.
 Continue insulation and barrier installation on the actual home team project option started in previous chapters.

INTRODUCTION properly for the best efficiency. Figure 9.1 shows locations

where insulation is typically installed in a home.
This chapter introduces you to energy-efficient construction
practices that can help decrease dependency on the home
heating and cooling system and result in energy savings.
These materials and practices are commonly used in home
POWERPOINT
building today, and involve a variety of applications working
Create one PowerPoint slide showing locations
together to build a quality insulated and airtight home.
where insulation is typically installed in a home.
The combination of practices include framing techniques,
insulation, radiant barriers, vapor barriers, and caulking.
Insulation reduces the amount of heat lost through walls,
ceilings, and floors during the winter and helps keep heat
INSULATION
from entering the home during the summer. Insulation
Insulation is material used to restrict the flow of heat, cold, is rated by its R-value, which determines its thermal
or sound, saves energy costs, and helps make the home resistance. The R-value of a material is a measure of
comfortable. A properly insulated home helps maintain thermal resistance to heat flow. Thermal resistance is the
a uniform temperature throughout the home. Properly ability of material to slow heat transfer. The higher the
installed insulation can also reduce noise. Various types R-value assigned to a material, the greater the insulating
of insulation are available, but any type must be installed ability. Insulation is critical in helping reduce heat and

329
Insulation and barriers

1A 1 1A 2C
home is located. In general, energy efficiency can be
2A increased by using more properly installed insulation,
2B
1 2D but the amount and type of insulation is found in the
3A plans and specifications for the home you are building.
1
Energy-efficient construction methods include advanced
2B
framing practices and double-wall construction described
5
in Chapter 7, Wall Framing Materials and Construction.
3
3 4D These practices allow for added insulation to help reduce
6 4A air infiltration and heat loss.
3B
4 Types of insulation
4C
4B Common insulation materials include fiberglass, rock
3C wool, wool, cellulose, urethane foam, and recycled
Earth
3C cotton. Insulation is available in the form of loose
3C
fill, blanket, rigid foam, and expanding spray foam.
Figure 9.1  Examples of locations where insulation is Regardless of the type of insulation used, insulation must
typically installed in a home. be professionally installed to completely fill all voids in
1. In unfinished attic spaces, insulate between and over the floor quality framing and used with properly installed vapor
joists to seal off living spaces below. (1A) attic access door. 2. In barriers and caulking.
finished attic rooms with or without dormer, insulate (2A) between
the studs of “knee” walls, (2B) between the studs and rafters of
Loose-fill insulation
exterior walls and roof, (2C) and ceilings with cold spaces above. Loose-fill insulation, shown in Figure 9.2, is fibers or
(2D) Extend insulation into joist space to reduce air flows. 3. All granules made from cellulose, fiberglass, rock wool,
exterior walls, including (3A) walls between living spaces and
cotton, or other materials. Loose-fill insulation is normally
unheated garages, shed roofs, or storage areas; (3B) foundation
blown into areas and cavities with special equipment.
walls above ground level; (3C) foundation walls in heated base-
ments, full wall either interior or exterior. 4. Floors above cold
A benefit of this insulation is that it conforms to and
spaces, such as vented crawl spaces and unheated garages. Also completely fills the space where it is applied. This helps
insulate (4A) any portion of the floor in a room that is cantilevered eliminate air spaces and increases efficiency. Some
beyond the exterior wall below; (4B) slab floors built directly on applications mix loose-fill fibers with a spray adhesive to
the ground; (4C) as an alternative to floor insulation, foundation cover areas before drywall is installed. This is a special
walls of unvented crawl spaces. (4D) Extend insulation into joist advantage for irregular and hard-to-reach areas. Some
space to reduce air flows. 5. Band joists. 6. Replacement or applications use a vapor barrier, a net, or a temporary
storm windows and caulk and seal around all windows and doors. frame over the studs to hold the insulation while it is
Source: Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Courtesy US Department blown into the wall cavity. The word cavity refers to the
of Energy.
blank area or void between construction members such
as studs in walls or joists in ceilings where insulation is
cooling loss, but it must be combined with proper
placed. Loose-fill insulation must be installed correctly,
construction methods, caulking, and vapor barriers.
without excess air in the cavity. Some manufacturers
How much insulation a home should have depends on guarantee that the insulation has a specific R-value
local and national codes, climate, energy costs, budget, when installed to a given thickness. Loose-fill insulation
and personal preference. The International Energy settles over a period of time, leaving an uninsulated
Conservation Code (IECC) provides minimum required area at the top of wall cavities. Settling is reduced or
insulation levels for home design and construction, avoided by installing higher-than-normal density. This
and the US Department of Energy (DOE) provides technique, called dense-pack, also reduces air
recommended insulation levels, by zip codes, for walls, leakage.
ceilings, floors, and foundations. Recommended R-values
in the ceiling range from R-30 to R-60 depending on the
Blanket insulation
type of heating to be provided and the climate zone where
the home is located. Vaulted ceilings can vary from R-22 Blanket insulation is the most common and widely used
to R-60. R-13 to R-30 insulation is recommended for use in type of insulation, and comes in the form of batts or rolls.
floors although homes built in some warm climates do not Batts are insulation strips that are 93 inches (2,350 mm)
require floor insulation. Wall insulation levels vary between long to fit in the wall space between studs of a typical
R-13 to R-21 depending on the climate zone where the 8-foot (2,400 mm) wall. Roll insulation is the same as

330
 Insulation and barriers

Figure 9.2  Loose-fill insulation is normally blown into areas and cavities with special equipment and long hoses
to reach all attic areas. © Owens Corning 2016. Used by Permission.

batts except it comes in approximately 40 feet (12,000 mm) Rigid insulation

rolls rather than strips. Blanket insulation is commonly

9
manufactured with flexible fiberglass fibers, but is also Rigid insulation is made from fibrous material or plastic
made from mineral wool, plastic fibers, cotton, and sheep foams and pressed or extruded into sheets of varying
wool. Blanket insulation is available 15 or 23 inches (380 or thickness. Figure 9.4, on p. 333 shows a worker installing
580 mm) wide to fit between standard 16 or 24 inches (400 rigid insulation on a wall. Rigid insulation provides high
or 600 mm) on center stud spacing. Figure 9.3(a) shows R-values per inch of thickness, sound insulation, some
batt insulation used in between wall framing. Figure 9.3(b) structural strength, and air sealing. Rigid foam insulation
shows batt insulation used between ceiling joist framing. is used in foundations, under siding to increase R-value,
When batt insulation is used between floor beams or floor and in tight places such as vaulted ceilings where other
joists, a mesh or string system is placed under the beams materials are too thick to be used. Foam insulation must be
or joists and a vapor barrier sheet is placed over the beams covered with finish material for fire safety. A common use
or floor joists. This is used to hold the batt insulation in is under concrete slabs and on the outside of basement
place during construction and to protect the insulation from walls. Any insulation exposed aboveground must be
moisture during and after construction is complete. The covered with protective material such as plastic, treated
thickness of the insulation determines its R-value. Batts wood, plaster, or concrete.
are available with or without vapor-retarded facings. Careful
installation of batts and blanket insulation is important Rigid fiber board insulation
to avoid gaps that reduce their effectiveness. Be sure
the insulation is tight to the framing members and is not Rigid fiber board insulation contains fiberglass or mineral
compacted. wool material primarily used for insulating ducts, and for
The inside of basement walls can be insulated with batts insulation that can withstand high temperature applications.
or blanket by building a stud-frame, or furring, next to Ducts are the pipes used to move hot or cold air in a
the concrete wall. Furring is pressure-treated 2 × 4 studs heating, air conditioning, and ventilation system. Rigid fiber
fastened to the concrete wall. The insulation is placed board insulation products come in a range of thicknesses
between the frame of the furring members. from 1 to 2-1/2 inches (25–65 mm), and provide about

331
 (a)

(b)
Figure 9.3  Batt insulation is strips, blankets and roll insulation made of fiberglass or cotton fibers. (a) Batt
insulation used in between studs in wall framing. (b) Batt insulation used between ceiling joist framing.
 Insulation and barriers

filled with concrete and reinforcing steel. These foundations

provide structural qualities and excellent insulation.

Foam-in-place insulation
Foam-in-place, also referred to as spray-in foam
insulation, delivers high R-values per inch of insulation,
and provides excellent sealing against air infiltration.
These materials require special equipment to spray or
extrude into place. They are sprayed into open wall and
ceiling cavities and hard-to-access areas, where they
expand to fill the space. Foam-in-place insulation is
also used to fill small voids in framing, around door and
window frames, and at any penetration through sills
and plates to stop air infiltration at those locations. Any
excess foam is trimmed away when it hardens. Foam-in-
place insulation is used in energy-efficient construction
to get high R-values and airtight seals. Foam-in-place
insulation also provides low toxicity for a healthier
environment.

HOUSE WRAP AND VAPOR BARRIER

The use of house wrap has been described for applications
in previous chapters. House wrap is the term that
describes a variety of synthetic products that have replaced
tar paper for use as a vapor barrier. House wrap is usually
placed over the studs or over the sheathing on the exterior
side of a house. House wrap is designed to be permeable,

9
which means that it allows water vapor to pass through,
but stops rainwater or hard moisture from passing through
Figure 9.4  A worker installing rigid insulation on a the material. House wrap also reduces air movement
wall. through exterior walls, making it especially important to
use in windy locations.
R-4 insulation value per inch (25 mm) of thickness. Duct
For an energy-efficient system, air tightness is critical.
insulation is done by mechanical contractors as described
The ability to eliminate air infiltration through small cracks
in Chapter 13, Mechanical, Plumbing, and Electrical
is necessary to minimize heat loss. A vapor barrier or
Systems.
vapor diffusion retarder is a material that reduces the
Structural insulated panels (SIP) rate at which water vapor can move through a material.
Vapor barriers help prevent moisture from transferring
Structural insulated panels (SIP) were described in from the ground through the slab or from the inside and
Chapter 7, Wall Framing Materials and Construction. SIPs outside through the exterior walls, can reduce possible
are a high energy-efficient building system for residential moisture-related mold and mildew growth, and block gases
and light commercial construction that uses rigid foam that can be a health risk in the home. Vapor barriers are
insulation core between a structural plywood or OSB sheet a very effective method of decreasing heat loss. Most
on each side. building codes require 6-mil-thick plastic to be placed
over the ground in the crawl space. Many energy-efficient
Insulating concrete forms (ICF)
construction methods add a continuous vapor barrier to
Insulating concrete forms (ICF), described in Chapter 5, the walls. This added vapor barrier is designed to keep
Foundation Materials and Construction, are rigid foam moisture from the walls and insulation. Figure 9.5 shows
forms that hold concrete in place during pouring and curing. the effect of water vapor on insulated walls with and
These ICF walls use rigid foam blocks that are stacked and without a vapor barrier.

333
Insulation and barriers

Painting products can also have vapor barrier properties

that can be confirmed by checking the manufacturer
Insulation specifications. Thicker construction materials such as
rigid foam insulation are used for insulation and as vapor
Moisture in wall
barriers. These types of vapor diffusion retarders are
usually mechanically fastened to the structure and sealed
at the joints.

NOTE
Outside cool, House wraps and vapor barriers function to control
dry air
moisture and air infiltration. Some house wraps
work as vapor barriers and some vapor barriers
act as house wraps. The use of house wraps and
Inside warm, vapor barriers is important, but they must be used
moist air
correctly and in accordance with local building
No vapor barrier code requirements and manufacturer installation
instructions.

Insulation
Vapor barrier installation
No moisture in wall
Vapor barriers work best when installed close to the
exterior in hot and wet climates, such as between the
sheathing and siding. In cold climates, the vapor barrier
should be installed close to the inside, such as between
the studs and the drywall. Painting products and plaster
wall coatings containing vapor barrier properties can be
Outside cool,
used in mild climates to control water vapor movement
dry air through the material. Home construction in extreme
climates requires more extensive vapor barrier applications.
Under normal conditions, wall and ceiling insulation with
Inside warm, a foil face on the interior side allows small amounts of
moist air air to leak in at each seam and at construction members.
A continuous vapor barrier can be installed to reduce this
Vapor barrier
leakage. Vapor barrier installation should be continuous
Figure 9.5  The effect of water vapor on insulated and as close to perfect as possible. It is very important to
walls with and without a vapor barrier. completely seal tears, openings, or punctures that happen
during construction. To be effective, the vapor barrier
must be lapped and sealed to keep air from penetrating
through the seams in the material. The vapor barrier can be
POWERPOINT
installed in the ceiling, walls, and floor system for effective
Create one PowerPoint slide showing the effect of air control. Figure 9.6 shows three different vapor barrier
water vapor on insulated walls with and without a ceiling applications. Each is designed to help prevent small
vapor barrier. amounts of heated or cooled air from escaping to the attic.
All the effort required to keep the vapor barrier intact at
the seams must be continued wherever an opening in the
Vapor barriers are available as membranes or coatings. wall or ceiling is required. The cost of materials for a vapor
Membranes are generally thin, flexible materials that barrier is low compared with the overall cost of the project.
come in rolls or as parts of building materials. These vapor The expense of the vapor barrier comes in the labor to
barriers include polyethylene sheeting and aluminum- or install and to maintain the seal during construction. Great
paper-faced blanket insulation. Drywall is also available care is required by the entire construction crew to maintain
with a foil backing that acts as the vapor barrier. the barrier during construction.

334
 Insulation and barriers

NOTE
Joist

Top plate Caution should be used when building a completely

airtight home with increased insulation and vapor
barriers. This type of construction can cause
problems with the quality of air inside the building.
Sealant These potential problems can be countered with the
installation of an air-to-air exchanger. A complete
Stud discussion of air contaminants and air-to-air exchangers
is found in Chapter 14, Indoor Air Quality and Safety.

Vapor barrier
Caulk RADIANT BARRIERS
Electrical Radiant barriers stop heat from radiating through the
Plumbing attic, and help reduce attic temperatures in hot climates.
When the hot sun heats the roof, the heat is transferred
from the roof structure into the attic space and continues
Blocking to move from the warm attic to the cool living space below.
Radiant barriers work by reflecting this radiant heat away
from living spaces below. Insulation placed in the ceiling
Joist between the attic and the living space slows heat transfer,
but does not reduce heat enough in warm climates without
the addition of a radiant barrier. Radiant barriers should be
used in hot climates where they are more effective than in
cool climates. Increasing ceiling insulation without using a
Top plate
radiant barrier is more effective for increasing home energy
Sealant
efficiency in cool climates.

Vapor barrier
Radiant barrier installation
Radiant barriers have a highly reflective material applied to
9
one or both sides of insulation or other building products,
such as drywall, plywood, and OSB. A radiant barrier is
Stud
most effective if it can radiate heat away from the structure
before the heat enters the attic. This is done by placing a
Joist rolled-foil radiant barrier foil-face down over the roof rafters
Blocking
just before the roof sheathing is installed, or by stapling the
material to the bottom of the rafters after the roof sheathing
is installed. When installing the radiant barrier over the
rafters during construction, the material should hang down
at least 1 inch (25 mm) between the rafters to make an air
space between the product and the roof sheathing.

Top plate A common method for insulating and providing a radiant

barrier at the same time is by using reflective insulation.
Reflective insulation includes radiant barriers that are
Sealant typically highly reflective aluminum foil backing on one or
Vapor barrier
both sides of the insulation. A radiant barrier should not
be installed on top of attic insulation, because efficiency
can be reduced by dust accumulation, and condensation
moisture can be trapped in the insulation.
Stud
Radiation-control roof coatings are also available to reduce
Figure 9.6  Ceiling vapor barrier applications. roof temperature in hot climates.

335
Insulation and barriers

CAULKING with variable speed to adjust the discharge rate to control

the bead of caulk for high-volume professional projects.
Insulation in walls, ceilings, and floors reduces heat lost
Expanding foam insulation is a spray-applied insulating
during the winter and helps keep heat from entering
foam in a pressurized container that is installed from a
the home during the summer. Insulation alone does not
nozzle as a liquid and then expands many times its original
stop air infiltration due to leaks through the structural
size until it hardens in its final form upon contact with the
system. Air leakage happens when outside air enters
air. Expanding foam insulation is used as a highly effective
and conditioned air leaves your home uncontrollably
insulation when applied between framing members
through cracks, gaps, and openings. Air leakage can
during construction as shown in Figure 9.8(a). Expanding
also cause moisture problems that can deteriorate the
foam insulation is often used as a fast and effective way
structure and affect occupant health. The most noticeable
to seal and add insulation value in framing gaps, around
benefit of sealing cracks is improving comfort in the home
door and window frames, and holes or other penetrations
by eliminating drafts and creating a uniformly heated or
through framing members, especially sills and top plates.
cooled environment. Professional caulking products and
applications are used to stop air infiltration. Caulking is a Figure 9.8(b) shows a typical expanding foam insulation
waterproof product used to reduce air infiltration by filling application for filling minor cracks and holes in construction.
gaps, openings, seams, cracks, and voids to make the Professional spray applications are also available for filling
structure air- and watertight. Caulking is typically purchased entire wall or ceiling cavities for complete sealing and
in tubes that are used in a manual caulking gun to extract effective thermal and sound insulation.
the product in a bead at the desired location as shown in Figure 9.9 shows the areas of the home most likely to have
Figure 9.7. Cordless electric caulking guns are also available air leakage where caulking should be applied.

Figure 9.7  Caulking is typically purchased in tubes that are used in a manual caulking gun to extract the product
in a bead at the desired location.

336
 9
(a)

(b)
Figure 9.8  (a) Expanding foam insulation applied between framing members during construction. (b) A typical
expanding foam insulation application for filling cracks and holes in construction.
Figure 9.9  The areas of the home most likely to have air leakage where caulking should be applied. Courtesy Department of Energy.
 Insulation and barriers

POWERPOINT TEST

Create one PowerPoint slide showing the areas of Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access

the home most likely to have air leakage where the test for this chapter.
caulking should be applied.

PROBLEMS
RESEARCH
Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
the problems for this chapter.
research options and topics that correlate with
the content of this chapter.

339
 CHAPTER 10
Door and window
specifications and installation
Learning objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
 Read door and window symbols and specifications on floor plans.
 Identify and describe types of doors and windows.
 Read information in door and window schedules and correlate with floor plan symbols.
 Describe skylights, sloped glazing, and tubular daylighting devices.
 Explain the characteristics, terminology, and ratings for insulated windows.
 Identify and describe the items found on the National Fenestration Rating Council (NFRC) label.
 Describe and discuss the characteristics, terminology, and installation practices for pre-hung doors.
 Properly specify door swing.
 Describe and discuss the characteristics, terminology, and installation practices for pocket doors.
 Explain the proper window installation practices.
 Describe skylight terminology, framing, and installation practices.
 Continue the Description of Materials form started in previous chapters as related to door and window
specifications and practices.
 Create PowerPoint presentations related to door and window applications.
 Answer questions related to doors and windows.
 Continue door and window framing on the scale model team project option started in previous chapters.
 Continue door and window framing and installation on the actual home team project option started in previous
chapters.

INTRODUCTION
products used in low-end homes and very expensive
This chapter introduces you to door and window options used in high-end home construction. Architectural
applications and terminology used in home construction. style can also play an important role in the selection of
You will discover that doors and windows have an doors and windows for a home. For example, the home
important impact on energy-efficient construction practices in Figure 10.1 has a dramatic front door made of wood
commonly used in home building today. The selection of and with a wood frame and surrounding windows. The
doors and windows for a new home is largely a factor of windows in the home are designed to match the entry
economics, with influence on architectural style. Door door and enhance the architectural style. You will discover
and window costs can vary dramatically, with inexpensive many types of doors and windows that can be used in

341
Door and window specifications

Figure 10.1  The influence of architectural style and economics on the selection of doors and windows installed
in a home.

home design and construction, along with characteristics described on plans by the symbol used to represent the
that affect door and window selection. Symbols are door, by size specifications, and by features found in
used on floor plans to describe items that are associated schedules. The following information describes each door
with living in the home, such as doors and windows. type with a floor plan symbol, pictorial representation, and
These symbols along with values and descriptions on description.
plans and in schedules and specifications provide you
with the exact information needed for each door and
Exterior doors
window. A schedule is a grouping of related items with
corresponding distinguishing features, dimensions, and An exterior door is any door in an exterior wall or in a wall
related information. A schedule formats information into between the home and garage. Entry doors are usually
rows and columns in order to more easily present design 1-3/4-inch thick solid wood or metal with insulation inside.
information. Schedules are used to describe items such as Exterior doors are drawn on the floor plan with the sill
doors, windows, appliances, materials, fixtures, hardware, shown on the outside of the home. A sill is the framing
and finishes. Schedules help keep drawings clear of member that forms the bottom edge of an exterior door or
unnecessary notes and identify specific features all in one window opening. The sill is commonly shown on the floor
place on the drawings. Schedule examples are provided plan projected out from the outside wall line, although it
later in this chapter. can be drawn flush with the outside wall line depending
on individual company standards as shown in Figure 10.2.
The main entry door is usually 3′-0″ (915 mm) wide. An
DOOR TYPES AND STYLES
exterior door from a garage or utility room into the house
Door types and styles are influenced by their use and if is usually 2′-8″ (813 mm) wide, although 3′-0″ is a good
they are for interior or exterior applications. Doors are width if space permits. Exterior doors are typically solid

342
 Door and window specifications

Doors are typically 6′-8″ (2,032 mm) high, although 8′-0″

(2,438 mm) doors are available.

Entry doors
An entry door is an entrance that allows access to the
home from the front, back, or other location through
an exterior wall. A single front entry door is shown in
Figure 10.2. The front entry door is normally located
prominently in the front of the home, often in or near the
center of the home and generally selected as a focal point
for entry to the home.
Double-entry doors are common where a large formal
foyer design requires a more elaborate entry than can be
achieved by one door as shown in Figure 10.1. A foyer is an
entrance hall or other open area in a home used for people
to gather generally after entering.

FRENCH DOORS
The term French doors normally refers to double exterior
or interior doors that have glass panels and swing into a
room as shown in Figure 10.3. French doors are used when
a traditional door design is required. The floor plan symbol
for double-entry and French doors is the same; therefore,
the door schedule should clearly identify the type of doors
to be installed. French doors can be purchased with wood
mullions and muntins between the glass panes or with
one large glass pane and a removable decorative grille for
easy cleaning. The French doors in Figure 10.3 have mullions
and muntins. Mullions are horizontal or vertical dividers
between sections of a window. Muntins are horizontal or
vertical dividers within a section of a window. French doors
range in width from 2′-4″ through 3′-6″ in 2-inch increments.

10
Doors can be used individually, in pairs, or in groups of
threes or fours. The three- and four-panel doors typically
have one or more fixed panels, which should be specified.

GLASS SLIDING DOORS

Glass sliding doors have two or more glass panels that
slide horizontally on a track, where one panel slides next
to another panel to open. Glass sliding doors are made
with wood, metal, or vinyl frames and tempered glass
Figure 10.2  Entry door floor plan symbols and for safety. Tempered glass is a safety glass that is four to
photograph. The sill is always represented on the five times stronger than standard glass and shatters into
exterior for doors when used. small oval-shaped pebbles when broken. Glass sliding
doors are associated with contemporary design and do not
wood or hollow insulated metal. Doors can be smooth, take up as much floor space as French doors. Figure 10.4
slab, can have decorative panels on the surface or in their shows the floor plan symbols for representing a flush and
construction, and can contain one or more lites. A lite, a projected exterior sill. These doors are used to provide
also called light, is a framed opening in a door, sidelight, glass areas and are excellent for access to a patio or deck.
or transom containing a pane of glass. A transom is a Glass sliding doors typically range in width from 5′-0″
horizontal crosspiece over a door or between a door and (1,500 mm) through 12′-0″ (3,600 mm) at 12″ (300 mm)
a window above the door, or a normally small horizontal intervals. Common sizes are 6′-0″ and 8′-0″ (1,800–
operable window above a door or another window. 2,400 mm).

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Door and window specifications

Figure 10.3  French doors normally refers to double exterior or interior doors that have glass panels and swing
into a room. The floor plan symbol for double-entry and French doors is the same.

NOTE wheelchair access. This is a clear, unobstructed

dimension measured to the edge of the door at 90
Metric door sizes vary from 600 mm to 1,000 mm degrees, if the door does not open 180 degrees.
depending on use and location. Standard metric Larger size doors are normally used in more
door sizes for all large openings such as sliding expensive homes with wide halls, and smaller size
glass or double French doors vary from 1,500 mm doors are usually used in homes where space is
to 3,600 mm. limited. Interior doors can have a flush surface or
The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) specifies have raised panels or glass panels depending on the
a minimum opening 36 inches (915 mm) wide for desired architectural design.

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 Door and window specifications

Figure 10.5  Interior door floor plan symbol and

photograph.
Figure 10.4  The glass sliding door floor plan symbols
representing a flush and a projected exterior sill. These
doors are used to provide glass areas and are excellent
for access to a patio or deck. or there is interference with plumbing or electrical wiring.
Pocket doors should follow the same size guidelines as
interior swinging doors. Pocket doors are more expensive
to purchase and install than standard interior doors,
Interior doors
because the pocket door has a frame kit that must be
An interior door is any door on the inside of the home installed while the home is being framed. The additional
used to enter rooms, closets, or other areas. The interior cost is often worth the results, when design factors require
door symbol, in Figure 10.5, is shown on the floor plan a pocket door.
without a sill. Interior doors should swing against a wall
into the room being entered. Interior doors are typically Bi-pass doors
placed a minimum of 3 inches (80 mm) from a corner,
or a maximum of 24 inches (600 mm) from the corner,
allowing for furniture placement behind the door, if desired.
Bi-pass doors, also called sliding doors, are two or
more door panels that slide horizontally past each other
for access to a closet or other opening. A common
10
Increasing the 3-inch minimum from a corner is important economical closet or wardrobe uses the bi-pass doors
when using wide casing, which is common in a custom shown in Figure 10.7. Bi-pass doors normally range in
home. Casing is the trim around doors and windows. width from 4′-0″ (1,200 mm) through 12′-0″ (3,660 mm)
Common minimum interior door sizes are: in 12″ (300 mm) intervals. Pairs of doors are usually
 Utility rooms: 2′-8″. adequate for widths up to 8 feet (2,400 mm). Three panels
 Bedrooms, dens, family rooms, and dining rooms: 2′-6″ are usually provided for doors between 8 and 10 feet
to 2′-8″. wide, and four panels are normal for doors wider than
 Bathrooms: 2′-4″ to 2′-6″. 10 feet.
 Closets: 2′-4″ to 2′-0″.
Bi-fold doors
Pocket doors
A bi-fold door has a hinge that holds two panels together
Pocket doors are commonly used when a door swing is so that one can swing relative to the other and provide a
not desired, or space for a door swing is limited, as in a 100% opening in the doorway. The floor plan symbol and
small room. Figure 10.6 shows a pocket door floor plan example of a bi-fold door is shown in Figure 10.8. Bi-fold
symbol and sample door. A pocket door slides horizontally wardrobe or closet doors are used when complete access
into a frame that is enclosed in the wall. Pocket doors to the closet is required. Sometimes bi-fold doors are used
should not be placed where the pocket is in an exterior wall on a utility closet that houses a washer and dryer or other

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Door and window specifications

Figure 10.7  Bi-pass doors, also called sliding

doors, are two or more door panels that slide
horizontally past each other for access to a closet or
other opening.
Figure 10.6  A pocket door floor plan symbol and a pocket
door photograph. Photo courtesy Madsen Designs Inc.

utilities. Bi-fold wardrobe doors often range in width from for entering and leaving a room, and the top portion of the
4′-0″ through 9′-0″ in 6-inch intervals. Dutch door can be opened and used as a pass-through.
A double-acting door swings open when pushed or pulled
INTERIOR FRENCH DOORS from either side, and then swings closed by itself. The
French doors were introduced earlier as exterior double double-acting door requires special hinges and closing
doors used when a traditional door design is required. mechanisms to provide the swing in both directions
French doors can also be used inside the home to provide and the self-closing. Figure 10.9(a), on p. 348 shows the
double swing doors with glass entering into a special area double-acting door floor plan symbol.
or room, such as a den or office. Dutch doors are used when it is desirable to have a door that
can be half open and half closed. The Dutch door floor plan
DOUBLE-ACTING DOORS AND DUTCH DOORS symbol and example is shown in Figure 10.9(b), on p. 348.
Double-acting doors and Dutch doors provide special Dutch doors range in width from 2′-6″ through 3′-6″ in 2-inch
access, where the double-acting door swings both ways increments.

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 Door and window specifications

ACCORDION DOORS
An accordion door is an interior door that folds back in
small sections to open. Accordion doors can be used
at closets or wardrobes, or they are often used as
room dividers where an operable partition is needed.
Figure 10.10 shows the floor plan symbol and an example
of an accordion door. Accordion doors range in width from
4′-0″ through 12′-0″ in 12-inch increments. Commercial
doors are available for larger openings.

OVERHEAD GARAGE DOORS

An overhead garage door is generally a series of
horizontal panels hinged together that fold up vertically
on side rails that continue overhead upon which the door
panels ride to open. The floor plan symbol for an overhead
garage door is shown in Figure 10.11. The dashed lines
on the floor plan symbol show the size and extent of
the garage door when open. The garage door header is
normally shown as a hidden line, and the size is labeled
with a note. A header is a horizontal structural member that
supports the ends of joists or rafters and the load over an
opening.
Garage doors range in width from 8′-0″ through 18′-0″.
An 8′-0″ door is a common width for a small single car.
A size of 9′-0″ or 10′-0″ is common for a single door and
accommodates a pickup truck or large van. A door 16′-0″ is
a common double-car width. Doors are typically 7′-0″ high,
although doors 8′-0″ or 10′-0″ high are available for campers
or recreational vehicles. Standard metric sizes vary from
2,400 mm to 5,400 mm.

WINDOWS
A window is a fixed or operable framework enclosing a
pane of glass or more than one pane of glass separated
by mullions and muntons. A window is typically framed in
10
a wall or roof and allows light and air into the area or room
where the window is mounted in the home. A window can
also be used as a way to egress the room when there is
no other escape to the outside. This is a code requirement
for windows in bedrooms, for example. A pane is a single
sheet of glass in a window or door. The word egress is
used in building codes, meaning to exit a room or other
location. Modern windows are made with insulated
glazing (IG), also called double-pane or double glazing
when two panes of glass are used, or triple-pane or triple
glazing when three panes of glass are used. Double or
triple pane windows have the glass separated by an air or
other gas filled space to reduce heat transfer through the
Figure 10.8  A bi-fold door has a hinge that holds window. An example of double and triple pane windows is
two panels together so that one can swing relative to shown in Figure 10.12.
the other and provide a 100% opening in the doorway. Insulated glass units (IGUs) are manufactured with glass in
Photo courtesy Madsen Designs Inc. range of thickness from 1/8 to 3/8 inch (3 mm to 10 mm) or

347
 (a)

(b)
Figure 10.9  (a) A double-acting door swings open when pushed or pulled from either side, and then swings closed
by itself. (b) Dutch doors are used when it is desirable to have a door that can be half open and half closed.
 Door and window specifications

Figure 10.10  An accordion door is an interior door

that folds back in small sections to open.
(a)

(b)
10
Figure 10.12  Modern windows are made with
insulated glazing (IG). (a) An example of a double
pane window. (b) An example of a triple pane window.

more in special applications. Laminated or tempered glass

can also be used as part of the construction. Most units
are manufactured with the same thickness of glass used
on both panes but special applications such as acoustic
Figure 10.11  An overhead garage door is generally attenuation or security may require wide ranges of
a series of horizontal panels hinged together that fold thicknesses to be incorporated in the same unit.
up vertically on side rails that continue overhead upon
which the door panels ride to open. The dashed lines
WINDOW TYPES AND STYLES
on the floor plan symbol show the size and extent of
the garage door when open. The garage door header is Windows are available in a variety of types and styles
shown as a hidden line, and the size is labeled with a with fixed glass that is not operable, or with one of
note. several different opening and closing mechanisms.

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Door and window specifications

Figure 10.13  A variety of window types and styles, Figure 10.14  Wood-frame windows can be aluminum
with almost any window design available from or vinyl clad on the outside for weather protection and
manufacturers, including an arch top. wood exposed on the inside for desired finishes or
painting.

Figure 10.13 shows a variety of window types and

styles, with almost any window design available from
manufacturers, including an arch top. Operable windows
usually have a screen over the opening part to keep
insects, birds, and some pollutants out of the home
when the window is open. Windows are often designed
to match the home architecture where contemporary
windows look much different from traditional windows.
Windows are also selected to function best in their Figure 10.15  Window floor plan symbols are
environment, where certain types of windows are better displayed with a sill on the outside and inside, and can
for cold wet climates than other windows. Window have exterior sills projected or flush. The glass pane can
frames are typically made from aluminum, vinyl, or wood. be shown with single or double lines.
Wood-frame windows can be aluminum or vinyl clad on
the outside for weather protection and wood exposed
on the inside for desired finishes or painting as shown in in custom homes or in special rooms with higher than
Figure 10.14. normal ceilings.
Window floor plan symbols are drawn with a sill on the The location of a window in the home and the way
outside and inside as shown in Figure 10.15. Windows the window opens has an effect on the window size.
can be drawn with exterior sills projected or flush, and A window between 6′-0″ and 12′-0″ wide is common for
the glass pane can be drawn with single or double lines. a living, dining, or family room. To let the occupants take
The method used is typically consistent throughout the advantage of a view while sitting, windows in these rooms
set of plans and is determined by the preference of are normally between 4′-0″ and 5′-0″ high.
the specific architectural office. Many offices draw all Windows in bedrooms are typically 3′-0″ to 6′-0″ wide. The
windows with a projected sill and one line to represent height often ranges from 3′-6″ to 4′-0″. The type of window
the glass, with the window type, size, and other used in the bedroom is important because of emergency
specifications given in a window schedule. egress requirements in most codes, which typically states
Windows are typically manufactured in widths ranging that a bedroom window sill can be no higher than 44
from 1′-0″ through 12′-0″ at intervals of about 6 inches, inches from the floor.
depending on the manufacturer and style. Vinyl- and Kitchen windows are often between 3′-0″ and 5′-0″ wide
aluminum-frame windows generally fall within the range of and between 3′-0″ and 3′-6″ tall. Wide windows are nice
these nominal sizes, but sizes of wood-frame windows are to have in a kitchen for the added light they provide, but
often different and should be confirmed with manufacturer the number of upper cabinets is reduced to accommodate
specifications. Metric window sizes also vary and should a wider window. If the tops of windows are at the normal
be confirmed. The top of windows is typically 6′-8″ high 6′-8″ height, windows deeper than 3′-6″ can interfere with
from the floor in standard homes, but can be higher the countertops.

350
 Door and window specifications

Bathroom windows often range between 2′-0″ and 3′-0″

wide, with an equal height. A wider window with less
height is often specified if the window is to be located in a
shower area. Most bathroom windows have opaque glass.
Opaque glass is made translucent, which is not clear,
instead of transparent, which is clear.

Sliding windows
The sliding window, in Figure 10.16, is a popular
50 percent operable window when there are two sashes
in the window. Sliding windows commonly have two side-
by-side sashes where one sash slides horizontally past
the other. Large sliding windows can have three sashes,
with the center sash fixed between two smaller side
sashes that each open by sliding horizontally. The term
sash, plural sashes, is a framework that holds the panes
of a window in the window frame. Sliding windows are
typically aluminum or vinyl framed, but wood frames are
available.

Casement windows
Casement windows can be 100 percent operable and
are best used where extreme weather conditions require
a tight seal when the window is closed, although these
windows are in common use everywhere. Casement
windows open from the outside vertical edge, generally
using a crank mechanism. A variety of casement Figure 10.17  Casement windows can have two or
more connected sashes with any combination fixed or
operable. The casement window shown here has two
operable sashes.

window combinations are available. Single casement

windows have one sash that opens outward. Casement
windows can have two or more connected sashes
10
with any combination fixed or operable. The casement
window shown in Figure 10.17 has two operable sashes.
Casement windows can be more expensive than sliding
units.

Double-hung windows
The traditional double-hung window has two sashes
with one above the other. Both sashes open to any
desired extent by sliding vertically. Double-hung windows
allow for natural ventilation control, you can let the
warm air in that rises to the ceiling by lowering the top
sash, or raise the bottom sash to let cool air flow inside.
Figure 10.18 shows two options for double-hung window
floor plan symbols. A double-hung window operates by
Figure 10.16  The sliding window is a popular means of two sashes that slide vertically past each other.
50 percent operable window when there are two Double-hung wood-frame windows are designed for
sashes in the window. energy efficiency and are commonly used in traditional

351
Door and window specifications

(a) (b)

Figure 10.19  (a) An awning window has a hinge at the

top and single-sash that tilts outward and up. (b) Hopper
windows hinge at the bottom and swing inward.

providing additional ventilation in vaulted rooms. These

Figure 10.18  The traditional double-hung window awning windows are opened with a long pole connected to
has two sashes with one above the other. Both sashes the opening device. Hopper windows are shown on the
open to any desired extent by sliding vertically. floor plan in the same manner as awning windows. Hopper
windows hinge at the bottom and swing inward as shown
in Figure 10.19(b).
architectural designs. Double-hung windows are typically
higher than they are wide. A double-hung window usually Jalousie windows
ranges in width from 1′-6″ through 4′-0″. It is common to Jalousie windows are used when a louvered effect is
have double-hung windows grouped together in pairs of desired as shown in Figure 10.20. A Jalousie window
two or more. A single-hung window is drawn using the has overlapping narrow glass, metal, plastic, or wooden
same symbol as a double-hung window. The difference louvers, operated with a crank handle for adjusting the
in type is described in the window schedule. A single- louver angle outward. Jalousie windows are commonly
hung window has two sashes of glass, with the top sash used in warm climates where energy efficiency is not
stationary and the bottom sash movable. critical, and where it is important to adjust the louvers to
provide the amount and direction of air flow.
Awning windows
Fixed windows
Awning windows are often used in basements or below
a fixed window to provide ventilation. An awning window Fixed windows are popular when a large, unobstructed
has a hinge at the top and a single sash that tilts outward area of glass is required to take advantage of a view or
and up as shown in Figure 10.19(a). Awning windows are to allow for solar heat gain. A fixed window has a single
also commonly used between two different roof levels, non-operable glass pane, or a group of large windows

352
 Door and window specifications

The depth of the bay is often between 18″ and 36″

(450–900 mm). The total width of a bay is limited by the
size of the center window, which is typically either a
fixed panel, double-hung, or casement window. Large
bays can have more than one window at the center and
sides. Bays can be either pre-manufactured or built at
the job site. Bay windows are designed for a specific
size and location. The bay window structure commonly
extends from floor to ceiling. The roof of the house can
be extended down to cover the bay if adequate ceiling
height is available. The bay commonly has its own roof
structure, which often adds to the quality of the exterior
architectural design. The bay window structure can also
be framed with a bench seat if it does not extend to the
floor. The actual design and size depend on the purpose
and the available space.

Garden windows
A garden window, shown in Figure 10.24 is generally a
90-degree bay window that extends beyond the exterior,
with a glass front, sides, and roof to allow in extra natural
light. The garden window is a popular style for laundry
rooms, kitchens, and other south-facing rooms where
light is desired to grow plants inside the home. Garden
windows usually project between 12 and 18″ (300–
Figure 10.20  A Jalousie window has overlapping 450 mm) from the wall. Pre-manufactured garden windows
narrow glass, metal, plastic, or wooden louvers, are available. Depending on the manufacturer, either the
operated with a crank handle for adjusting the louver side or the top panels open. Garden windows can also be
angle outward. custom designed and constructed.

Skylights and sloped glazing

10
A skylight is a window in a roof used to allow sunlight
each separated by a vertical support as shown in to enter. Skylight framing was described in Chapter 8,
Figure 10.21. Roof Framing Materials and Construction. An individual
skylight typically used in home design and construction
Bay windows is referred to as a unit skylight. A unit skylight is a
Bay windows, also called a bay, is often used when complete factory-assembled glass- or plastic-glazed
a traditional architectural style is desired. Figure 10.22 opening consisting of not more than one panel of glass
shows the floor plan representation of a bay. A bay window or plastic installed in a sloped or horizontal orientation
is constructed by extending the exterior of a structure primarily for natural daylighting. Daylighting is the
outward with short sides at a 45- or 30-degree angle and use of various design techniques to enhance the use
a wide outer wall where each side and the outer wall of natural light in a building. A skylight is used when
generally have windows. The bay window allows more additional daylight is desirable in a room, or to let natural
light and provides more floor space than a window flush light enter an interior room through the ceiling. Skylights
with the wall line. See Figure 10.22. A bay window can be are available fixed or operable. Skylights are made of
rectangular, polygonal, or arc-shaped. An arc-shaped bay plastic in a dome shape or flat tempered glass. Tempered
window is called a bow window. A bay window is also double-pane insulated skylights are energy efficient, do
called an oriel window, when it projects from an upper not cause any distortion of view, and generally are not
story and is self-supported, as shown in Figure 10.23 or more expensive than plastic skylights. Figure 10.25 (on
supported by corbels. A corbel is a structure of stone, p. 356) shows how a skylight is represented in the floor
brick, timber, or metal projecting out from a wall to support plan. Other floor plan representations and construction
a structure above. details are used depending on the manufacturer

353
Door and window specifications

Figure 10.21  A fixed window has a single non-operable glass pane, or a group of large windows each separated
by a vertical support.

specifications. Confirm the correct representation with more energy efficient. Green energy codes recognize
the manufacturer. the benefits of providing natural daylight into the interior
The term skylight generally refers to both unit skylights spaces far outweigh the minimal thermal losses. Now,
and sloped glazing. Sloped glazing is a glass and codes require a minimum skylight area rather than
framing assembly that is sloped more than 15-degrees limiting skylights to a maximum allowable area as in
from vertical, forms the entire roof of the structure, the past. Low-e glass is described in detail later in this
and is generally a single slope construction as shown in chapter.
Figure 10.26. Skylights have been historically restricted
in the amount of roof area in which they can cover, due
Tubular daylighting devices
to the concern of thermal heat loss in cold climates and
excessive solar heat gain in hot climates. Advancement of It is important to determine accurate and adequate
low-e glass technologies has made skylights significantly lighting needs for a home. Daylighting is often a major

354
 Door and window specifications

Figure 10.22  The bay window floor plan

representation. A bay window is constructed by
extending the exterior of a structure outward with Figure 10.24  A garden window is generally a
short sides at a 45- or 30-degree angle and a wide 90-degree bay window that extends beyond the
outer wall where each side and the outer wall generally exterior, with a glass front, sides, and roof to allow in
have windows. extra natural light. Courtesy Ventana USA.

Natural light is not always readily available within every

space, especially in small rooms, corridors, and multiple-
10
story buildings.
A natural lighting option that is often selected for
its compact size, technologically advanced abilities
and flexibility is the tubular daylighting device (TDD).
Figure 10.27 (on p. 358) shows an example of a tubular
daylighting device. A standard TDD system is a transparent,
roof-mounted dome with self-flashing curb, reflective
tubing, and a ceiling-level diffuser assembly that transmits
daylight into interior spaces.
Figure 10.23  A bay window is also called an oriel
window, when it projects from an upper story and is
Insulated windows
self-supported.
Windows can be a big source of energy loss by heat
escaping from the home during the winter and allowing
consideration. Natural light in addition to or in place of extra heat to enter the home during the summer. Doors
artificial lighting is a decision made based on safety can also contribute to loss of energy efficiency in the
considerations, aesthetic preferences, environmental home. However, doors are generally more energy efficient
practices, cost efficiency, health benefits, and expense. than windows.

355
Door and window specifications

as BTUH sq. ft. / °F of surface area. BTUH is heat loss

calculated in BTUs per hour. BTU means British thermal
unit, a measure of heat. The lower the U-value, the more
the insulating value. The U-value of windows can also be
identified by window class (CL). For example, a window
with a value of U = 0.40 is CL40.

National Fenestration Rating Council

(NFRC)
The following is taken in part from the NFRC website. The
NFRC is a non-profit organization that administers the only
uniform, independent rating and labeling system for the
energy performance of windows, doors, skylights, and
attachment products. The term fenestration is any opening
in a building envelope including windows, doors, and
skylights.

NFRC LABEL
The NFRC energy performance label, shown in
Figure 10.28 can help you determine how well a product
performs the functions of helping to cool your home in
the summer, warm your home in the winter, keep out
wind, and resist condensation. By using the information
contained on the label, home designers, builders, and
consumers can reliably compare one product with another,
Figure 10.25  A skylight is a window in a roof used to and make informed decisions about the windows, doors,
allow sunlight to enter. and skylights they specify and buy.
The NFRC label lists the manufacturer, describes the
product, provides a source for additional information, and
There are a variety of ways to insulate windows. As includes ratings for one or more energy performance
described earlier, one common method is to use two or characteristics. All energy performance values on the
more panes of glass with a sealed space between as label represent the rating of windows and doors as whole
shown in Figure 10.12. This is referred to as insulating systems, which includes glazing and frame. Look at
glazing or insulated glass units as introduced earlier Figure 10.27 as you review the following information found
in this chapter. Another technique is to fill the sealed
on the NFRC label.
space with argon, which is a colorless gas that raises
the window’s insulating value. Low-emissive glass, U-factor  U-factor measures how well a product prevents
also called low-e glass, is an additional technology that heat from escaping. The rate of heat loss is indicated in
improves window energy efficiency. Low-e glass has a terms of the U-factor (U-value) of a window assembly.
transparent coating that acts as a thermal mirror, which U-factor ratings generally fall between 0.20 and 1.20. The
increases insulating value, blocks heat from the sun, insulating value is indicated by the R-value, which is the
and reduces fading of objects inside the house. Window inverse of the U-value. The lower the U-value, the greater a
frames made of wood or a combination of materials window’s resistance to heat flow and the better its insulat-
that have a thermal break installed are an advantage in ing value.
terms of energy efficiency. A thermal break system is
a longitudinal channel, longitudinal flange, or side walls Solar heat gain coefficient  Solar heat gain coeffi-
that create a hollow center in which a thermal barrier is cient (SHGC) measures how well a product blocks heat
integrally formed. caused by sunlight. The SHGC is the fraction of directly
Insulation is rated by R-value, and windows are rated by transmitted and absorbed solar radiation admitted through
U-value. R is the reciprocal of the U-value: 1 / U = R. a window and then released inward. SHGC is expressed
U-value is the coefficient of heat transfer expressed as a number between 0 and 1. The lower a window’s solar

356
 Door and window specifications

Figure 10.26  Sloped glazing is a glass and framing assembly that is sloped more than 15-degrees from the
vertical, forms the entire roof of the structure, and is generally a single slope construction. Courtesy CrystaLite, Inc.

heat gain coefficient, the less solar heat it transmits into

the house.
higher the CR rating, the better the product is at resisting
condensation formation. While this rating cannot predict
10
condensation, it can provide a credible method of compar-
Visible transmittance  Visible transmittance (VT) mea- ing the potential of various products for condensation for-
sures how much light comes through a product. The visible mation. CR is expressed as a number between 0 and 100.
transmittance is an optical property that indicates the amount
of visible light transmitted. VT is expressed as a number be-
tween 0 and 1. The higher the VT, the more light is transmitted. NOTE
Air leakage  Air leakage (AL) is indicated by an air Fenestration products, especially windows and
leakage rating expressed as the equivalent cubic feet of air skylights, have a unique challenge of providing
passing through a square foot of window area (cfm / sq. adequate thermal performance while also providing
ft.). Heat loss and gain occur by infiltration through cracks daylight and views. While system manufacturers
in the window assembly. The lower the AL, the less air work to develop improved frame designs to lower
passes through cracks in the window assembly. U-factor ratings, glass manufacturers are constantly
advancing low-e technology to block the non-visible
Condensation resistance  Condensation resistance (CR)
light spectrum to reduce the greenhouse effect
measures the ability of a product to resist the formation
by lowering the SHGC value, while maintaining
of condensation on the interior surface of the product. The

357
Door and window specifications

DOOR AND WINDOW SCHEDULES

Numbered symbols used on the floor plan key specific
items to charts known as schedules. A schedule is a
grouping of related items with corresponding individual
features, with a heading and a minimum of three columns
of related information. A schedule formats information
into rows and columns in order to more easily present
design information. Schedules are used to describe items
such as doors, windows, appliances, materials, fixtures,
hardware, and finishes. A typical door and window
schedule is shown in Figure 10.29. Schedules help keep
plans clear of unnecessary details and notes. Schedules
typically include the following kind of information about
the product:
• Manufacturer’s name • Quantity
• Product name • Size
•  Model number •  Rough opening size
• Type •  Color

Schedule key
Doors and windows described in a schedule are keyed
from the floor plan to the schedule. For example, the
key can label doors with a number and windows with
a letter. The key letters and numbers can be enclosed
in different geometric figures to help make them more
obvious when looking at the floor plans. Another option
for the key is the use of a divided circle with the letter
D for door or W for window above the dividing line, and
Figure 10.27  A standard tubular daylighting device the number of the door or window, using consecutive
(TDD) system is a transparent, roof-mounted dome numbers, below the line. Figure 10.30 shows how
with self-flashing curb, reflective tubing, and a ceiling- the door and window floor plan symbols key to the
level diffuser assembly that transmits daylight into schedules.
interior spaces. Courtesy CrystaLite, Inc.

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide showing how a partial

the highest visible transmittance possible. Glass floor plan with at least two doors and windows is
manufacturers list thermal performances to aid in keyed to a partial schedule displaying the same two
glass selection, which are center of glass (COG) doors and windows.
values. COG values are always significantly better
than full-product NFRC-rated values. COG values
are measured from a single optimal center point
Some floor plans provide door and window sizes directly
whereas NFRC-rated values measure the entire
next to their symbols as shown in Figure 10.31 (on p. 362).
assembly performance. Also note that skylights
This method is used by some companies when the exact
are tested in a 20-degree orientation and on a
specifications are to be determined by the builder or
wooden curb, whereas windows and doors are
the client. This method cannot be used when specific
tested vertically and mounted in wood framing. This
information must be identified. The example in Figure 10.31
causes skylight values to often seem less efficient
uses a set of numbers to identify door and window sizes.
due to the varied testing procedures.
The first two numbers indicate the door or window width.

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 Door and window specifications

Figure 10.28  The NFRC energy performance label can help you determine how well a product performs the
functions of helping to cool your home in the summer, warm your home in the winter, keep out wind, and resist
condensation. By using the information contained on the label, you can reliably compare one product with
another, and make informed decisions about the windows, doors, and skylights you specify and buy. Courtesy
National Fenestration Rating Council.

10
For example, 30 means 3′-0″ wide. The second two The building contractor can be required to submit alternative
numbers indicate the door or window height. For example, specifications to the client so actual items are clarified. Doors
68 means 6′-8″ high. A 6040 window specification means and windows typically have specific information provided by
the window is 6′-0″ wide by 4′-0″ high, and a 2868 door the manufacturer for the rough opening dimensions, finish
means the door is 2′-8″ wide by 6′-8″ high. Standard door size, and installation instructions. Manufacturer catalogs and
height is 6′-8″. Some floor plans use a similar system by product sheets can also provide construction details and
presenting the sizes as 28 × 68, meaning 2′-8″ wide by specifications for each product.
6′-8″ high. Some floor plans give actual dimensions, such
as 2′-8″ × 6′-8″. Metric sizes are given in millimeters PRE-HUNG DOORS
(mm) and vary as discussed throughout this chapter.
Another method is to provide a manufacturer identification Pre-hung doors are commonly used in home construction.
code next to each door and window that correlates to A pre-hung door is a pre-manufactured door assembly with
specifications provided in the manufacturer product jambs and door mounted and ready for installation in the
catalogue. home. The components of a pre-hung door assembly are
Simplified methods of door and window identification is better shown in Figure 10.32 (on p. 363). The following briefly
suited for development housing in which the manufacturer defines each component of the pre-hung door assembly.
of doors, windows, and other items is not specified in A jamb is a vertical-side and horizontal-top surrounding
the plans. These details are included in a Description of frame for a door to open from or close into. These are
Materials or specification sheet for each individual home. also called side jambs and head jambs. The hinge jamb

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Door and window specifications

Figure 10.29  A typical door and window schedule. Courtesy Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc.

is part of the door frame where the hinges are attached. and is where the latch bolt slides. The latch bolt is a spring-
The strike jamb, or latch jamb, is the vertical side of the operated cylinder assembly in the edge of a door that
door frame on the lock side of the door. The head jamb keeps the door closed, and is operated by turning the door
is the horizontal part of the door frame above the door. handle. The latch bolt is normally not part of the pre-hung
A stop molding is a small rectangular-shaped molding door assembly and is purchased with the lockset. Casing is
positioned on the jamb, slightly past the width of the the molding placed around the door frame to cover the joint
door, and is used to stop the door in the jamb at a specific between the frame and the wall. The casing on the outside
location. A face plate is a rectangular plate on the edge of of an exterior door is called a brick mold, which is part of
the door around the latch bolt. A strike plate is a metal the pre-hung exterior door assembly and used to trim a
plate attached to the door frame that the lock engages. The door installation around the exterior top and sides. A pre-
strike plate has a curved leading edge that allows the lock hung exterior door also comes with a threshold that is the
to smoothly engage the strike plate. The strike plate also metal, plastic, or wood sill.
has a rectangular cutout with a mortise cut in the jamb
behind to accept the latch bolt and to keep the door closed. POWERPOINT
A mortise for the strike plate is a square hole, pocket, or
relief cut into the jamb to accept the latch bolt and to keep Create one PowerPoint slide showing the parts of a
the door closed. The lockset bore is a hole cut through the pre-hung door.
door where the lockset is installed. A lockset is a complete
locking system, including knobs, plates, latch bolt, and
Specifying door swing
a locking mechanism. The lockset is normally not part of
the pre-hung door assembly and is purchased separately. The direction doors swing in a home is very important and
The latch bolt bore is a hole cut in from the latching side is carefully considered by architects and designers where
of the door that intersects the center of the lockset bore, designing a home. As a builder, you can read the floor plan

360
 Door and window specifications

HB A DOOR SCHEDULE
SIZE
MARK TYPE MATL GLZ NOTES
W HT HEAD
1 3'-0" 6'-8" 6'-8" SNG SWING WOOD -- SEE FRONT ELEV

6' UP WALL
WALK-IN CLOSET
2 6'-0" 6'-8" 6'-8" SLDG GL VINYL TEMP --
3 3'-0" 6'-8" 6'-8" SNG SWING WOOD -- SC FDR
4 3'-0" 6'-8" 6'-8" SNG SWING STEEL -- SC
7
5 16'-0" 10'-0" 10'-0" OVHD GARAGE STEEL -- --
11 GFCI 6 2'-8" 6'-8" 6'-8" SNG SWING WOOD -- HC
L
F L
BATH 7 2'-6" 6'-8" 6'-8" SNG SWING WOOD -- HC
10/0 X 7/2
3'-3" D 8 2'-0" 6'-8" 6'-8" SNG SWING WOOD -- HC
(a) MASTER BEDROOM 9 5'-0" 6'-8" 6'-8" BI-FOLD WOOD -- --
11/6 X 14/3 36"
10 5'-0" 6'-8" 6'-8" SLDG WOOD -- --
S FIBERGLASS
SHOWER 11 2'-6" 6'-8" 6'-8" POCKET WOOD -- --
GFCI

GFCI

WINDOW SCHEDULE

FIBERGLASS
6

SHOWER
TUB /
CLOSET LINEN F L

5'
SIZE
7 BATH MARK TYPE MATL MODEL NOTES
6 6 10/0 X 5/0 W HT HEAD
A 6'-0" 4'-0" 7'-10" SLDG VINYL G646 EGRS
B 4'-0" 4'-0" 7'-10" SLDG VINYL G446 --
1"
2'-102
S
6 S C 6'-0" 4'-0" 7'-10" SLDG VINYL G644 --
D 4'-0" 2'-0" 7'-10" SLDG VINYL G426 --
22" X 48" ATTIC ACCESS

W
HB
A DOOR SCHEDULE
SIZE
MARK TYPE MATL GLZ NOTES
W HT HEAD
6' UP WALL

WALK-IN CLOSET 1 3'-0" 6'-8" 6'-8" SNG SWING WOOD -- SEE FRONT ELEV
2 6'-0" 6'-8" 6'-8" SLDG GL VINYL TEMP --
3 3'-0" 6'-8" 6'-8" SNG SWING WOOD -- SC FDR
D 4 3'-0" 6'-8" 6'-8" SNG SWING STEEL -- SC
7 5 16'-0" 10'-0" 10'-0" OVHD GARAGE STEEL -- --
D GFCI
L 11
F L
BATH 6 2'-8" 6'-8" 6'-8" SNG SWING WOOD -- HC
10/0 X 7/2 7 2'-6" 6'-8" 6'-8" SNG SWING WOOD -- HC
3'-3" W
(b) MASTER BEDROOM D 8 2'-0" 6'-8" 6'-8" SNG SWING WOOD -- HC

11/6 X 14/3 36" 9 5'-0" 6'-8" 6'-8" BI-FOLD WOOD -- --

S FIBERGLASS 10 5'-0" 6'-8" 6'-8" SLDG WOOD -- --
SHOWER
GFCI 11 2'-6" 6'-8" 6'-8" POCKET WOOD -- --

GFCI
D
FIBERGLASS

WINDOW SCHEDULE
SHOWER

6
TUB /

CLOSET LINEN F L
5'

D
D D 7 BATH MARK
SIZE
TYPE MATL MODEL NOTES
6 6 10/0 X 5/0 W HT HEAD
1 6'-0" 4'-0" 7'-10" SLDG VINYL G646 EGRS
D 2 4'-0" 4'-0" 7'-10" SLDG VINYL G446 --
1"
2'-102
S
6 S 3 6'-0" 4'-0" 7'-10" SLDG VINYL G644 --
22" X 48" ATTIC ACCESS 4 4'-0" 2'-0" 7'-10" SLDG VINYL G426 --

Figure 10.30  Doors and windows described in a schedule are keyed from the floor plan to the schedule. For
example, the key can label doors with a number and windows with a letter. (a) The key letters and numbers can be
enclosed in different geometric figures to help make them more obvious when looking at the floor plans.
(b) Another option for the key is the use of a divided circle with the letter D for door or W for window above the
10
dividing line, and the number of the door or window, using consecutive numbers, below the line.

door symbols to see the direction each door is placed to (LH) inswing, when the door swings in away from you
swing. When ordering the doors it is important to specify and to the left. Figure 10.33(b) shows a right hand (RH)
the correct swing for each door, so they open as intended inswing, when the door swings in away from you and to
when set in each location. All doors are designated by the right. Figure 10.33(c) shows a left hand outswing,
the direction of their swing, referred to as hand. This when the door swings out toward you and to the left. This
must be determined to be sure that the door you order is also called left hand reverse (LHR), because you have
opens in the correct direction for its location in the home. to backup or move in reverse when opening the door.
There are different ways to determine door swing, so this Figure 10.33(d) shows a right hand outswing, when the
is why you need to be sure you and the manufacturer door swings out toward you and to the right. This is also
or supplier are communicating door swing in the same called right hand reverse (RHR). You can say reverse hand
manner. Figure 10.33 (on p. 364) shows four ways to door if you are standing facing the outside of the door
specify door swing based on when you are standing and you have to backup when opening the door. Also, if
looking at the door and if the door is left hand, right hand, the hinges are on the left side of the door, it is a LHR, and
inswing, or outswing. Figure 10.33(a) shows a left hand hinges on the right side of the door is RHR.

361
Door and window specifications

details on the inside and the outside of home construction.

The types of projects typically done by a finish carpenter
include installing wood siding, building and finishing stairs
with railings and balusters, hanging doors, installing casing
and other wood trim, and installing custom woodwork such
as wainscoting, bookcases, and mantels. A finish carpenter
often has years of experience with woodworking and the
use of a wide range of woodworking tools. Finish carpentry
can be performed by one or two individuals who know how
to perform all finish carpentry jobs, or by larger companies
where they have crews responsible for different types of
finish work in the home. For example, one crew might only
hang doors, while another crew builds bookshelves and
mantels. A crew called trim carpenters install all of the
casings, base, coving, and other wood trim throughout the
home. This chapter discusses door installation, other finish
carpentry is covered in Chapter 11, Stair Construction, and
Chapter 15, Finish Work and Materials.
Before installing doors, it is important for the rough
Figure 10.31  Some floor plans provide door and framing to be accurate. Chapter 7, Wall Framing Materials
window sizes directly next to their symbols. This and Construction, explained that door rough openings
example uses a set of numbers to identify door and need to have plumb jack studs and a level header making
window sizes. The first two numbers indicate the door the rough opening square. The wall framing must be plumb
or window width. For example, 30 means 3′-0″ wide. both ways for the door to install, and open and close
The second two numbers indicate the door or window properly. The width and height dimensions of the rough
height. For example, 68 means 6′-8″ high. A 6040 opening need to match the requirements for the specific
window specification means the window is 6′-0″ wide door assembly to be hung in the opening. In general, the
by 4′-0″ high, and a 2868 door means the door is 2′-8″ rough opening should be 1-1/2 inches bigger in width and
wide by 6′-8″ high. Some floor plans use a similar height than the selected door assembly, but this should be
system by presenting the sizes as 28 × 68, meaning confirmed with the specific door you are using.
2′-8″ wide by 6′-8″ high. Some floor plans give actual
dimensions, such as 2′-8″ × 6′-8″. Steps for hanging a pre-hung door
The following basic steps can be used to hang a pre-
SLAB DOORS hung door. Each experienced finish carpenter has similar
specific techniques they like to use when hanging a door,
A slab door is a rectangular slab of wood that is not
but the final result is a door that swings easily without any
drilled or processed for hinges or a locking mechanism.
obstructions, and latches closed smoothly without being
A slab door has no frame or casing. Standard exterior slab
too loose or too tight. All gaps between the door and jamb
doors are 1-3/4-inches thick, and interior slab doors are
must be equal and uniform and the door must rest evenly
1-3/8-inches thick for 80-inch tall doors and 1-3/4-inches
along the stop when closed.
thick for 96-inch high doors. Slab doors are not used
in typical home construction because they require an Place the pre-hung door assembly into the
excessive amount of preparation and skill to make into rough opening
a functioning door assembly. Slab doors are used in
situations where existing doors need to be replaced Position the pre-hung door assembly in the rough opening,
without replacing the entire assembly. and center the assembly with approximately equal spacing
between the side jambs and the jack studs on each side as
shown in Figure 10.34.
DOOR INSTALLATION
Install shims at each hinge
Door installation is commonly referred to as hanging
doors. Proper door installation is a technical skill normally Place shims slightly tight between the side jambs and the
completed by a finish carpenter who performs finish jack studs at each hinge location as shown in Figure 10.35
carpentry. Finish carpentry involves completing the final (on p. 366), while maintaining the equal space between

362
 Door and window specifications

10

Figure 10.32  The components of a pre-hung door assembly.

Secure the pre-hung door assembly at the

the side jambs and the jack studs. Shims are thin strips
top hinge
of wedge-shaped or rectangular wood used for leveling,
making plumb, and positioning wood members, especially Make sure the edges of the side jambs are flush with the
door frames. Wedge-shaped shims are good because face of the drywall or other wall finish material. Pre-drill a
they allow you to adjust the shim material to any desired hole through the door stop in the location of the top hinge
measurement and tightness. shim. Pre-drill using a 5/64-inch diameter drill, and use one

363
Door and window specifications

Hinge Hinge
Inside Inside

Outside Outside

(a) Left Hand (LH) Inswing (b) Right Hand (RH) Inswing

Inside Inside

Outside Outside
Hinge Hinge

(c) Left Hand (LH) Outswing (d) Right Hand (RH) Outswing

Figure 10.33  Four ways to specify door swing based on when you are standing looking at the door and if the
door is left hand, right hand, inswing, or outswing. (a) A left hand (LH) inswing, when the door swings in away
from you and to the left. (b) A right hand (RH) inswing, when the door swings in away from you and to the right.
(c) A left hand outswing, when the door swings out toward you and to the left. (d) A right hand outswing, when
the door swings out toward you and to the right.

8d 2-1/2-inch finish nail to hold the door in place while you square with the head jamb. Make sure the strike jamb
continue making additional adjustments and fastening. remains plumb while you pre-drill a hole through the
Pre-drill means to drill a hole through the jam using a drill stop at each shim location. Use one 8d 2-1/2-inch finish
diameter slightly smaller than the nail or screw used for nail to tack the side jamb at each shim location as shown
fastening. Pre-drilling makes it easier to drive the nail or in Figure 10.36, on p. 366.
screw and helps keep the wood from splitting. A pre-
drilled hole is also called a pilot hole. You can search the Verify plumb, square, and all dimensions
Internet for pilot hole charts used for different nails and
Confirm that the hinge jamb and strike jambs are plumb
screws.
and square with the head jamb. Check to be sure the
Check the side jambs for plumb and square dimension between the hinge jamb and strike jamb is
exactly the same at the top, center, and bottom.
Place a 6-foot level along the hinge jamb to make sure the
jamb is plumb. Adjust the middle and lower shims until the Shim the head jamb
jamb is perfectly plumb.
Place shims in two equally spaced locations between the
Tack the hinge jamb at the middle and head jamb and the header as shown in Figure  10.37. Adjust
bottom hinge the shims until there is an even space all the way across
between the top of the door and the head jamb.
Make sure the hinge jamb remains plumb while you
pre-drill a hole through the stop at the middle and bottom Fasten the head jamb
hinges. Use one 8d 2-1/2-inch finish nail to tack the frame
at each location. The term tack means to drive the nail Pre-drill through the head jamb door stop in the location of
partially into place to hold the work before driving the nail each shim, and nail the head jamb in place using one 8d
all the way. This allows you to adjust the other jambs before 2-1/2-inch finish nail at each shim location.
final fastening.
Adjust side jamb shims as needed while
Shim the strike side of the door verifying plumb, square, and all dimensions
Shim the strike jamb by placing shims at the top, center, Close the door and check to make sure there is an equal
and bottom. Place a 6-foot level along the strike jamb gap between the door and jambs along both sides and at
and adjust the shims until the jamb is perfectly plumb. the top. Adjust shims as needed until the gap is exactly the
Use a framing square to confirm that the strike jamb is same all the way around.

364
 Door and window specifications

10
Figure 10.34  Position the pre-hung door assembly in the rough opening, and center the assembly with
approximately equal spacing between the side jambs and the jack studs on each side.

Complete the installation Replace the center hinge screws with longer
screws
Fully drive all of the initial finish nails into their locations
on the jambs. Open the door and on the jamb where Remove the center manufacturer-installed hinge screw
the door was located when closed, drive another finish from the jamb side of each hinge and replace each with a
nail through all jambs at each shim location. When all 2-1/2-inch screw of the same diameter and material as the
the finish nails have been driven flush with the surface, original screws as shown in Figure 10.39 (on p. 368). The
use a nail set to sink the heads of the finish nails. A nail original hinge screws only allow the hinges to be fastened
set is a tool used for driving a nail head set below or to the door and jamb. The 2-1/2-inch replacement screws
flush with a surface as shown in Figure 10.38. The term allow one screw to extend through the jamb and into the
set means to sink the nail head below or flush with the framing behind the jamb at each hinge. This process makes
surface. a solid connection between the door frame and the house

365
Door and window specifications

Figure 10.36  Shim the strike jamb at the top, center,

and bottom. Level the strike jamb and square the head
jamb. Pre-drill a hole through the stop at each shim
location. Use one 8d 2-1/2-inch finish nail to tack the
Figure 10.35  Place shims slightly tight between the side jamb at each shim location.
side jambs and the jack studs at each hinge location
while maintaining the equal space between the side The saw set is the distance a saw tooth is bent away
jambs and the jack studs. from the saw blade. A saw typically has each tooth set
alternating on opposite sides.
framing. Cut off the excess wood on the shims flush with
Install door hardware
the edge of the jambs using a flush-cut saw. A flush-cut
saw has no saw set on one side, so that the saw can be Install the door hardware, such as a lockset, deadbolt,
laid flat on a surface and cut without scratching the surface. and dummy knob. The lockset can be locking for an

366
 Door and window specifications

Figure 10.37  Place shims in two equally spaced locations between the head jamb and the header.

10

Figure 10.38  A nail set is a tool used for driving a nail head set below or flush with a surface.

entry door or privacy in a bathroom. A lockset can also has a solid cylinder that is engaged by turning a knob
be non-locking for rooms where a lock is not needed. or key, rather than by spring action. A dummy knob
Locksets can have a variety of knob and handle designs looks just like other door knobs or levers, but they do
to match the architectural decor of the home. A deadbolt not operate a lock bolt, and are often mounted with a
is a locking mechanism that adds extra security to an magnetic latch or other latching mechanism on closet,
entry door in addition to the regular lockset. A deadbolt pantry, and utility doors.

367
Door and window specifications

Figure 10.39  Remove the center manufacturer-installed hinge screw from the jamb side of each hinge and
replace each with a 2-1/2-inch screw of the same diameter and material as the original screws.

Install casing
POWERPOINT
There are a variety of casing styles that are described
in Chapter 15, Finish Work and Materials. The casing Create five to seven PowerPoint slides showing the
is normally installed around the door jamb edge like a steps used to install a pre-hung door.
picture frame using finish nails. The finish carpenter
typically leaves an approximate 3/16″ (4–5 mm) reveal
Finish the door assembly
at the edge of the jamb and makes 45-degree mitered
corners as shown in Figure 10.40. A reveal is typically The word finish refers to preparation and final process
located at the edge of a door or window, where the used to improve the appearance and protect the door
casing edge is set back to expose the edge of the assembly. Finishing starts with filling nail holes and a light
casing and a portion of the jamb. A miter is a joint made final sanding over all wood surfaces of the door assembly.
by cutting each of two surfaces to be typically joined at Remove sanding residue and clean all surfaces before
a 45-degree angle, usually forming a 90-degree angle applying sealer or finish. Seal, stain, or paint all surfaces
corner. and edges as desired following the finishing manufacturer

368
 Door and window specifications

Figure 10.40  Casing is typically installed with an approximate 3/16″ (4–5 mm) reveal at the edge of the jamb
and makes 45-degree mitered corners.
10
directions. For prefinished doors and casing, carefully fill pocket door kit, providing space between the split studs
the nail holes with a finish-match product recommended for the door to slide into the wall. Most door manufacturers
by the manufacturer. A prefinished door has all preparation and suppliers have pocket door kits that are sold with or
work done at the manufacturer, including cutting holes and separate from available doors. When you see a pocket door
pre-drilling for door hardware, sanding, painting, or staining on the plans, be sure you order the pocket door kit with the
the door, and installing hinges. door. The architect or home designer confirms that a pocket
door is appropriate for a specific location during the design
Steps for installing a pocket door process. Pocket door locations require twice the framing
The modern pocket door is manufactured as an assembly space as other doors, and there can be no electrical work
called a pocket door kit. A pocket door kit is a complete or plumbing in the pocket door location.
package that contains the door, split studs, a header
Framing for a pocket door
assembly that has a track on which the door slides, and
door hardware. Split studs are narrower than normal The dimensions for framing a pocket door rough opening
studs and used to frame each side of the pocket part of a need to be confirmed with the specific pocket door kit

369
Door and window specifications

being used. Figure 10.41 shows typical pocket door installations. The following provides basic common steps
rough framing. The rough opening height is typically used to install a pocket door kit as shown in Figure 10.42.
84-1/2 inches (2,140 mm) minimum for a standard pocket Most pocket door kits come with mounting brackets for
door kit, and the width is 2 times the door width plus attaching the header assembly to the studs, and fastening
1 inch (25 mm). As with any door framing, the header the split stud bases to the floor. Confirm and mark the
must be level and the studs must be plumb both ways. correct height measurement on each stud and then
mount the horizontal header assembly with track in the
rough opening by screwing the brackets to the studs and
POWERPOINT
ends of the header assembly to the brackets. Check to be
Create one PowerPoint slide showing the framing of sure the header assembly is level. Fasten the kit header
a rough opening for a pocket door. assembly to the framing header with provided clips or
brackets, or shim as needed and screw the kit header to
the framing header.
Installing the pocket door kit Mark the floor with a chalk line on each side of the rough
Finish carpenters often assemble the pocket door kit, opening between the sills as shown in Figure 10.42. Install
hang the pocket door, and install the hardware. Pocket the split studs on to the floor brackets and nail or screw the
door kits generally come with a parts list, diagrams, tops of the split studs to the header in the specified locations.
and installation instructions. Be sure to follow the Use a 6-foot level to plumb each set of split studs in alignment
provided instructions until you are confident with future with the chalk line and fasten the brackets to the floor.

Figure 10.41  Typical pocket door rough framing.

370
 Door and window specifications

10
Figure 10.42  Installing the pocket door kit.

Hanging the pocket door and completing hang is slang used in the construction industry to mean
the installation something that is installed by placing and fastening in a
desired location. Hung is the past tense of hang. Special
Mount provided hangers on the top of the door, and slide treatment and caution is necessary when hanging
the wheeled carriages into the track. Hook the hangers drywall on a pocket door frame. Construction adhesive
onto the carriages, and adjust the assembly until the door is placed on the split studs and the drywall is hung with
hangs plumb. screws that are short enough not to extend through the
Finish carpenters can install latches and pulls now split studs.
or wait to do this when installing jambs and casing. Now, a finish carpenter can cut and install the jambs and
The drywall needs to be hung before the side jamb casing. A split jamb is used to trim the sides and top
and casing can be installed. A drywall subcontractor where the door slides from the pocket. A full side jamb is
generally hangs and finishes the drywall. The word placed at the end where the door closes. Casing is then

371
Door and window specifications

fastened around the jambs as previously described with finish carpenters depending on the type of windows being
the pre-hung door installation. Figure 10.43 shows the used and the practice employed by the general contractor.
complete pocket door installation. Before installing windows, it is important for the rough
framing to be accurate. Chapter 7, Wall Framing Materials
and Construction, explained that window rough openings
POWERPOINT need to have plumb jack studs and a level header and sill
making the rough opening square. The wall framing must
Create two to three PowerPoint slides showing the
be plumb both ways for the window to install, and to open
installation of a pocket door kit.
and close properly. The width and height dimensions of
the rough opening need to match the requirements for
the specific window. Window rough opening dimensions
WINDOW INSTALLATION
need to be confirmed for each window based on
Windows are often installed by the rough carpenters manufacturer specifications. The difference in actual
during home framing, but windows can be installed by the window measurements and the recommended rough

Figure 10.43  The complete pocket door installation.

372
 Door and window specifications

opening for the window are often very tight with little water to run off. Window sashes can have a single pane of
room for error in the rough opening. Each window can be glass as shown in Figure 10.44, or divided horizontally and
slightly different depending on the type and manufacturer. vertically with muntins. A muntin is a thin support used
The following briefly describes the basic parts of a typical for holding panes of glass within a window. A mullion is a
window shown in Figure 10.44. The flange is a metal or large vertical member separating sashes between multiple
vinyl strip that goes all around the window frame and is windows, and can also be the central vertical member of
used to seal and fasten the window to the home framing. a double-door opening. Windows with muntins are also
Some manufacturers provide fabricated holes for ease in called divided lites, which are commonly used in traditional
nailing or screwing through the flange. Some wood-frame architecture.
windows do not have a flange. Instead, there is an outer
casing called a brick mold. These windows are fastened to Installing a window
the framing by nailing through the brick mold. The frame
is a fixed part of a window that encloses the sash and Window manufacturers typically have very specific
consists of the head jamb, sill, side jambs, jamb extension, installation instructions for their windows. While there are
and casing. Weep holes are fabricated through the frame similarities in window installation methods, some windows
at the outside sill of aluminum and vinyl frame windows require specific installation practices. You need to follow
to allow moisture and rain to escape from the window. window manufacturer installation instructions to help make
The sash is the frame that holds the glass in the window. sure the windows you install do not leak, are as energy
The drip cap is a formed aluminum or vinyl projection efficient as possible, and to protect the manufacturer
installed at the top of windows and doors that allows warranty on the windows. The following are suggested
window installation steps, but these steps should not take
the place of manufacturer instructions.

Prepare the rough opening

Rough window openings are framed by the framing crew
and house wrap is generally placed over the exterior and
covers the rough openings. The house wrap covering the
rough openings needs to be detached. This is done by
cutting a diagonal through the house wrap each way across
the rough opening and continue the top cut a few inches
past the rough opening corner as shown in Figure 10.45(a).
Fold the house wrap flaps around the jack studs at the
sides and around the sill at the bottom. Staple the house
wrap to the jack studs and sill and trim away excess house
wrap material inside the rough opening. Trim the house
wrap at the top about 6 inches (150 mm) past the bottom
10
of the header, fold the flap up and attach it with a piece of
tape as shown in Figure 10.45(b). Measure the sill width
and cut a piece of flashing tape about 24 inches (600 mm)
longer than your measurement. Flashing tape is a strong,
waterproof, very adhesive tape with an aluminum outer
surface that can be shaped to conform to the structure
where it is applied. Flashing tape is used during construction
to tightly seal gaps between window and door frames
and the exterior of the house. Apply the strip of flashing
tape covering the sill, folding over the outside, and with
approximately equal distances going up the jack studs on the
sides as shown in Figure 10.46. Just prior to installing the
window, place a bead of caulk along the sides and top of the
opening to help seal the window flanges after the window is
installed in the rough opening. You can put the caulk on the
inside of the window flanges rather than around the opening
Figure 10.44  The basic parts of a typical window. if you prefer. Do not place caulking along the bottom of the

373
 Rough opening
behind house wrap

Cut diagonals through

the house wrap

(a)

Tape

Fold house wrap up

and tape in place

Wrap and staple

house wrap

(b)

Figure 10.45  Prepare the rough opening. (a) Cut a diagonal through the house wrap each way across the rough
opening and continue the top cut a few inches past the rough opening corner. (b) Fold the house wrap flaps
around the jack studs at the sides and around the sill at the bottom. Staple the house wrap to the jack studs and
sill and trim away excess house wrap material inside the rough opening. Trim the house wrap at the top about
6 inches (150 mm) past the bottom of the header, fold the flap up and attach it with a piece of tape.
 Door and window specifications

NOTE

Some window assemblies can be very heavy. It can

be necessary to remove the sash from the window
to lighten the weight when setting the window in the
opening. Replace the sash in its original position in the
window frame after the frame is in place and before
you plumb and level the window. Window installers
often use 2-inch galvanized roofing nails, because the
wide head helps secure the window flange without
distorting the flange or pulling through. Installers
typically use a pneumatic nail gun on metal-flanged
windows. Exercise caution when using a nail gun on
vinyl flanges as they can crack from the impact. Some
installers prefer to use screws when installing windows.

Figure 10.46  Apply the strip of flashing tape

covering the sill, folding over the outside, and with Flash the window
approximately equal distances going up the jack studs
Cut two strips of flashing tape about 12 inches (300 mm)
on the sides.
longer than the window height and one 12 inches longer
than the window width. Place the side flashing tape strips
opening or along the bottom flange, because any water that
over the side flanges extending an equal distance above
gets in needs a way to get out.
and below the window. Place the top flashing tape over the
top window flange and under the house wrap flap that you
have temporarily folded up. Disconnect the top house wrap
POWERPOINT flap and fold it down over the top flashing tape. Cut two
approximately 12-inch strips of flashing tape to place over the
Create two PowerPoint slides showing the side diagonal cuts in the top house wrap flap. Do not tape the
preparation of house wrap over a window rough bottom flange, which allows any moisture to escape.
opening prior to window installation.
Install the jamb and casing
Wood-frame windows are normally manufactured with jambs.

10
Install the window Window jambs are the sides, top, and bottom members
Install the window in the rough opening. Installing a that continue from the window frame inside to cover the
window is normally a two- or three-person job depending framing and extend flush with the drywall or other wall finish
on the window size. One person needs to be on the inside material. When ordering wood-frame windows it is important
to set shims and make adjustments before the window is to specify the framing depth for the windows to properly
nailed in place from the outside. The inside person adjusts cover the framing when installed. Aluminum and vinyl-frame
the window in the rough opening with approximately equal window assemblies are generally much less wide than the
space all around. With the sash closed, make sure the framing where they are installed. This makes it necessary
window is square, and then plumb and level the window to install jamb extensions over the framing between the
using wood shims. After the window is level, square, and window frame and the edge of the drywall or other wall finish
plumb, open the sash to make sure the window opens and material. Jamb extensions are generally made from high
closes smoothly. A person on the outside now nails the quality finish wood and installed by a finish carpenter just
window to the framing to secure it in place. Start by driving before the casing is placed. Finish wood is the best quality
one nail in each corner of the top flange. Check level, wood that has been milled and sanded to provide the best
square, and plumb again. Drive at least three nails along possible material for final wood projects.
the vertical flanges of the window. Place a level on the sill The casing is installed next to cover the space between
and insert shims under the side jambs and in the center of the jambs and the drywall. Window casing is applied in
the sill for support. Wide and multiple sash windows need the same manner as door casing, except window casing
to be shimmed under each side jamb and in the center normally continues all around the window like a picture
of each sash. Nail the bottom flange about every 8 inches frame on the inside. Figure 10.47 shows window jamb
(200 mm). extensions and casing.

375
Door and window specifications

energy codes and the rapid advance of low-e coatings

POWERPOINT for glass. Advanced low-e glass is now very common,
which significantly increases skylight thermal properties
Create one PowerPoint slide showing window
and greatly improves solar heat gain resistance without
installation.
lowering visible light.

SKYLIGHT INSTALLATION POWERPOINT

Skylights were introduced earlier in this chapter.
Figure 10.48 shows a typical insulated glass skylight and Create one PowerPoint slide showing a typical
its parts. Framing a skylight in the roof was described insulated glass skylight and its parts.
in Chapter 8, Roof Framing Materials and Construction.
Skylights are a proven method of providing natural
Prepare the skylight curb
daylighting into the interior of a building, and to a greater
extent than windows since windows are limited to Skylights are commonly mounted on a curb, which
the outside walls. Dome skylights have been used, is a 2 × 4 or 2 × 6 frame built on the roof, or a pre-
because they allow water to shed off effectively. A dome manufactured curb provided by the supplier. Curb
skylight normally has plastic that rounds up over the material should be high-quality finish lumber. The curb
frame. The use of glass skylights placed on curbs built to is installed in the location of the skylight rough opening.
a minimum roof pitch is now the trend due to upgraded The curb size dimensions are based on specific skylight

Figure 10.47  When needed, jamb extensions are installed over the framing between the window frame and the
edge of the drywall or other wall finish material. The casing is installed next to cover the space between the jambs
and the drywall.

376
 Door and window specifications

10

Figure 10.48  A typical insulated glass skylight installation.

measurements that are provided by the manufacturer.

The skylight curb dimensions need to be confirmed and
POWERPOINT
are either outside or inside curb dimensions as shown in
Create one PowerPoint slide showing skylight curb
Figure 10.49. Glue and nail or screw the curb to the roof
dimensions.
structure. It is best to pre-drill down through the top of
the curb and run the screw through the curb and into the
Prepare the flashing and roofing
roof framing below. Make sure the curb is square and
establish length, width, and height for the skylight based Install flashing and roofing after the curb installation is
on the manufacturer specifications and confirm local complete. Skylight flashing is installed on the roof and up
building codes for required minimum height. the side of the curb as shown in Figure 10.50. Skylight

377
Figure 10.49  Skylight curb dimensions need to be confirmed with manufacturer specifications and are either
outside or inside curb dimensions.

Figure 10.50  Skylight flashing at the top of the curb is placed under the roofing and step flashing is used along
the sides of the curb. Step flashing is small pieces of flashing material used to overlay each other where a vertical
surface meets a sloping roof. The step flashing is overlaid with the roofing material, and each layer of flashing is
lapped over the previous to make sure water runs over the flashing and roofing.
 Door and window specifications

flashing is galvanized sheet metal that is bent in an L-shape Fasten the skylight to the curb using manufacturer
and used around the skylight structure to direct water approved fasteners. The skylight manufacturer typically
away from the curb and over the roofing material. Skylight provides pre-drilled holes for fastening the skylight to the
flashing is available at your building materials supplier and curb. The manufacturer normally requires a fastener used
is also available in a kit specifically for skylight installation. at each hole. Some manufacturers provide roofing material
Flashing at the top of the curb is placed under the roofing termination bars supplied with the skylight. A termination
and step flashing is used along the sides of the curb. Step bar is a metal or plastic strip used to seal and anchor the
flashing is small pieces of flashing material used to overlay edges of roofing material at a surface, such as the skylight
each other where a vertical surface meets a sloping roof. curb. Follow the manufacturer instructions for skylight
The step flashing is overlaid with the roofing material, installation and for placing and fastening the termination
and each layer of flashing is lapped over the previous to bars to the curb.
make sure water runs over the flashing and roofing. See
Figure 10.50. The flashing at the bottom of the curb is NOTE
placed under the last layer of step flashing along the sides
and over the roofing laid below the curb. Skylights typically Skylights should never be set flat on the roof prior
have weep holes located under the bottom part of the to installation. Set the skylight on blocks to provide
skylight frame to allow moisture to escape. Make sure air circulation when you take it to the roof prior to
the flashing and roofing material is not blocking the weep installation. Skylights placed flat on the roof can
holes. develop high temperatures that can damage the
glazing in a short period of time.
Skylight installation steps described in this textbook
POWERPOINT
are general suggestions. Always use manufacturer
Create one PowerPoint slide showing flashing and provided preparation and installation instructions
roofing around a skylight curb. and confirm plans with local or national codes.
The American Architectural Manufacturers
Association (AAMA) publishes the Installation
Install the skylight Guidelines for Skylights that provides detailed
Before setting the skylight, confirm if there is a required installation methods for each skylight style, and for
placement direction. Skylights can have a specific top all roofing types currently used in the construction
and bottom with weep holes. The skylight can have a industry.
manufacturer-installed seal tape under the frame that
seals the skylight to the curb. Carefully set the skylight on
RESEARCH
the curb while maintaining an equal clearance all around
between the curb and the frame. The typical 1/2- to 3/4-
inch (13–20 mm) clearance is provided for flashing and
Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
research options and topics that correlate with
10
roofing material under the skylight frame. the content of this chapter.

NOTE TEST
Skylight manufacturers do not recommend using Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
adhesive caulk between the skylight and curb. the test for this chapter.
This makes it very hard to remove if needed for
repairing the skylight or roof maintenance. Instead,
it is recommended to use curb tape, which is a foam PROBLEMS
weather strip tape. Curb tape is either installed by
the manufacturer or provided by the manufacturer Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
and placed on site by the skylight installer. the problems for this chapter.

379
 CHAPTER 11
Stair construction
Learning objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
 Read stair and railing symbols and specifications on floor plans.
 Identify stair types and define terminology.
 Describe the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) specifications for the use of a ramp for wheelchair access.
 Describe basic stair characteristics and terminology.
 Calculate stair run and rise.
 Explain stair framing and finish practices.
 Create PowerPoint presentations related to stair design and construction.
 Answer questions related to stair design and construction.
 Continue stair framing on the scale model team project option started in previous chapters, if the model kit has a stairs.
 Continue stair framing and finish on the actual home team project option started in previous chapters, if the home
has a stairs.

INTRODUCTION staircase, or stairway. A flight is a set of steps between

one floor or landing and the next. There can be a series of
The staircase in a home can be very simple and hidden
flights of steps connecting separate levels of the home.
in a location where it only provides access from one
A landing is a platform between flights of stairs, at the end
floor level to another, or the staircase can be a main
of a flight of stairs, or used when stairs change direction. A
focal point in the home, providing beautiful design and
stairs has a handrail or guardrail that provides a support
craftsmanship as shown in Figure 11.1. A staircase is the
and protects you from falling when going up or down
entire stair construction including framing the stairwell
opening, adjacent walls, and the railing systems. This the stairs. A handrail is generally a single rail attached to
chapter describes stair design and construction with basic a wall or balusters following the rise of the stairs and
information about stair codes and different types of stairs. used for hand support and safety. A guardrail, also called
Stair terminology is provided so you can communicate in a banister, is a handrail and its supporting posts made up
the construction industry. You will discover how to make of newel posts and balusters. A newel post is the large
calculations for building a stairs in a specific location and vertical support for the handrail at the end of each flight of
how to set up a stair layout. A stair, commonly referred stairs, and often placed at regular intervals when additional
to as stairs, is a set of steps leading from one floor of a support is needed. A baluster, also called a spindle or
building to another. Stairs are typically inside the building, picket, is one of a series of vertical handrail supports
but they can be outside. Stairs are also called a flight, placed equally spaced between newel posts. Figure 11.2

381
Stair construction

Figure 11.3(e) is a U-shaped stairs with a landing between

flights. A U-shape stairs makes a 180-degree turn at a
landing. The landing can extend all the way across between
the flights, or an additional step can be placed in the
landing as shown in Figure 11.3(f).
Figure 11.3(g) is a spiral stairs, also called a circular stairs,
which has treads winding around a center newel.

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide showing seven types of

stairs.

Figure 11.1  The staircase can be a main focal STAIR FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATIONS
point in the home, providing beautiful design and
The first place you see the stairs is on the floor plans when
craftsmanship.
reading a set of plans for a home you are building. Stairs
are displayed on floor plans by the width of the tread, the
shows the basic stair parts described here. Additional stair direction and number of risers, and the lengths of handrails
terminology is described and illustrated throughout this or guardrails as shown in Figure 11.4. A stair riser is the
chapter. vertical part, forming the space between each step. The
number of steps in a flight of stairs is the number of risers.
An arrow is shown on the floor plan indicating if the stairs
POWERPOINT are going up or down. The abbreviations UP for up, DN for
down, and R for the number of risers are placed next to the
Create one PowerPoint slide showing the basic stair
arrow. The note 14R means there are 14 risers in the flight of
parts similar to Figure 11.2.
stairs. Partial stairs are commonly shown on the floor plans.
The stairs in Figure 11.4 are displayed as partial flights with
TYPES OF STAIRS a long break line at approximately mid-height in the flight
of stairs. A long break line is a graphic symbol used to break
Stair planning can be one of the most complex away a portion of a drawing that is not shown.
characteristics of home design, because stairs require a
Figure 11.5 shows a common straight stair layout with a
significant amount of floor space. Fortunately, stairs can
wall on one side and a guardrail on the other side. Some
be designed a variety of ways to help take advantage of
stair drawings omit the break line and display the full
available space. Figure 11.3 shows the plan view of the
flight. Figure 11.6 (on p. 386) shows a flight of stairs with
following stair types:
guardrails all around at the top level and a handrail running
Figure 11.3(a) is a straight flight of stairs with a landing down the stairs. Figure 11.7 (on p. 386) shows stairs
at the bottom and top. A straight flight of stairs is a flight between two walls. Figure 11.8 (on p. 387) shows stacked
between landings without any turns. Figure 11.3(b) shows a stairs with one flight going up and the other down. This
straight flight of stairs with a landing at the bottom, middle, position is common when access from the main floor to
and top. This is sometimes done to provide a landing or both the second floor and basement or second and third
stopping place when the distance between two floors is floors is designed for the same area.
greater than normal. The middle landing is called a platform.
A platform is any intermediate landing in a stairway, and
is also an extension of the floor landing, which is often POWERPOINT
used as the top tread of a spiral stairs. Figure 11.3(c) is an
Create two PowerPoint slides showing stair floor
L-shaped stairs with a landing between flights. An L-shape
plan representations similar to Figures 11.4 through
stairs makes a 90-degree turn at a landing or with winders
11.8.
between flights as shown in Figure 11.3(d). A winder is a
special type of tread used for making a turn in a staircase
at a mid-staircase landing. The tread is the horizontal Stairs with winders and spiral stairs are often used to
portion of a stair where you step when going up or down conserve space. Winders are used to turn a corner as an
the stairs. alternative for a flat landing. Tapered winder treads must

382
 Stair construction

11
Figure 11.2  Basic stair parts. Additional stair terminology is described and illustrated throughout this chapter.

not be any smaller than 6 inches (150 mm). Spiral stairs room is either sunken or raised, there is at least one step
and custom winding stairs can be manufactured in several into the room. The number of steps are noted with an
designs. Figure 11.9 (on p. 387) shows the plan view of arrow, as shown in Figure 11.10 (on p. 388). A few steps
winder and spiral stairs. up or down into a sunken or raised room do not require
a handrail unless each floor level is more than 30 inches
POWERPOINT (760 mm) apart. Even though not required, a guardrail can
be used for decorative and safety purposes.
Create one PowerPoint slide showing winder and
spiral stairs.
POWERPOINT
A flight of stairs is considered to have at least three steps.
Create one PowerPoint slide showing steps into a
A sunken or raised room, such as a living room or family
sunken room.
room, is often a popular home design feature. When a

383
 Landing

UP UP

Landing Landing Landing Landing UP

Landing
Landing Landing Landing Landing

Landing

Landing
Landing
UP
UP UP

Landing
Landing Landing
(a) (b) (c)
Landing Landing Landing

Landing

UP UP
UP

Landing Landing Landing Landing

Landing Winder
Landing Landing
Landing
Landing
Landing Winder

UP
UP
UP
Landing
(e) Landing
Landing (f)
(d)

UP

UP
(g)

Figure 11.3  Types of stairs. (a) A straight flight of stairs with a landing at the bottom and top. (b) A straight flight
of stairs with a landing at the bottom, middle, and top. (c) An L-shaped stairs with a landing between flights. (d)
An L-shaped stairs with a winder in the landing between flights. (e) A U-shaped stairs with a landing between
flights. (f) A U-shaped stairs with a step in the landing between flights. (g) A spiral stairs, also called a circular
stairs, has treads winding around a center newel.
 Stair construction

Long break line 34" HIGH HANDRAIL

DN 14R

36" HIGH GUARDRAIL

36" HIGH HANDRAIL
Upper Floor Plan

5/8" TYPE 'X' GYP BRD UNDER STAIRS

@ ALL USABLE AREA UNDER STAIRS

UP 14R STORAGE
CLOSET

34" HIGH HANDRAIL Long break line

Lower Floor Plan

Figure 11.4  Stairs are shown on floor plans by the

width of the tread, the direction and number of risers,
and the lengths of handrails or guardrails. The long
break line is a graphic symbol used to break away a
portion of a drawing that is not shown.

NOTE

The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) specifies

Figure 11.5  A common straight stair layout with a
the use of a ramp for wheelchair access. The
wall on one side and a guardrail on the other side.
ramp should have a slope of 1:12 for 30 inches
Some stair drawings omit the break line and display
(762 mm) maximum rise and 30 feet (9 m) of
the full flight.
horizontal run. The Americans with Disabilities Act
of 1990 (ADA) prohibits discrimination and ensures
equal opportunity for persons with disabilities in
employment, state and local government services,
public accommodations, commercial facilities,
or depending on architect or designer preference. Stair
plan requirements can be different between jurisdictions.
Fundamental requirements include showing the rise, run,
11
and transportation. Although ADA regulations are and headroom noted on the floor plans and in a simple
not required in the design and construction of section detail. Most architects and designers typically
private homes, the regulations do provide excellent provide a section through the house at the stairs, to
guidelines for designing a home with access and graphically show the rise, run, and minimum headroom
facilities for homeowners with disabilities. requirements are met. Plan requirements can be more
complicated when a stair turns, making it necessary to
BASIC STAIR CHARACTERISTICS provide additional stair sections and construction details.
Carefully look through the set of plans for the home
When stairs are used in a home, they are a key part of you are building to find the related stair drawings and
the floor plans as described previously. Additional stair information. Most sets of plans have general notes pages
drawings such as a stair section or construction detail that also describe stair construction including railing
can be included in the set of plans, but not required. requirements. The stair section shown in Figure 11.11 (on
A stair section or construction detail is provided in the p. 388) is a typical example and provides additional stair
set of plans if the stair complexity makes it necessary, terminology and definitions.

385
Stair construction

Figure 11.7  Stairs between two walls.

 The average set of home stairs has 14–15 risers

between two floors.
 To calculate the total run, multiply the length of
a run by the number of runs (R). With the stairs in
Figure 11.11 as an example, use the formula: Number
of Runs (R) × Dimension of One Run = Total Run. If
the stairs in Figure 11.11 has 13 runs and each run is 11
inches, then 11 × 13R = 143 inches, or 11′-11″ is the
total run. The total run of the stairs is the horizontal
distance from the face of the first riser to the face of
the last riser.
 Landings take up additional space, and they should be
as deep as the stairs are wide. For example, a 36-inch
(900 mm) wide stairway has a minimum landing that
measures 36 × 36 inches (900 × 900 mm).
 Minimum stair width is 36 inches (900 mm), but more
width, such as 48–60 inches (1,200–1,500 mm), is
preferred if space is available.
 Stair tread depth should be 10–12 inches (250–
300 mm), with 10 inches minimum.
 Individual risers can range between 6 and 9 inches
Figure 11.6  A flight of stairs with guardrails all around
(150–220 mm) in height. A comfortable riser height is
at the top level and a handrail running down the stairs.
7-1/4 inches. Each riser height measurement should not
vary more than 3/8 inch (10 mm).
 The stair angle should be between 30 degrees and 35
Stair layout depends on the amount of space available, degrees when measured from the floor.
comfortable use of the stairs, and code requirements.  A clear height of 6′-8″ is the minimum amount of
The stair layout and specifications are already created by headroom required for the length of the stairs.
the architect or designer when you see the plans, but you A headroom clearance height of 7′-0″ is preferred.
should be familiar with stair characteristics. The following  Stairs with over three risers require handrails. Stairs
outlines fundamental stair design and construction must have a handrail that measures between 34 and
characteristics: 38 inches (860–965 mm) above the nosing as shown in
 There is always one less run than rise in a flight of Figure 11.11. Handrails are placed at a blank wall along
stairs. For example, the stairs in Figure 11.11 with 14 a flight of stairs to be used for support, and should run
risers has 13 runs. Run is the horizontal dimension of the entire length of the stairs, even though the stairs
one tread, measured from the face of one riser to the are enclosed between two walls. Railings must extend
face of the next riser, or from the edge of one nosing 6 inches (150 mm) past the edge of the first and last
to the edge of the next nosing. Rise, previously defined, step.
is the vertical distance between one tread and another.  Guardrails are placed where there is no protective
Nosing is the edge part of the tread that projects from wall. They serve the dual purpose of protecting people
the face of the riser below as shown in Figure 11.11. from falling off the edge of the stairs and providing

386
 Stair construction

UP 14R DN 14R
34" HANDRAIL 34" HANDRAIL

36" GUARDRAIL 36" GUARDRAIL

Figure 11.9  The plan view of winder and spiral stairs.

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide showing a stair section

with stair terminology labeled similar to Figure 11.11.

Stair framing
Continue to use Figure 11.11 as an example as you discover
the following stair framing applications and terminology.
The stairs in Figure 11.11 provide a typical framing example,
11
but many alternatives and options are possible. The stairs
in Figure 11.11 are framed between two floors with a closet
space provided under the stairs at the first floor. This is a
Figure 11.8  Stacked stairs with one flight going up
common design, allowing the space under the stairs to be
and the other down. This position is common when
used for storage or a closet, such as an entry coat closet.
access from the main floor to both the second floor and
When this design is used, the stair and adjacent wall
basement or second and third floors is designed for the
framing is generally covered with drywall, and a door is
same area.
added to complete the enclosed area.
The main structural supports for a stairs are called
a rail for support. Guardrails at landings above stairs, stringers. Stringers, also called carriage or stair horse,
at balconies, at lofts, or at any area above another are the supporting members running the length of a stair
floor must be at least 36 inches (914 mm) high above incline on which treads and risers are mounted. Stringers
the floor and have openings no greater than 4 inches need to be made with lumber that provides substantial
(102 mm) between railings and balusters. support. 2 × 12 dimensional lumber is commonly used,

387
Figure 11.10  The number of steps into a sunken or raised room are noted with an arrow.

Figure 11.11  A typical stair section with stair construction terminology labeled.
 Stair construction

with at least three stringers used to frame the stairs. work on a set of stairs. Exceptional attention to accuracy
One stringer is placed at each side and one in the middle and detail is required when building and finishing stairs.
of the stair for 36-inch (900-mm) wide stairs. Additional Stringers need to be accurately laid out with the length
stringers or double stringers are used for wider stairs or and size of each rise and run carefully determined as
when the stairs are designed to carry additional weight. shown in Figure 11.13. The stairwell opening is framed
Solid blocking is generally placed mid-height between with double headers and double trimmers as described
the stringers to stabilize the stringers and provide for fire in Chapter 6, Floor Framing Materials and Construction.
blocking as shown in Figure 11.11. Fire blocking is used in Notice the double headers on each side of the stairwell
a variety of concealed or hollow construction places in the opening in Figure 11.11. An interior second floor partition is
framing of a home, such as between stringers, between framed directly above the left header in this example, and
studs in walls, between joists in floors and ceilings, and the upper ends of the stringers are fastened to the right
between rafters in specific roof framing locations. The fire header. The lower end of the stringers are cut into a 2 × 4
blocking fills and seals the construction cavity to prevent or or 2 × 6 shoe that is nailed through the subfloor and into
slow down the spread of fire. floor joists below. A shoe is a blocking used to reinforce
A stub partition is a short partition framed near the lower and stabilize the ends of stringers at the floor.
end of the stair stringers to provide a wall at the back of a
closet in Figure 11.11. This stub partition can be framed POWERPOINT
at any desired location depending on how much space is
used under the stairs. A doorway is framed on the end or Create one PowerPoint slide showing a stringer with
side of the under-stair area, providing access to the closet treads and risers cut out.
under the stairs. The framing under the stairs is covered
with Type X gypsum. Type X gypsum is 5/8-inch thick A skirt board is optional, but commonly used against the
drywall, manufactured for use in locations where building wall as a trim. A skirt board is a non-structural fascia used
codes require a fire resistance rating in home construction. to trim the sides of stairs to which the treads and risers are
The required handrail for the stairs in Figure 11.11 is fitted. Riser and tread material is typically fastened to the
installed at a height of 34–38 inches (900 mm) above the stringers with construction adhesive and screws to help
nosing. This stairway is enclosed by walls on both sides keep the steps from squeaking when used. Risers and
making a handrail required along one side. treads can be made with plywood when the finish material
Stringer layout and cutting is generally done by an is carpet pad and carpet. Carpeting can be wrapped around
experienced framer. Some contractors have the rough the nosing or the nosing can be flush with the riser and cut
framing done by the framers, and the stair construction at a 45-degree angle for a smooth transition of carpeting
performed by a stairbuilder. A stairbuilder is a specially from the tread to the riser as shown in Figure 11.14. The
skilled finish carpenter who designs and builds stairways stair treads and risers are often made from fine hardwood
and guardrail systems. Figure 11.12 shows stairbuilders at to demonstrate the architectural beauty of wood as shown
in Figure 11.15(a). Carpet is commonly used on the stairs
for quiet comfort and beauty as shown in Figure 11.15(b).
Hardwood is wood from a broadleaf tree, but more
specifically one of the fine hardwoods typically used in
finish architectural applications, such as cherry, oak, maple,
11
and walnut. These woods have beautiful grain and provide a
durable surface. Softwood can be used for treads and risers
when a more rustic look is desired; however, softwoods are
not as durable as hardwoods. Softwood is wood that comes
from a coniferous tree, such as cedar, fir, hemlock, and pine.
The finished hardwood or softwood treads and risers are
usually attached to a base plywood tread and riser using
construction adhesive as shown in Figure 11.16.

POWERPOINT
Figure 11.12  Stair builders at work on a set of stairs.
Create one PowerPoint slide showing stair stringer
Exceptional attention to accuracy and detail is required
with tread and riser for carpet installation..
when building and finishing stairs.

389
 Total run

11 1/4"

2 X 12 dimensional lumber

Total rise

Total length

Run

Rise

Figure 11.13  Stringers need to be accurately laid out with the length and size of each rise and run carefully
determined.

Figure 11.14  Plywood tread and risers used for finish carpeting.
 Stair construction

(a)

(a)

(b)
Figure 11.15  (a) The stair treads and risers are
11
often made from fine hardwood to demonstrate the
architectural beauty of wood. (b) Carpet is commonly
used on the stairs for quiet comfort and beauty.

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide showing stair stringer

with hardwood tread and riser installation.

When the stairs are open on one side, the stringer is

generally covered with hardwood or painted wood trim (b)
called a face stringer, and balusters are attached to the Figure 11.16  (a) Stairs with hardwood tread and
treads as shown in Figure 11.17(a), or to a bottom rail or risers. (b) Construction of stairs with hardwood treads
and risers.
391
Figure 11.17  When the stairs are open on one side, the stringer is generally covered with hardwood or painted wood
trim called a face stringer, and balusters are attached to the treads or to a bottom rail or shoe rail. (a) A face stringer is a
stringer on the open side of stairs generally covered with hardwood or painted wood trim, and balusters are attached
to the treads. (b) The bottom rail is a short wall built above a stringer to enclose the ends of the treads and risers and
used to attach the balusters. (c) Balusters can also be fastened to the side of the face stringer and to the handrail.
 (b)

11

Figure 11.17  (Continued)

Stair construction

shoe rail. A face stringer is an exposed stringer on the A housed stringer, also called a routed stringer, can be
open side of stairs. The bottom rail is a short wall built used on high-quality handcrafted stairs. A housed stringer
up above a stringer to enclose the ends of the treads is a closed stringer that has the ends of the treads and
and risers and used to attach the balusters as shown in risers recessed into channels cut into the stringer as
Figure 11.17(b). A shoe rail is used to receive the square shown in Figure 11.18 and Figure 11.12.
bottom end of balusters when they are not connected
directly to the treads. An alternative to fastening the
balusters to the treads or bottom rail is to attach the POWERPOINT
balusters vertically to the side of the face stringer as
shown in Figure 11.17(c). The balusters can be attached to Create one PowerPoint slide showing two methods
the face stringer using screws that have a counterbore into for connecting balusters to the risers of stairs.
the balusters and a wood plug used to cover the hole.
Alternately, a pilot hole can be drilled without a counterbore Building freestanding stairs
when the fastener heads are exposed and selected for
their desired appearance. A wood plug is a cylindrical flat A freestanding stairs, also called open stairs, has
or rounded wooden plug of the same diameter as the stringers or carriages that are unsupported by walls,
counterbore, used to plug the holes bored for concealed and attached only to the floor at the bottom and the
fasteners. Wood plugs can be the same wood species to structural framing at the top. Freestanding stairs are
match the balusters when a natural wood appearance is often used in contemporary architecture, as shown in
desired, or paint grade when the balusters are painted. Figure 11.19, because of the simple style, and used in
Paint grade is any wood or other material that looks best rustic architecture with natural exposed wood stringers
when painted, and is less expensive than stain grade. and treads. Freestanding stairs are also often used as a
Stain grade wood generally matches the wood species basic and inexpensive way to build outside stairs. This
where it is assembled and is used with stain and clear is commonly done by using three stringers with heavy
finish to accent the natural wood beauty. boards, such as 2 × 12s, for treads, and using no risers

Figure 11.18  A housed stringer is a closed stringer that has the ends of the treads and risers recessed into
channels cut into the stringer.

394
 Stair construction

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide showing basic

freestanding stair construction.

There are a variety of methods that can be used to build

freestanding stairs, with two typical techniques shown
in Figure 11.21. To maintain the best open stairs design,
one heavy carriage is used on each side of the stair. The
term carriage is substituted for stringer in this application,
because the carriage is generally considered more heavy-
duty than typical stringers. The carriage material is generally
selected for strength and appearance. High-quality 4 ×
Figure 11.19  Freestanding stairs are often used in 12, 6 × 12, 4 × 14, or 6 × 14 dimensional or rough sawn
contemporary architecture. The guardrails are not yet lumber is an option depending on structural engineering,
installed on these stairs. or glu-lams can be used for a more contemporary look
and for the availability of quality material. The treads are
as shown in Figure 11.20. A concrete slab can be used for also selected for strength and appearance, with 3X or 4X
a landing at the base of the stairs, and the bottom of the dimensional lumber or glu-lam material used. Hardwood
stringers are placed on a tar pad or pressure treated wood lumber can also be selected for desired appearance.
to minimize decay. Figure 11.21(a) shows the carriages attached to the floor

11

Figure 11.20  Free standing stairs are also often used as a basic and inexpensive way to build outside stairs. This
is commonly done by using three stringers with heavy boards such as 2 × 12s for treads with no risers. A concrete
slab can be used for a landing at the base of the stairs, and the bottom of the stringers are placed on a tar pad or
pressure treated wood to minimize decay.

395
Figure 11.21  Typical techniques for building freestanding stairs. (a) Carriages attached to the floor structure
using steel angles and lag bolts. Treads are fastened to the carriages with steel angles and lag bolts. (b) In this
example, a cutout is made in each carriage where the treads are recessed into the cutouts.
 Stair construction

structure using steel angles and lag bolts. The lag bolts U-shape. Figure 11.22 shows a straight contemporary open
can fasten directly to floor joists below or to solid blocking stair design.
between floor joists. The treads are fastened to the
carriages with steel angles and lag bolts. The steel angles Building spiral stairs
and bolt heads are generally painted for appearance. Spiral stair manufacturers provide spiral stair kits that can
Figure 11.21(b) shows an application without using steel be used for almost any home design application and to
angles. In this example, a cutout is made in each carriage meet local and national building codes. Spiral stair kits are
where the treads are recessed into the cutouts and available in a variety of materials including metal and wood.
secured with construction adhesive. Each cutout depth is Figure 11.23 shows a spiral stair installation.
made at least half the thickness of the carriage material.
Concrete stairs
POWERPOINT Concrete stairs are common in commercial and industrial
construction projects, and used in homes for access to the
Create one PowerPoint slide showing two different garage and to a concrete porch or patio. The distance from
freestanding stair construction practices using side the floor inside the home to the floor of the garage or patio
carriages. can vary depending on the type of construction used to
build the home. For example, post and beam construction
Manufacturers provide freestanding stair kits that can be allows for a minimum distance from the floor inside the
purchased to fit in nearly any home design and stair type. home to the garage where only one step is needed as
Products include wood or steel stair kits or a combination shown in Figure 11.24(a). Typical floor joist construction
of materials and styles. The kits are generally ordered can require two or three steps from the floor inside the
based on specific home dimensions for total run and home to the garage floor depending on the sizes of the
rise, and stair configuration such as straight, L-shape, or framing members. A small wood stairs can be built for

11

Figure 11.22  A straight contemporary open stair design.

397
Stair construction

Figure 11.23  A spiral stair installation.

this application or a concrete stairs can be constructed.

Figure 11.24(b) shows concrete stairs with three steps
TEST
from the home floor to the garage floor. The concrete slab
Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
under the stairs and over the foundation footing should
the test for this chapter.
be expanded to fill the area. Steel reinforcing bars can be
used to minimize cracks in the concrete and depending on
structural engineering specifications.
PROBLEMS

Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
RESEARCH
the problems for this chapter.
Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
research options and topics that correlate with
the content of this chapter.

398
 11

Figure 11.24  Concrete stairs are common in commercial and industrial construction projects, and used in homes
for access to the garage and to a concrete porch or patio. The distance from the floor inside the home to the floor
of the garage or patio can vary depending on the type of construction used to build the home. (a) For example,
post and beam construction allows for a minimum distance from the floor inside the home to the garage where
only one step is needed. Typical floor joist construction can require two or three steps from the floor inside the
home to the garage floor depending on the sizes of the framing members. A small wood stairs can be built for
this application or a concrete stairs can be constructed. (b) Concrete stairs with three steps from the home floor
to the garage floor. The concrete slab under the stairs and over the foundation footing should be expanded to
fill the area. Steel reinforcing bars can be used to minimize cracks in the concrete and depending on structural
engineering specifications.
 CHAPTER 12
Fireplace construction
Learning objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
 Read fireplace symbols, notes, and dimensions on floor plans and sections.
 Identify and describe types of fireplaces and define fireplace terminology.
 Discuss the difference between direct-vent, self-venting, and vent-free gas fireplaces.
 Explain the use of electric fireplaces.
 Describe masonry fireplace materials, construction practices, and terminology.
 Identify the note given for combustion air and explain the importance of combustion air.
 Discuss the function and installation of solid fuel–burning appliances.
 Continue the Description of Materials form started in previous chapters as related to fireplace materials and
construction practices.
 Create PowerPoint presentations related to fireplace types, materials, and construction practices.
 Answer questions related to fireplace types, materials, and construction practices.
 Continue fireplace construction or installation on the actual home team project option started in previous
chapters, if the home has a fireplace or solid fuel–burning appliance.

INTRODUCTION on the architectural style. A fireplace can be built without

a mantel. A ­Craftsman-style home is likely to have a
A fireplace was historically used in the home for heating,
fireplace surrounded by masonry such as brick or stone
cooking, and other beneficial purposes necessary for
as shown in Figure 12.2(a). A contemporary fireplace
daily life. Even today, a cabin in the mountains is likely
can have a unique design as shown in Figure 12.2(b).
to have a fireplace that is used for heat in addition to the
A fireplace can have a masonry or steel manufactured
atmosphere that the warm glow of a natural wood fire
firebox. The firebox is the chamber built or manufactured
provides. In general architectural terms, a fireplace is a
structure designed and built to surround a fire. A fireplace to hold the fire in a fireplace. A steel manufactured
is used in most homes today to provide an architectural firebox can be built into a masonry structure or in wood
statement and for the warm and romantic glow that a framing when it is a zero clearance unit. A zero clearance
fire provides. The fireplace is typically designed to match fireplace is a manufactured steel fireplace that can be
the architectural style of the home. A traditional home placed safely near combustible material, making this an
typically has a fireplace surrounded by tile or marble and economical fireplace for use in a wood framing, with a
a formal mantel as shown in Figure 12.1. A mantel is chimney or with a vent directly to the outside without
generally a shelf above the fireplace opening that can a chimney. The term zero clearance fireplace is used to
be decorative with ornate craftsmanship, a wood timber describe these units, but most manufactured fireplaces
mounted to the wall, or a masonry projection depending have clearance required to combustible material.

401
Fireplace construction

Figure 12.1  A traditional home typically has a fireplace surrounded by tile or marble and a formal mantel.

A chimney is conduit or pipe that transfers smoke and wood burning. Gas logs are manufactured ceramic or
combustion gases up from a fireplace or furnace through ceramic fiber logs placed over a natural gas or propane
the roof or out through the wall of the home. A fireplace burner to provide dramatic realism of a traditional wood
can be a freestanding manufactured wood or gas flame as in Figure 12.4. Natural gas is a natural occurring
burning appliance as shown in Figure 12.3. A freestanding underground flammable gas that is used as fuel. Propane
fireplace is a manufactured metal appliance made to hold is a flammable gas found in natural gas and bottled as a
a fire. Most fireplaces today have gas logs rather than fuel.

402
 (a)

12

(b)
Figure 12.2  (a) A Craftsman-style home is likely to have a fireplace surrounded by masonry such as brick or
stone. (b) A contemporary fireplace can have a unique design.
 Figure 12.3  A fireplace can be a freestanding manufactured wood or gas burning appliance.

Figure 12.4  Most fireplaces today have gas logs rather than wood burning. Gas logs are manufactured ceramic
or ceramic fiber logs placed over a natural gas or propane burner to provide dramatic realism of a traditional wood
flame.

404
 Fireplace construction

FIREPLACE TYPES AND FLOOR PLAN

POWERPOINT
REPRESENTATIONS
Fireplaces are commonly constructed using masonry. Create one PowerPoint slide showing the six basic
Masonry fireplaces are constructed of brick or stone and types of fireplaces described in this section.
the firebox is constructed with fire brick. Fire brick is brick
made of refractory ceramic material which withstands high
temperatures. A typical single masonry fireplace floor plan Manufactured fireplaces
representation, minimum dimensions, and terminology The popularity of manufactured fireplaces has increased,
is shown in Figure 12.5. A single fireplace is also called a due to their low construction cost as compared with
single-faced fireplace that has one opening on one side of masonry fireplace and chimney construction. Manufactured
the structure built along one wall. fireplaces made of steel can be installed in a masonry
The floor plan representations for other types of masonry structure as shown in Figure 12.7(a) or in a wood-framed
fireplaces are shown in Figure 12.6. The back-to-back structure. Installing a manufactured fireplace in a wood-
double fireplace is used when it is desired to have a framed structure is not obvious to the homeowner, because
fireplace in two rooms of the home where the fireboxes the interior appearance can be built to match any interior
are built into one structure. A back-to-back double decoration such as the tile surrounding the fireplace
fireplace can also be constructed with one firebox directly opening shown in Figure 12.7(b). Fireplace fireboxes
behind the other. This is a good option when one firebox made of steel are available from various manufacturers.
is open to inside the home and the other is open to the These prefabricated fireplaces are popular because of their
outdoors for an outside fire. The corner fireplace is a increased efficiency over the masonry firebox. Energy
single fireplace built at the intersection of two walls. The efficiency of the fireplace can have additional improvement
double faced see-through fireplace has a firebox that is with manufactured units containing a heat exchanger.
open to two adjacent rooms. The three-faced fireplace is A heat exchanger transfers the heat created in the firebox
open on three sides. The two-faced fireplace is open on to the convection air and into the room. Some heat
two sides. exchangers add to their efficiency with fans that circulate air

Figure 12.5  A typical single masonry fireplace floor plan representation, minimum dimensions, and terminology. 12
Common fireplace opening width and height, and firebox depth dimensions are based on fireplace standards
given in Table 12.1.

Table 12.1  Standard fireplace dimensions.

Opening Firebox
Width Height Depth
36 (900 mm) 24 (600 mm) 22 (560 mm)
40 (800 mm) 27 (680 mm) 22 (560 mm)
48 (1,200 mm) 30 (760 mm) 25 (636 mm)
60 (1,500 mm) 33 (840 mm) 25 (635 mm)

405
Figure 12.6  The floor plan representations for types of fireplaces.

(a)
Figure 12.7  (a) A manufactured fireplace installed in a masonry structure. Continued on next page.
 Fireplace construction

(b)
12
Figure 12.7  (Continued) (b) Installing a manufactured fireplace in a wood-framed structure is not obvious to
the homeowner, because the interior appearance can be built to match any interior decoration such as the tile
surrounding the fireplace opening in this home.

around the firebox and into the room. Convection air is the be used with wood-framed chimneys. The floor plan
movement of heated air that rises and is replaced by cooler representation of a steel fireplace built into a wood-framed
air causing air circulation. structure is shown in Figure 12.9. These units are referred
The floor plan representation of a steel fireplace built to as zero-clearance fireplaces as previously described.
into a masonry structure is shown in Figure 12.8. There The insulated metal fireplace unit and flue can be placed
are also insulated fireplace units made of steel that can next to or with a clearance air space from a wood-framed

407
Fireplace construction

Figure 12.8 The floor plan representation of a steel fireplace built into a masonry structure. Combustion air is
also provided as a screened closable vent and confirmed by codes and manufacturer specifications.

Figure 12.9 The floor plan representation of a steel fireplace built into a wood-framed structure.

structure. Always verify building code clearances and Direct-vent fireplaces are generally sealed-combustion
manufacturer specifications before constructing the wood- heaters. The exhaust gases exit through the center, and
frame structure for a specific zero-clearance fireplace. combustion air is drawn into the fireplace through the outer
chamber. The air is heated in passages behind the metal
Direct-vent, self-venting, and vent-free firebox, and the room air does not come into contact with the
gas fireplaces flames. Heat radiates through the glass doors and is forced by
convection or fans around the firebox and into the room. The
Where environmental restrictions on wood-burning
doors open only for maintenance. A direct-vent fireplace has a
fireplaces exist, manufactured direct-vent, self-venting,
chimney or flue that is vented through the roof or out the wall.
and vent-free gas fireplaces are available for the home.
These fireplaces provide a gas fire around realistic-looking The flue can be exposed or in a framed enclosure extended
ceramic logs, without the mess and labor or pollution above the roof. A flue is any vent or chimney that connects a
involved in burning wood. These systems are commonly combustion device with the outside, and the passageway in a
designed with safety features such as control panels, chimney for conveying gases to the outdoors.
thermostatic controls, and remote controls. These A self-venting fireplace can be vented directly out the wall
fireplaces do not affect indoor air quality, which makes behind the fireplace. A vent-free fireplace is installed without
them a good choice for energy-efficient construction. They a flue, does not draw outside air to fuel the fire, and has no
are also economical, making them a consideration when exhaust gases to the outside. A vent-free fireplace burns so
the cost of a masonry fireplace is not feasible. efficiently that there is no need for venting.

408
 Fireplace construction

Electric fireplaces
NOTE
An electric fireplace, such as the one shown in
Any zero-clearance wood-burning, direct-vent, Figure 12.10, can provide the realism and atmosphere
self-venting, or vent-free gas fireplace must be of conventional wood-burning and gas-log fireplaces
designed, installed, operated, and maintained in with less expensive installation and maintenance
strict compliance with manufacturer specifications requirements. These fireplaces require 110- or 220-volt
and building and fire code regulations. Information electrical wiring depending on the manufacturer
about possible code restrictions and installation specifications. Electric fireplaces produce very little
requirements should be established with local heat, allowing them to be installed directly against wood
building and fire officials before specifying these framing. There is no ventilation required, so electric
on the design or installing during construction. fireplaces can be used in locations where no venting
Automatic switches might be specified to shut off source is available and other types of fireplaces are not
the unit if it overheats. Improper installation can suitable. Electric fireplaces are generally inexpensive to
cause an explosion, carbon monoxide poisoning, or operate and are highly efficient.
excessive condensation inside the home.
Many areas have initiated guidelines that help Wood storage
control air pollution from solid fuel–burning
Fireplace wood can be stored near the fireplace.
fireplaces and appliances. The installation of a
A special room or an area in a garage next to the
catalytic converter or other air filtering devices
fireplace can be a good location for wood storage.
can be required. Check with local regulations and
A wood storage compartment built into the masonry next
confirm manufacturer specifications. A catalytic
to a fireplace opening can also be provided for storing a
converter is a device that contains a catalyst
small amount of firewood. The floor plan representation
for converting pollutant gases into less harmful
of a fireplace with wood storage next to it is shown in
emissions.
Figure 12.11.

12

Figure 12.10  An electric fireplace.

409
Fireplace construction

footing as determined by structural engineering. Typical

construction and terminology for a one-story masonry
fireplace and joist construction with a crawl space is
shown in Figure 12.13. The following describes fireplace
terminology starting with constructing a fireplace structure
from the ground upward. The fireplace footing is a solid
reinforced concrete structure engineered to carry the
weight of the fireplace and effectively distribute the load
Figure 12.11  The floor plan representation of a to the ground. The footing is usually 12 inches (300 mm)
fireplace with wood storage. thick and extending at least 6 inches (150 mm) all around
past the fireplace structure depending on structural
engineering. Steel rebar is generally placed both ways in
Built-in masonry barbecue the footing to provide reinforcing. The fireplace structure
When a home has a fireplace in a room next to the dining continues upward from the footing using a combination
room, nook, or kitchen, the masonry structure can also of concrete block, brick, and other masonry materials as
incorporate a built-in barbecue. A barbecue is an appliance desired. Concrete block and structural brick is used for
such as a grill, a spit, or a fireplace for cooking food over an economy to build the supporting structure that is hidden
open fire or heat source. The floor plan representation for behind other construction materials. The term structural
a barbecue is shown in Figure 12.12. A built-in barbecue brick is used here to describe economic brick used to build
can be purchased as a prefabricated unit that is set into the a structure and not selected for appearance. Face brick or
masonry structure surrounding the fireplace. There can be other masonry such as stone is used to cover the fireplace
a gas or electricity supply to the barbecue as a source of structure providing the desired exterior appearance. Face
heat for cooking. As an alternative, the barbecue unit can brick is made especially for exterior use with special color,
be built into the exterior structure of a fireplace for outdoor pattern, texture, and size consideration. The hearth and
cooking. The barbecue can also be installed separately from outer hearth is a reinforced concrete slab that rests on the
a fireplace and located in an outside cooking area. structure below and upon which the firebox is constructed.
The hearth slab is built by the mason using welded wire
fabric for reinforcement and to keep the concrete from
cracking.

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide showing masonry

fireplace construction with a floor-level hearth similar
to Figure 12.13.

The hearth is the portion inside the firebox that is covered

by firebrick. The outer hearth is the part that extends past
the fireplace opening into the room to provide protection
from fireplace heat and from sparks that can result when
Figure 12.12 The floor plan representation for a bar-
burning firewood. The outer hearth is covered with any non-
becue and fireplace combination.
combustible material that matches the fireplace design,
such as brick, stone, or tile. The fireplace in Figure 12.13
has a floor-level hearth, built at the same level as the floor
MASONRY FIREPLACE CONSTRUCTION
inside the home next to the fireplace. A raised hearth is
Masonry is the traditional construction material used built above the floor level by continuing the lower structure
to build fireplaces. A masonry fireplace is built with a to support the hearth to the desired height. The fireplace
combination of any type of masonry product, including footing is generally expanded to include the raised hearth
brick, stone, and concrete block. A complete set of plans structure as shown in Figure 12.14. Alternately, the
for a home can have a fireplace section or detail, but it is reinforced hearth slab can extend out without support
not always required. The foundation plan always has the below to provide a cantilever hearth that is often preferred
location dimensions and specifications for the fireplace in contemporary architecture.

410
 12

Figure 12.13  Typical construction and terminology for a one-story masonry fireplace with a floor-level hearth
and joist construction with a crawl space.
Figure 12.14 Typical construction and terminology for a one-story masonry fireplace with a raised hearth and
joist construction with a crawl space.
 Fireplace construction

a cavity for the accumulation of ashes below the firebox

POWERPOINT in the structure of a fireplace. The cleanout is a door in
the ash pit that allows the ashes to be removed. A single
Create one PowerPoint slide showing masonry
one-story fireplace such as the one in Figure 12.13 and
fireplace construction with a raised hearth similar to
12.14 generally has a cleanout door on the outside of the
Figure 12.14.
fireplace that provides access to the ash pit. Figure 12.15
shows a fireplace built starting with a concrete footing in a
An optional ash dump, ash pit, and cleanout can be basement. The fireplace structure continues up to the first
built into the fireplace. The ash dump is a small opening floor using concrete block, structural brick, and face brick
with a cast iron door located in the hearth, used to dump as previously described. The ash pit in this example is the
the ashes down into an ash pit below the firebox. The entire cavity in the fireplace structure below the ash dump.
opening for the ash dump is formed in the hearth when The cleanout door allows access to the ash pit from the
the mason pours the concrete for the slab. An ash pit is basement.

Grade

Ash dump
Outside hearth

Inside hearth

Expansion joint

Ash pit
12
Cleanout door

Concrete footing

Concrete slab basement floor

Figure 12.15  A fireplace built starting with a concrete footing in a basement. The fireplace structure continues
up to the first floor using concrete block, structural brick, and face brick. The ash pit is the entire cavity in the fire-
place structure below the ash dump. The cleanout door allows access to the ash pit from the basement.

413
Fireplace construction

used to deflect or break downdrafts from the chimney, and

POWERPOINT collect rain that enters the chimney. The smoke chamber
is a tapered area above the fireplace and below the flue,
Create one PowerPoint slide showing a fireplace
used to allow smoke to mix and rise into the flue. Flues
built starting with a concrete footing in a basement,
must be designed to provide proper ventilation and draft
with the fireplace structure continuing up to the first
for the fireplace. Table 12.2 gives general guidelines for
floor using concrete block, structural brick, and face
standard fireplace openings and chimney heights. Flues for
brick. The ash pit is the entire cavity in the fireplace
custom designs and multistory chimney heights should be
structure below the ash dump. The cleanout door
confirmed with the masonry contractor, masonry supply, or
provides access to the ash pit from the basement
fireplace manufacturer.
similar to Figure 12.15.

Table 12.2  General guidelines for standard fireplace

openings and chimney heights.
Building codes require that combustion air be provided
to the fireplace. Combustion air is outside air supplied in Opening Opening Depth Flue size
width height
sufficient quantity for fuel combustion. The air is supplied
through a closable screened duct that is built by masons 24 (600 mm) 24 (600 mm) 18 (430 mm) 8 × 12 (200 × 300 mm)
from the outside into the firebox. By providing outside air, 32 (800 mm) 27 (680 mm) 20 (500 mm) 12 × 12 (300 × 300 mm)
the combustion air vent prevents the fireplace from using 36 (900 mm) 29 (730 mm) 20 (500 mm) 12 × 12 (300 × 300 mm)
the heated air from the room for combustion, maintaining 40 (800 mm) 27 (680 mm) 24 (600 mm) 16 × 16 (400 × 400 mm)
indoor oxygen levels, and helping keep heated air from
60 (1,500 mm) 37 (940 mm) 24 (600 mm) 16 × 20 (400 × 500 mm)
going up the chimney. Always confirm combustion air
requirements and specifications with building codes.
Look for a note similar to this on the floor plans near the
The fireplace flue, also called the flue lining, is a round,
fireplace and on a fireplace section or detail: PROVIDE
square, or rectangular clay product. A flue lining is a series
OUTSIDE COMBUSTION AIR TO WITHIN 24″, or PROVIDE
of connected hollow sections of hard burned clay that
SCREENED CLOSABLE VENT TO OUTSIDE AIR WITHIN
protect the home against escape of gases or fire from the
24″ OF FIREBOX.
flue. Flue linings are sized by outside dimensions and the
The firebox is made using fire brick as previously described. inside area in square inches as shown in Figure 12.16. The
The masonry along the top outside edge of the firebox is typical flue lining length is 24 inches (600 mm). Flue lining
supported by a steel angle lintel. A lintel is a horizontal sections are connected with smooth clean mortar joints
support made of timber, masonry, concrete, or steel across to maintain maximum flue efficiency. The first section of
the top of a door, window, or other opening. A soldier row flue lining is placed just above the smoke chamber and
of brick is often used above the lintel, but any design can continues to the top of the chimney. Fireplace masonry
be used. The firebox width, height, and depth dimensions can taper down at the chimney to surround the flue
shown in Figure 12.13 are determined by the mason based lining with an air space between the flue lining and the
on the desired appearance, the room or area in the home face brick or other masonry such as stone as shown
where the fireplace is located, and the chimney height. in Figure 12.17. A chimney cap is made of mortar or
It is critical to make the combination of fireplace opening concrete above the masonry at the top of the chimney.
and flue size compatible for the fireplace to have proper The cap sheds weather off the chimney and keeps
draft. Draft, also referred to as chimney draft, is a current moisture from entering the masonry. The cap generally
of air and gases through the fireplace and chimney, which slopes away from the top of the flue and is larger than the
is the process of air being pulled from the area inside the top of the chimney to provide a slight overhang. The flue
home and through the fireplace opening, allowing hot air lining generally extends 3–4 inches (76–100 mm) above
to escape through the flue and out of the chimney. Draft the cap.
is very important for hot and polluted air from a burning
fire to escape the home. Fireplace smoke cannot escape
and can fill the home if the firebox opening and flue are
improperly sized. The fireplace throat size also plays a role POWERPOINT
in effective draft control. The throat is an opening next to
Create one PowerPoint slide showing flue linings
the smoke shelf and between the firebox and chimney
sized by outside dimensions and the inside area in
where the damper is located. The smoke shelf, also called a
square inches.
wind shelf, is a ledge at the bottom of a smoke chamber,

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 Fireplace construction

Figure 12.16  A flue lining is a series of connected hollow sections of hard burned clay that protect the home
against escape of gases or fire from the flue. Flue linings are round, square, or rectangular and sized by outside
dimensions and the inside area in square inches.

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide showing the fireplace

masonry at the chimney surrounding the flue lining
with an air space between the flue lining and the
face brick, and a chimney cap at the top of the
chimney.

Multilevel fireplaces
It is common to have a fireplace structure constructed up
through all floor levels of a home with a chimney exiting
at the roof in two- or three-story homes. This multilevel
structure allows for a fireplace to be placed at each floor.
Additional fireplace width is needed for the flues of all
stacked fireplaces to extend to the top of the chimney.
There must be a separate flue for each fireplace. This
means that the fireplace structure and the chimney need to
be sized large enough to accommodate the fireplaces and
12
the flues running up in the same structure. Figure 12.18
shows the floor plan representation for a fireplace at the
main floor and the second floor, and the chimney beyond
the second floor. If a third-floor fireplace is used, an
Figure 12.17  Fireplace masonry can taper down at additional flue is added to the structure. Flues are typically
the chimney to surround the flue lining with an air made vertical in the chimney, but multilevel fireplaces
space between the flue lining and the face brick or typically require one or more flues to be installed at an
other masonry such as stone. angle for a short distance as they continue up the chimney.

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Fireplace construction

Figure 12.18  The floor plan representation for a fireplace at the main floor and the second floor, and the chimney
beyond the second floor. This example represents minimum construction dimensions. An alternate design would
provide equal masonry on the right and left side of the main floor fire box for preferred appearance.

Any angle in the flue should be no more than 25 degrees nationally recognized safety standards and be noted
from vertical. The chimney above the second floor can on the floor plan or in the construction specifications
taper to a smaller size than the fireplace structure below, with wording such as: ICC APPROVED WOOD STOVE
but it needs to be large enough to house the flues with AND INSTALLATION REQUIRED. VERIFY ACTUAL
an approved air space and minimum masonry material INSTALLATION REQUIREMENTS WITH MANUFACTURER
surrounding the flues. Flues must be designed to provide SPECIFICATIONS AND LOCAL FIRE MARSHAL OR
proper ventilation and draft for the fireplace. BUILDING CODE GUIDELINES.
Verify rules for solid fuel–burning appliances with the
local fire marshal or building code guidelines. Figure 12.19
POWERPOINT
shows the floor plan representations for three solid fuel–
Create one PowerPoint slide showing the floor burning appliance installations. The following describes
plan representation for a fireplace at the main floor typical installation considerations for solid fuel–burning
and the second floor, and the chimney beyond the appliances.
second floor.
Floor protection
Combustible floors must be protected under a solid fuel–
SOLID FUEL–BURNING APPLIANCES
burning appliance. Figure 12.20 shows a solid fuel–burning
Solid fuel–burning appliances are products such as appliance constructed in an alcove recessed in the wall,
airtight stoves, freestanding fireplaces, fireplace stoves, and required floor protection. Floor protection material
room heaters, zero-clearance fireplaces, antique stoves, is noncombustible, with no cracks or holes, and strong
and fireplace inserts for existing masonry fireplaces. enough not to crack, tear, or puncture with normal use.
Solid fuel–burning appliances should comply with Materials commonly used are brick, stone, tile, or metal.

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Figure 12.19  The floor plan representations for three solid fuel–burning appliance installations.

12

Figure 12.20  A solid fuel–burning appliance constructed in a masonry alcove, and required floor protection.
Fireplace construction

Wall protection materials must be handled with specific procedures.

Proper wall protection is critical behind a solid Asbestos board can be a health hazard if the
fuel–burning appliance. Direct application of products are damaged during installation, removal,
noncombustible materials does not provide adequate or demolition. Asbestos fibers can become airborne
protection. Confirm manufacturer and code requirements and present a serious health risk when asbestos
for solid fuel–burning appliance minimum distances to board is power washed, sanded, sawed, drilled,
combustible wall. Typical wall protection includes removed, or demolished. Heat, water, weathering,
non-combustible material with a 1 inch (25 mm) airspace and aging can also weaken asbestos sheets,
between the wall and non-combustible material, plus a allowing fibers imbedded in the cement to become
bottom opening for air intake and a top opening for air airborne.
exhaust to provide positive air change behind the structure. The US Environmental Protection Agency
This construction helps reduce superheated air next to (EPA) considers asbestos sheets to be a Category
combustible material as shown in Figure 12.21. II asbestos containing material (ACM). Category II
Non-combustible materials include brick, stone, or tile ACM is any material containing more than 1 percent
over cement asbestos board or non-asbestos products asbestos as determined using the methods specified
that meet the same fire-resistant qualities. Asbestos by the EPA. If asbestos material is not damaged, it
board is a sheet of construction material made from can be removed by driving the nails through the
asbestos cement. Minimum distances to walls should be sheet or cutting off the nail or screw heads. Asbestos
verified in regard to vendors’ specifications and local code sheets should be removed whole. Asbestos becomes
requirements. Figure 12.22 shows a solid fuel–burning easily crumbled if the material is broken during
appliance installed in a corner with stone masonry used as installation or removal. If the material becomes
the wall protection with appropriate clearances. crumbled, a licensed registered asbestos contractor
must handle the material. Asbestos sheets should
be kept wet to avoid the release of fibers during
disposal. All asbestos materials should be disposed
of according to the laws of each state. The EPA
recommends that all asbestos-containing materials
be disposed of by licensed professionals. Refer
to EPA guidelines for asbestos board installation,
removal and demolition.

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide showing wall protection

is critical behind a solid fuel-burning appliance
similar to Figure 12.21.

Figure 12.21  Typical wall protection includes non-

combustible material with a 1″ (25 mm) airspace
Combustion air
between the wall and non-combustible material, plus
a bottom opening for air intake and a top opening for Combustion air is generally required as a screened closable
air exhaust to provide positive air change behind the vent installed within 24 inches (600 mm) of the solid fuel-
structure. This construction helps reduce superheated burning appliance. Confirm the specific requirements with
air next to combustible material. manufacturer specifications and building codes.

NOTE

Asbestos board has not been banned for use in

construction, but asbestos products should be used
with caution, and demolition of existing asbestos

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 Fireplace construction

Figure 12.22  A solid fuel–burning appliance installed in a corner with stone masonry used as the wall protection.
12
RESEARCH PROBLEMS
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research options and topics that correlate with the problems for this chapter.
the content of this chapter.

TEST

Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
the test for this chapter.

419
 CHAPTER 13
Mechanical, plumbing,
and electrical systems
Learning objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
 Read mechanical, plumbing, and electrical system symbols and notes on floor plans.
 Identify and describe typical types of mechanical systems.
 Explain the function of a central forced air system.
 Interpret symbols and information found on a forced-air heating plan and schedules.
 Describe the hot water heating system, heat pump system, zone control system, radiant heat system, and related
terminology.
 Discuss the function and proper location for the thermostat.
 Describe rough and finish plumbing terminology and installation practices.
 Discuss types and sizes of plumbing pipes.
 Describe water systems, water heaters, hose bibbs, and terminology.
 Describe drainage and vent systems and terminology.
 Discuss plumbing placement and read plumbing schedules.
 Explain the importance of fire sprinkler systems.
 Identify and describe sewage disposal systems and storm drainage.
 Compare inch and metric values in plumbing.
 Describe electrical system terminology and installation practices.
 Identify the purpose and installation of the temporary, rough-in, and finish electrical phases.
 Discuss home automation systems and installation.
 Discuss wind- and solar-generated electricity and net-metering.
 Explain universal design applications related to HVAC, plumbing, and electrical.
 Continue the Description of Materials form started in previous chapters as related to mechanical, plumbing, and
electrical system materials and practices.
 Create PowerPoint presentations related to mechanical, plumbing, and electrical system applications.
 Answer questions related to mechanical, plumbing, and electrical system construction practices.
 Continue rough and finish mechanical, plumbing, and electrical system on the actual home team project option
started in previous chapters.

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Mechanical, plumbing, electrical systems

INTRODUCTION called air supply registers. An air supply register is a

grille with moving parts that can be opened, closed, and
This chapter introduces you to three final construction direct the air flow. The placement and size of registers is
phases that include the mechanical system, the important for HVAC efficiency. Warm air or cold air passes
plumbing system, and the electrical system. The through the ducts and registers to enter the rooms, and
mechanical system of the home provides heat, fresh or provides heating or cooling as needed. Air then flows from
conditioned air, and ventilation. Conditioned air refers to the room through another opening into the return duct,
a heated or cooled space within the home. The plumbing or return air register. The return duct directs the air from
system includes all of the pipes, tanks, fittings, and the rooms over the heating or cooling device. If warm
fixtures required for the water supply, water heating, and air is required, the return air is passed over the surface
sanitation in a home. The electrical system is a network of of either a combustion chamber, which is the part of a
wiring, outlets, and fixtures used to transmit and supply furnace where fuel is burned, or a heating coil. If cool air is
the electrical needs for a home. The home is dried-in required, the return air passes over the surface of a cooling
before the mechanical, plumbing, and electrical systems coil. Finally, the conditioned air is picked up again by the
can be installed, because the home needs to be dry and fan and the air cycle is repeated. Figure 13.1 shows the air
not subject to any further wetness from the weather. The cycle in a central forced-air system. Conditioned air is air
term dried-in was described in Chapter 8, Roof Framing that has been heated, cooled, humidified, or dehumidified
Materials and Construction. The only related construction to maintain an interior space within the desired comfort
phase done before dry-in is the installation of mechanical zone. The comfort zone is the range of temperatures,
equipment chimneys and vents, and plumbing roof vents humidity, and air velocities at which people generally feel
that are part of the roofing process. Mechanical equipment comfortable.
chimneys and vents and plumbing vents are describe later
in this chapter.
The National Energy Conservation Code regulates
the design and construction of the exterior envelope POWERPOINT
and selection of heating, ventilating, and air conditioning
Create one PowerPoint slide showing the air cycle in
(HVAC); service water heating; electrical distribution and
a central forced-air system.
illuminating systems; and equipment required for effective
use of energy in buildings for human occupancy. The
exterior envelope is made up of elements of a building that
enclose conditioned spaces through which thermal energy The heating cycle
transfers to or from the exterior.
If the air cycle previously described is used for heating,
the heat is generated in a furnace. Furnaces for residential
INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICAL heating produce heat by burning fuel oil or natural gas, or
SYSTEMS by using electric heating coils or heat pumps. If the heat
comes from burning fuel oil or natural gas, the combustion
Heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) is the takes place inside a combustion chamber. The air to be
terminology used to refer to the industry that deals with heated does not enter the combustion chamber but
the heating and air conditioning equipment and systems absorbs heat from the outer surface of the chamber. The
found in a home. The HVAC system is used to regulate gases given off by combustion are vented out through
temperature and filter the air in a home. This includes the the roof in a vent pipe or chimney. In an electric furnace,
furnace, air conditioning equipment, and duct systems, the air to be heated is passed directly over the heating
which ensure the uniform transfer of the cold, hot, and coils. This type of furnace does not require a vent pipe or
filtered air throughout the home. The duct system is chimney.
square, rectangular, and round sheet metal or plastic pipes
used to conduct hot or cold air of the HVAC system. The cooling cycle
If the air from the room is to be cooled, it is passed over a
Central forced air systems
cooling coil, which is a refrigeration system. The principal
Central forced air is one of the most common systems parts of a refrigeration system are the cooling coil called
for heating and air conditioning a home by circulating an evaporator, the compressor, the condenser, and the
the air from living spaces through or around heating or expansion valve. Figure 13.2 shows a diagram of the
cooling devices. A fan forces the air into sheet metal or cooling cycle. The cooling cycle operates when warm air
plastic pipes called ducts, which connect to openings from the ducts is passed over the evaporator. As the cold

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 Mechanical, plumbing, electrical systems

Figure 13.1  The air cycle in a central forced-air system. (a) Downdraft forced-air system air cycle. (b) Updraft
forced-air system air cycle.

liquid refrigerant moves through the evaporator coil, it picks Forced-air heating plans
up heat from the warm air. As the liquid picks up heat, it
Complete plans for the heating system are normally
changes to a vapor. The heated refrigerant vapor is then
needed when applying for a building permit or a mortgage
drawn into the compressor, where it is put under high
loan, depending on the requirements of the local building
pressure. This pressure raises the temperature of the vapor
department or the lending agency. Plans for the HVAC
even more. The high-temperature, high-pressure vapor
system show the size and location of all equipment,
passes to the condenser, where the heat is removed. This
ductwork, and components with accurate symbols,
is done by blowing air over the coils of the condenser. The
specifications, notes, and schedules that form the basis
high pressure vapor changes to a liquid as the condenser
of contract requirements for construction. Specifications
removes heat. From the condenser, the refrigerant flows
are documents that accompany the drawings and contain
to the expansion valve. As the liquid refrigerant passes
all written information related to the HVAC system. When
through the valve, the pressure is reduced, lowering the
forced-air electric, gas, or oil heating systems are used,
temperature of the liquid still further, so it picks up more
the warm-air outlets and return air locations can be seen
heat. The cold low-pressure liquid then moves to the
on the plan as in Figure 13.3. Notice the warm air registers
evaporator. The pressure in the evaporator is low enough
are normally placed in front of a window so warm air is
to allow the refrigerant to boil again and absorb more
circulated next to the coldest part of the room. As the
heat from the air passing over the coil of the evaporator.
warm air rises, a circulation action is created as the air
The evaporator is a device in which a liquid refrigerant is
goes through the complete heating cycle. Cold-air returns
vaporized. The compressor maintains adequate pressure
are often placed in the ceiling or floor at a central location.
to cause refrigerant to condense and flow in sufficient
quantities to meet the cooling requirements of the system. A complete forced-air heating plan shows the size, location,
The condenser is the portion of a refrigeration system
where the compression and condensation of refrigerant is
accomplished. The expansion valve controls the amount of
and number of BTUs dispersed to the rooms from the
warm-air supplies. BTU stands for British thermal unit,
which is a measure of heat. The location and size of the
13
refrigerant flow into the evaporator. cold-air return and the location, type, and output of the
furnace are also shown. Warm-air registers are sized in
inches such as 4 × 12, or millimeters. The size of the duct
POWERPOINT is also given as shown in Figure 13.4 (on p. 426). The note
16 × 12 RA, often specified as 16/12 RA, on the drawing
Create one PowerPoint slide showing a diagram of
means a 16 × 12 inch return air register. A ⌀8 next to a
the cooling cycle.
duct means an 8-inch diameter duct. Millimeters are used

423
Figure 13.2  The cooling cycle of a refrigeration system.
 Mechanical, plumbing, electrical systems

Figure 13.3  A simplified HVAC plan with the size and air flow shown by each warm air and return air symbol on
the floor plan. Courtesy Engineering Drafting & Design, Inc.

for metric values. This same system can be used as a in any convenient area of the drawing field or on a separate
central cooling system when cool air is forced from an sheet. Items on the plan can be keyed to schedules by
air conditioner through the ducts and into the rooms. WA using a letter and number combination, such as C-1 for
means warm air, and RA is return air. CFM is cubic feet per CEILING OUTLET NO. 1, E-1 for EXHAUST GRILLE NO. 1,
minute, which is the rate of air flow. or ACU-1 for EQUIPMENT UNIT NO. 1.

HVAC schedules
Numbered symbols can be used on the HVAC plan to key
specific items to schedules. Schedules were introduced
Providing duct space
Ducts are placed in a crawl space or attic when possible. 13
in Chapter 10, Door and Window Specifications and When ducts cannot be confined to a crawl space or attic, they
Installation. HVAC schedules describe items such as must be run inside the occupied areas of the home. Ducts
ceiling outlets, supply and exhaust grilles, hardware, and are typically hidden when they must be placed in locations
equipment. HVAC schedules include size, description, where they can be seen. There are several ways to conceal
quantity used, capacity, location, manufacturer ducts. When ducts run parallel to structural members, the
specifications, and any other information needed to ducts can be placed within the space created by the structural
construct or finish the system. Schedules keep the plans members. This is referred to as running the ducts in the joist
clear of unnecessary notes. Schedules are generally placed space, rafter space, or stud space. These terms identify the

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Mechanical, plumbing, electrical systems

Figure 13.4  A detailed HVAC plan with the size and air flow shown by each warm air and return air symbol and
duct runs with size on the floor plan. Courtesy Engineering Drafting & Design, Inc.

type of construction members used to provide duct space. When possible, ducts are run in the ceiling of a hallway,
This works when the duct size is equal to or smaller than the because they can be framed and finished with a lowered
size of the space between construction members. In the case ceiling. The minimum ceiling height in hallways can be
of return air ducts, the construction members and enclosing 7′-0″ (2,134 mm). Bathrooms and kitchens can also have a
materials can be used as the duct plenum. A plenum is a minimum ceiling height of 7′-0″ (2,134 mm), though this is
chamber that can serve as a distribution area for heating or normally undesirable. The typical ceiling height in habitable
cooling systems, generally between a false ceiling and the rooms is approximately 8 feet (2,440 mm), but a ceiling
actual ceiling, the crawl space area, or between construction can be as low as 7′-6″ (2,286 mm) for at least 50 percent
members. When a duct can be in a space created between of the room, with no portion less than 7′-0″ (2,134 mm).
construction members, no extra framing needs to be done to This information is valuable, because it tells you how low
conceal the ducts. When ducts must be exposed to occupied ceilings can be framed down to provide space for ducts
areas, they are normally enclosed in a chase. A chase is when needed. It is normally preferred to frame higher walls
a continuous recessed or expanded area built to carry or to accommodate space for ductwork when necessary.
conceal ducts, pipes, or other construction products or When ducts run vertically between floors, they need to be
utilities. Ducts can be left exposed when run in an area such in an easily concealed location, such as in a closet or in the
as an unfinished basement. stud space. The stud space can be used for ducts that are

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 Mechanical, plumbing, electrical systems

3-1/2 inches deep for 2 × 4 studs, 5-1/2 inches deep for Hot water systems use a pump, called a circulator, to
2 × 6 studs, or 7-1/4 inches deep for 2 × 8 studs. If the move the water through the system. The water is kept at
duct can be run up through a closet, then it can be framed a temperature between 150°F and 180°F (65.5°C–82°C)
in and covered in a chase. If the duct cannot be located in a in the boiler. When heat is needed, the thermostat starts
convenient place for concealment, then it might need to be the circulator, which supplies hot water to the convectors
framed into the corner of a room; although, this is normally in the rooms. A thermostat is an automatic mechanism
not preferred. The framing for a chase in Figure 13.5 is for controlling the amount of heating or cooling. The
shown on the floor plan as a wall surrounding the duct thermostat is described later in this chapter.
to be concealed, and is located in a portion of a bedroom
wardrobe closet. A note is usually provided that indicates
the use, such as CHASE FOR 24 × 24 RETURN DUCT. HEAT PUMP SYSTEMS
A heat pump is a forced-air central heating and cooling
system that operates using a compressor and a circulating
refrigerant system. Heat is extracted from the outside air
and pumped inside the home. The heat pump supplies up
to three times as much heat per year for the same amount
of electrical consumption as a standard electric forced-air
heating system. In comparison, this can result in a 30–
50 percent annual energy savings. In the summer the cycle
is reversed, and the unit operates as an air conditioner. In
this mode, the heat is extracted from the inside air and
pumped outside. On the cooling cycle the heat pump also
Figure 13.5  The framing for a chase is shown on acts as a dehumidifier.
the floor plan as a wall surrounding the duct to be Residential heat pumps vary in size from 2 to 5 tons.
concealed, and is located in a portion of a bedroom Some vendors carry two-stage heat pumps that alternate
wardrobe closet. between 3 and 5 tons, for example. During minimal
demand, the more efficient 3-ton phase is used, and the
5-ton phase is operable during peak demand. Each ton
POWERPOINT of rating removes approximately 12,000 BTUs per hour
(BTUH) of heat.
Create one PowerPoint slide showing a partial floor
Large square footage or complex floor plan homes can
plan with a duct chase located in a portion of a
require a split system with two or more compressors.
bedroom wardrobe closet similar to Figure 13.5.
The advantage of a split system is that two smaller
units more effectively control the needs of two zones
within the home. Other features, such as an air cleaner,
HOT WATER HEATING SYSTEMS a humidifier, or an air freshener, can be added to the
In a hot water system, the water is heated in an oil- or heat pump system. In general, the initial cost of the heat
gas-fired boiler and then circulated through pipes to pump is about twice as much as a conventional forced-
radiators or convectors in the rooms. A boiler is a fuel- air electric heat system. However, the advantages and
burning container for heating water. The boiler is supplied long-range energy savings make it a significant option
with water from the fresh water supply for the home. for heating. The cost difference is lower if cooling is a
The water is circulated around the combustion chamber, requirement.
where it absorbs heat. A one-pipe hot water system
has one pipe that leaves the boiler and runs through
the rooms of the building and back to the boiler. In the
The total heat pump system uses an outside compressor,
an inside blower to circulate air, a backup heating coil,
and a complete duct system. Heat pump systems move
13
one-pipe system, the heated water leaves the supply, a large volume of air, making it important to adequately
is circulated through the outlet, and is returned to the size the return air and supply ducts. Figure 13.7 shows
same pipe. A two-pipe hot water system, has two pipes the heat pump compressor. The compressor should be
running throughout the home. One pipe supplies heated placed in a location where some noise does not cause a
water to all of the outlets. The other is a return pipe, which problem. The compressor is placed on an approved pad
carries the water back to the boiler for reheating as shown about 36 × 48 × 6 inches (900 × 1,200 × 150 mm) in
in Figure 13.6. size in a location that allows adequate service access.

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Mechanical, plumbing, electrical systems

Figure 13.6  A two-pipe hot water system has two

pipes running throughout the home.

Do not connect the pad to the building to avoid

transmitting vibration. The pad should be shown
and dimensioned on the foundation plan. Verify the
manufacturer specifications for exact pad dimensions if Figure 13.7  The heat pump compressor should be
not specified on the foundation plan. Heat pumps may placed on a pad about 36 × 48 × 6 inches (900 × 1,200 ×
not be as efficient in some areas of the country as in 150 mm) in size in a location that allows adequate
other areas because of annual low or high temperatures. service access.
Verify the product efficiency with local heating and cooling
contractors.
zone heating and cooling individual rooms. Zone heating
Ductless heat pump systems is described in detail in the next section. Most ductless
Ductless heat pumps, also called mini-split-system heat heat pump systems allow for up to four indoor air-handling
pumps, are heat pump systems that heat or cool directly units that can be designed for four zones or rooms
into the room without the use of ductwork. Ductless heat connected to one outdoor unit. A separate thermostat
pumps are effectively used in energy-efficient new homes is used to control the heating and cooling needs of each
that require only a small space conditioning system, and zone. Ductless heat pumps have no ducts, so they avoid
for remodeling additions where extending or installing the energy losses associated with the ductwork of central
ductwork is not practical. Ductless heat pump systems forced air systems.
have the two main components found in the standard
heat pump system that includes one or more outdoor ZONE CONTROL SYSTEMS
compressor and condenser units and one or more indoor
air-handling units. The outdoor unit is much smaller than a A zone heating system requires one heater and one
standard heat pump and is mounted on a smaller pad. The thermostat per room or area. No ductwork is required, and
indoor units are small and can be recessed or suspended only the heaters in occupied rooms need to be turned on.
from a ceiling or wall. A conduit containing the power One of the major differences between a zone and a central
cable, refrigerant tubing, suction tubing, and a condensate system is flexibility. A zone heating system allows the
drain is connected between the outdoor and indoor units. occupant to determine how many rooms are heated, how
Ductless heat pumps provide small size and flexibility for much energy is used, and how much money is spent on

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 Mechanical, plumbing, electrical systems

heat. A zone system allows the home to be heated to the

family’s needs, while a central system requires using all the
heat produced. If the air flow is restricted, the efficiency
of the central system is reduced. There is also a 10 to
15 percent heat loss through ductwork in central systems.
Regardless of the square footage in a house, its occupants
normally use less than 40 percent of the entire area on a
regular basis. A zone system is very adaptable to heating
the 40 percent of the home that is occupied. Automatic
controls allow for night and day settings, and unheated
areas to be controlled as needed. The homeowner can save
as much as 60 percent on energy costs through controlled
zone heating systems.
There are typically two types of zone heaters: baseboard
and fan. Baseboard heaters are placed along the bottom
of a wall. They are used in many different climates and
under various operating conditions. No ducts, motors,
or fans are required. Baseboard heaters have an electric
heating element, which causes a convection current as
Figure 13.8  A recessed wall-mounted fan heater.
the air around the unit is heated. A convection current
is a natural condition where warm air rises and cool air
falls. The heated air rises into the room and is replaced by and minimizing excessive air motion within the space.
cooler air that falls to the floor. Baseboard heaters should Radiant heat systems can provide operating cost savings of
be placed on exterior walls under or next to windows or 20 to 50 percent annually, compared with forced air systems.
other openings. These units do project a few inches into This saving is accomplished through lower thermostat
the room at floor level. Some homeowners do not like this settings. Three to four percent of the energy is saved for each
obstruction, in comparison with other options. Furniture degree the thermostat is lowered. Users of surface-mounted
arrangements should be a factor in locating any heating radiant panels take advantage of this fact in two ways.
element, because furniture must be kept a safe distance Daytime radiant heat comfort can be achieved at 60°F–64°F
from the heater. (16.6°C) as compared with forced air heating temperatures
of 68°F–72°F (21°C). Night temperature can be reduced to
The recessed wall-mounted fan heater in Figure 13.8
58°F in areas used frequently, 55°F (12.8°C) in areas used
is a zone heating option when the baseboard heater is
occasionally, and 50°F (10°C) in areas used seldom.
undesirable. A fan heater has a heating element used to
generate heat, and a fan circulates the heat into the room.
These units should be placed to circulate the warmed air THERMOSTATS
in each room adequately. Avoid placing the heaters on A thermostat is a mechanism for automatically controlling
exterior walls, where a recessed unit reduces or eliminates the amount of heating or cooling given by a central or
insulation. The fan in these units causes some noise. zone heating or cooling system. The thermostat floor plan
Split systems using zone heat in part of the home and symbol and a typical thermostat is shown in Figure 13.9.
central heat in the rest of the home is an option. For
example, placing a zone heater in a bathroom provides
extra heat after a bath or shower or on a cold day when
POWERPOINT
more heat is desired.

RADIANT HEAT
Create one PowerPoint slide showing a thermostat
floor plan symbol and a photograph of a modern
residential thermostat.
13
Radiant heat is heat that radiates from an electric or hot
water element, warming objects rather than the air. Radiant The thermostat location is important to the proper
elements are installed in the floor, walls, or ceiling. The function of the system. For zone heating or cooling
elements heat the surrounding surface and radiates heat out units, thermostats can be placed in each room, or a
into the room. Radiant heating and cooling systems provide a central thermostat panel that controls each room can be
comfortable environment by controlling surface temperatures placed in a convenient location. For central heating and

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Mechanical, plumbing, electrical systems

Programmable microcomputer thermostats effectively

help reduce the cost of heating or cooling, and
automatically switch from heating to cooling as needed.
These computers can be used to alter heating and
cooling temperature settings automatically for different
hours of the day, days of the week, or different months
of the year.

HVAC CODE REQUIREMENTS

Knowledge of basic HVAC code requirements can help
you monitor and promote quality construction applications
on your projects. General code requirements for some
common heating and cooling equipment and duct systems
are provided in Appendix A of this textbook for your
reference.

Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access

this appendix. Specific applications and installations
must be confirmed with the exact local code
regulations and manufacturer specifications.

Figure 13.9  The thermostat floor plan symbol and a

UNIVERSAL HVAC INSTALLATIONS
thermostat.
The design of the HVAC system to accommodate people
of all ages and possible disabilities should be considered.
cooling systems, there can be one or more thermostats,
The following are some possible considerations for these
depending on the layout of the HVAC system. For example,
applications.
a very large home can have a split system that divides the
building into two or more zones, with a thermostat for each
 o to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
G
zone.
the Appendix E for a description of specific universal
Several factors contribute to the effective placement of design applications.
the thermostat for a central forced-air system. A good
common location is near the center of the home and
close to a return air duct. The air entering the return air
duct is usually temperate, thus causing little variation NOTE
in temperature on the thermostat. A key to successful
HVAC is a specialty trade in the construction
thermostat placement is to find a stable location where an
industry that requires postsecondary education in
average temperature reading can be achieved. There should
an HVAC program, on-the-job training with an HVAC
be no drafts that adversely affect temperature settings.
contractor, or both. Students learn how to read
The thermostat should not be placed in a location where
prints, HVAC equipment operation and maintenance,
sunlight or a heat register causes an unreliable reading.
and temperature control applications. Training also
The thermostat should not be placed close to an exterior
includes sheet metal layout and fabrication, along
door, where temperatures can change quickly when the
with completing HVAC installations. After completing
door is opened and closed. Thermostats should be placed
school, candidates receive apprenticeship training
on inside partitions rather than on outside walls, where
through unions such as the Air Conditioning
a false temperature reading can also be possible. Avoid
Contractors of America or Plumbing-Heating-Cooling
placing the thermostat near stairs or a similar traffic area,
Contractors Association. The apprenticeship is an
where bouncing or shaking can cause the mechanism
alternative to a baccalaureate college education
to alter the actual reading. Energy consumption can be
and generally takes three to five years to complete.
reduced by controlling thermostats in individual rooms.
Apprentices learn all aspects of the HVAC industry
Central panels are available that make it easy to lower or
through on-the-job training and classroom
raise temperatures in any room where each panel switch
instruction.
controls one remote thermostat.

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 Mechanical, plumbing, electrical systems

INTRODUCTION TO PLUMBING SYSTEMS copper pipe with plastic piping for both hot and cold water.
One example is a plastic pipe with the chemical name
Residential piping is called plumbing. A plumbing
of polybutylene (PB), also known as poly pipe. Plastic
contractor, called a plumber, installs the plumbing system
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe has been used effectively for
for a home in two phases, which is the rough-in phase
cold water installations. Corrosion-resistant plastic piping
and the finish phase. Rough-in is the installation of the
is available in a thermoplastic with the chemical name
plumbing system that includes everything except putting
postchlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC). CPVC pipe has
fixtures in place. Finish plumbing is one of the last
insulation value that retains heat and saves energy, when
construction phases before the home is ready to occupy,
compared with metal pipe that loses heat. CPVC piping lasts
and includes installing all fixtures such as sinks, vanities,
longer than copper pipe because it is corrosion resistant, it
toilets, faucets, and final valves. A vanity is a bathroom
maintains water purity even under severe conditions, and it
lavatory fixture that is freestanding or in a cabinet. A valve
does not cause condensation, as does copper. Plastic pipe
is a fitting used to control the flow of fluid or gas.
is considered quieter than copper pipe, and it costs less to
The plumbing system includes all of the pipes, tanks, buy and install. Another plastic plumbing product, cross-
fittings, and fixtures required for the water supply, water linked polyethylene (PEX) pipe, provides a flexible and
heating, and sanitation in a home. The plumbing system for durable plumbing system that can withstand high pressures
a home provides these elements: and temperatures. PEX is also freeze resistant because it
 Water supply risers and other associated pipes. expands and contracts to its original shape as needed to
 Fixtures and fixture traps. protect against freeze damage. Special fittings and tools are
 Soil pipe, soil stack, waste pipe, waste stack, and used for making connections when installing this product.
vent pipes. Steel pipe is used for large-distribution water piping and for
 Drain and sewer. natural gas installations. Steel pipe is joined by threaded
 Storm water drainage. joints and fittings or grooved joints. The steel pipe used for
water is galvanized. Galvanized pipe is steel pipe that has
The pipe used in plumbing is made of copper, plastic,
been cleaned and dipped in a bath of molten zinc. The steel
galvanized steel, or cast iron. A fitting is a standard pipe
pipe used for natural gas applications is protected with a coat
part such as a coupling, elbow, reducer, tee, and union
of varnish. This pipe is commonly referred to as black pipe
used for joining two or more sections of pipe together.
because of its color. Steel pipe is strong, rugged, and fairly
A fixture is a component used to supply and contain water,
inexpensive. However, it is more expensive than plastic pipe,
and discharge waste. Examples of fixtures are sinks,
and labor costs for installation are generally higher because
lavatories, showers, tubs, and water closets. A fixture
of the threaded joints. Corrugated stainless steel tubing
trap is a U-shaped pipe below plumbing fixtures that holds
(CSST) is also used for natural gas piping. CSST is a flexible
water to prevent odor and sewer gases from entering the
piping system that is easier and less expensive to install than
fixture. The water supply for a home provides potable
black pipe. This type of pipe comes in rolls that allow the
water. Potable water is drinking water that is free from
impurities. A water supply riser is a pipe that extends plumbing contractor to easily run pipe through walls and under
vertically one story or more to carry water to fixtures. floors. The flexible piping system is easy to cut with traditional
A soil pipe is a pipe that carries the discharge of water pipe cutters and has easy-to-assemble fittings and fixtures.
closets or other similar fixtures. A soil stack is a vertical Cast iron pipe is commonly used to carry solid and liquid
pipe that extends one or more floors and carries discharge waste as the sewer pipe that connects a home with a local
of water closets and other similar fixtures. A waste pipe is or regional sewer system. Cast iron pipe can also be used
a pipe that carries only liquid waste free of fecal material. for the drain system throughout the home to help reduce
A waste stack is a vertical pipe that runs one or more water flow noise in the pipes. Cast iron pipe is more

13
floors and carries the discharge of fixtures other than expensive than plastic pipe but can be worth the price if a
water closets and similar fixtures. A vent pipe is the pipe quiet plumbing system is desired.
installed to ventilate the building drainage system and to Residential plans generally do not require a complete
prevent drawing liquid out of traps and stopping back plumbing plan. The need for a complete plumbing plan
pressure. Back pressure is a resistant force applied to should be verified with the local building code. In most
liquid or gas against the desired direction or flow in a pipe. cases, the plumbing requirements can be clearly provided
Copper pipes have soldered joints and fittings and are used on the floor plan in the form of symbols for fixtures and
for carrying hot or cold water. Plastic pipes can have glued notes for specific applications or conditions. The plumbing
joints and fittings and are used for vents and for carrying fixtures are displayed in their proper locations on the
fresh water or solid waste. Many contractors are replacing floor plans. Floor drains, vent pipes, and sewer or water

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Mechanical, plumbing, electrical systems

connections can be displayed on the floor plans. Floor  Pipe length.

drains are shown in their approximate location, with a note  Number of stories to be supplied.
identifying size, type, and slope to drain. Sewer and water  Flow pressure needed at the farthest point from the
service lines can be located on the site plan in relationship source.
to the position in which these utilities enter the home. The size of drainage piping is based on standards
A drain is any pipe that carries wastewater in a building established for the type of fixture and average amount
drainage system. A drain pipe typically requires a cleanout of waste that can be discharged through the fixture in
be placed specific distances apart. A cleanout is a fitting a given amount of time. The size of vent pipes is based
with a removable plug that is placed in plumbing drainage on the number of fixture components that drain into the
pipe lines to allow access for cleaning out the pipe. waste portion of the vent stack. A vent stack is a general
A very detailed plumbing layout is not normally provided, term referring to any vertical pipe for soil waste or vent
because the plumbing contractor is required to install piping.
plumbing of a quality and in a manner that meets local American National Standard taper pipe threads are
code requirements. Figure 13.10 shows typical floor plan the standard thread used on steel pipes and pipe fittings.
plumbing fixture symbols. These threads are designed to provide pressure-tight
joints or not, depending on the intended function and
POWERPOINT materials used. American pipe threads are measured
by the nominal pipe size, which is the inside pipe
Create one PowerPoint slide showing typical floor diameter. For example, a 1/2-inch pipe size has an
plan plumbing fixture symbols. outside diameter of 0.840 inches. Pipe threads are
identified using a thread note such as 3/4–14NPT, where
the 3/4 is the nominal inside diameter of the pipe, 14
SIZING OF PLUMBING PIPING
is the number of threads per inch, and NPT stands for
Plumbing must be sized enough to allow fixtures to National Pipe Thread.
operate properly and for proper draining and venting. The Table 13.1 lists common minimum plumbing pipe sizes for
size of water supply piping is based on these conditions: residential applications. Actual plumbing pipe sizes should
 Amount of water needed. be confirmed with local, state, and national codes that
 Supply pressure. apply to your area.

Figure 13.10  Typical floor plan plumbing fixture symbols.

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 Mechanical, plumbing, electrical systems

Table 13.1  Common minimum plumbing pipe sizes for is a fixture designed for washing hands and face, usually
residential applications. found in a bathroom.
Fixture or Pipe Size Water Minimum Fixture MINIMUM
Size Trap and Drain Vent size WATER SYSTEMS
Size
Distributing pipe 3/4 The water supply to a home starts at a water meter
Bathroom group* 1/2 for public systems or at a water storage tank for private
Plus one or more 3/4
water well systems. A water meter is a device used to
fixtures measure the amount of water that goes through the water
Two fixtures 1/2 service. A water well is a structure in the ground created
Three fixtures 3/4 by digging, driving, boring, or drilling to access groundwater
Hose bibb 1/2
in underground aquifers. Aquifers are water-bearing porous
soil or rock strata that yield significant amounts of water to
Plus one or more 3/4
fixtures wells. Water is pumped out of the well for distribution to
Water closet 3/8 3 2 the home. The water service is a pipe from the water main
Bathtub 1/2 1-1/2 1-1/4
or other supply to the water-distribution pipes. The water
service is generally 1-inch plastic or galvanized steel pipe.
Shower 1/2 2 1-1/4
This size can vary in relation to the service needed. A water
Lavatory 3/8 1-1/4 1-1/4
distribution pipe carries water from the service to the point
Kitchen sink 1/2 1-1/2 1-1/4
of use. The water main is a primary water supply pipe,
Laundry tray 1/2 1-1/2 1-1/4
generally located in the street or public utility easement
Clothes washer 1/2 1-1/2 1-1/4
for public water. The term main is used when referring to
Dishwasher 1/2 1-1/2 a water main or sewer main, depending on its purpose.
Values are in inches. 3/8 1-1/2 1-1/4 The water service line joins a plastic or copper line within
Values are in inches. a few feet of the home. The 1-inch water service supply
*The typical bathroom group consists of a lavatory, tub with shower, and toilet. often changes to 3/4-inch pipe where a junction is made
to distribute water to various specific locations. From the
3/4-inch lines, 1/2-inch pipe usually supplies water to specific
The following defines the new terms highlighted in the fixtures, such as the kitchen sink. Figure 13.11 shows a
previous table: A hose bibb is a faucet used to attach a typical water service for a home, connecting from the water
hose. A water closet is a water-flushing plumbing fixture, main to the water meter and then to the home. The water
such as a toilet, that is designed to receive and discharge meter location and water service for a home are generally
human excrement. This term is sometimes used to mean shown on the site plan. Verify local codes regarding the use
the compartment where the fixture is located. A lavatory of plastic pipe and the water meter location.

13

Figure 13.11  A typical water service for a home, connecting from the water main to the water meter and then to
the home.

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Mechanical, plumbing, electrical systems

POWERPOINT POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide showing a typical water Create one PowerPoint slide showing a detailed
service for a home, connecting from the water main representation of a typical hot and cold water system.
to the water meter and then to the home.

Water heaters
The water service connects to the water distribution pipe
that supplies water to the home. Figure 13.12 shows a Water heaters are placed on a platform as shown in
detailed representation of a typical hot and cold water Figure 13.13 and sometimes with an overflow tray. Water
system. Cold water enters the home from the water heaters with non-rigid water connections and over 4
service pipe and is plumbed to all fixtures where cold feet (1,200 mm) in height must be anchored or strapped
water is needed. The cold water supply pipe continues to the building. If the water heater is located in the
to the water heater where water is heated and then garage, it must be protected from impact by automobiles
distributed through hot water pipes to the fixtures where with a steel pipe embedded in concrete in front of the
hot water is needed. A water heater is an appliance used water heater. Fuel combustion water heaters cannot be
for heating, storing, and distributing hot water. installed in sleeping rooms, bathrooms, clothes closets,

Figure 13.12  A detailed representation of a typical hot and cold water system. Cold water enters the home from
the water service pipe and is plumbed to all fixtures where cold water is needed. The cold water pipe continues
to the water heater where water is heated and then distributed through hot water pipes to the fixtures where hot
water is needed.

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Table 13.2  Water heater size guidelines.

Number Number of Water Heater Size, Gallons
of Baths Bedrooms
GAS OIL ELECTRIC
1 to 1-1/2 1 20 30 20
2 30 30 30
3 30 30 40
2 to 2-1/2 2 30 30 40
3 40 30 50
4 40 30 50
5 50 30 66
3 to 3-1/2 3 40 30 50
4 50 30 66
5 50 30 66
6 50 40 80

(7.6–15.2 liters) per minute. Smaller tankless water

heaters cannot supply enough hot water for multiple
uses at the same time, such as taking a shower and
running a clothes washer. To overcome this problem, you
can use two or more tankless water heaters connected
in parallel, or install separate tankless water heaters for
appliances, such as a clothes washer or dishwater that
uses extra hot water. Tankless water heaters can also
be used for hot water supply at an outdoor sink, a pool
Figure 13.13  Water heaters are placed on a platform.
shower, a remote bathroom, or a spa. Tankless water
heaters are also used as a booster, eliminating long pipe
runs, for solar water heating systems, dishwashers, and
or other confined spaces opening into a bedroom or
clothes washers.
bathroom.
Recommended water heater sizes vary, depending on the Hot water circulation system
number of bedrooms, number of bathrooms, and type
of water heater, such as electric, gas, or oil-fired. Size Depending on the distance from the hot water heater to
specifications for water heaters can also vary, depending a faucet or showerhead, it can take up to a minute for hot
on the fuel type and manufacturer, but Table 13.2 gives water to reach the fixture. This time is spent running and
basic water heater size guidelines: wasting water. A hot water circulation pump can be
used to circulate water through the main hot water line
Tankless hot water heater and the return-line back to the water heater to keep hot
water in the main line and available to the fixtures at all
Tankless water heaters, also called instantaneous or
times. Water consumption is reduced, because hot water
demand water heaters, provide hot water only when
is available instantly when using a hot water circulation
needed. A tankless water heater heats water directly

13
system. Cold water can take longer to get to the fixture,
without use of the storage tank found with traditional
because hot water in the line has to flow out first.
water heaters. Tankless water heaters avoid the standby
heat losses associated with storage water heaters.
Solar hot water
Standby heat loss is the heat lost when water is heated
and waiting for use. When a hot water faucet is turned Solar hot water collectors are available for producing
on, cold water travels through a pipe to the fixture. In a hot water from the sun. Solar collectors can be located
tankless water heater, an electric element or a gas burner on a roof, on a wall, or on the ground near the building.
heats the water. As a result, tankless water heaters Figure 13.14 shows a typical roof installation of solar hot
deliver a constant supply of hot water. Typically, tankless water collectors. Solar systems vary in efficiency. The
water heaters provide hot water at a rate of 2–5 gallons number of collectors needed to provide heat to a home

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Mechanical, plumbing, electrical systems

Hose bibbs
Hose bibbs are faucets used to attach a hose, and normally
located at convenient locations around the outside of the
home for watering plants, washing a car, or other uses.
The hose bibb floor plan symbol and a typical hose bibb
is shown in Figure 13.15. Outside hose bibbs require a
separate valve that allows the owner to turn off water to
the hose bibb during freezing weather. The separate valve
must be located inside a heated area and is generally under
a cabinet where a sink is located, such as in the kitchen or
bathroom. This provides easy access to the valve. Frost-
proof hose bibbs do not require a separate inside valve, but
the stem must extend through the building insulation into
an open heated or semi-conditioned space to avoid freezing.

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide showing a hose bibb

floor plan symbol.

DRAINAGE AND VENT SYSTEMS

The drainage system provides for the distribution of
solid and liquid waste to the sewer line. Drainage pipes
are required to have a minimum slope of 1/4 inch per
Figure 13.14  A typical roof installation of solar hot foot (6 mm per 300 mm). The vent system allows for a
water collectors.

depends on the size of the home and the volume of heat

needed. The flat-plate collector is the heart of a
solar system. Its main parts are the transparent
glass cover, absorber plate, flow tubes, and insulated
enclosure. The flat-plate collector works by sun
heating water that flows through the copper flow
tubes inside the glass covered collector. The copper
pipes are connected to a common manifold which is
then connected to a slow flow circulation pump that
pumps water to a storage tank located in the home
or other convenient place. Water is heated by the sun
during the day and stored in an insulated tank for use
as needed. Piping and wiring drawings for a complete
solar hot water heating system are available through the
manufacturer.

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide showing a photograph

of a typical roof installation of solar hot water
Figure 13.15  A hose bibb floor plan symbol and a
collectors.
typical hose bibb.

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 Mechanical, plumbing, electrical systems

continuous flow of air through the system so that gases A plumbing wall is any wall in a home where plumbing
and odors can dissipate and bacteria do not have an pipes are installed. A common plumbing wall is a wall
opportunity to develop. The vent system also protects from between rooms where plumbing fixtures are placed back-
drawing liquid out of the traps and stops back pressure. to-back. The common plumbing wall can require 2 × 6 or
Vent pipes are generally made of PVC plastic, although 2 × 8 stud framing for extra width to hold the plumbing
the pipe from the house to the concrete sewer pipe is pipes. This practice saves materials and labor costs.
commonly 3- or 4-inch cast iron. Figure 13.16 shows a Placing plumbing fixtures one above the other in a two-
typical drainage and vent system for a home. story home is also an economical plumbing installation.
If the functional design of the floor plan clearly does not
POWERPOINT allow for these practical applications, then good judgment
should be used in the placement of plumbing fixtures so
Create one PowerPoint slide showing a typical
plumbing installation is physically possible by providing
drainage and vent system for a home.
places for pipes to be installed. Figure 13.17 shows
a back-to-back bathroom installation with a common
PLUMBING PLACEMENT plumbing wall. Another economical installation is a
There is an advantage to placing plumbing fixtures back- common plumbing wall between a bathroom and laundry
to-back in a common plumbing wall when possible. room as shown in Figure 13.18.

13

Figure 13.16  A typical drainage and vent system for a home.

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Mechanical, plumbing, electrical systems

PLUMBING SCHEDULES
Plumbing schedules are similar to door, window, and
lighting fixture schedules. Schedules provide specific
information regarding plumbing equipment, fixtures, and
supplies. The information is condensed in a chart so the
floor plan is not unnecessarily crowded. A plumbing fixture
schedule can provide fixture type, manufacturer name,
model number, and color columns. Figure 13.19 shows a
plumbing fixture schedule.
Other schedules can include specific information
Figure 13.17  A back-to-back bathroom installation regarding floor drains, water heaters, pumps, boilers, or
with a common plumbing wall. radiators. These schedules generally key specific items
to the floor plan with complete information describing
size, manufacturer, type, and other specifications as
appropriate.

FIRE SPRINKLER SYSTEMS

Fire sprinkler systems are commonly used in
commercial buildings, and are becoming required
in residential construction by some local codes. The
requirement is established by the local governing
agency, and can be determined by the square footage or
Figure 13.18  A common plumbing wall between a location of the home. Some remote locations require fire
bathroom and laundry room. sprinkler systems because of the logistics for fighting
a fire. Even if a fire sprinkler system is not required, it
should be a consideration for new home construction.
POWERPOINT According to the National Fire Protection Association
(NFPA), properly installed and maintained automatic fire
Create one PowerPoint slide showing a back-to-back
sprinkler systems help save lives, because fire sprinkler
bathroom installation with a common plumbing wall.
systems react so quickly, they can dramatically reduce
the heat, flames, and smoke produced in a fire. Some
POWERPOINT of the advantages of an automated home fire sprinkler
system are:
Create one PowerPoint slide showing a common
 Losses 90 percent lower than can be expected from a
plumbing wall between a bathroom and laundry
home fire without a sprinkler system.
room.
 Fire sprinkler systems provide added security.

Figure 13.19  A plumbing fixture schedule.

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 Mechanical, plumbing, electrical systems

 Each sprinkler is individually activated by heat. Ninety

percent of all fires are controlled by a single sprinkler.
POWERPOINT
 A fire can easily spread throughout the home without
Create one PowerPoint slide showing a public sewer
a fire sprinkler system, and traditional firefighting
connection and the plan view usually found on the
generally takes over eight times the amount of water to
site plan.
fight a fire when compared to a home protected with a
fire sprinkler system.

Fire sprinklers activate by a water plug that releases water Septic system
when the heat reaches a certain temperature. Home
designers, architects, fire sprinkler consultant, or a qualified A septic tank is an on-site treatment system for domestic
plumbing contractor can create a fire sprinkler system sewage, in which the sewage is held to go through a
design for the home. Plumbing contractors, or a fire process of liquefaction and decomposition by bacterial
sprinkler specialist can install fire sprinkler systems. organisms. The flow continues to be safely disposed in a
subsurface facility such as a tile field, leaching pools, or
buried sand filter. A septic system consists of a storage
POWERPOINT tank and an absorption field and operates as solid and liquid
waste enters the septic tank, where it is stored and begins
Create one PowerPoint slide showing four to decompose into sludge. Sludge is a thick, soft, wet
advantages of an automated home fire sprinkler mixture of liquid and solid components. Liquid material, or
system. effluent, flows from the tank outlet and is dispersed into a
soil absorption field, or drain field, also called leach lines.
When the solid waste has effectively decomposed, it also
SEWAGE DISPOSAL dissipates into the soil absorption field. The owner should
use a recommended chemical to work as a catalyst for
A sanitary sewer system is a system of underground complete decomposition of solid waste. Septic tanks can
pipes designed for the collection and transfer of waste become overloaded in a period of up to 10 years and may
water from domestic residences, businesses, and require pumping.
industries to a wastewater treatment plant, or private
The characteristics of the soil must be verified for suitability
sewage treatment system such as a septic tank or
for a septic system by a soil feasibility test, also known as
cesspool. The domestic sewage is from the bathroom,
a percolation test. This test, performed by a soil scientist
kitchen, and laundry drains. Sanitary sewers are usually not
or someone from the local government, determines if the
designed to handle storm water. Storm water is carried in
soil can accommodate a septic system. The test should
a separate storm sewer system. A storm sewer is used
also identify certain specifications that should be followed
for carrying groundwater, rainwater, surface water, or other
for installation. The Veterans Administration (VA) and the
nonpolluting waste to locations where it can be safely
Federal Housing Administration (FHA) require a minimum
dispersed. Septic tanks are used primarily for individual
of 240 feet of drain field line, or more if the soil feasibility
residences outside of public sewage districts. A cesspool is
test shows it is necessary. Verify these dimensions with
a cistern that receives untreated sewage.
local building officials. When the soil characteristics do not
allow a conventional system, there are some alternatives
Public sewers
such as a sand filter system, which filters the effluent
Public sewers are available in and near most cities and through a specially designed sand filter before it enters the
towns. Public sewers are generally located under the street soil absorption field. Check with your local code officials
or in a utility easement next to the construction site. The before calling for such a system. Figure 13.21 shows
public sewer main line is often under the street, so new
construction has a pipe line run from the home to the
sewer. The term run refers to a portion of a pipe or fitting
a typical septic system site plan and detail. The serial
system allows for one drain field line to fill before the next
line is used. The drain field lines must be level and must
13
continuing in a straight line in the direction of flow in which follow the contour of the land perpendicular to the slope.
it is connected. The pipe run from the home to the sewer The drain field should be at least 100′ from a water well,
main line is usually 4- or 6-inch (100–150 mm) diameter but verify the distance with local codes. There is usually
plastic or concrete pipe. The cost of this construction no minimum distance to a public water supply. A septic
usually includes installation, street repair, sewer tap, and system generally has gravity feed of solid and liquid waste
permit fees. Figure 13.20 shows a public sewer connection to the septic tank. However, if gravity feed is not possible
and the plan view usually found on the site plan. a pump system can be installed. The pump system has

439
Mechanical, plumbing, electrical systems

Figure 13.20  A public sewer connection and the plan view usually found on the site plan.

a chamber with an automatic pump that receives waste series of large concrete cylinders with the lower cylinder
from the home and sends it to the septic tank located at a having slots cut through to allow for fluid to escape to the
higher elevation. surrounding gravel. Precast reinforced concrete cylinders
are usually used for ease and convenient installation into
POWERPOINT an excavated hole. A gravel layer is placed around the
cylinders to aid in fluid absorption. Cesspools can only be
Create one PowerPoint slide showing a typical septic used in very specific locations where local building codes
system site plan and detail. allow for this type of sewage system. Figure 13.22 shows
a sample cesspool site plan and detail.
Cesspool system
A cesspool is a cistern that receives untreated sewage that
POWERPOINT
goes through a process of liquefaction and decomposition
Create one PowerPoint slide showing a sample
by bacterial organisms. The decomposed sewage flow
cesspool site plan and detail.
continues through an open bottom and perforated sides
into porous soil. Cesspools are used in areas where the
Residential storm drains
soil is very porous, that has gravel or similar material to a
considerable depth, and where there is no possibility of Storm water is typically drained off the roof into gutters
ground water contamination. The cesspool structure is a and through downspouts to rain drains. Rain drains

440
 Mechanical, plumbing, electrical systems

Figure 13.21  A typical septic system site plan and detail.

are pipes buried along the foundation wall and used to

transfer weather-related waters to storm sewers or other
METRIC VALUES IN PLUMBING 13
designated locations. Rain drains are typically installed Pipe is made of a wide variety of materials identified
using acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) pipe. ABS by trade names, with nominal sizes related only
pipe is black, which makes it easy to recognize when loosely to actual dimensions. For example, a 2-inch
compared with white PVC pipe. Typically, 3- or 4-inch galvanized pipe has an outside diameter of about
diameter ABS pipe is used to transfer rain water. Each 2-1/8 inches but is called 2-inch pipe for the inside
downspout enters the rain drain in a T, Y, or elbow fitting diameter. Few pipe products have even inch
connected to the pipe run. dimensions that match their specifications, so there

441
Figure 13.22  A sample cesspool site plan and detail.
 Mechanical, plumbing, electrical systems

is no reason to establish even metric sizes. Metric

values established by the International Organization for
NOTE
Standardization (ISO) relate nominal pipe sizes (NPS)
Plumbing is a specialty trade in the construction
in inches to metric equivalents, referred to as diameter
industry that requires completion of a plumbing
nominal (DN). Table 13.3 shows equivalents that relate
apprenticeship program. Entry into plumbing
to all plumbing, natural gas, heating, oil, drainage,
apprenticeship programs is competitive, making it
and miscellaneous piping used in buildings and civil
important for you to prepare with postsecondary
engineering projects.
education in a plumbing or vocational program.
DN typically precedes the metric value when you see Apprenticeship training is typically operated through
metric pipe size specifications. For example, the conversion union organizations such as the United Association
of a 2-1/2-inch pipe to metric is DN65. of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and
The standard threads for thread pipe is the National Pipefitting Industry of the United States and Canada
Standard Taper Pipe Threads (NPT). The thread on 1/2-inch or the National Association of Plumbing-Heating-
pipe reads 1/2–14NPT, where 14 is threads per inch. The Cooling Contractors. Apprenticeship programs
metric conversion affects only the nominal pipe size, which take 4–5 years to complete and combine classroom
is 1/2 in this case. The conversion of the 1/2–14NPT pipe instruction with on-the-job training. You can learn
thread to metric is DN15–14NPT. everything from print reading to the entire range
of plumbing skills. Each region has different but
similar requirements for plumbers, but most involve
Table 13.3  Equivalents that relate to all plumbing, licensing. Typically, plumbers need to have 2–5 years
natural gas, heating, oil, drainage, and miscellaneous of experience in the trade and pass a test based on
piping used in buildings and civil engineering projects plumbing trade and code knowledge.
NPS (inch) DN (mm) NPS (inch) DN (mm) Related opportunities involve ground work such as
1/8 6 8 200 sewer and water installations where training and
3/16 7 10 250 experience in excavation and grading are unique
1/4 8 12 300 skills allied to the plumbing industry.
3/8 10 14 350
1/2 15 16 400
5/8 20 20 450 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL
3/4 20 20 500 SYSTEMS
1 25 24 600
The electrical system provides electrical power
1-1/4 32 28 700
transmission to the home and contains all of the circuits
1-1/2 40 30 750
and fixtures to be used by the electrical contractor
2 50 42 800
during installation. Circuits are the various conductors,
2-1/2 65 36 900
connections, and devices found in the path of electrical
3 80 40 1,000
flow from the source through the components and back to
3-1/2 90 44 1,100 the source. Electrical fixtures are all plugs, switches, cover
4 100 48 1,200 plates, and lights. A conductor is material that permits the
4-1/2 115 52 1,300 free flow of electricity. Copper is a common conductor in
5 125 56 1,400 architectural wiring.
6 150 60 1,500 Electrical installation for new construction occurs in three

13
phases described in the following.

UNIVERSAL PLUMBING INSTALLATIONS Temporary

The design of the plumbing system to accommodate The installation of a temporary underground or overhead
people of all ages and possible disabilities should be electrical service near the construction site and close
considered. The following are some possible considerations to the final meter location provides electricity during
for these applications. construction. A temporary electric service is provided
 Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access during construction and is used for construction electricity
Appendix E for a description of specific universal design purposes. This service is installed on a temporary pole,
applications. which is placed near the permanent power service or

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Mechanical, plumbing, electrical systems

transformer. The temporary service has a meter base

and meter, and usually two 20-ampere, 120-volt (VAC),
POWERPOINT
grounded, duplex outlets and one 50-ampere, 4-wire,
Create one PowerPoint slide showing an outlet box,
single-phase, 240 VAC (208 VAC at some locations) outlet
lighting outlet box, junction box, and switch box.
mounted in a weatherproof enclosure. A meter is an
instrument used to measure electrical quantities. The
electrical meter for a building is where the power enters
Electrical service panel
and is monitored for the electrical utility. A meter base
is the mounting base on which the electrical meter is An electrical service panel is installed in a convenient
attached and contains all of the connections and clamps. location generally near where the electrical utility meter
Ampere is a measurement of electrical current flow, and is located and in an accessible place such as in a
is referred to by its abbreviation amp or amps. Volt (V) garage.
is a unit of measure for electrical force. VAC is the The electrical service panel is a distribution box with
abbreviation for volts alternating current. Alternating circuit breakers connecting electrical wiring to circuits
current is the type of electrical current used in homes and within the home. A circuit breaker, also called a breaker,
is an electric current that reverses direction in a circuit at is an electric safety switch that automatically opens a
regular intervals. The term ground or grounded refers to an circuit when excessive amperage occurs. Amperage,
electrical connection to the earth by means of a rod, or a referred to as amps, is a measure of the amount of
common return path for electric current. electricity used. Arc Fault Circuit Interrupters (AFCI) are
also required as a safety device during electrical overload
conditions such as electrical storms. An AFCI is a duplex
NOTE receptacle or circuit breaker that breaks the circuit when
it detects a dangerous electrical arc, in order to prevent
Residential electrical voltage is 110 or 120 and 220 electrical fires.
or 240. North American power outlets provide
There is normally one electrical service panel for the
120 volts at 60 Hz. Power comes in between 110
entire home, but there can be another subpanel installed
and 120 volts or between 220 and 240 volts. One
to serve a specific area such as a kitchen, garage, or
floor plan symbol is used for 110 or 120 volts and
outdoor cooking and living area. Circuit breakers are
a different symbol is used for 220 or 240 volts.
stacked in the electrical service panel and have a manual
Common home electrical supply is at 60 hertz (Hz).
switch that can be set to an on or off position. A main
The term hertz refers to electrical current changing
circuit breaker, also called a main, is a large double
direction or polarity 120 times, or 60 cycles per
circuit breaker at the top of the panel that controls
second.
power to all circuit breakers in the electrical service
panel. The electrician generally places a label next to
each breaker that identifies the breaker circuit, such
Rough-in
as kitchen, water heater, furnace, bedroom, or living
Rough-in electrical, also typically called rough-in, is when room outlets. The maximum amperage that an electrical
the electrician is done installing wiring and boxes. A box, service panel can distribute at one time is marked on
also called an electrical box, is equipped with clamps the main breaker. For most homes, a 100-amp main
and used to terminate a conduit. Connections are made is enough to handle all electrical needs, although new
in the box, and a variety of covers are available for finish home builders typically install 150-amp or 200-amp
electrical. A pre-manufactured box or casing is installed services for enough capacity. Each circuit breaker is
during electrical rough-in to house the switches, outlets, rated for the type of wire and load required by the circuit.
and fixture mountings. Types of boxes include an outlet Typical capacities for lighting and outlet circuits are 15-
box, lighting outlet box, junction box, and switch box and 20-amp breakers. Standard breakers for 120-volt
as shown in Figure 13.23. An outlet box is a box for an circuits take one slot in the electrical service panel, and
outlet. A lighting outlet box is an electrical box intended for service typical electrical applications such as lighting
the direct connection of a light fixture and can be ceiling and outlets. Typical 240 volt circuits use two slots in the
or wall mounted. A junction box is an electrical box that electrical service panel, and service appliances such
protects electrical wiring splices in conductors or joints as electric range, water heater, and furnace. The term
in runs. The junction box has a removable cover for easy volt (v) is a measure of electrical pressure or force. Thin
access. A switch box is an electrical box that houses a circuit breakers can be purchased that occupy half the
switch or group of switches. space of standard breakers and are often used when

444
 (a)

(b)

(c)
Figure 13.23  A box is equipped with clamps, used to terminate a conduit, also called an electrical box, outlet box,
or junction box. (a) Outlet box with duplex convenience outlet and cover. (b) Lighting outlet box. (c) Junction box.
Mechanical, plumbing, electrical systems

space is limited in the electrical service panel or when

adding a breaker for a remodeling project.
POWERPOINT

Create four PowerPoint slides showing a single-pole

Finish electrical switch connected to two lights, a three-way switch
connected to two lights, a four-way switch connected
Finish electrical is when the light fixtures, outlets and
to two lights, and a single-pole switch with a circuit
covers, and appliances are installed prior to moving in to
to a split wired outlet.
the home. Finish electrical is one of the last construction
phases. An outlet is an electrical connector used to
plug in devices. A duplex outlet, also called a duplex When a fixture requires special characteristics, such as
convenience outlet, has two outlets and is the typical a specific size, location, or other specification, a note is
wall plug. A light fixture is any device that provides placed next to the symbol, briefly describing the application
artificial light. as shown in Figure 13.26.
Tamper-resistant (TR) outlets are required to help make
a home a safer place for children. A tamper-resistant (TR)
outlet has a spring-loaded shutter that closes the contact POWERPOINT
openings for child safety.
Create one PowerPoint slide showing a fixture
with special characteristics, such as a specific size,
READING ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS location, or other specification, using a note placed
Electrical symbols show the electrical arrangement desired next to the symbol briefly describing the application.
in the home. Electrical symbols are displayed on the floor
plan or separate electrical plans. Figure 13.24 shows the
Figure 13.27 shows maximum spacing recommended for
typical electrical symbols that can be found on residential
outlet installations. Confirm spacing requirements with
electrical plans. The electrical contractor follows the layout
local and national codes.
and symbol locations on the electrical plans to install the
electrical system. Figure 13.28 shows a typical electrical plan.

Figure 13.25 shows several typical electrical installations

with switches to outlets. An electrical circuit line, also BASIC ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION
called a switch leg, is generally a curved dashed line that RECOMMENDATIONS
connects a switch to one or more light outlets. A switch
Electrical systems should be wired for convenience
leg is the electrical conductor from a switch to the
of use, to meet minimum code requirements, and to
electrical device being controlled. The following describes
achieve energy efficiency. Common codes, convenience
the electrical circuits shown in each Figure 13.25
applications, and energy conservation measures to
example:
consider when installing electrical circuits are described in
 A single-pole switch can be connected to one or more Appendix B of this textbook.
lights. A single-pole switch is a standard on and off wall
 o to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
G
switch that is the only switch controlling one or more
this appendix.
light fixtures in a single electrical circuit.
 A three-way switch is two switches controlling one
Smoke detectors
or more lights. You can turn the lights on or off at either
switch. Smoke detectors and alarms provide an opportunity for safe
 A four-way switch is three switches controlling one or exit through early detection of fire and smoke. A smoke
more lights. You can turn the lights on or off at any alarm that meets the requirements of Underwriters
switch. Laboratories (UL) UL 217 must be installed per National
 A single-pole switch controlling a wall-mounted light, Fire Protection Association (NFPA) NFPA 72 in each sleeping
such as a light outside of an entry door or porch. room, and at a point centrally located in a corridor that
 A single-pole switch with a circuit to a split wired provides access to the bedrooms. Battery-operated smoke
outlet. A split wired outlet is a duplex outlet that has detectors are available, and the battery should be changed
one outlet controlled by a switch. This is a common annually. New home construction and remodeling projects
installation in a room where a table lamp is plugged have the smoke detectors hard-wired to the electrical
into the outlet and the light is controlled by the wall system of the home. Hard-wired means a fixed connection
switch. between electrical, electronic components, and electric

446
Figure 13.24  Typical electrical symbols that can be found on residential electrical plans.
Mechanical, plumbing, electrical systems

devices by means of permanent wiring into the electrical

system. Underwriters Laboratories is a global safety science
company that tests the latest products and technologies for
safety before they are marketed to consumers.

Carbon monoxide alarms

A carbon monoxide alarm is required in all new residential
construction that contains fuel-fired appliances or has
an attached garage. Carbon monoxide is a tasteless,
colorless, odorless gas found in the fumes of fuels
that contain carbon, such as wood, coal and gasoline.
Carbon monoxide poisoning is a potentially fatal illness
that occurs when people breathe in carbon monoxide.
Carbon monoxide sources include motor vehicles, small
gasoline engines, stoves, lanterns, furnaces, grills, gas
ranges, water heaters, and clothes dryers. The risk of
carbon monoxide poisoning is high when equipment is
used in an enclosed place and ventilation is poor. Carbon
monoxide poisoning symptoms vary depending on the
concentration of carbon monoxide in the environment,
the length of time you are exposed, and your health.
Exposure to high levels of carbon monoxide gas can
result in headache, shortness of breath, personality
changes, unusually emotional behavior or extreme swings
in emotions, fatigue, a generally sick feeling, dizziness,
clumsiness or difficulty walking, vision problems, confusion
and impaired judgment, nausea and vomiting, rapid
breathing, chest pain, and rapid or irregular heartbeat. You
can lose consciousness, have a seizure, enter a coma,
and potentially die without immediate treatment. Death
can result from only a few minutes of exposure to higher
concentrations or from an hour of exposure to lower levels.
Alarms that meet UL 2034 must be placed outside of
each separate sleeping area in the immediate vicinity
of the bedrooms in the home. Carbon monoxide alarms
must be installed in accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions.

UNIVERSAL ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

The design of the electrical system to accommodate
Figure 13.25  Typical electrical installations with people of all ages and possible disabilities should be
switches to outlets. considered. The following are some possible considerations
for these applications.
Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
the Appendix E for a description of specific universal
design applications.

HOME AUTOMATION
Figure 13.26  When a fixture requires special
characteristics, such as a specific size, location, or Many modern homes are built with automation systems.
other specification, a note is placed next to the symbol, This technology is rapidly changing and requires that
briefly describing the application. you continuously research the available products and
448
Figure 13.27  Maximum spacing recommended for outlet installations.

13

Figure 13.28  A typical electrical plan. Courtesy Engineering Drafting & Design, Inc.
Mechanical, plumbing, electrical systems

installations. The design and installation of home automation the outside area. Most outdoor systems are programmed to
systems allows the builder to sell the same square-footage turn on flood lights when detecting movement.
home for more and increases marketability. An automation
system is a method or process of controlling and operating Radio frequency systems
mechanical devices electronically. Such operations include
Radio frequency (RF) systems are available that allow you
the computerized control of the heating, ventilating, and
to control a variety of lighting and mechanical applications
air conditioning systems; landscape sprinkling systems;
throughout the home. Radio frequency is electromagnetic
and lighting, security, intercom, audio, and visual systems.
radiation waves that transmit audio, video, or data signals.
Automation system electrical symbols and specific notes
The Federal Communication Commission (FCC) has defined
are placed on the floor plan or on separate drawings and in
RF ranges that can be used for wireless applications, such
specifications used for construction purposes. The following
as those used in home systems. Home RF systems allow
briefly describes some of the many home automation
you to design options for specific lighting applications. For
system options and features available. example, the RF system can control security lighting inside
and outside the home by the press of a button within the
Entertainment centers home or from your vehicle as you approach the home.
Entertainment centers are available that provide an in-home Other lighting schemes can also be designed that provide
theater and sound throughout the home. These are fully visibility or accent lighting to various areas of the home.
automatic and contain the best technology in picture and You can control the lighting of hallways at night, or specific
sound performance. For example, pressing one button can light-dimming applications for accent purposes.
automatically dim the lights, close the curtains, and begin
the movie. The home theater can be part of a living or family Structured wiring
room, or designed into a special theater room with theater-
As home computer use and Internet access are common
style seating.
in nearly every home, structured wiring systems are part
Home entertainment centers can also provide sound of the electrical work needed in the architectural design.
throughout the home using a variety of sources, such as Structured wiring systems are high-speed voice and data
DVD, satellite radio, and computer access sources. lines and video cables wired to a central service location.
These wires and cables optimize the speed and quality of
Computerized programming various communication signals coming into and going out of
the house. This kind of wiring is typically used in commercial
Computerized programming of house functions from a
construction projects and is gaining popularity in residential
personal computer allows you to use a computer to set
design. In a system of this type, each electrical outlet,
and monitor a variety of electrical circuits throughout the
telephone jack, or computer port has a dedicated line back
home, including security, sound, yard watering, cooking, and
to the central service location. The central service location
lighting. Home automation systems often place the computer
allows the wires to be connected as needed for a network
monitors in locations such as the kitchen or office where there
configuration or for dedicated wiring from the outside. High-
is frequent activity. There are dedicated computer systems
quality structured wiring systems use network connectors
that can be installed, or a standard personal computer or
and parallel circuits, because conventional outlets and
mobile device can be used with desired software and
series circuits degrade the communication signal. A parallel
Internet access.
circuit is an electrical circuit that contains two or more paths
for the electricity or signal to flow from a common source.
Security systems A series circuit is a circuit that supplies electricity or a
Home security systems can be installed indoors at doors and signal to a number of devices connected so that the same
windows, which sound an alarm when opened. Additional current passes through each device in completing its path
indoor motion sensors can detect movement inside the to the source. Structured wiring systems allow the use of
house when the system is armed. Video cameras can also fax, multiline telephone, and computers at the same time.
be used for added security and surveillance. These security Additional applications include digital satellite system (DSS),
systems allow you to enter a special code at a control panel, digital broadcast system (DBS), stereo audio, and closed-
allowing you to set the alarm when leaving and to disarm the circuit security systems.
system when entering the home. Most systems have a night Most homes are equipped with Wi-Fi. Wi-Fi is the
setting that allows you to arm the doors and windows but name of wireless networking technology that uses
keep the motion sensors off when you are home and want radio waves to provide wireless high-speed Internet and
the system active. Outdoor security systems can also monitor network connections. Homes with a wireless network

450
 Mechanical, plumbing, electrical systems

have an access point (AP). The access point broadcasts a designed specifically for utility grid-connected residential
wireless signal used by computers and wireless devices. use. An inverter is an appliance used to convert direct
Computers and devices are equipped with wireless current (DC) power, produced by the wind generator,
network adapters for connection to the access point to into standard household AC current. A utility grid is the
interact with the wireless network. The access point is transmission system for electricity that is a network of
generally located in a central place where it provides good coordinated power providers and consumers that are
service to the wireless devices. connected by transmission and distribution lines and
operated by one or more control centers. Direct current is a
continuous electric current that flows in one direction only.
ELECTRICAL SCHEDULES
Electricity consumers in most areas can take advantage of
Electrical fixtures can be identified in schedules, notes, a net-metering, which is the sale of unused energy back to
Description of Materials, or in specifications. Light fixture the power grid as shown in Figure 13.30.
schedules typically provides fixture symbol, manufacturers A wind generator can also provide electricity for remote
name, type, color, bulb, wattage, and remarks columns. homes, telecommunications sites, water pumping, and
Light fixtures are identified in a schedule by placing a letter other rural applications. The generator provides direct
or number key next to the floor plan symbol and correlating current to batteries, which store the energy until it is
the same letter or number to the schedule or fixtures by needed. Standard residential alternating current appliances
room name where the fixtures are located. The term watt or can be used from the batteries when the power is run
wattage refers to a unit measure of power corresponding through an inverter before use.
to the power in an electric circuit in which the potential
difference is one volt and the current one ampere.
Electrical circuit schedules can be used to provide PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULES
electrical distribution panel, circuits, poles, and amperage Photovoltaic (PV) cells turn sunlight into electricity. The word
requirements and specifications. A distribution panel, also photovoltaic comes from the Greek word photo, meaning
called a panel, is where the conductor from the meter light, and voltaic, meaning to produce electricity by chemical
base is connected to individual circuit breakers, which are action. In the photovoltaic cells, photons strike the surface
connected to separate circuits for distribution to various of a silicon wafer, which is a semiconductor diode that
locations throughout the home. An electrical panel schedule stimulates the release of electric charges that are guided
can be used to provide panel size and type, main circuit into a circuit where they become a useful electric current.
size and type, panel manufacturer and model, and wiring Photovoltaic modules produce direct current (DC) electricity.
specifications. Figure 13.29 shows a light fixture schedule. This type of power is useful for many applications and for
charging storage batteries. An inverter is used to change
DC current to alternating current (AC). AC is the type of
RESIDENTIAL WIND POWER ELECTRICITY
current that powers electrical systems in the home. Some
GENERATION
photovoltaic systems use the DC current immediately to
Wind power electricity generators are available that can power DC motors as in hot water-pumping systems. The
provide the entire energy needs for a home and also sell energy produced from photovoltaic cells must be stored
electricity back to the local public utility company. The wind when solar electric systems are not used immediately, or if
power electricity generator converts wind into electricity. an energy reserve is required for use when sunlight is not
Modern wind generators have built-in controls and inverter available. Batteries are the most common storage devices,

13

Figure 13.29  A light fixture schedule.

451
Mechanical, plumbing, electrical systems

Meter
Disconnect
Switc h

Skystream provides Home connected

electricity to home to utility grid

Figure 13.30  Wind power electricity generators are available that can provide the entire energy needs for a
home and also sell electricity back to the local public utility company. Electricity consumers in most areas can take
advantage of net-metering, which is the sale of unused energy back to the power grid. Courtesy © 2016 XZERES
Corporation. All Rights Reserved.

allowing the stored electricity to be used when needed. METRIC VALUES IN ELECTRICAL
DC and AC systems can be used to supply the electrical INSTALLATIONS
needs of the home, and AC systems can be connected to
a utility grid where electricity can be shared. The system Electrical conduit designations are expressed in
can draw on the grid for extra electricity if needed during millimeters. Electrical conduit is a metal, plastic, or fiber
times of peak power usage. The system can also return pipe or tube used to enclose a single or several electrical
extra unused power to the grid where the electricity can conductors. Electrical conduit is produced in decimal inch
be purchased by the utility, providing income or electricity dimensions and is identified in nominal inch sizes.
credits for the homeowner. In most areas of the country Nominal size is referred to as the conventional size; for
the utility (grid) is required to purchase excess power from example, a 0.500-inch diameter pipe has a 12-mm nominal
private sources. Because battery storage is expensive and size. The actual size of a conduit remains in inches but
space-consuming, a municipally connected solar electric is labeled in metric. Table 13.4 shows inch and metric
system is the most popular and least expensive way to take electrical applications:
advantage of solar power.
Table 13.4  Inch and metric electrical applications.
The solar modules need to be located and positioned where
Inch Metric (mm) Inch Metric (mm)
they receive maximum exposure to direct sunlight for the
longest period of time every day. It is also important to keep 1/2 16 2-1/2 63
distances to electrical loads to a minimum. The electrical 3/4 21 3 78
loads are the circuits and appliances that use electricity. 1 27 3-1/2 91
It is also important to confirm that shade from buildings 1-1/4 35 4 103
and trees does not block the sunlight. Photovoltaic solar 1-1/2 41 5 129
collectors are constructed by placing individual photovoltaic 2 53 6 155
cells in groups called modules, and the modules are
combined in groups of six to create the photovoltaic Existing American Wire Gauge (AWG) sizes remain the
collector as shown in Figure 13.31. Figure 13.32 shows a same without a metric conversion. The diameter of wires
home with roof-mounted photovoltaic solar collectors. conform to various wire gauge systems. The AWG is one

452
 Mechanical, plumbing, electrical systems

system for the designation of wire sizes. Wire gauge is a

method of defining wire diameter by a number, with wire
diameter increasing as the number gets smaller.

NOTE

Work as an electrician is a specialty trade in the

construction industry that normally requires
completion of an apprenticeship program.
Preliminary skills needed to become an electrician
apprentice include above-average manual dexterity,
good hand-eye coordination, physical fitness,
an excellent sense of balance, and the ability to
quickly and accurately solve math problems. An
electrician apprentice candidate also needs good
color vision to identify electrical wires by color.
Entry into an electrician apprenticeship program
requires secondary school graduation or equivalent,
and pass an electrician apprentice aptitude test.
Postsecondary education can be an asset for entry
into an apprenticeship program. Several trade
Figure 13.31  Photovoltaic solar collectors are
schools and community colleges offer electrician
constructed by placing individual photovoltaic cells
education that is allied with local electrician unions
in groups of 36 called modules, and the modules are
and contractor organizations. Entry employment
combined in groups of six to create the photovoltaic
as an electrician helper is an alternate way to gain
collector.

13

Figure 13.32  A home with roof mounted photovoltaic solar collectors.

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Mechanical, plumbing, electrical systems

basic experience before entering an electrician Each region has different but similar requirements
apprenticeship program. for electricians, but most involve licensing.
Electrician apprenticeship programs are typically Related opportunities involve installation and
sponsored by local electrician unions of the maintenance of home automation systems and
International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, the related installations described in this chapter.
National Electrical Contractors Association, or local
chapters of the Associated Builders and Contractors
and the Independent Electrical Contractors RESEARCH
Association. Some electrical contracting companies
also sponsor their own electrician apprenticeship Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
programs. Apprenticeship programs take 4–5 years research options and topics that correlate with
to complete and combine classroom instruction the content of this chapter.
with on-the-job training. Electrician apprenticeship
education can include mathematics, print reading,
electrical codes, electrical safety, soldering skills, TEST
communication systems, alarm systems, and
equipment operation. Soldering is the joining of Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
metal parts, such as wires, with the use of heat the test for this chapter.
on fusible alloys, usually tin and lead. An alloy is
a metal made by combining two or more other
metals to achieve a specific result. Completion of an PROBLEMS
electrician apprentice program typically qualifies the
graduate to do construction work and maintenance Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
as an electrician. the problems for this chapter.

454
 CHAPTER 14
Indoor air quality
and safety
Learning objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
 Identify and describe sources of pollutants.
 Explain the function of heat recovery and ventilation systems.
 Describe the function, locations, and requirements for exhaust systems.
 Discuss the construction alternatives and environmental applications that can be used to improve indoor air quality.
 Describe mold and mold prevention practices.
 Discuss the need and options for sealing the home from the garage.
 Describe central vacuum systems and installation.
 Continue the Description of Materials form started in previous chapters as related to mechanical, plumbing, and
electrical system materials and practices.
 Create PowerPoint presentations related to air quality and safety system applications.
 Answer questions related to air quality and safety construction practices.
 Continue rough and finish air quality and safety system installation on the actual home team project option started
in previous chapters.

INTRODUCTION solution is mechanical ventilation, which is an important

part of designing and building an energy-efficient home as
This chapter introduces you to indoor air quality and
discussed throughout this chapter.
occupant safety factors and applications that need to
be considered as part of standard and energy-efficient
construction practices. Government energy agencies, SOURCES OF POLLUTANTS
architects, designers, and contractors around the country
have been evaluating construction methods that are Air pollution in a home is a main reason for controlling indoor
designed to reduce energy consumption. Some of the air quality. The following briefly describes sources that can
tests have produced super-insulated, vapor-barrier-lined, contribute to an unhealthy environment within a home.
airtight homes. The result has been a dramatic reduction in Moisture in the form of relative humidity can cause
heating and cooling costs. However, the air quality in these structural damage, respiratory problems, and other health
homes can be significantly reduced and can be harmful to concerns. Relative humidity is a percentage ratio of the
health. The problem is that the home is constructed tightly, amount of water vapor in the air at a specific temperature
and stale air and pollutants have no place to escape. The to the maximum amount that the air can hold at that

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Indoor air quality and safety

temperature. Sources of relative humidity include the Toxic Air Contaminant by the California Air Resources Board,
atmosphere, especially in warm humid climates. Steam due to its potential to cause cancer. Water-based wood finishes,
from cooking, showers, and other sources can increase such as waterborne urethane or acrylic, have decreased toxic
humidity in the home. Each occupant can also produce up compounds while still providing comparable durability.
to 1 gallon (3.8 liters) of water vapor per day. Radon is a naturally occurring radioactive gas that breaks
Incomplete combustion from gas-fired appliances or wood- down into compounds that can cause cancer when large
burning stoves and fireplaces can generate a variety of quantities are inhaled over a long period of time. Radon
pollutants, including carbon monoxide (CO), aldehydes, and is invisible to sight, smell, and taste. Radon can be more
soot. Carbon monoxide has the chemical formula CO and is apparent in a building containing a large amount of concrete,
a colorless, odorless, poisonous gas, produced by incomplete or radon enters from the ground, with specific geological
burning of carbon-based fuels. Aldehydes are reactive organic areas carrying different levels of contamination. Radon can
compounds that contribute to ozone production. Soot is finely be monitored scientifically at a nominal cost, and barriers can
divided carbon deposited from flames during the incomplete be built that help reduce concern about radon contamination.
combustion of organic substances such as coal. The basic methods for radon build-up prevention include
Pollutants from humans and pets can transmit bacterial a gas-permeable layer placed under the concrete slab or
and viral diseases through the air. Tobacco smoke adds flooring system to allow the soil gas to move freely beneath
chemical compounds to the air that can adversely affect all the house. In many cases, the material used is a 4″ (100 mm)
occupants. Household products such as those available in layer of clean gravel. Plastic sheeting on top of the gas
aerosol spray cans and craft materials such as glues and permeable layer prevents the soil gas from entering the
paints can contribute a number of toxic pollutants. home. Radon gas can also be directed away from the home
by using a 3- or 4 inch (75–100 mm) gas-tight vent pipe that
Products and materials containing formaldehyde can be a
runs from the gas permeable layer through the house and out
factor in the cause of eye irritation, certain diseases, and
through the roof or exterior wall. This safely vents radon and
respiratory problems. Formaldehyde is a chemical found
other soil gases above the house. Additional radon ventilation
in disinfectants, preservatives, carpets, furniture, and the
can be provided by using an electric exhaust fan connected to
glue used in construction materials, such as plywood and
the vent system. Options for radon detection are professional
particle board, as well as some insulation products.
digital radon detectors that can require annual calibration for
Volatile organic compounds (VOC) are chemicals accuracy, a radon test kit available at hardware stores for a
contained in the items used in home construction, which can one-time test, and homeowner radon detectors designed to
emit pollutants throughout the life span of the product. It is monitor and measure radon levels.
important to specify and use products containing low or no
VOC. Products that should have low or no VOC include paint,
caulks, sealants, cabinet materials, plastics, and carpets. POWERPOINT
Reducing the amount of VOCs improves indoor air quality of
the home and reduces exposure to toxic compounds. Create one PowerPoint slide listing and briefly
identifying at least five different types of pollutants
A healthier alternative can be achieved with the same color,
that can be found in a home.
texture, sheen, and quality of finish using VOC-free paint.
Look for the Green Seal and ask your paint supplier about
the VOC content when purchasing paint. Green Seal is a HEAT RECOVERY AND VENTILATION
non-profit organization that uses science-based programs to
Air-to-air heat exchanger technology has emerged from
empower consumers, purchasers, and companies to create
a need to properly ventilate high energy-efficient airtight
a more sustainable world.
homes. In the past the air in a building was exchanged
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a widely used building material by leakage through walls, floors, and ceilings and around
found in products such as window frames, flooring, pipes, openings. This random leakage created a certain amount of
bathtubs, and shower units. Despite appearing to be an heat loss and provided no insurance that the building was
ideal building material, studies have shown that PVC can properly ventilated. With the concern for energy conservation,
have environmental and health risks. Home designers and and home air quality, it is clear that the internal air quality of
contractors should consider alternatives such as wood- a home cannot be left to chance. An air-to-air heat exchanger
framed or aluminum windows, natural flooring materials, is a heat recovery and ventilation device that pulls polluted,
non-PVC plumbing pipes, and tiled showers. stale warm air from the living space and transfers the heat
When buying or building cabinets, specify materials that contain in that air to fresh, cold air being pulled into the home. Heat
a urea-formaldehyde free binder. Urea-formaldehyde, found exchangers exchange heat from one airstream to another, but
in many engineered wood products, has been classified as a they do not produce heat. The heat transfer takes place in the

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 Indoor air quality and safety

core of the heat exchanger, which is designed to avoid mixing

the two airstreams and makes sure that indoor pollutants are
removed. Moisture in the stale air condenses in the core and
is drained from the unit. Figure 14.1 shows the function and
basic components of an air-to-air heat exchanger.

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide showing the function and

basic components of an air-to-air heat exchanger.

A heat recovery and ventilation (HRV) system is the

complete system that is operated by a heat exchanger,
air exchanger, or air-to-air heat exchanger. A heat recovery
ventilation system is a ventilation system that uses a counter-
flow heat exchanger between the inbound and outbound
air flow. The HRV provides fresh air and improved climate
control while also saving energy by reducing the heating or
cooling needs of the home. An energy recovery ventilator
(ERV) system is closely related to a HRV, except the ERV also
transfers the humidity level of the exhaust air to the intake
air. HRV and ERV systems are part of the HVAC system that
require mechanical engineering for proper design and function. Figure 14.2  A complete heat recovery and ventilation
Figure 14.2 shows a complete HRV system in a home. system in a home. Courtesy Systemair Ltd.

14
Figure 14.1  The function and basic components of an air-to-air heat exchanger. Copyright © Carson Dunlop 2013
www.carsondunlop.com. All Rights Reserved.

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Indoor air quality and safety

The recommended minimum effective air change rate during the design process and detailed in plans and
is 0.5 air change per hour (ACH). Codes in some areas specifications.
of the country have established a rate of 0.7 ACH. The Range hoods and down-draft range exhaust system
American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air must be vented to the outside by a minimum 0.016 inch
Conditioning Engineers, Inc. (ASHRAE) recommends (0.4 mm) thick galvanized steel, stainless steel, or copper
ventilation levels based on the amount of air entering duct. A range hood is a metal hood over a range that has
a room. The recommended amount of air entering lights and an exhaust fan that vents to the outside. The
most rooms is 10 cubic feet per minute (cfm). The range hood can be utilitarian or decorative to enhance
rate for kitchens is 100 cfm and for bathrooms, 50 the kitchen. The range hood can have outer wood style to
cfm. Mechanical exhaust devices vented to outside air match the kitchen cabinets and a metal insert as shown
should be added to kitchens and baths to maintain the in Figure 14.3. A down-draft range exhaust system is
recommended air exchange rate. generally directly behind the range and has an exhaust
fan that ventilates the range downward to the outside in
ductwork, generally through the crawl space. The range
EXHAUST SYSTEMS
hood or range down-draft systems duct has a smooth inner
Exhaust systems are required to remove odors, surface, is airtight, and has a back draft damper. A back
steam, moisture, and pollutants from inside a home, draft damper is a movable plate that regulates the draft
and are generally located in specific rooms such as or air flow in a chimney or vent pipe with blades that are
bathrooms, laundry rooms, and kitchens where excess activated by gravity, permitting air to pass through them
moisture and pollutants can be found. The following in one direction only. The range hood cannot be any closer
are basic general requirements that are considered than 24 inches (610 mm) to the range.

Figure 14.3  This range hood has outer wood style to match the kitchen cabinets and a metal insert with lights
and exhaust fan.

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 Indoor air quality and safety

fans must circulate air at 80 cubic feet per minute (136 cubic
NOTE meters per hour). Half bathrooms must have fans that
circulate 50 cubic feet per minute (85 cubic meters per hour).
Carefully follow code requirements and
A half bathroom is a bathroom without a shower or bathtub.
manufacturer instructions when designing and
installing a down-draft vent system for a range or
other gas appliance.
CLEANING THE AIR
There are a variety of construction alternatives and
POWERPOINT environmental applications that can be used to improve
indoor air quality. This discussion includes features that can
Create one PowerPoint slide with the photograph of be used in a home to achieve better air quality, and daily
a kitchen range and range hood. applications that occupants can use to continue to improve
the environment.
The laundry room is another place where specific exhaust
venting is required. Clothes dryer vents must be independent Ventilation and air filtration
of all other systems and carry the moisture outside. The Air movement in and out of the home needs to be controlled
vent cannot be connected with screws that extend into for maximum efficiency. In order to achieve desired air
the vent. Clothes dryer exhaust vents require a full opening movement control, it is important to seal the envelope tightly
back draft exhaust damper at the outside. A damper is and control ventilation properly. An envelope, related to home
an internal movable plate for regulating air flow. In the design and construction, is the entire exterior of the home
application of a dryer vent, the damper is on the outside and that includes exterior walls, the roof, the foundation, and
automatically opens when air flows and closes when air is doors and windows. An HVAC professional contractor can
not flowing. The vent should also have a termination cap to properly calculate the amount of air required for ventilation
keep vermin out of the home. There should not be a screen in the home design. This professional takes into account
over the opening that can trap lint and cause a fire. The vent all the variables associated with properly sizing ventilation
duct should be rigid metal 0.016 inch (0.4 mm) thick with equipment, which includes the number of bathroom and
a smooth inside and joints running in the direction of the kitchen fans, regional air pressure, size of indoor spaces, and
air flow. Approved flexible duct can be used but cannot be proper heating and cooling equipment selection. To maintain
concealed within the construction. A typical clothes dryer adequate fresh air, the ventilation system can include a heat
vent duct is 4 inches (100 mm) in diameter, and cannot be recovery ventilation system to regularly change the air within
longer than 25 feet (7,620 mm) from the dryer to the wall or the home. This makes sure that you always breathe fresh
roof vent. The total length should be reduced by 30 inches air while maintaining a high level of energy efficiency by
(762 mm) for each 45-degree bend in the duct, and reduced exchanging energy from outgoing air to incoming air.
60 inches (1,524 mm) for each 90-degree bend in the duct.
The air used to ventilate a home comes from the outside,
The vent outlet should be at least 3 feet (915 mm) from any
and is subjected to external pollutants. The air should run
other opening. A gas clothes dryer must be approved by the
through a filtering system in order to protect the occupants
manufacturer for placement in a closet, and no other fuel-
from air-born pollutants. There are various types of air
burning appliance can be in the same closet.
filters including Minimum Efficiency Reporting Value
Bathrooms and spas also have specific ventilation (MERV) and High Efficiency Particle Arresting (HEPA)
requirements due to the amount of moisture that can be filters. MERV refers to the filtration efficiency of an air
created in these areas. Exhaust fans that run continuously filter. MERV performance is determined by comparing
must be rated at a maximum of 1.0 sone. A sone is a sound airborne particle counts upstream and downstream of the
rating, where the lower the number the quieter the sound. air filter. HEPA filters are designed to be 99.97% effective
The exhaust system that does not run continuously, must in capturing particles as small as 0.3 microns. A micron
be controlled by a humidistat, timer, or other automatic is a unit of length equal to one-millionth of a meter. When
control. A humidistat is a device that automatically regulates

14
designing the HVAC system, it is important to confirm that
the humidity of the air in a room or building. Exhaust fans all equipment is compatible.
that run intermittently, by switch or timer, must be rated
at a maximum of 3.0 sone. Fans that are located 4 feet
Electrostatic air filters
(1,200 mm) or more from the air inlet grille are exempt from
sone requirements. Continuous fans must circulate air at 20 Electrostatic air filters clean the air flowing through the
cubic feet per minute (34 cubic meters per hour). Intermittent HVAC system by using static electricity in a unit placed

459
Indoor air quality and safety

in the return air duct directly next to the furnace or air

handler of the system. The electrostatic air filter works by
POWERPOINT
an electrostatic charge generated by air flowing through a
Create one PowerPoint slide showing a diagram of
network of static fibers. Airborne particles are attracted and
the function of UV-C lights in an HVAC system.
held by the static charge until released by removing the
filter and washing with water. After the filter is washed, it
is placed back in the unit where it can continue collecting Controlling dust
pollutants until the next cleaning.
While preventing the build-up of dust may not completely
reduce asthmatic or allergic symptoms, controlling dust
Ultraviolet light systems
is one of the most proactive measures you can take in
Specific ultraviolet (UV) light can be beneficial for keeping the interior environment healthy. The following are
improving indoor air quality. Ultraviolet energy is measured a few steps that can be taken to control the amount of dust
in nanometers. A nanometer is one-billionth of a meter. UV that accumulates in a house:
wavelengths are shorter than visible light, and are invisible to  Provide shoe storage at entrances for homeowners
the human eye. One of the wavelengths of ultraviolet light is and visitors. Removing your shoes at the door prevents
the C bandwidth. This desirable UV-C light has a wavelength tracking dust further into the home.
of 253.7 nanometers, which is called the germicidal  Install a special high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA)
bandwidth. The home can have germs, mold, bacteria, filter in the air conditioner or air purifier. This can help
toxins, and gases that cause unhealthy air conditions. These remove some allergens such as pollen, animal dander,
contaminants can pass through the forced air heating and and tobacco smoke from the air.
cooling system several times per hour, making the furnace  Limit carpet, upholstered furniture, and heavy drapes
a collection place for recirculating air pollutants. This makes that collect dust. Upholstery and drapes should be
the ductwork, near the furnace, an ideal place to install made from a tight-weave fabric that keeps out dust.
an indoor air cleaning system to control harmful levels of  Use hard-surfaced furniture that you can wipe clean.
indoor air pollutants. UV-C lights are mounted inside the  Avoid wall-to-wall carpeting. Use smaller rugs made of
ductwork at the return air duct just before the air cleaner, cotton or wool that you can clean.
or in the conditioned air supply duct immediately after the  Use roll-down shades or washable curtains.
HVAC system as shown in Figure 14.4. The furnace fan  Damp-mop tile and hard-surfaced floors rather than
circulates air across the UV-C light, neutralizing up to 98% sweeping.
the microorganisms. Exposure to UV-C light can destroy or  Use a washable cloth instead of disposable wipes.
damage microorganisms by disrupting their reproductive  Install a central vacuum system that vents directly
code (DNA) and inhibiting them from reproducing. While outdoors. If a central vacuum is not an option, use a
there are varying opinions about the effectiveness of UV vacuum cleaner with a HEPA filter or a special double-
light systems for pollutant control, you should do additional thickness bag that collects dust-mite particles and pollen.
research and consult with HVAC professionals to determine  Consider wet-vacuum cleaning when possible. This can
their use in your construction projects. help remove allergens from carpeting as it washes the
carpet.
 Consider periodic steam-cleaning of carpets when
possible. In addition to cleaning the carpet, the heat of
the steam kills dust mites.

Mold prevention
Exposure to mold can cause or worsen conditions such
as asthma, hay fever, or other allergies. The most common
symptoms of mold overexposure are cough, congestion, runny
nose, eye irritation, and aggravation of asthma. Depending on
the amount of exposure and individual sensitivity, more serious
Figure 14.4  UV-C lights are mounted inside the health effects can occur, such as fever and breathing problems.
ductwork at the return air duct just before the Mold is a superficial growth produced especially on damp or
air cleaner, or in the conditioned air supply duct decaying organic matter or on living organisms by a fungus.
immediately after the HVAC system. Courtesy National Mold is most likely to grow where moisture is trapped in
Trade Supply. improperly ventilated spaces such as damp crawl spaces,

460
 Indoor air quality and safety

misty bathrooms, and defective wall systems. Because designing a home with a detached garage, such as architectural
mold increases with humidity, it is important to be aware of style, personal preference, and available space on the building
areas that can trap humidity. site. A disadvantage of a detached garage is that you have to
The key to preventing mold from forming in the home is go outside when transporting items from the vehicle to the
to prevent weather from entering the building envelope home. This may not be as much of an issue in moderate and
and by controlling the humidity inside the home. In the warm climates as it is in cold climates. An option for providing
design and construction of an energy-efficient home, the some protection from weather is to design and build an open
exterior building envelope must be air- and watertight, covered structure between the garage and house.
and air movement must be controlled. To make sure that
all parts of the home remain dry, it is important to include
CENTRAL VACUUM SYSTEMS
systems to supply proper ventilation throughout the
home. Examples of systems used to help prevent water Central vacuum systems have a number of advantages
damage and mold growth include house wrap behind over portable vacuum cleaners. For example, central
exterior finishes, properly sealed building envelopes, the vacuum systems can cost no more than a major vacuum
use of moisture resistant building materials, heat recovery appliance. They also increase the resale value of a home,
ventilation, and ventilation fans in interior spaces. remove debris too heavy for most portable units, exhaust
dirt and dust out of the home, and can save cleaning time.
Some systems have the ability to vary vacuum pressure.
SEALING THE HOME FROM THE GARAGE
A well-designed central vacuum system requires only a few
Many home designs include an attached garage. An attached inlets to cover an entire home, and provides access to outside
garage keeps you dry as you come and go and allows for ease areas such as patios and decks. Outlets placed in the garage
of moving items from the car into the house. An attached can make cleaning the car and garage area easy. The hose
garage can allow for a more compact building footprint in length is designed to reach between outlets, and can be
places where space is limited. While an attached garage up to 30 feet (9 m) or more in length. The hose is generally
has advantages, there are items inside the garage that need lightweight and can make it easier to vacuum stairs and hard-
to be isolated from the home. Chemicals, paints, oils, and to-reach places than a conventional vacuum cleaner. There
cleaning agents stored in the garage can attribute to air quality are a variety of attachments available for cleaning different
concerns if they leak. The automobile emits dangerous carbon surfaces and for reaching different areas. The hose plugs into
monoxide (CO) gas when the engine is running. It is important a wall outlet and the vacuum is ready for use. The central
to prevent dangerous substances, gases, and toxins from canister empties easily to remove dust and debris from the
entering the home. An easy solution is to seal gaps in walls home. Disadvantages of central vacuum systems are the long
that the home shares with the garage. Install a CO monitor in hose that has to be dragged around and rolled up for storage
any room adjacent to the garage, and consider installing a fan when finished vacuuming. The hose can rub on woodwork
attached to the garage door opener to vent the garage when when being dragged during use. The floor plan symbol for
you leave with the automobile. vacuum cleaner outlets is shown in Figure 14.5, and the
central unit is shown as a circle labeled CENTRAL VACUUM
Mechanical systems and the garage SYSTEM. The central unit can be located in the garage or
Mechanical systems and ductwork placed in the garage storage area where it can be emptied out of the house.
can pull air from the garage into the home. When possible,
make sure to avoid the placement of ductwork or
mechanical equipment in the garage to prevent toxins from
entering the HVAC system. Placing the mechanical system
and related ductwork in an insulated area other than the
garage also saves energy, because any loss from the
system remains indoors. Even if the mechanical system Figure 14.5  (a) Vacuum cleaner outlet floor plan
has its own insulated closet in the garage, it is better than symbol. (b) Central unit symbol.

14
having the equipment exposed in the garage.
RESEARCH
Detached garages
Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
Designing and building a home with a detached garage is the
research options and topics that correlate with
safest way to stop gas and chemicals found in a garage from
the content of this chapter.
entering the home. Many factors need to be considered when

461
Indoor air quality and safety

TEST PROBLEMS

Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access

the test for this chapter. the problems for this chapter.

462
 CHAPTER 15
Finish work and materials
Learning objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
 Describe drywall material and discuss proper drywall installation.
 Identify types of drywall tape and their preferred application.
 Discuss joint compound material and applications.
 Describe the purpose and types of drywall texturing.
 Identify and discuss different types of millwork and their installation.
 Describe the architectural use of mantels and book shelves.
 Explain the function and architectural value of handrails and guardrail systems.
 Identify where cabinets are used in the home and cabinet options.
 Describe the difference between custom and modular cabinets.
 Discuss cabinet substrate and finish tops.
 Read cabinet elevations and correlate cabinet elevations with floor plans.
 Explain the use of surface finishes.
 Continue the Description of Materials form started in previous chapters as related to finish work and materials and
practices.
 Create PowerPoint presentations related to finish work applications.
 Answer questions related to finish work practices.
 Continue finish work on the actual home team project option started in previous chapters.

INTRODUCTION applications that you will discover throughout this chapter.

Wood millwork components are shaped using a milling
Finish materials and the craftsmanship it takes to install can
process. Milling is the use of a rotating cutting tool where
be one of the most exciting phases of home construction,
the tool forms the desired shape of the millwork. Plastic,
because of the beauty and creativity possible with quality
plaster, and ceramic products are also available that
millwork. Figure 15.1 shows two examples of the beauty
duplicate the traditional wood millwork. Plastic, plaster, and
found in quality millwork. Finish work happens near the
ceramic millwork is generally extruded or molded into the
end of the project after the drywall or other wall covering
desired shape. Extrusion is a manufacturing process used
material has been installed. Millwork is finished woodwork
that has been manufactured in a milling plant, and is to create long objects of a fixed cross-sectional profile,
anything that is considered finish trim or finish woodwork, where material is pressed or pushed under pressure
including cabinets. A milling plant is an industry that through a desired shaped opening.
manufactures millwork. Millwork is manufactured in many Complete millwork details are often not required in a
wood species, shapes, and styles for use in a variety of set of home plans. The practice of creating millwork

463
Finish work and materials

Painting and other surface finishes are also described

in this chapter as part of completing the home. Painting
is the process of using a solid, semi-transparent,
or transparent surface covering as a decoration and
protective coating.

DRYWALL INSTALLATION AND FINISH

Drywall or other wall covering materials are put on the
walls and ceilings before finish millwork is installed. For
review, drywall is also called gypsum board, gyprock,
plasterboard, sheetrock, or wallboard, and is a plaster panel
made of gypsum pressed between two thick sheets of
paper. Standard drywall used to cover most walls is 1/2-
(a) inch thick. A product called Type X gypsum is 5/8-inch thick
drywall, manufactured for use in locations where building
codes require a fire resistance rating in home construction
such as under stairs and on the wall between a garage and
the home living space. Greenboard is a drywall product
with a green colored paper covering containing an oil-based
additive that provides moisture resistance. It is commonly
used in bathrooms and other areas where elevated levels
of humidity can exist. Blueboard drywall has blue face
paper with a coat of plaster finish providing water and mold
resistance.
Specific framing techniques must be used in corners
before drywall is installed. These framing practices
were described in Chapter 7, Wall Framing Materials and
Construction. Drywall is typically installed by a drywall
subcontractor who specializes in the professional hanging
(b)
and finish of the material.
Figure 15.1  Examples of the beauty found in quality
Drywall sheets are manufactured in 48-inch widths and
millwork. (a) Millwork used at the wall base, ceiling
a variety of lengths starting with 8 feet and increasing in
cove, fireplace mantel, and window and doorway trim.
2-foot modules, such as 10, 12, and 14 feet long. These
(b) Beautiful millwork used to detail this stairs, stair
dimensions allow the drywall to be fastened equally spaced
railings, and surrounding areas in the home.
over 12, 16, or 24 inches on center studs and ceiling joists,
which is the common spacing for framing members.
representations depends on the specific requirements of Drywall sheets are typically hung on the walls and ceilings
the project. For example, the custom plans for a home with the sheet length perpendicular to the framing
can provide very detailed and specific drawings of the members. The drywall installer marks framing member
finish woodwork in the form of plan views, elevations, locations on the drywall to make sure the fasteners attach
construction details, and written specifications. Typical the drywall into the framing. Drywall is fastened using
home plans often show only the cabinets on the floor special drywall nails or screws shown in Figure 15.2.
plans, with specifications, Description of Materials, and A cordless portable electric drill is used to drive the drywall
contracts that provide information about materials and screws into place as shown in Figure 15.3. A special
desired workmanship. The requirements of specific lenders attachment is used in the drill that automatically sets the
and local codes can also determine the extent of millwork screw head slightly below the surface of the drywall.
representations on a set of plans. The screw heads need to be recessed slightly below the
Drywall has been discussed throughout this textbook drywall surface so the locations can be filled with drywall
where it relates to other construction practices such as wall joint compound during the finishing process. Drywall joint
framing, and door and window installation. This chapter compound is described later in this discussion. Drywall
also gives you a brief review of drywall material and installers often place a bead of construction adhesive at
provides the basics of drywall installation. the center of each framing member before installing the

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 Finish work and materials

Figure 15.2  Drywall is fastened using special drywall

screws.

drywall and screwing it in place. The use of construction

adhesive helps secure the drywall and reduces the
possibility of screw heads popping out through the surface
after installation. Drywall is typically cut using a straight
edge and a utility knife. Drywall has a gypsum core
separated by a paper layer over each surface. The utility
knife is used to cut through the paper on the face side of
the drywall and then the installer quickly snaps the drywall
on one side of the cut to break the gypsum along the cut
line. The drywall is then folded back along the cut line,
exposing the paper on the other side through the fold. The
installer then uses the utility knife again to cut through the
break in the drywall cutting the paper on the other side
to separate the two pieces of drywall. This process takes
some practice, but is fairly easy to learn. Holes need to be Figure 15.3  A cordless portable electric drill is used
cut in the drywall at locations where there are electrical to drive the drywall screws into place using a special
outlets or other projections in the wall or ceiling so the attachment in the drill that automatically sets the
drywall can fit over the projections. This is done by carefully screw head slightly below the surface of the drywall.
measuring the exact location of each projection, then
transferring and marking the measurements on the drywall
surface. The hole is then cut out using a keyhole saw. A in Figure 15.4. Pre-manufactured outside drywall corners
keyhole saw is a small handsaw with a long narrow blade are available to simplify corner construction and to make
used for cutting holes, short-radius curves, and other small durable and strong 90-degree and rounded corners. Joint
features. compound, commonly called mud, is used to finish drywall
The finishing process can start after the drywall is joints, drywall tape, corners, and screw locations, and is
screwed in place. Drywall is finished using drywall tape used as a skim coating. Skim coating is the application
and joint compound. Drywall tape is a paper, vinyl, or of a thin layer of joint compound over drywall to smooth
mesh product used to cover drywall joints and corners. out walls and ceilings. Joint compound is a combination
Drywall tape is purchased in large rolls that range from of several technical ingredients and is available pre-mixed
25 to 200 feet long. Paper drywall tape is typically used for immediate use. Joint compound has a creamy texture
on inside corners and can be used over flat wall joints. that spreads easily onto drywall surfaces. Joint compound
Vinyl drywall tape is commonly used on outside corners is applied with a trowel or drywall knife using three or
where durability is needed to minimize corner damage four thin coats to achieve the desired coverage. A trowel
during the life of the home. Mesh drywall tape is typically
used on flat wall seams and has a self-adhesive backing
for easy installation. A roll of mesh drywall tape is shown
is a flat-bladed hand tool used for spreading, leveling, or
shaping joint compound in drywall finishing applications.
A drywall knife is a small hand tool with a blade used for
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Finish work and materials

Figure 15.4  A roll of mesh drywall tape.

applying joint compound when finishing drywall. Drywall

knives are available in several blade widths and handle
lengths. Figure 15.5(a) shows a drywall finisher using
a drywall knife to spread joint compound over drywall.
When installing drywall tape over a joint, the drywall
finisher first applies a coat of joint compound and then
rolls out drywall tape over the joint at that location. Drywall
finishers typically use a tool-belt tape holder that allows
them to easily dispense the tape. Then they lay a piece of
tape over the joint and smooth it with a drywall knife or
trowel. Drywall tape bonds with the drywall paper surface (a)
during this process, making a continuous smooth surface
between adjoining sheets of drywall. Properly taped and
finished drywall joints are not visible. Figure 15.5(a) shows
a drywall finisher applying joint compound over a tape
seam on a wall, and Figure 15.5(b) shows drywall joint
compound applied over tape seams on ceilings and walls.
The drywall surface is sanded to smooth out imperfections
after the drywall is taped and the desired coats of joint
compound is used to seal and level the joints, corners,
and screw locations. A coat of primer paint can be applied
to the drywall to seal all surfaces, provide bonding and
uniformity for texturing, and to allow the texturing to dry
evenly. The drywall can be left smooth or texturing can be
applied. Smooth drywall requires special care with applying
drywall tape, using joint compound, and doing quality
surface sanding to make sure there are no irregularities.
Smooth drywall surfaces are commonly used in bathrooms (b)
and kitchens, making it easier for cleaning than textured Figure 15.5  (a) A drywall finisher using a drywall
surfaces. Smooth drywall is also used under wallpaper. knife to spread joint compound over drywall and
Wallpaper is a paper or vinyl product that usually has applying joint compound over a tape seam on a wall.
printed decorative patterns and colors, used for pasting (b) A drywall joint compound applied over tape seams
in vertical strips over the walls and ceilings to provide on ceilings and walls.
a decorative or textured surface. Texturing is applied to
drywall to make the surface look even and cover any
surface irregularities. There are many different styles of

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 Finish work and materials

texturing. It is also common to use one type of texturing on and orange peel on the walls providing a contrasting
walls and another on ceilings for contrasting appearance. appearance and easier to maintain walls. Knockdown
A commonly used wall texturing style is called orange texturing is created by spraying texturing material on the
peel shown in Figure 15.6. Orange peel texturing makes a drywall and then using a trowel to flatten the high places
surface finish that looks similar to an orange and provides while still wet. Varying degrees of surface relief can be
a delicate uniform appearance that is easy to paint and achieved by the amount of spray on material used before
maintain. Orange peel texturing is applied using a sprayer troweling. Figure 15.7 shows surface relief created using
called a hopper gun. The hopper gun has a container the knockdown texturing process. An interesting effect
with a spray nozzle that is operated by an air compressor. can be achieved by first using a primer paint followed by a
The container or hopper is filled with joint compound that desired paint color before using the knockdown texturing
is sprayed out through the nozzle in a consistent pattern application. The painted surface can be seen behind the
on the drywall. A desired texture from light to heavy can areas where the trowel skips over the texturing material
be controlled by adjusting the hole size in the nozzle or creating an interesting two-color and three-dimensional
by increasing or reducing the air pressure. Knockdown appearance. After texturing has been completed and
texturing is commonly used on walls and ceilings where allowed to dry, the surfaces can be primed and painted as
a more artistic appearance is desired than orange peel. It desired.
is also common to use knockdown texture on the ceiling

Figure 15.7  Surface relief created using the

knockdown texturing process.

POWERPOINT
Create one PowerPoint slide with photographs of at
least two different types of drywall texturing found in
a home or school.

TYPES OF MILLWORK
Millwork can be designed for appearance and for function.
When it is designed for appearance, ornate and decorative
millwork can be created with a group of shaped wood
forms placed together to capture a style of architecture as
shown in Figure 15.8. Shaped millwork is available in as
many styles as the home builder can imagine. There is also
a wide variety of prefabricated millwork moldings available
Figure 15.6  Orange peel texturing makes a surface at less cost than custom designs.
finish that looks similar to an orange and provides a
delicate uniform appearance that is easy to paint and
maintain.
Functional millwork can be very plain in appearance. This
type of millwork is also less expensive than shaped forms.
In some situations, natural wood millwork can be replaced
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Finish work and materials

Figure 15.9  Baseboards are placed at the intersection

of walls and floors and are generally used for
Figure 15.8  When millwork is designed for
appearance and to protect the wall from damage.
appearance, ornate and decorative designs can be
created with a group of shaped wood forms placed
together to capture a style of architecture.

with plastic, ceramic, or rubber products. Millwork is also

manufactured out of engineered wood products. A home
laundry room can use a plastic or rubber base strip to
protect the wall at the floor, for example. This material
stands up to abuse better than wood. There are as many
possible options as there are design ideas. The following
discussion provides definitions and examples of many
available finish materials and products.

Baseboards
Baseboards are placed at the intersection of walls and
Figure 15.10  Baseboards can be the same shape as
floors and are generally used for appearance and to protect
other millwork members, such as trim around doors
the wall from damage as shown in Figure 15.9. There is
and windows.
a large variety of baseboard shapes, sizes, and styles.
Baseboards can be as ornate or as plain as the specific
design or location requires. In some designs, baseboards Wainscots
are the same shape as other millwork members, such as A wainscot is any wall finish where the material on the
trim around doors and windows as shown in Figure 15.10. bottom portion of the wall is different from the upper
Baseboard material is cut at a 45-degree angle at inside and portion. The lower portion is called the wainscot, and the
outside square corners as shown in Figure 15.11(a), and material used is called wainscoting. Wainscots can be used
formed around rounded drywall corners by making multiple on the interior or exterior of the home. Exterior wainscoting
cuts to fit the corner or by using a pre-manufactured is often brick or stone veneer. Interior wainscoting can
molded corner as shown in Figure 15.11(b). be any material that is used to divide walls into two
visual sections. For example, wood paneling, plaster
POWERPOINT texture, ceramic tile, wallpaper, or masonry can be used
as wainscoting. Figure 15.12 shows handcrafted wood
Create one PowerPoint slide with the photograph of paneling used for wainscoting. A more contemporary or
a baseboard. rustic appearance can be achieved by using horizontal or
vertical tongue-and-groove lumber for wainscot paneling as
shown in Figure 15.13. A fairly inexpensive wood wainscot
POWERPOINT can be built with plywood panels. The plywood panel can
have a hardwood outer veneer to match the surrounding
Create one PowerPoint slide with the photograph of
hardwood material. Veneer is thin sheets of wood glued
a baseboard at an outside corner.
together to form plywood or glued to a wood base material.

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 Finish work and materials

(a)

Figure 15.12  Handcrafted wood paneling used for

wainscoting.

Figure 15.13  A more contemporary or rustic

appearance can be achieved by using horizontal
or vertical tongue-and-groove lumber for wainscot
paneling.

When used for millwork, the outer face can be any desired
hardwood. The plywood panels are cut to any desired size
and evenly spaced along the length of the wall. Matching
hardwood is used to trim around the plywood panels like a
picture frame, and also used between, above, and below
the panels to build the complete wainscot system on the
wall. Paint grade engineered wood products can also be
used in the same manner to construct an attractive but less
expensive wainscot. Paint grade refers to a wood product
that is more suitable for painting than for a clear finish
where the actual wood grain is visible.

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide with the photograph of

(b) a wainscot.
Figure 15.11  Baseboard outside corner applications.
(a) Baseboard material is cut at a 45-degree angle
Chair rail
at inside and outside square corners. (b) Baseboard
formed around rounded drywall corners by making
multiple cuts to fit the corner or by using a pre-
manufactured molded corner as shown in this example.
A chair rail is traditionally placed horizontally on the wall at
a height where chair backs would otherwise damage the
wall as shown in Figure 15.14. Chair rails are usually found
15
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Finish work and materials

home from weather. A cornice generally has decorative

moldings used in the finish construction as shown in
Figure 15.16. A cornice can be a single shaped wood,
plastic, or plaster member, or a complex assembly made
up of several individual wood members installed where
a wall meets the ceiling, called cove or crown molding,
as shown in Figure 15.17. Cornice molding commonly fits
into specific types of architectural styles, such as English
Tudor, Victorian, or Colonial. Wall-to-ceiling corners are
typically left square in construction where contemporary
architecture or cost savings is important.
Figure 15.14  Chair rail is traditionally placed
horizontally on the wall at a height where chair backs POWERPOINT
would otherwise damage the wall.
Create one PowerPoint slide with the photograph of
in dining rooms, dens, offices, or other areas where chairs a cornice.
are frequently moved against a wall. Chair rails can be used
individually for appearance or together with wainscoting as
shown in Figure 15.15. In some applications the chair rail
is an excellent division between two different materials or
wall textures, such as wallpaper on the bottom below the
chair rail and textured paint above the chair rail.

Figure 15.16  A cornice is any horizontal decorative

molding that is commonly used along the corner
where a wall meets the ceiling.

Figure 15.15  Chair rails can be used individually for

appearance or together with wainscoting.

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide with the photograph of

a chair rail.

Cornice
A cornice is generally any horizontal decorative molding Figure 15.17  A cornice can be a single shaped
that is commonly found over a door or window, or wood member called cove or crown molding, or a
along the corner where a wall meets the ceiling, and complex assembly made up of several individual wood
is also a projection out from the building to protect the members as shown here.

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 Finish work and materials

Casing
Casing is the molding or trim used around doors and
windows. Casing is attached around the edge of the door
or window jamb and to the adjacent wall. Casing can be
decorative to match other moldings or plain to serve the
functional purpose of covering the space between the
door jamb or window jamb and the wall. The baseboard is
often wider than the casing, but baseboard and casing is
typically the same style of molding to match as shown in
Figure 15.18. The casing around doors is usually installed
like a picture frame with 45-degree mitered corners, but
corner blocks can also be used. Corner blocks are square
decorative prefabricated blocks that are traditionally used
at the top corners of doors for ornamental appearance,
Figure 15.19  A cornice can also be used as a
and to simplify casing installation. A cornice can also be
horizontal or arched decorative molding over a door or
used as a horizontal decorative molding over a door or
window. This cornice has a keystone set in the center
window as shown over the window in Figure 15.19. The
for a unique architectural style. Keystones are wedge-
cornice design can be as creative as the molding styles
shaped blocks used in the center of curved and straight
available. The cornice over the window in Figure 15.19
arches for a decorative appearance or to match Italian
has a keystone set in the center for a unique architectural
architecture.
style. Keystones are wedge-shaped blocks used in the
center of curved and straight arches for a decorative
appearance or to match Italian architecture. Keystones are POWERPOINT
commonly used in masonry arches for appearance and
to lock the other stones into place, but they can also be Create one PowerPoint slide with the photograph of
used in millwork applications as shown in this example. a door and window casing.
Window casing can be installed all around the window
using 45-degree mitered corners like a picture frame Mantels
as shown in Figure 15.20(a), or with casing at the sides
and top joined with 45-degree mitered corners and a sill The mantel is an ornamental shelf or structure built
projecting out at the bottom as shown in Figure 15.20(b). above a fireplace opening. Mantel designs vary
with individual preference. Mantels can be made of
masonry as part of the fireplace structure, or ornate
decorative wood moldings, or even a rough-sawn length
of lumber bolted to the fireplace face. Figure 15.21
shows a traditional decorative wood mantel application.
Figure 15.22 shows a wood mantel attached to a
masonry fireplace structure.

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide with the photograph of

a mantel.

Bookshelves
Bookshelves and display shelves can have simple
Figure 15.18  Casing is the molding or trim used construction with metal brackets and metal or wood
around windows and doors. The baseboard is often shelving, or they can be built and detailed the same

15
wider than the casing, but baseboard and casing can as fine furniture. Bookshelves are commonly found in
be the same style of molding. the den, library, office, or living room. Shelves that are

471
Finish work and materials

Figure 15.21  A traditional decorative wood mantel

(a) application.

(b)
Figure 15.20  Window casing options. (a) Window Figure 15.22  A wood mantel attached to a masonry
casing can be installed all around the window using fireplace structure.
45-degree mitered corners like a picture frame. (b)
Window casing can be installed with casing at the
sides and top joined with 45-degree mitered corners
and a sill projecting out at the bottom.

designed to display items other than books are also

found in almost any room of the home. A common
application is placing shelves on each side of a fireplace.
Shelves are also used for functional purposes in
storage rooms, linen closets, laundry rooms, and any
other location where additional storage is needed.
Figure 15.23 shows bookshelves and display shelves
built into the woodwork in a home den.

POWERPOINT

Create one PowerPoint slide with the photograph of

Figure 15.23  Bookshelves and display shelves built
built-in bookshelves.
into the woodwork in a home den.

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 Finish work and materials

Handrails and guardrails

POWERPOINT
Stair construction was described in Chapter 11, Stair
Construction, with information about the construction of Create one PowerPoint slide with the photograph of
stairs and components such as handrails or guardrails. a stair guardrail system.
A stairs has a handrail or guardrail that provides a support
and protects you from falling when going up or down
the stairs. A handrail is generally a single rail attached CABINETS
to a wall or balusters following the rise of the stairs Cabinets are among the most important features for
and used for hand support and safety. A guardrail, also buyers of a new home. Cabinets are generally a storage
called a banister, is a handrail with supporting posts or display system with drawers, and doors with shelves
made up of newel posts and balusters. A newel post is behind. The quality of cabinetry can vary greatly. Cabinet
the large vertical support for the handrail at the ends of designs can reflect individual taste, with a variety of styles
each flight of stairs, and often placed at regular intervals available. Cabinets are used for storage and as furniture.
when additional support is needed. A baluster, also Cabinets are commonly found in the kitchen and bath, but
called a spindle or picket, is one of a series of vertical are also used in the laundry room, family room, walk-in
handrail supports placed equally spaced between newel closet, garage, and other storage locations.
posts. Guardrails are used for safety at stairs, landings,
The design and arrangement of kitchen cabinets has been
decks, and open balconies, and are required at any rise
the object of many studies. Over the years design ideas
over 24 inches (600 mm) or three or more stair risers in
have resulted in attractive and functional kitchens. Kitchen
height. Verify the size and requirements with local codes.
cabinets have two basic elements: the base cabinet and
Guardrails can also be used as decorative room dividers
the upper cabinet as shown in Figure 15.25. Drawers,
or for special accents. Guardrails can be built enclosed
shelves, cutting boards, pantries, and appliance locations
or open and constructed of wood or metal. Enclosed
must be carefully considered for convenient use by the
rails are often the least expensive to build because they
homeowner. In addition to the cabinets, the kitchen has
require less detailed components and labor than open
appliances such as the range, range hood, refrigerator,
railing systems. A decorative wood cap is often used to
oven and microwave as shown in Figure 15.26. It is also
trim the top of enclosed railings.
common for a custom kitchen to have an island, as shown
Open railing systems can be one of the most attractive in Figure 15.27, with cabinets below a work preparation
elements of interior home design. Open railings can area, a built-in range, or a sink.
be as detailed as the designer’s or craftsperson’s
imagination. Detailed open railings built of exotic
hardwoods can be one of the most expensive and most POWERPOINT
impressive features in the home. Figure 15.24 shows
the beauty of a stair and balcony guardrail system in a Create one PowerPoint slide with the photograph of
custom home. kitchen base and upper cabinets.

Figure 15.24  The beauty of a stair and balcony

guardrail system in a custom home.
Figure 15.25  Kitchen cabinets have two basic
elements: the base cabinet and the upper cabinet.
15
473
Finish work and materials

Figure 15.26  In addition to the cabinets, the kitchen Figure 15.28  A bathroom with a cabinet on the left
has appliances such as the range, range hood, oven, with vanity, mirror, and medicine cabinet above, and a
microwave, and refrigerator. built-in tub and separate shower on the right.

Figure 15.27  It is common for a custom kitchen to

Figure 15.29  Cabinetry is found throughout a house,
have an island with cabinets below a work preparation
as in utility or laundry rooms, for storage. For example,
area, a built-in range, or a sink.
a workspace cabinet and storage cabinets above a
Bathroom cabinets are called vanities, linen cabinets, and washer and dryer are common as shown here.
medicine cabinets. Figure 15.28 shows a bathroom with a
cabinet on the left with vanity, mirror, and medicine cabinet Cabinet types
above, and a built-in tub on the right. Other cabinetry is found
throughout a house, as in utility or laundry rooms, for storage. There are as many cabinet styles and designs as you can
For example, a workspace cabinet and storage cabinets above imagine. However, there are two general types of cabinets,
a washer and dryer are common, as shown in Figure 15.29. based on their method of construction. These are modular
or prefabricated cabinets, and custom cabinets.
POWERPOINT Modular cabinets
Create one PowerPoint slide with the photograph of Modular cabinets are designed and built at a
bathroom cabinets. manufacturing company and delivered to the home
for installation during construction. There are many
manufacturers of modular cabinets, providing a wide
POWERPOINT variety of styles and design alternatives. The term
modular cabinets refers to prefabricated cabinets because
Create one PowerPoint slide with the photograph of
they are constructed in specific sizes called modules.
laundry room cabinets.
Modular cabinets are used by placing a group of modules

474
 Finish work and materials

side-by-side in a given space. If a little more space is generally built at a local cabinet shop and delivered to
available, then pieces of wood, called filler, are spliced the project for installation in large sections. One of the
between modules. Many brands of modular cabinets are advantages of custom cabinets is their design is limited
well crafted and very attractive. Most modular cabinet only by the imagination of the architect and the cabinet
manufacturers offer different door styles, wood species, shop. Custom cabinets can be designed and built for any
and finish colors. Modular cabinets are sized in relationship situation, such as for any height, space, type of exotic
to standard or typical applications, although many modular hardwood, type of hardware, any geometric shape, or for
cabinet manufacturers can make components that fit any other design requirements.
nearly every design situation. Modular cabinets are often Custom cabinet shops estimate a price based on the
manufactured nationally and delivered in modules. Good architectural drawings. The actual cabinets are constructed
places to see modular cabinets on display are your local
from measurements taken at the job site after the home
multi-product lumber company, Home Depot, or Lowe’s
has been framed. In most cases, if cabinets are ordered
Home Improvement Center. The suppliers of modular
as soon as framing is completed, the cabinets should be
cabinets often have detailed displays showing the available
delivered on time for installation as one of the last phases
door designs and other available features. These suppliers
of construction. Most custom cabinets are designed and
typically have a cabinet designer on staff who can create
built for the average home, but custom cabinets can be as
a computer-aided design of your desired cabinets from
decorative as the design shown in Figure 15.31. Custom
building plans. The computer-aided design commonly
cabinets can be prefinished at the cabinet shop before
shows the floor plan, cabinet elevations, 3D model, and
installation, but custom cabinet builders often prefer
provides a cost analysis based on your desired features.
to finish the cabinets on the job after the cabinets are
Figure 15.30 shows several very basic modular cabinet
installed.
options. Modular cabinets are typically pre-finished by the
manufacturer, providing a variety of colors and surface
options. Cabinet substrate and finish tops
Base cabinets are the lower cabinet system typically
Custom cabinets
covered with a durable hard surface for working and
Custom cabinets are usually designed by the architect, appearance. Typical finish surfaces include laminate,
architectural designer, or custom cabinet shop, and are melamine, tile, and granite. Laminate, also referred to as

Figure 15.30  Several very basic modular cabinet options.

15
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Finish work and materials

APPLIANCES AND FIXTURES

An important part of the kitchen, bath, and laundry design
and construction includes the major appliances and
fixtures. A major appliance is usually a large product that
is usually built-in as a permanent part of the cabinets and
is used for daily home activities, such as cooking, food
storage, cleaning, and disposal. Major appliances are
generally powered or produce heat generated by electricity,
natural gas, or propane. Major appliances commonly found
in the kitchen include cooktop range, range and oven
combination, range hood exhaust system, oven, microwave
oven, refrigerator, trash compactor, and garbage disposal.
Laundry room major appliances are the clothes washer and
clothes dryer. Fixtures are found in the kitchen, bathroom,
Figure 15.31  Most custom cabinets are designed and
and laundry and are used to supply and contain water and
built for the average home, but custom cabinets can be
discharge waste. Typical fixture examples are the kitchen
as decorative as the design shown in this example.
sink, bathroom lavatory, laundry tray, shower, and bathtub,
along with the water heater for the entire home.
a laminated structure or material, especially one made of
The most important things to know about major appliances
layers fixed together to form a hard, flat, or flexible material.
and fixtures as a home builder are the installation
Melamine is a plastic-based product used to cover cabinet
dimensions and instructions. Each major appliance and
surfaces, drawers, and shelves. Each finish material requires
fixture has installation specifications that you need
specific installation methods, skills, and the installation
to correlate during construction. Determine the exact
of proper base material. Cabinet top base material is
installation dimensions with the appliance manufacturer
typically called backer board or substrate. Backer board
and then provide that information to the cabinet builder. The
or substrate is used as a base cabinet top upon which the
pre-installation preparation for fixtures such as sinks and
surface finish material is installed. Substrate for laminate
lavatories is done after the base cabinet or vanity substrate
tops is usually 3/4-inch plywood or OSB. Substrate for tile
is installed. The sink or lavatory manufacturer usually
and granite tops can be 3/4-inch plywood but cement board
ships a cutout template with the product. The cutout
or cement board over 3/4-inch plywood is preferred.
template is a paper outline of the exact substrate cutout
required for the specific fixture. Place the template on the
Cabinet options substrate surface in the exact location where the fixture
Cabinet designs available from either custom or modular will be installed. Use a pencil to mark the surface with the
cabinet manufacturers include the following: template outline as a guide. Finally, use a jigsaw to cutout
 Various door styles, materials, and finishes. the substrate material at the marked location.
 Self-closing hinges.
 A variety of drawer slides, rollers, and hardware. READING CABINET ELEVATIONS
 Glass cabinet fronts for a traditional appearance where
desired. Cabinet elevations are exterior views of the cabinets
 Wood or metal range hoods. developed directly from the floor plan drawings. The
 Specially designed pantries, appliance hutches, and a purpose of the cabinet elevations is to show how cabinet
lazy Susan or other corner cabinet design for efficient exteriors look when completed and to give general
storage. dimensions, notes, and specifications. Cabinet elevations
 Bath, linen storage, and kitchen specialties. can be as detailed as the architect or designer desires and
as detailed as needed for the cabinet builder. Figure 15.32
shows quality cabinet elevation drawings and the three-
KITCHEN, BATH, AND LAUNDRY ROOM dimensional (3D) cabinet representation created by an
DESIGN BASICS architectural design software program for a custom home.
Kitchen, bath, and laundry room design basics are provided
in Appendix C. Keying cabinet elevations to floor plans
 o to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen to access
G When you read home plans you can notice that cabinet
this appendix. elevations are keyed to the floor plans, allowing you to

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 (a)
Figure 15.32  (a) Quality cabinet elevation drawings for a custom home. (b) Three-dimensional (3D) cabinet drawing. (c) 3D cabinet rendering.
Courtesy Chief Architect Software. Go to www.routledge.com/cw/madsen image library to view the drawing in detail on your computer screen.

15
 (b)
Figure 15.32  (Continued)
 Finish work and materials

(c)
Figure 15.32  (Continued)

correlate each cabinet elevation with its location in the when a solid color finish is desired. Stain and a clear
home. Several methods can be used to key the cabinet finish coating can also be used on millwork when it
elevations to the floor plan. A basic method has cabinet is desired to preserve or enhance the natural beauty
elevations keyed to the floor plans with room titles such of the wood. Stain is a penetrating liquid used to
as KITCHEN ELEVATION or BATH ELEVATION. Another preserve and tint woodwork for a desired appearance.
method uses an arrow with a letter inside to correlate the Typically, the walls of the home are painted before
elevation to the floor plan. For example, the A arrow in the millwork is installed. This practice avoids the need
Figure 15.33 points to a specific group of cabinets on the to mask the millwork before painting the walls. The
kitchen floor plan and the same letter is displayed below word mask means to cover, usually with special tape,
the cabinet elevations for the group of cabinets. Other plastic, or paper to keep specific areas from getting
techniques can be used, and various degrees of detailed painted. Millwork can be pre-finished or finished after
representation can be provided for millwork, depending on installation. Pre-finished cabinets and woodwork is
complexity and the design specifications. finished at the manufacturer and then delivered to
the project for installation. Pre-finished cabinets and
woodwork is commonly used in tract homes in an effort
POWERPOINT to keep finishing costs to a minimum. Tract homes are
built in a housing development where homes are
Create one PowerPoint slide showing a partial floor
similar and economical by keeping costs to a minimum
plan keyed to a kitchen cabinet elevation.
by using standardized designs, materials, products,
and labor. Cabinets and woodwork is typically finished
SURFACE FINISHES after installation in a custom home. A custom home is
designed and built specifically for a client who wants
Painting is the process of using a solid, semi- to have a new home with individual architectural style,
transparent, or transparent surface covering as a materials, products, and craftsmanship. Cabinets and
decoration and protective coating. Painting is typically millwork finished after installation can offer additional
done to finish walls and can also be used on millwork variety and superior quality.
15
479
Finish work and materials

Floor Plan of Kitchen

Kitchen Cabinet Elevations

Figure 15.33  Correlating cabinet elevations with the floor plan. The arrow points to a specific group of cabinets
on the kitchen floor plan and the same letter is displayed below the cabinet elevations for the group of cabinets.

RESEARCH PROBLEMS

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research options and topics that correlate with the problems for this chapter.
the content of this chapter.

TEST

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the test for this chapter.

480
 Glossary

Accessibility see barrier-free. a condenser to absorb heat at one place and release it at
Access point broadcasts a wireless signal used by another place.
computers and wireless devices. Air space between the masonry veneer and the house
Accordion door is an interior door that folds back in small wrap on the exterior sheathing allows for ventilation, allows
sections to open. moisture from condensation and rain to drain down the
Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) rain drains are weep holes, and aids in keeping the structure dry.
typically installed using this black pipe. Air supply register is a grille with moving parts that can be
Active solar systems, also called mechanical solar opened and closed, and direct the air flow.
systems, use mechanical devices to absorb, store, and use Air-to-air heat exchanger see heat recovery and
solar heat.
ventilation (HRV).
Actual size (brick), also referred to as specified size, is the
Aldehydes are reactive organic compounds that contribute
physical dimension of each brick.
to ozone production.
Actual size (lumber) is the dimensional lumber after it is
planed. Alignment stakes are used to align a roadway.

Addition adds a new portion of building to an existing Alloy is a metal made by combining two or more other
structure. metals to achieve a specific result.
Advanced technology underlayment is a polyethylene Alternating current (AC) is the type of electrical current
product with a grid structure of square cavities, and an used in homes and is an electric current that reverses
anchoring fleece laminated to the base for tile and stone is direction in a circuit at regular intervals.
available in rolls for lightweight shipping and handling, and American National Standard taper pipe threads are the
provides underlayment support and load distribution for tile
standard thread used on galvanized steel pipes and pipe
flooring, with waterproofing and vapor control.
fittings.
A-frame roof is an architectural home style with steep roof
American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM) provides
planes that also function as walls and meet at a central
standards related to the quality of a wide variety of building
horizontal ridge.
materials.
Air exchanger see heat recovery and ventilation (HRV).
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) prohibits
Air infiltration test shows how much air leakage there is
discrimination and ensures equal opportunity for persons
in a house.
with disabilities in employment, state and local government
Air Leakage (AL) is indicated by an air leakage rating
services, public accommodations, commercial facilities,
expressed as the equivalent cubic feet of air passing
and transportation.
through a square foot of window area (cfm / sq. ft.).
Air-lock entry, known as a vestibule. This is an entry that Ampere or amperage (amp) is a measurement of
provides a chamber between an exterior and interior door electrical current flow. Referred to by its abbreviation amp
to the building. or amps.
Air source heat pump (ASHP) is a system that transfers Anchor bolts are steel L-shaped bolts that are imbedded in
heat from outside to inside a building, or from inside to the top of the foundation wall and extend out far enough to
outside, using a refrigerant system with a compressor and fasten the sill with a washer and nut at each bolt.

481
Glossary

Angle of repose is the slope of cut and fill from the Back-to-back double fireplace is used when it is desired
excavation site measured in feet of horizontal run to feet of to have a fireplace in two rooms of the home where the
vertical rise. fireboxes are built into one structure.
Aquifer is an underground bed or layer of earth, gravel, or Baffle is used to keep the insulation from plugging the
porous stone that yields water. screen vents.
Arc Fault Circuit Interrupter (AFCI), also called Ground Balloon framing uses continuous studs that rest on the
Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI), is a duplex receptacle mud sill at the foundation and run through each floor and to
or circuit breaker that breaks the circuit when it detects the top plate at the roof.
a dangerous electrical arc, in order to prevent electrical Baluster, also called a spindle or picket, is one of a series
fires. of vertical handrail supports spaced equally between newel
Arch (masonry) is a self-supporting curved masonry posts.
structure over an opening that provides support for the
Banister see handrail.
structure above.
Barbecue is an appliance such as a grill, a spit, or a
Architectural roofing, also called three-dimensional
fireplace for cooking food over an open fire or heat source.
roofing, imitates the appearance of real cedar wood or
slate shakes. Bargeboard is attached to the ends of the lookout rafters
and used to trim the gable end overhang.
Architectural solar systems see passive solar systems.
Barrier-free refers to the modification of buildings or
Arc length is the distance along an arc.
facilities for use by people who are disabled or have
Asbestos board is a sheet of construction material made physical impairments. The term is used primarily in non-
from asbestos cement. English-speaking countries, while in English-speaking
Ash dump is a small opening with a cast iron door located countries, terms such as accessibility are common.
in the hearth, used to dump the ashes down into an ash pit Base is the layer of compacted gravel, such as 3/4 minus, on
below the fire box. top of the sub-base and directly under the concrete slab.
Ash pit see ash dump. Baseboard heaters are placed along the bottom of a wall
Asphalt roofing see composition roofing. and have an electric heating element, which causes a
Attachment refers to properly securing fabric to the convection current as the air around the unit is heated.
posts. Baseboards are placed at the intersection of walls and
Attic is the space or room under the roof of a home. floors and are generally used for appearance and to protect
Automation system is a method or process of controlling the wall from damage.
and operating mechanical devices electronically. Basement foundation uses a concrete footing and steel
Awning windows have a hinge at the top and single-sash reinforced concrete or concrete block foundation wall that
that tilts outward. extends from the footing to the floor framing above, and a
concrete slab that rests on the footing at the foundation wall.
Back draft damper is a movable plate that regulates the
draft or air flow in a chimney or vent pipe with blades that Base metal sheet steel thickness excludes protective
are activated by gravity, permitting air to pass through them coatings.
in one direction only. Battens are strips of wood, plastic, or metal installed on
Backer board or substrate is used as a base cabinet top the roof to support and fasten the roofing tiles.
upon which the surface finish material is installed. Batts are insulation strips that are 93 inches (2,350 mm)
Backer rod is a round open- or closed-cell polyethylene long to fit in the wall space between studs of a typical
or polyurethane foam product used to fill joints between 8-foot (2,400 mm) wall. See blanket insulation.
building materials. Bay see bay window.
Backfill is the earth or other material used in the process Bay window is constructed by extending the exterior of
of backfilling, which closes the large space created by the a structure outward with short sides at a 45- or 30-degree
excavation. angle and a wide outer wall where each side and the outer
Backing material is a comparatively low-quality brick used wall generally have windows.
behind face brick or other masonry. Beam key is a map of all the structural beams in the
Back pressure is a resistant force applied to liquid or gas floorplan which refers contractors and plans examiners to
against the desired direction or flow in a pipe. the structural calculation used for sizing the beam.

482
 Glossary

Beam pocket is a recessed area to hold the end of a beam Biomass energy see biopower.
in a concrete or masonry wall, and is created by pouring Biopower, also referred to as biomass energy, uses
concrete around a mold inserted in the concrete forms. biomass to generate electricity in a way that is cleaner
Beams are horizontal construction members that are and more efficient than most other electricity generation
used to support floor systems and wall or roof loads. techniques. Biomass generating facilities typically use
Joist construction uses standard dimensional lumber or natural biofuels to produce steam, which drives a turbine
engineered wood products as joists that span between that turns a generator to produce electricity.
foundation walls and can be supported at mid-span by Bi-pass doors are two or more door panels that slide
post and beams or stem walls. Joists are dimensional horizontally past each other for access to a closet or other
lumber such as 2 × 8, 2 × 10, or 2 × 12, or engineered opening.
wood products, and spaced 12, 16, or 24 inches on center
Birdsmouth is a notch cut out of the rafter at the location
depending on the span and structural engineering.
where the rafter meets the wall top plate.
Bearing locations on the floor framing plan are where
Black pipe is steel pipe used for natural gas applications
bearing walls above the floor being framed rest on the
joists or beams. protected with a coat of varnish, and is referred to as black
pipe because of its color.
Bearing partitions carry structural weight from above and
distribute the weight to the ground. Blanket insulation is the most common and widely used
type of insulation that comes in the form of batts or rolls.
Bearing pressure is normally the number of pounds per
square foot of pressure the soil is engineered to support. Blocking see solid blocking.

Bearings are directions with reference to one quadrant of Blocking (roof) is used between the ceiling joists at the top
the compass. plate to stabilize the joists and enclose the space between
rafters.
Bearing wall see load-bearing wall.
Blower-door system uses a fan to blow air into or out of
Bedding is specific material such as sand used under pipe
the building, creating either a positive or negative pressure
and other ground work for uniform grade, protection, and
difference between the inside and outside.
support. Specific bedding requirements can be specified on
the plans. Blower door test involves depressurizing the home and
testing for leaks in the building envelope.
Bench or benching is a fairly level step excavated into the
earth material on which fill is placed. Blue-line prints are made using the diazo process.
Berm is a mound or built-up area. Blueprint is an old term sometimes used in the
construction business when referring to prints.
Best Management Practices (BMPs) are procedures
that provide effective and practical means in achieving Blueprinting is an old method that results in a print with a
construction goals while making the best use of dark blue background and white lines.
available resources. Board and bat is siding installed with wide vertical
Between pours means that it is often necessary to pour a boards placed next to each other with a small narrow
portion of the slab either when the concrete truck is empty board fastened over each joint between the large boards,
or at the end of the day, and then continue the slab with providing a rustic appearance.
another truck at a later time. Boiler is a fuel-burning container for heating water.
Bevel siding is bevel-shaped wood, metal, or plastic Bolt is a straight-grained, knot-free section of log pre-cut to
material applied with each horizontal row overlapping the the desired length of the shingle or shake.
previous row.
Bond beam is a horizontal reinforced concrete or concrete
Bi-fold door has a hinge that holds two panels together masonry beam used to strengthen and tie a masonry wall
so that one can swing relative to the other and provide a together at the top or in other locations where needed.
100% opening in the doorway.
Bookshelves and display shelves can have simple
Biofiltration is a pollution control technique using living construction with metal brackets and metal or wood
material to capture and biologically degrade process shelving, or they can be built and detailed the same as fine
pollutants. furniture.
Biofuel is biomass used as fuel. Borrow or borrow pit, also known as a sand box, is an area
Biomass means natural material, such as trees, plants, where material such as soil, gravel, or sand has been dug
agricultural waste, and other organic material. for use at another location.

483
Glossary

Borrow pit see borrow. Builder Option Package (BOP) represents a set of
Bottom plate see sole plate or sill plate. construction specifications for a specific climate zone,
based on performance levels for the thermal envelope,
Bottom rail is a short wall built up above a stringer to
insulation, windows, orientation, heating, ventilating,
enclose the ends of the treads and risers and used to
and air conditioning (HVAC) system, and water heating
attach the balusters.
efficiency for the climate zone.
Bottom track used in steel wall framing replaces the sole
Building bricks are typically used as backing material in
plate used in wood framing.
nonstructural and structural applications where appearance
Bow window is an arc-shaped bay window.
is not a requirement.
Box is equipped with clamps, used to terminate a conduit,
Building codes are required laws that are intended to
also called an electrical box, outlet box, or junction box.
protect the public by establishing minimum design and
Box nail is a small diameter nail typically used in making construction standards.
boxes.
Building envelope consists of the roof, exterior walls, and
Braced panel see shear panel. floor of a structure, forming a barrier that separates the
Braced wall line see shear wall. interior of the building from the outdoor environment.
Bracing is used in floor framing to provide stiffness to Building life cycle refers to the observation and
a floor system, to resist lateral loads, to prevent joist examination of a building over the course of its entire life.
rotation, to provide a nailing surface for the bottom plate Building Officials Code Administration (BOCA) codes
of a partition framed above, or used to support plumbing developed for the East Coast.
and heating equipment. The two types of floor joist bracing
Building permit is permission granted by a jurisdiction
commonly used in construction are solid blocking and cross
to build a specific structure based on approved plans and
bracing.
specifications, and required in most jurisdictions for new
Breaker, also called a circuit breaker, is an electric safety construction, or adding on to pre-existing structures, and in
switch that automatically opens a circuit when excessive some cases for major renovations.
amperage occurs.
Building science is the collection of scientific knowledge
Brick mold is part of the exterior door or window assembly that focuses on the analysis and control of a building’s
and used to trim and fasten a door installation around the physical environment.
exterior top and sides, or all around a window.
Building section is a section that cuts through the entire
Bricks are building material composed of clay-bearing soil, house.
sand, and lime, or concrete used for masonry construction,
Cabinet elevations are exterior views of the cabinets
generally composed of clay, but can be any rectangular-
developed directly from the floor plan drawings.
cube unit laid in mortar.
Cabinets generally make up a storage or display system
Bridging see continuous steel wall frame bridging.
with drawers, and doors with shelves behind.
Broomed concrete has the surface textured with a broom
California corner see three-stud corner.
while still wet. A broomed finish is applied to improve
traction or to create a distinctive texture on the concrete Camber is a slight arch in a beam that makes it better for
surface. supporting heavy loads.
Brownfield sites are parcels of land that have the Cantilever is a structure that is supported at one end and
presence or potential presence of a hazardous substance, is self-supporting on the other end where it projects into
pollutant, or contaminant. space.
Brush barriers are perimeter sediment control Cap sheds weather off the chimney and keeps moisture
structures constructed of material such as small tree from entering the masonry.
branches, root mats, stone, or other debris left over from Carbon dioxide has the chemical formula CO2, and is a
site clearing. colorless, odorless gas present in the atmosphere and
BTU means British thermal unit, a measure of heat. formed when any fuel containing carbon is burned.
Buckling is bulging, bending, bowing, or kinking of the Carbon footprint is a measure of the impact human
steel studs as a result of compression stress on the activity has on the environment by producing greenhouse
structure. gases.

484
 Glossary

Carbon monoxide has the chemical formula CO, and Centerline stakes represent the center line of a
is a colorless, odorless, poisonous gas, produced by construction feature such as a driveway, road, or pipe.
incomplete burning of carbon-based fuels. Central forced air systems provide heating and air
Carbon monoxide poisoning is a potentially fatal illness conditioning for a home that circulates the air from living
that occurs when people breathe in carbon monoxide. spaces through or around heating or cooling devices.
Carbon neutral is a state in which the net amount of A fan forces the air into ducts, which connect to openings
carbon dioxide or other carbon compounds emitted into the called diffusers, or air supply registers. Warm air or cold air
atmosphere is reduced to zero by carbon offsets. passes through the ducts and registers to enter the rooms,
heating or cooling as needed. Air then flows from the room
Carbon offsets are an abstract tool used to reduce the
through another opening into the return duct, or return air
impact of carbon footprints by lessening carbon emissions
register.
through the development of alternative projects such as
solar or wind energy, or reforestation. Cesspool is a cistern that receives untreated sewage that
goes through a process of liquefaction and decomposition
Carpet is a finish floor material made from woven fabric,
by bacterial organisms.
such as nylon or wool.
CFM is cubic feet per minute, which is the rate of air flow.
Carpet pad is installed between the underlayment and the
carpet to provide desired cushion, comfort, and prolong Chair rail is traditionally placed horizontally on the wall at
a height where chair backs would otherwise damage the
carpet life.
wall.
Carriage see stringers.
Chairs are prefabricated supports that can position rebar.
Casement windows can be 100% operable and open
Chalk line is a string inside of a chalk box filled with chalk
from the outside vertical edge, generally using a crank
powder, used for making a straight line on a surface by
mechanism.
holding the string tight between two fixed points and against
Casing is the trim around doors and windows. the surface and snapping it to transfer the chalk as a line.
Casting is the resulting concrete structure when Chase is a continuous recessed area built to carry or
describing poured-in-place concrete. conceal ducts, pipes, or other construction products.
Catalytic converter is a device that contains a catalyst for Check dams used as runoff control are small, temporary
converting pollutant gases into less harmful emissions. structures constructed across a swale or channel.
Catch basin is an inlet structure for a drain or drain system Chemical stabilizers or soil binder provide temporary soil
and is designed to drain excess rain and groundwater from stabilization. These are typically vinyl, asphalt, or rubber
the adjacent area. The grade is sloped toward the catch sprayed on the ground to hold soil in place and minimize
basin so that water naturally flows into the structure. erosion from runoff and wind.
Category II asbestos containing material (ACM) is Chimney is a structure containing a passage through which
any material containing more than 1 percent asbestos as smoke and gases escape from a fireplace, furnace, vent, or
determined using the methods specified by the EPA. other application.
Cathedral ceiling has equal sloping sides that meet at a Chimney cap see cap.
ridge, or stop at a flat ceiling part way to the ridge.
Chimney draft see draft.
Caulking is the use of a soft, waterproof product to reduce
Circuit breaker see breaker.
air infiltration by filling gaps, openings, seams, cracks, and
voids to make the structure air- and watertight. Circuits are the various conductors, connections, and
devices found in the path of electrical flow from the source
Cavity refers to the blank area or void between
through the components and back to the source.
construction members, such as studs in walls or joists in
ceilings where insulation is placed. Circular stairs see spiral stairs.

Ceiling joist is the horizontal member of the roof system Circulator is a pump used in a hot water systems.
that is used to resist the outward spread of the rafters and Clay masonry units are building materials that
to provide a surface on which to mount the finished ceiling. are larger than bricks, composed of burnt clay, shale, fire
clay, or similar composition.
Cement board, also called backer board, is a combination
of cement and reinforcing fibers formed into 1/4- to 1/2- Clay tile is made by baking molded clay shapes in a kiln.
inch thick 4 × 8 foot (1,200 × 2,400 mm) sheets, or 3 × 5 Cleanout is a fitting with a removable plug that is placed in
foot sheets (900 × 1,500 mm), that are typically used as a plumbing drainage pipe lines to allow access for cleaning
tile backing board. out the pipe.

485
Glossary

Clerestory windows can be used to provide light and Compressor (HVAC) maintains adequate pressure to cause
direct solar gain to a second-floor living area and increase refrigerant to condense and flow in sufficient quantities to
the total solar heating capacity of a home. Clerestory meet the cooling requirements of the system.
windows are a row of windows set along the upper part of Concrete is a construction material made from cement,
a wall.
sand, gravel, and water mixed together and set in a form to
Climate zones are divisions of the Earth’s climates into make a solid structure when cured.
general areas according to average temperatures and
Concrete blocks are prefabricated construction blocks
rainfall.
made from concrete. Standard size concrete blocks are 4 ×
Cold-formed steel (CFS) is the common term for formed 8 × 16 inches and 8 × 8 × 16 inches. A concrete block is
by cold processes of rolling, pressing, and stamping thin
also called a concrete masonry unit (CMU), cement block,
gauges of sheet steel into products.
or foundation block.
Cold rolled refers to a steel-forming process where cold
Concrete board is concrete pressed into sheets.
metal is rolled into sheets or other shapes such as steel
framing members. Concrete forms are temporary or permanent structures or
molds into which concrete is poured.
Cold rolled channel system that uses a continuous cold-
rolled steel channel as bridging that runs continuously Concrete masonry unit (CMU) see concrete blocks.
through aligned knockouts in the studs. Concrete piers are placed below the slab within the
Collar ties are used depending on structural engineering perimeter at locations where needed to support structural
requirements to help tie the rafters together and support loads distributed to the ground below.
the ridge. Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute (CRSI) provides
Combustion air is outside air supplied in sufficient standards related to steel concrete reinforcing.
quantity for fuel combustion. Concrete slab foundation system uses 3-1/2″ (90 mm)
Comfort zone is the range of temperatures, humidity, and reinforced concrete, referred to as a slab, which is a flat
air velocities at which people generally feel comfortable. concrete pad poured directly on the ground.
Common areas are not part of individual private properties Concrete tiles are made using Portland cement, sand,
and are used by all property owners. and water that is mixed and extruded in molds under high
Common nail has a smooth uncoated shank less than pressure.
one-third the diameter of the nail head and is most Condensation is water that collects when humid air
commonly used in framing.
comes in contact with a cold surface.
Common plumbing wall is a wall between rooms where
Condensation Resistance (CR) measures the ability of
plumbing fixtures are placed back-to-back.
a product to resist the formation of condensation on the
Common rafters are typically dimensional lumber such as interior surface of the product.
2 × 6 or 2 × 8 spaced 16 or 24 inches (400–600 mm) on
Condenser (HVAC) is the portion of a refrigeration system
center that run at the desired roof pitch from the wall top
plate at the bottom to the ridge at the top. where the compression and condensation of refrigerant is
accomplished.
Compaction refers to increasing the soil density.
Conditioned air refers to a heated or cooled space within
Composition roofing is a durable long-lasting roofing product
the home.
made from a variety of materials such as asphalt, fiberglass,
and natural materials depending on the manufacturer. Also Conductor is material that permits the free motion of
known as composite roofing or comp roofing. electricity. Copper is a common conductor in architectural
Compost blankets are layers of compost material placed wiring.
on the soil in disturbed areas to reduce storm water runoff Conduit is a metal or fiber pipe or tube used to enclose
and erosion. one or more electrical conductors.
Compost filter berm is a long raised bed of compost placed Coniferous trees are cone-bearing trees that are normally
along the site contours to slow runoff and control erosion. evergreen.
Compost filter sock is compost in a round or oval-shaped Construction documents are drawings and written
mesh tube. Compost filter socks are placed along the site specifications prepared and assembled by architects and
contours to slow runoff and control erosion. engineers for communicating the design of the project and
Compressive strength is the force applied by weight. administering the construction contract.

486
 Glossary

Construction entrance stabilization provides gravel on Cork underlayment, also referred to as acoustic
the entrance driveway and road to stabilize the ground and underlayment, is used under wood and laminate floors
keep mud and dirt off vehicle tires. when noise reduction is desired between floors.
Construction exit stabilization provides gravel on the exit Corner blocks are square decorative prefabricated blocks
driveway and road to stabilize the ground to keep mud and that are traditionally used at the top corners of doors for
dirt from vehicle tires leaving the area as mud attached to ornamental appearance, and to simplify casing installation.
vehicles. Corner fireplace is a single fireplace built at the
Construction fabric see geotextiles. intersection of two walls.
Construction loan is commonly used to fund the building Corner staking involves placing survey stakes at each
of a new home. corner of the house.
Construction sequencing is a specified work schedule Cornice is generally any horizontal decorative molding that
that coordinates the coordination and timing of is commonly found over a door or window, or along the
construction activities and stages from the start of land corner where a wall meets the ceiling, and is a projection
development to final occupancy. out from the building to protect the home from weather,
and generally has decorative moldings used in the finish
Contemporary architecture is the modern architecture of
construction.
today.
Cornice see eave.
Continuous lateral bracing allows the trusses to be
accurately spaced and stabilizes the roof system. Corrugated stainless steel tubing (CSST) is also used for
natural gas piping.
Continuous steel wall frame bridging is used in bearing
Cost estimate is developed by the architect or the general
walls to provide lateral bracing called bridging.
contractor or both, based on materials and labor costs
Contour interval the vertical distance between contour necessary to complete the project.
lines.
Counterbore is a flat-bottomed cylindrical enlargement
Contour lines, also called contours, are lines that join of the mouth of a hole with enough depth to hide the bolt
points of equal elevation (height) above a given level, such head or washer and nut below the surface.
as mean sea level, and they help demonstrate the general
Course is a row of bricks.
lay of the land.
Cove see cornice.
Control joints (concrete block) allow the concrete masonry
wall structures to shrink independently between joints, and Covenants, Conditions & Restrictions (CC&R) is
to transfer lateral wind loads from one side of the joint to commonly used in a homeowner association (HOA) for any
policies, procedures, rules, regulations, and resolutions
the other.
created for and enforced by the HOA.
Control joints (concrete slab) placed periodically across
Craftsman-style architecture is influenced by the use of
the concrete slab to help restrict the cracking to the
natural materials and colors, heavy posts and wood beams,
locations where the control joints are placed. Control joints
trim boards, masonry veneer accents, and wide porches.
can be a cut made in the slab, or a prefabricated joint that
separates the slab at specific locations. Crawl space refers to a space that is at least 18 inches
(450 mm) between the bottom of the wood structure and the
Convection air is the movement of heated air that rises
ground that provides access to install and service plumbing,
and is replaced by cooler air causing air circulation.
and heating and cooling systems where appropriate.
Convection current is a natural condition where warm air
Crawl space system has a perimeter footing and
rises and cool air falls. The heated air rises into the room
foundation wall with interior piers and stem walls to
and is replaced by cooler air that falls to the floor.
support the mid-span structure above. There are two basic
Conventional construction used in this textbook is the types of crawl space construction, which are the post and
typical wood-frame construction practices used in most beam and joist construction.
residential construction. Crawl space ventilation is used to prevent moisture build-
Copper waterstop is a pre-manufactured copper product up and possible moisture damage to floor construction
that fits into a masonry joint to control expansion, keep out materials and other structural elements exposed to the
moisture, and keep mortar or debris from entering the joint. crawl space.
Corbel is a projection of stone, brick, timber, or metal Cricket is generally a small sloped surface or roof built to
projecting out from a wall to support a structure above. divert water over an area where water would otherwise

487
Glossary

collect, such as behind a chimney or a place where a slope Deciduous trees lose their leaves in the winter.
roof meets a vertical wall. Decking is the material used to create flat flooring.
Cripple is a short stud framed above a door rough opening, Deed is a written document used to transfer land or other
or above and below a window rough opening between the real property from one person to another.
header and a top plate, or between the sill and sole plate.
Deed restrictions are limitations placed in a deed and
Cross-linked polyethylene (PEX) pipe provides a flexible provide specific controls on the use of the property.
and durable plumbing system that can withstand high
Deflection is the movement of a structure as a result of
pressures and temperatures.
stress applied to the structure.
Cross section see section.
Deflection track is the top track in a steel frame wall
Crown see cornice. designed and installed to allow vertical movement of the
Cul-de-sac is a street that is closed at one end and usually structure without damage to the wall system and wall
has a large-radius turning area. finish material.
Curb (road and street construction) is a raised concrete Deformed reinforcing bars have raised ridges to hold better
edging to a road, street, or path. in concrete.
Curb (skylight construction) is a 2 × 4 or 2 × 6 frame built Delta angle is the included angle of the arc.
on the roof, or a pre-manufactured curb provided by the Dense-pack is installing higher-than-normal density of
supplier, upon which a skylight is mounted. loose-fill insulation to reduce settling.
Curb tape is a foam weather strip tape placed between Description of Materials includes specific information
the skylight frame and the skylight curb. about construction and finish materials, products,
Custom cabinets are usually designed by the architect, appliances, and equipment.
architectural designer, or custom cabinet shop, and are Design for all (dfa) is used to describe a design
generally built at a local cabinet shop and delivered to the philosophy targeting the use of products, services and
project for installation. systems by as many people as possible without the need
Custom home is a home designed specifically for a client for adaptation.
who wants to have a new home built. Design notes are notes that relate to the design
Cut and fill is the excavation process involving the removal characteristics of the plan where they are located.
of earth, which is the cut, and moving earth to another Details are enlarged sections used to show exact
location, which is the fill. construction requirements at a specific location, such as a
Cutout template is a paper outline of the exact substrate footing, connection, or building application, and range in scale
cutout required for the specific fixture. from 3/4″ = 1′-0″, 1″ = 1′-0″, 1-1/2″ = 1′-0″, or 3″ = 1′-0″.
Cut stakes indicate a lowering of the ground or elevation. Detention basins are created to temporarily detain storm
Cutting-plane line is commonly used to correlate the water and release it slowly; and prevent sediment-laden
section drawing to the location where the cut is made water from leaving the site, or both.
through the building. Diazo (see blue-line prints) process uses a chemically
d in a nail specification refers to penny, which is an old coated sheet placed under an original drawing and both
term still used to specify nail sizes today. The nail size gets exposed to light that removes the chemical except under
larger as the number gets larger. For example, the 8d nail is images. The sheet is then exposed to ammonia vapor that
2-1/2 inches long and the 16d nail is 3-1/2 inches long. turns the remaining chemical to a blue color.
Damper is an internal movable plate for regulating air flow. Dig-out see excavation.
Daylight basement house is typically built on a front to Dimension is shown on a drawing using extension
rear slope where the amount of slope allows for a fully lines, a dimension line, and a numerical value giving the
exposed basement wall at one side and a completely measurement.
underground basement at the opposite side. Dimensional lumber is lumber that is cut and planed to
Daylighting is the use of various design techniques to standard width and depth specified in inches, and lengths
enhance the use of natural light in a building. specified in feet.
Deadbolt is a locking mechanism that adds extra security Dimensional tolerance (brick) refers to how tightly the
to an entry door in addition to the regular lockset, and has manufactured brick is held to its nominal size.
a solid cylinder that is engaged by turning a knob or key, Direct current (DC) is a continuous electric current that
rather than by spring action. flows in one direction only.

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Direct solar gain is heat created by the sun, which is Drip edge is an L-shaped galvanized steel or aluminum
captured in a structure through south-facing windows. flashing that keeps water from penetrating the edge of the
Direct-vent fireplaces are generally sealed-combustion sheathing at the bottom of the roof.
heaters, having exhaust gases exit through the center, and Drip line is the area directly located under the outer
combustion air is drawn into the fireplace through the outer circumference of the tree branches.
chamber. Drive types refer to the type of driver tool used to drive or
Distribution panel, also called a panel, is where turn the screw into the material.
the conductor from the meter base is connected to Dropped beams are beams that have the joists running
individual circuit breakers, which are connected to over the top of the beams and the beams are exposed in
separate circuits for distribution to various locations the room below.
throughout the home. Dry-in is a term used to describe placing a weatherproof
Documents are the drawings and written information layer of material over the roof sheathing in an effort to keep
the home dry.
related to a project.
Drywall, also called gypsum board, gyprock, plasterboard,
Dome skylight normally has plastic that rounds up over
sheetrock, or wallboard, is a plaster panel made of gypsum
the frame.
pressed between two thick sheets of paper.
Dormer is a small structure extending out from the slope
Drywall clips or other nailing brackets are used to secure
of the main roof of a home. the other drywall material edge at a corner that has no
Double-acting doors swing both ways for entering and framing support.
leaving a room. Drywall joint compound is a combination of several
Double-faced see-through fireplace has a firebox that is technical ingredients and is available pre-mixed for
open to two adjacent rooms. immediate use.
Double header is two structural members that are the Drywall knife is a small hand tool with a blade used for
same size material as the joists used to support the ends applying joint compound when finishing drywall.
of the joists at the opening. Drywall tape is a paper, vinyl, or mesh product used to
Double-hung window has two sashes with one above the cover drywall joints and corners.
other. Both sashes open to any desired extent by sliding Ductless heat pumps, also called mini-split-system heat
vertically. pumps, are heat pump systems that heat or cool directly
into the room without the use of ductwork.
Double-wall construction uses structural sheathing over
the exterior studs, followed by a vapor barrier, followed by Ducts are the pipes used to move hot or cold air in an
finish siding material. HVAC system.
Duct system is square, rectangular, or round sheet metal
Down-draft range exhaust system is generally directly
or plastic pipes used to conduct hot or cold air of the HVAC
behind the range and has an exhaust fan that ventilates the
system.
range to the outside.
Ductwork is square, rectangular, or round sheet metal or
Downspout is a vertical pipe that is connected to the
plastic pipes used to conduct hot or cold air of the HVAC
gutters for the purpose of moving rainwater from the gutter
system.
to the ground or to a rain drain pipe in the ground.
Dummy knob looks just like other door knobs or levers,
Draft, also referred to as chimney draft, is a current of air but they do not operate a lock bolt, and are often mounted
and gases through the fireplace and chimney, which is with a magnetic latch or other latching mechanism on
the process of air being pulled from the area inside the closet, pantry, and utility doors.
home and through the fireplace opening, allowing hot air to Duplex outlet, also called a duplex convenience outlet,
escape through the flue and out of the chimney. has two outlets and is the typical wall plug.
Drain is any pipe that carries wastewater in a building Dutch doors are used when it is desirable to have a door
drainage system. that can be half open and half closed.
Drainage system provides for the distribution of solid and Dutch hip roof is a combination hip and gable roof, with
liquid waste to the sewer line. the gable portion at the top.
Drip cap is a formed aluminum or vinyl projection installed at Earth Advantage New Homes is a third-party certification
the top of windows and doors that allows water to run off. program for builders that helps them create energy-efficient,

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Glossary

healthy and resource-wise homes that add value for the Elevation is the two-dimensional (2D) exterior view of a
homebuyer. building.
Earthen floors are a green building technology that Elevation (related to surveying, site planning, and
combines the mixture of sand, clay soil, and fibers that are disciplines such as plumbing and HVAC) refers to the height
poured in place and sealed with linseed oils and waxes to of a feature from a known base, which is usually given as 0
make durable, washable surfaces. (zero elevation).
Earthquake engineering, also called seismic Elevation (surveying) is the vertical difference between
engineering, is the study of the behavior of buildings and two points.
structures that can be affected by earthquakes. End dams, also called side dams, are made by bending the
Easement is a right given to a person or entity to access a end of flashing up to stop water from flowing across the
portion of land that is owned by another person or entity. flashing and into the adjacent construction.
Eave is the lowest part of the roof that projects from the Energy positive home is when the home energy system
exterior wall, also referred to as a cornice or overhang. creates more electricity than needed for the home, and the
Edging trowel is used to make concrete edges and joints system allows the homeowner to sell electricity back to
formed with a radius along the slab edge that helps resist the utility company.
chipping and damage after the forms are removed. Energy Rating Index (ERI) is a performance path that
Egress means to exit a room or other location. gives builders options for meeting a target energy
Electrical box see box. efficiency score through a wide range of performance
options to demonstrate compliance.
Electrical circuit line see switch leg.
Energy recovery ventilator (ERV) system is closely
Electrical conduit is an electrical piping system used to
related to HRV, except the ERV also transfers the humidity
protect and route electrical wiring.
level of the exhaust air to the intake air.
Electrical legend on the plan correlates electrical fixture
Energy Star is a joint program of the US Environmental
and wiring symbols with their name or description.
Protection Agency (EPA) and the US Department of Energy,
Electrical loads are the circuits and appliances that use
created to help save money and protect the environment
electricity.
through energy-efficient products and practices, and
Electrical plan shows the location and details of electrical through superior product energy efficiency.
wiring and fixtures.
Engineered wood products are a combination of smaller
Electrical service panel is a distribution box with circuit components used to make structural products that have
breakers connecting electrical wiring to circuits within the been engineered for specific applications and fabricated in
home. a manufacturing facility and delivered to the construction
Electric fireplaces require 110- or 220-volt electrical site.
wiring depending on the manufacturer specifications, Entry door is a door that allows access to the home from
and produce very little heat, allowing them to be installed the front, back, or other location through an exterior wall.
directly against wood framing with no ventilation required,
Envelope, related to home design and construction, is the
so electric fireplaces can be used in locations where no
entire exterior of the home that includes exterior walls, the
venting source is available and other types of fireplaces are
roof, the foundation, and doors and windows.
not suitable.
Environmentally friendly and environmentally sound
Electrician is the subcontractor who performs the
refer to design and construction using renewable materials.
electrical work for the project.
Electrical system is a network of wiring, outlets, and Erosion is the process that causes soil and rock to be
fixtures used to transmit and supply the electrical needs for removed from the Earth’s surface and deposited in other
a home. locations by natural processes such as wind or water flow.

Electrostatic air filters clean the air flowing through the Evaporator (HVAC) is a device in which a liquid refrigerant
HVAC system by using static electricity in a unit placed is vaporized.
in the return air duct directly next to the furnace or air Excavation is any man-made cut, cavity, trench, or
handler of the system. The electrostatic air filter works by depression in the Earth’s surface formed by earth removal.
an electrostatic charge generated by air flowing through a This includes the excavation for a house or other building
network of static fibers. that is referred to as a dig-out in the construction industry.

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 Glossary

Expanding foam insulation is a spray-applied insulating Filter fabric is a water-filtering porous material and soil
foam in a pressurized container that is installed from a stabilization product made to allow water to pass through,
nozzle as a liquid and then expands many times its original but keep dirt and other materials from passing through.
size until it hardens in its final form upon contact with the Filter fabric sock is a filter fabric product made to fit over
air. the drain tile to keep material from plugging the drain pipe.
Expansion joints are used to control horizontal movement Fines describes small miscellaneous gravel, dirt, and debris
by separating masonry into sections to prevent cracking, sizes found in any gravel and crushed rock. All gravel has
and stop water penetration and air infiltration in the fines, but the amount of fines allowed depends on the
masonry wall. gravel specifications.
Expansion valve (HVAC) controls the amount of refrigerant Finish refers to preparation and final process used to
flow into the evaporator. improve the appearance and protect surfaces in the home.
Exposed aggregate concrete is a method of finishing Finish carpenter is the person who performs finish
concrete by washing the cement and sand away from carpentry.
the top surface of the concrete, exposing the aggregate Finish carpentry involves completing the final details on
immediately under the surface. the inside and outside of home construction.
Exterior door is any door in an exterior wall or in a wall Finish electrical is when the light fixtures, outlets and
between the home and garage. covers, and appliances are installed prior to moving in to
Exterior envelope is made up of elements of a building the home.
that enclose conditioned spaces through which thermal Finish grade means the grade after all required work is
energy transfers to or from the exterior. performed to cut or fill the area.
Extrusion is a manufacturing process used to create long Finish nail is a slender nail with a small globular head,
objects of a fixed cross-sectional profile, where material used for finish work.
is pressed or pushed under pressure through a desired Finish plumbing is one of the last construction phases
shaped opening. before the home is ready to occupy, and includes installing
Face brick is used for visual quality on the exposed surface all fixtures such as sinks, vanities, toilets, faucets, and final
of a building wall or other structure. valves.
Face plate is a rectangular plate on the edge of the door Finish wood is the best quality wood that has been milled
around the latch bolt. and sanded to provide the best possible material for final
wood projects.
Face stringer is an exposed stringer on the open side of
stairs. Fink truss provides the typical pitch roof and flat ceiling.

Fan heater has a heating element used to generate heat, Fire blocking fills and seals the construction cavity to
and a fan circulates the heat into the room. prevent or slow down the spread of fire.

Fascia is usually 1X dimensional lumber or plastic material Firebox is the chamber built or manufactured to hold the
installed over the ends of rafters or at the rake as a finish fire in a fireplace.
or trim. Fire brick is brick made of refractory ceramic material
which resists high temperatures.
Fenestration is any opening in a building envelope
including windows, doors, and skylights. Fireplace is the part of a chimney that opens into a room
and in which fuel is burned or electric fire-like display is
Fiber carpet pad is made from a nylon that provides a
created.
high-density product.
Fireplace footing is a solid reinforced concrete structure
Fiber rolls are tube-shaped erosion-control devices filled
engineered to carry the weight of the fireplace and
with straw, flax, rice, coconut fiber material, or composted
effectively distribute the load to the ground.
material.
Firewall is a wall or partition designed to deter or prevent
Field is the internal area of the plywood between the edges.
the spread of fire in the home.
Fill is moving earth to another location.
Fit home is designed to fit on lots where traditional plans
Filler are pieces of wood or other material used to fill in do not fit.
the space between modular cabinet units or between the Fitting (plumbing) is a standard pipe part such as a
cabinet and a wall. coupling, elbow, reducer, tee, and union, used for joining
Fill stakes indicate raising the ground or elevation. two or more sections of pipe together.

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Glossary

Fixed window has a single non-operable glass pane, or a Fly-through is similar, but the camera is like a helicopter
group of large windows each separated by a vertical support. flying over the area.
Fixture (plumbing) is a component used to supply and Foam carpet pad is made from urethane that is not
contain water, and discharge waste. designed for use in high traffic areas.
Fixtures (electrical) are all plugs, switches, cover plates, Foam-in-place, also referred to as spray-in foam
and lights. insulation, delivers high R-values per inch of insulation, and
Fixture trap is a U-shaped pipe below plumbing fixtures provides excellent sealing against air infiltration.
that holds water to prevent odor and sewer gases from Footings are the lowest member of the foundation system
entering the fixture. used to spread the loads of the structure on the supporting
Flange is a metal or vinyl strip that goes all around the ground.
window frame and is used to seal and fasten the window Footprint is used to identify the foundation dimensions
to the home framing. upon which the home is constructed.
Flashing (masonry) between the concrete or concrete Forced-air system is a system that uses a mechanical
block ledge and the masonry veneer acts to collect and blower to circulate air throughout the home.
divert moisture from the wall.
Formaldehyde is a chemical found in disinfectant,
Flashing tape is a strong, waterproof, very adhesive tape preservative, carpets, furniture, and the glue used in
with an aluminum outer surface that can be shaped to construction materials, such as plywood and particle board,
conform to the structure where it is applied. as well as some insulation products.
Flat roof for a home is constructed almost horizontal or Foreman is the person in charge of a construction crew or
level with a slight slope that allows for rain water drainage. team.
Flight is a set of steps between one floor or landing and Foundation is the construction system used to support
the next. the structure loads and distribute the loads to the ground.
Floor joists are structural members that are normally made Foundation plan is a scale drawing used to display
from wood or other engineered products used to span construction features and dimensions for the foundation
between supports such as foundation walls, frame walls, or of the home. The foundation plan scale is normally
other construction members to construct the floor system. 1/4″ = 1′-0″.
Floor-level hearth is a hearth built at the same level as the Foundation vents are closable with built-in doors, louvers,
floor inside the home next to the fireplace. or insulating foam inserts. This allows the foundation vents
Floor plan is a scale drawing showing the arrangement, to be closed during the winter.
sizes, and location of rooms in one story of a building. Foundation walls are the vertical walls of the foundation
A floor plan is a representation provided by an imaginary system than connect between the footings and the
horizontal cut made through the home at approximately structure above.
4 feet (1,220 mm) above the floor line.
Four-way switch has three switches controlling one or
Flow rate is calculated in gallons per minute (GPM). more lights.
Flue is any vent or chimney that connects a combustion Foyer is an entrance hall or other open area in a home
device with the outside, and the passageway in a chimney
used for people to gather generally after entering.
for conveying gases to the outdoors.
Frame is a fixed part of a window that encloses the sash
Flue lining is a round, square, or rectangle clay product
and consists of the head jamb, sill, side jambs, jamb
that protects the home against escape of gases or fire
extension, and casing.
from the flue.
Framer is the person who does framing, also known as a
Flush beams are beams that have the joists intersecting
rough carpenter.
the beams and the bottom of the beams are flush with the
bottom of the joists. When the beam height is greater than Framing refers to the construction of the structural parts of
the joists, then the beam can be partly exposed above or a house.
below the joists depending on the desired appearance and Framing plan shows the construction members used in
construction requirements. floor framing, roof framing, and the framing of construction
Flush-cut saw has no saw set on one side, so that features such as decks.
the saw can be laid flat on a surface and cut without Freestanding fireplace is a manufactured metal appliance
scratching the surface. made to hold a fire.

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Freestanding stairs, also called open stairs, has stringers or General contractor is the person or business who
carriages that are unsupported by walls, and attached only to contracts for the construction of an entire building or
the floor at the bottom and the structural framing at the top. project, rather than just a portion of the work.
French doors normally refers to double exterior or interior General notes relate to the entire plan.
doors that have glass panels and swing into a room. Geotextiles are porous fabrics also known as filter fabrics,
French drains can be used to capture and drain water road rugs, or construction fabrics.
away from the house and direct it to local storm water Geothermal heating and cooling closed-loop system
channels. French drains are common drainage systems, has water or water-antifreeze fluid pumped through
primarily used to prevent ground and surface water from polyethylene tubes.
penetrating or damaging building foundations.
Geothermal heating and cooling open-loop system
Freon is a trademark used for a variety of nonflammable has water pumped from a well or reservoir through a heat
gaseous or liquid fluorinated hydrocarbons employed exchanger, and then discharged into a drainage ditch, a field
primarily as working fluids in refrigeration and air tile, a reservoir, or another well.
conditioning and as aerosol propellants. Geothermal heating and cooling refrigerant-based
Frieze board is used to seal the gap between the bricks system is also known as direct exchange where refrigerant
and the eave. flows in copper tubing around a heat exchanger.
Frost line is the depth of frost penetrating the soil, and this Geothermal heating and cooling systems are designed
depth varies with geographic area. to use the constant, moderate temperature of the ground
Frothed foam carpet pad is made of densely packed to provide space heating and cooling, or domestic hot
urethane, designed for use under any carpet, and wears water, by placing heat exchangers in the ground, or in
under heavy traffic and weight. water wells, lakes, rivers, or streams.
Functional elements, also referred to as systems or Girder A horizontal structural member made of wood,
assemblies, are common major components in buildings laminated wood, engineered wood, or steel that spans
that perform a known function regardless of the design between two or more supports at the foundation level, or
specification, construction method, or materials used. above any floor level.
Furnaces for residential heating produce heat by burning Girder truss is a truss used to hold trusses that are
fuel oil or natural gas, or by using electric heating coils or perpendicular to the girder truss.
heat pumps. Glass sliding doors have two or more glass panels that
Furring is pressure-treated 2 × 4 studs fastened to a slide horizontally on a track, where one panel slides next
concrete wall. to another panel to open, and are made with wood or
metal frames and tempered glass for safety.
Gable is the vertical triangular wall built on each end of a
home with a gable roof. Glaze is a layer or coating that has been fused to a ceramic
object through firing to high temperatures in a kiln.
Gable roof is a roof system that slopes downward
both ways from a central horizontal ridge so as to leave Glazed refers to a coating of colored, opaque, or
a gable at each end. transparent material applied to a tile before firing.

Galvanize is a zinc coating. Glazed bricks have a glaze.

Galvanized pipe is steel pipe that has been cleaned and Glazing refers to the glass in doors and windows.
dipped in a bath of molten zinc. Glued-laminated beam (glu-lam) is a structural member
Gambrel roof has a double slope on each side, where the made up of layers of lumber that are glued together.
lower slope is normally steeper than the upper slope. Grade of land or constructed site, refers to the amount of
Garden window generally refers to a 90-degree bay incline of the surface using earth removal practices.
window that extends beyond the exterior, with a glass Grade control station provides grade and offset
front, sides, and roof to allow in extra natural light. information to the specific grade at construction.
Gas logs are an open flame appliance with manufactured Grade stakes provide elevation information.
ceramic or ceramic fiber logs placed over a burner to Grading plan shows the existing and proposed contours,
provide dramatic realism of a traditional flame. elevations and grades of the construction site before and
Gauge is a range of numbers from 10 to 26 specifying after excavation.
thickness for sheet metal or wire. The sheet metal gets Grass-lined channel can be an attractive part of the
thinner as the gauge number gets larger. landscaping and be used to carry storm water runoff.

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Glossary

Gravel filter berm is a temporary ridge made up of loose Gypsum is a soft white or gray mineral consisting of
gravel, stone, or crushed rock used as an efficient form of hydrated calcium sulfate and is used to make plaster, which
sediment control on gentle slopes. is mixed with water and allowed to harden for various
Green building refers to a structure and construction applications such as making drywall.
processes that are environmentally responsible and Gypsum board see drywall.
resource-efficient throughout a building lifecycle. Half bathroom is a bathroom without a shower or
Green home uses less energy, water, and other natural bathtub.
resources; creates less waste; and is healthier and more
Handrail is generally a single rail attached to a wall or
comfortable for the occupants.
baluster following the rise of the stairs and used for hand
Greenhouse effect is atmospheric heating caused by solar support and safety.
radiation being transmitted inward through the Earth’s
Hang is slang used in the construction industry to mean
atmosphere with less radiation transmitted outward due to
something that is installed by placing and fastening in a
absorption by gases in the atmosphere.
desired location, such as hang a door, or hang drywall.
Greenhouse gases are the gases that absorb global Hung is the past tense of hang.
radiation and contribute to the greenhouse effect. The
Hanging doors refers to door installation.
main greenhouse gases are water vapor, methane, carbon
dioxide, and ozone. Hard conversion means that the typical inch units are
Green lumber is air-dried lumber. converted directly to metric.

Green power is electricity generated from resources such Hard-wired means a fixed connection between electrical,
as solar, wind, geothermal, biomass, and low-impact hydro electronic components, and electric devices by means of
facilities. permanent wiring into the electrical system.
Green roof, also known as a rooftop garden, has Hardwood is wood from a broadleaf tree, but more
plants over the roof structure to help reduce building specifically one of the fine hardwoods typically used in
temperatures, filter pollution, and lessen water runoff. finish architectural applications, such as cherry, oak, and
walnut.
Green Seal is a non-profit organization that uses science-
based programs to empower consumers, purchasers, and Hardwood plywood is manufactured using the same
companies to create a more sustainable world. veneer system as softwood plywood, except hardwood
Green space is an open space area that can be used for a is used as the facing surface veneer for quality wood
park, a playing field, or other natural area with or without appearance.
walking trails. The green space can be well landscaped Head is the vertical distance that water falls, measured in
or totally natural, and can be available for use only by the feet.
adjoining landowners or open to the public. Header is a horizontal structural member that supports the
Ground or grounded refers to an electrical connection to load over an opening such as a door or window, or around
the earth by means of a rod. an opening.
Ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI or GFI) trips a Headers are used to break up the typical stretchers by
circuit breaker when there is any imbalance in the circuit providing units oriented perpendicular to the face of the
current. wall with the end of each brick exposed.
Grout see mortar. Head jamb is the horizontal part of the door frame above
Grout joint see mortar joint. the door.
Guardrails are used for safety at stairs, landings, decks, Hearth is a reinforced concrete slab that rests on
and open balconies where people can fall. the structure below and upon which the fireplace is
Guard stake is usually a 48-inch lath with paint and constructed.
flagging used as visibility marker and protection for the Heat exchanger (fireplace) transfers the heat created in
guard stake. the firebox to the convection air and into the room.
Gusset is a steel or other material plate used to strengthen Heat exchanger see heat recovery and ventilation (HRV).
a joint in the structure.
Heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) is the
Gutter is a channel at the edge of the eave for moving terminology used to refer to the industry that deals with
rainwater from the roof to the downspout. the heating and air conditioning equipment and systems
Gyprock see drywall. found in a home.

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Heat pump is a forced-air central heating and cooling Hopper gun has a container with a spray nozzle that is
system that operates using a compressor and a circulating operated by an air compressor. The container or hopper
refrigerant system. is filled with joint compound that is sprayed out through
Heat recovery and ventilation (HRV) system is also the nozzle in a consistent pattern on the drywall.
referred to as a heat exchanger, air exchanger or air-to- Hopper windows hinge at the bottom and swing inward.
air heat exchanger. A heat recovery ventilation system Hose bibb is a faucet used to attach a hose.
is a ventilation system that uses a counter-flow heat
Hot water circulation pump can be used to circulate
exchanger between the inbound and outbound air flow.
water through the main hot water line and the return line
Herringbone brick placement provides an interesting back to the water heater to keep hot water in the main line
pattern a pattern by placing bricks in angular rows of parallel and available to the fixtures at all times.
groups with any two adjacent rows angled in opposite
Hot water system water is heated in an oil- or gas-fired
directions. boiler and then circulated through pipes to radiators or
Hertz refers to electrical current changing direction or convectors in the rooms.
polarity 120 times, or 60 cycles per second. Housed stringer, also called a routed stringer, is a closed
High Efficiency Particle Arresting (HEPA) filters are stringer that has the ends of the treads and risers recessed
designed to be 99.97% effective in capturing particles as into channels cut into the stringer.
small as 0.3 microns. House wrap is the term that describes a variety of
Hinge is a movable joint or mechanism on which a door, synthetic products that have replaced tar paper for use as a
gate, window, or lid swings as it opens and closes, or that vapor barrier.
connects linked objects. Hubs are important survey starting points or they mark
Hinge jamb is part of the door frame where the hinges are important survey points, work points, or reference points,
attached. which are to remain in place for future use.
Hip is the corner of an external angle formed by two Hub stakes are normally driven flush with the ground and
intersecting exterior sides. a survey tack is set in the top of the hub to mark the exact
Hip jack rafter is a jack rafter that connects to the hip. survey point.
Hip rafter is the rafter that forms the hip and runs from the Humidistat is a device that automatically regulates the
ridge to the top plate. humidity of the air in a room or building.
Hip roof has the ends and sides sloping with the same Hydroelectric generators convert the energy from falling
pitch. water into electricity.

Hold-down anchors refers to fasteners that are Included angle is the angle formed between the center
embedded in concrete foundation walls and attach to wood and the end points of the arc.
structural walls above, or attach wood structural walls Index contours are contour lines that show the elevation
between floors, and especially at shear walls. values. Generally every fifth line is used as an index contour
Hold-downs refers to fasteners that are embedded in line.
concrete foundation walls and attach to wood structural Infill is where extra ground material is brought onto site to
walls above, or attach wood structural walls between build up a sloping area, cavity, or depression in the existing
floors, and especially at shear walls to control uplift in the terrain.
wall system. Inspections are required to insure that the construction
Hollow bricks are used in the manufacture of building is proceeding according to the approved plans and
bricks and facing bricks, with cavities used to place wall specifications, and that all current building code
anchoring and for steel reinforced masonry where the requirements are met.
cavities have steel reinforcing and are filled with grout. Instantaneous or demand water heater see tankless
Home Energy Ratings Systems (HERS) index rating water heater.
is an evaluation of the energy efficiency of a home, Insulated concrete forms (ICF) see insulating concrete forms.
compared to a computer-simulated reference house of Insulated glazing (IG) is also known as double glazing,
identical size and shape. double-pane, or triple glazing, triple-pane, made of two
Homeowner association (HOA) is an organization that or three glass window panes separated by a vacuum- or
makes and enforces rules for the properties within its gas-filled space to reduce heat transfer across a part of the
control. building envelope.

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Insulating concrete forms (ICF) are rigid foam forms that Joist is dimensional lumber such as 2 × 8, 2 × 10, or 2 ×
hold concrete in place during pouring and curing. 12, or engineered wood products that are spaced 12, 16, or
Insulation is material used to restrict the flow of heat, 24 inches on center depending on the span and structural
cold, or sound; it also saves energy costs and makes the engineering.
home comfortable; properly insulated walls, ceilings, and Joist construction uses standard dimensional lumber or
floors stay warmer in winter and cooler in summer. engineered wood products as joists that span between
Insulation cover (IC) means that you are allowed to insulate foundation walls and can be supported at mid-span by post
around and over the recessed light to help avoid heat loss. and beams or stem walls.
Insurance coverage for construction is specifically for Joist hanger is a manufactured metal angle, bracket, or
general contractors and subcontractors, and includes strap used to support and attach the ends of floor joists to
coverage for general liability, physical loss damage to beams.
owned property and business interruption, including loss of Junction box is an electrical box that protects electrical
income. wiring splices in conductors or joints in runs.
Interior door is any door on the inside of the home used to Jurisdiction refers to the city, county, or state location
enter rooms, closets, or other areas. where the official authority exists to make legal decisions
and judgments.
Interior elevations are provide a 2D view of features inside
the home. Key is a slot in the footing that runs down the center of the
footing and along the entire length of the footing created
Intermediate contours are contour lines other than the
when the footing is poured.
index contour lines.
Key brick is the brick at the top center of a brick arch and
International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO)
has an equal number of masonry units laid on each side
codes developed for the Western United States.
down to the supporting structure.
Inverter is an appliance used to convert direct current
Keyed means that the footing is keyed to the foundation
(DC) power, produced by the wind generator, into standard
wall to keep the wall connected to the footing. The key is a
household AC current.
slot in the footing that is created when the footing is poured.
Isolation joints are used in concrete block and masonry
Keyhole saw is a small handsaw with a long narrow blade
veneer construction to create a joint between the masonry
used for cutting holes, short-radius curves, and other small
and other material that allows both structures to contract
features.
and expand independently.
Keynote is a note found on the drawings. Each keynote
Jack rafter is any rafter that is shorter than a common has a letter or number, or combination of letters and
rafter and connecting to a hip rafter or a valley rafter. numbers or symbols next to or pointing at a specific feature
Jack stud is a partial stud nailed next to full studs to on the drawing that correspond to the description of the
support the header at door or window openings. keynote in a legend or in a general note.
Jalousie window has overlapping narrow glass, metal, Keystones are wedge-shaped blocks used in the center of
plastic, or wooden louvers, operated with a crank handle curved and straight arches for a decorative appearance or
for adjusting the louver angle outward. to match Italian architecture.
Jamb is a vertical framing member that forms the sides of Kiln is a furnace or oven used to heat products to a desired
a door opening, window opening, or other opening. temperature.
Jamb extensions are used over the framing between the Kiln dried is the reduction of moisture content in wood by
window frame and the edge of the drywall or other wall controlling the heat, air circulation, and humidity.
finish material. King studs are studs used to support and trim both ends
Joint compound, commonly called mud, is used to of a header, and run from the sole plate to the top plate.
finish drywall joints, corners, screw locations, and is used Knee wall see stem wall or pony wall.
as a skim coating. Knockdown texturing is created by spraying texturing
Joints (concrete) provide a clean surface to bond between material on the drywall and then using a trowel to flatten
pours, to control expansion, and to isolate stress in the the high places while still wet.
concrete. Also see control joints. Knockouts are pre-punched holes at regular intervals to
Joint trowel creates a groove without extending the allow rapid installation of electrical conduit, mechanical,
opening through the concrete. piping, and structural applications.

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Kyoto Protocol, also known as the Kyoto Accord, is an Ledger is fastened to the siding directly across from the
international treaty among industrialized nations that sets bottom of the rafter tails used to support lookout joists that
mandatory limits on greenhouse gas emissions. connect to each rafter tail.
Laid means placing one masonry unit at a time to build the LEED for Homes is a rating system that promotes the
masonry structure. design and construction of high-performance green homes.
Laminate, also referred to as a laminated structure or Left hand (LH) inswing is when the door swings in away
material, especially one made of layers fixed together to from you and to the left.
form a hard, flat, or flexible material. Left hand outswing is when the door swings out toward
Laminate flooring, also called floating wood floor, is a you and to the left. This is also called left hand reverse
multi-layer synthetic flooring product fused together with a (LHR), because you have to backup or move in reverse
lamination process. when opening the door.
Landing refers to a platform between flights of stairs, at Legal description is established for every piece of
the end of a flight of stairs, or used when stairs change property in the United States for legal identification, making
direction. each piece of property unique.
Lap joint is a joint where one or both members have a Legend is a feature on a drawing that shows and names
groove cut through that allows the other member to fit symbols used on the drawing.
exactly. Length of the arc see arc length.
Lap siding has a notch on one side that allows each piece Level is the term used to describe true horizontal.
to lap over the previous one. Lien is a legal term meaning a form of security interest
Laser level is an instrument used in construction and or charge granted over real or personal property to secure
surveying and normally mounted on a tripod and generates the payment of a debt or performance of some other
a laser beam that projects a fixed red or green beam along obligation.
the horizontal and vertical axis. Light-emitting diode (LED) is a highly efficient
Laser line level is an instrument that combines a spirit semiconductor device that emits light.
level and plumb bob with a laser to display an accurate Light fixture is any device that provides artificial light.
horizontal or vertical illuminated line on a surface upon
Light-frame construction see platform framing.
which the laser line level is attached.
Lighting outlet box is an electrical outlet that is intended
Latch bolt is a spring operated cylinder assembly in the
for the direct connection of a lighting fixture.
edge of a door that keeps the door closed, and is operated
by turning the door handle. Linkages, related to LEED certification, means that
the specific home site is environmentally linked to the
Latch bolt bore is a hole cut in from the latching side of
community.
the door that intersects the center of the lockset bore, and
is where the latch bolt slides. Linoleum is a material consisting of a canvas backing
thickly coated with a preparation of linseed oil and
Latch jamb see strike jamb.
powdered cork, used especially as a floor covering.
Lateral load is a force working on a structure applied
Lintel is a horizontal support made of timber, masonry,
parallel to the ground, and diagonally to the structure. Wind concrete, or steel across the top of a door, window, or
and seismic loads are the most common lateral loads. other opening.
Lateral soil pressure is the pressure that soil applies in the Lip is the part of a C-shape that extends from the flange at
horizontal direction. the open end. The lip increases the strength characteristics
Lath is a thin strip of wood, typically available in 1/4 × 1-1/2 of the member and acts as a stiffener to the flange.
× 48 inches. Lite, also called light, is a framed opening in a door,
Latitude is an angle measured from the point at the center sidelight, or transom containing a pane of glass.
of the Earth, and lines of latitude, also called parallels, are Load-bearing wall, also called a bearing wall, is a wall
imaginary lines running east to west around the Earth. that supports the weight of the structure resting on it from
Lavatory is a fixture designed for washing hands and face, above, and by transferring the weight to the foundation
usually found in a bathroom. structure.
Leach lines, an absorption field or drain field where liquid Local magnetic influence is also called local magnetic
material, or effluent, flows from the septic tank outlet and disturbance and local attraction. Local magnetic influence
is dispersed into a soil. is an abnormality of the magnetic field of the Earth,

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Glossary

extending over a relatively small area, due to local magnetic Mansard roof has a double-hip roof on each face with a
influences. steeper lower part portion, and the upper story of a home
Local note see specific note. is generally under the lower slope of the roof.

Lockset is a complete locking system, including knobs, Mantel is generally a shelf above the fireplace opening
plates, latch bolt, and a locking mechanism. that can be decorative with ornate craftsmanship, a wood
timber mounted to the wall, or a masonry projection
Lockset bore is a hole cut through the door where the
depending on the architectural style.
lockset is installed.
Marker stake, also called a reference stake, is usually next
Long break line is a graphic symbol used to break away a
to a hub stake, and is a short lath stake with a marker card
portion of a drawing that is not shown.
attached that provides survey information for a hub.
Longitude, also called meridians, are imaginary lines on
Mask means to cover, usually with special tape, plastic, or
the Earth running north and south.
paper to keep specific areas from getting painted.
Lookout joists connect ledger to each rafter tail for Mason is a person skilled in masonry construction.
enclosed soffit construction; see also tail joists.
Masonry is one of the most durable, long-lasting, and
Lookout rafters extend out over the gable top plate the maintenance-free sidings available. The material is referred
desired distance of the overhang. to as masonry units, which are laid next to each other and
Loose-fill insulation is fibers or granules made from bound together by mortar. Common masonry materials
cellulose, fiberglass, rock wool, cotton, or other materials. of masonry construction are brick, stone, marble, granite,
Lot or plot is a parcel of land that can be an individual piece travertine, limestone, cast stone, concrete
of real estate, but is often one of several lots in a plat. block, glass block, and tile.

Lot and block legal description system can be Masonry units are masonry laid next to each other and
established from either the metes and bounds or the bound together by mortar.
rectangular system when a portion of land is subdivided Masonry veneer walls are made of a single non-structural
into individual building lots, the subdivision is established exterior layer of masonry that takes the place of traditional
as a legal plat and recorded by name in the local county siding over wood-frame construction.
records. The subdivision is given a name and broken into MasterFormat: Master List of Numbers and Titles for
blocks of lots. the Construction Industry is a master list of numbers and
Low-e glass see low-emissive glass. subject titles for organizing information about construction
work results, requirements, products, and activities that
Low-emissive glass is a technology that improves window
are divided into a standard sequence.
energy efficiency. Low-e glass has a transparent coating
that acts as a thermal mirror, which increases insulating Mechanical describes the HVAC system and the
value, blocks heat from the sun, and reduces fading of subcontractor who performs the installation.
objects inside the house. Mechanical phase of construction involves the heating,
L-shape stairs make a 90-degree turn at a landing or with ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC).
winders between flights. Mechanical solar systems see active solar systems.
Magnetic declination is the difference between true north Mechanical system of the home, provides heat, fresh or
and magnetic north. conditioned air, and ventilation.
Magnetic north is the direction of the Earth’s magnetic Melamine is a plastic-based product used to cover cabinet
pole, and is the direction where the north-seeking pole of a surfaces, drawers, and shelves.
compass points when free from local magnetic influence. Membranes are generally thin, flexible materials that come
Main see main circuit breaker. in rolls or as parts of building materials.
Main circuit breaker, also called a main, is a large double Meridians see longitude.
circuit breaker at the top of the panel that controls power Meter is an instrument used to measure electrical
to all circuit breakers in the electrical service panel. quantities. The electrical meter for a building is where the
Major appliance is usually a large product that is usually power enters and is monitored for the electrical utility.
built-in as a permanent part of the cabinets and is used Meter base is the mounting base on which the electrical
for daily home activities, such as cooking, food storage, meter is attached. It contains all of the connections and
cleaning, and disposal. clamps.

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Metes and bounds is a legal description used to identify Mortis and tenon joint is commonly used when adjoining
the perimeters of any property using metes that are construction members connect at a 90-degree angle. The
measurements, and bounds that are boundaries. mortise is a rectangular hole and the tenon is cut to fit the
Micron is a unit of length equal to one-millionth of a meter. mortise hole exactly.
Mid-span is structural support provided at or near the Mortise (door) for the strike plate is a square hole, pocket,
center of the joists or other construction members. or relief cut into the jamb to accept the latch bolt and to
keep the door closed.
Mil one mil equals one one-thousandth of an inch.
Movement joints are used to separate masonry
Milling is the use of cylindrical or rotational cutting tools
construction into segments in an effort to prevent wall
used to cut millwork in any desired contour or shape.
damage such as buckling and cracking.
Milling plant is an industry that manufactures millwork.
Mud (drywall) see joint compound.
Millwork is finished woodwork that has been manufactured
Mud sill is a continuous pressure-treated wood member
in a milling plant, and is anything that is considered finish
that provides a barrier between the foundation wall and the
trim or finish woodwork, including cabinets.
framing above.
Minimum Efficiency Reporting Value (MERV) refers to
Mulching is an erosion control practice that uses materials
the filtration efficiency of an air filter.
such as grass, hay, wood chips, wood fibers, straw, or
Mini-split-system heat pumps see ductless heat pump. gravel to stabilize exposed or recently planted soil surfaces.
Miter is a joint made by cutting each of two surfaces to Mullions are horizontal or vertical dividers between
be typically joined at a 45-degree angle, usually forming a sections of a window.
90-degree angle corner.
Muntins are horizontal or vertical dividers within a section
Model Green Home Building Guidelines established
of a window.
by the National Association of Home Builders (NAHB)
are designed as a tool kit for builders who want to use Nailer is a wood member fastened to the structure and
green building practices, and for local home builder used for attaching other wood members or finish materials.
associations that want to start their own green building Nail head is the normally flat round enlarged top of a nail, but
programs. can be a slightly enlarged and rounded end as on a finish nail.
Modern architecture refers to a unique architectural style Nail set is a tool used for driving a nail head set below or
that is different from other styles and can be seen in any flush with a surface.
time period. Nanometer is one-billionth of a meter.
Modular cabinets are designed and built at a National Energy Conservation Code regulates the design
manufacturing company and delivered to the home for and construction of the exterior envelope and selection
installation during construction, and used by placing a of heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC); service
group of modules side-by-side in a given space. water heating; electrical distribution and illuminating
Modules are a selected unit of measure used as a basis systems; and equipment required for effective use of
for the planning and standardization of building materials. energy in buildings for human occupancy.
Moisture barrier, also called a vapor barrier, is waterproof National Green Building Standard is a voluntary green
material used to protect the finish flooring from moisture home building standard that can be adopted as a guide
coming up from the subfloor. by local green home building programs or local building
Mold is a superficial growth produced especially on damp departments.
or decaying organic matter or on living organisms by a Natural area is a geographical area that has a physical and
fungus. cultural originality developed through natural growth rather
Monolithic means formed as a single unit. than design or planning.

Monument, known as the point of beginning (POB), is Natural gas is a natural occurring underground flammable
a fixed location that is generally an iron rod driven into the gas that is used as fuel.
ground to start a metes and bounds survey. Neoprene is synthetic material similar to rubber that is
Mortar is a mixture of lime with cement, sand, and water, resistant to heat, and weathering.
used in construction to bond bricks, concrete blocks, or Net-metering see net-zero energy.
rock-work. Net-zero energy means that the home generates as much
Mortar joint is a mortar-filled space between concrete or more energy than the occupants consume through the
blocks, bricks and other masonry materials. course of a year.

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Glossary

Newel post is the large vertical support for the handrail at Oriented strand board (OSB) is structurally engineered
the ends of each flight of stairs, and often placed at regular board manufactured from cross-oriented layers of thin,
intervals when additional support is needed. rectangular wooden strips compressed and bonded
Nominal size (brick) is the actual size plus the width of the together with wax and resin adhesives.
mortar joint. Outer hearth is the part that extends past the fireplace
Nominal size (lumber) also referred to as rough lumber or opening into the room to provide protection from fireplace
rough sawn lumber, is the size before it is planed. heat and from sparks that can result when burning
Nominal pipe size is the inside pipe diameter. firewood.

Non-bearing partitions do not carry a structural load. Outlet is an electrical connector used to plug in devices.

Non-load-bearing wall, also non-load bearing partition, is Outlet box is a box for an outlet.
a wall that supports only its own weight and does not Overhang see eave.
support structural weight from above. Overhead garage door is generally a series of horizontal
Nosing is the edge part of the tread that projects from the panels hinged together that fold up vertically on side rails
face of the riser below. that continue overhead upon which the door panels ride to
Notes are written information that describe features on the open.
plan. Paint grade refers to a wood product that is more suitable
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) for painting than for a clear finish where the actual wood
is a government agency under the US Department of Labor grain is visible.
that helps employers reduce injuries, illnesses, and deaths Painting is the process of using a solid, semi-transparent,
in the workplace. or transparent surface covering as a decoration and
Offset stakes are placed a desired distance from the actual protective coating.
building corner stakes to prevent the loss of reference Pan is the term used to describe the flat part of the metal
information during construction activity. roofing that comes in contact with the roof.
One and a half story home has one level of living space Pane is a single sheet of glass in a window or door.
on the main level with one full-height wall, and with a
Panel see distribution panel.
second floor or living space under the rafters.
Paneling is material used to cover an interior wall, and
One-pipe hot water system has one pipe that leaves the
usually manufactured in 4 × 8 foot (1,200 × 2,400 mm)
boiler and runs through the rooms of the building and back
sheets.
to the boiler.
Panelized wall system see structural insulated panels
One-story home has one level of living space with no
(SIP).
stairs. The roof over a one-story home is generally over
an unusable attic space, and the rafters are typically fairly Parallel circuit is an electrical circuit that contains two
low-pitch. or more paths for the electricity or signal to flow from a
common source.
On-grade stakes indicate the ground is at the desired
grade and does not need a cut or fill. Parallels see latitude.
Opaque glass is made translucent, which is not clear, Parapet is a protective wall along the edge of a roof or
instead of transparent, which is clear. other structure.
Open corner see three-stud corner. Particle board is wood fibers that are glued and pressed
into 4 × 8 foot sheets.
Open stairs see freestanding stairs.
Particleboard is a non-structural hard, smooth material
Orange peel texturing makes a surface finish that looks
similar to an orange and provides a delicate uniform made in rigid sheets or panels from compressed wood
appearance that is easy to paint and maintain. chips and resin.

Organic material is any material that originated as a living Passive solar systems, also called architectural solar
organism. Biomass refers here to plant matter grown to systems, use no mechanical devices to retain, store, or
generate electricity or produce biofuel, but it also includes radiate solar heat.
plant or animal matter used for production of fibers, Paving bricks are used as the wearing surface of patios,
chemicals, or heat. walks, and roads for people and vehicle traffic.
Oriel window is a bay window that projects from an upper Pegs are cylindrical wooden fasteners driven into a hole that
story and is self-supported, or supported by corbels. connects between two or more construction members.

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 Glossary

Penny see d. Planned use development or planned unit development

Percolation test is where the characteristics of the soil (PUD) has been used in zoning. A PUD allows zoning with
must be verified for suitability for a septic system by a soil mixed uses, such as single- and multi-family homes, parks,
feasibility test. offices, small businesses, restaurants, and grocery stores.
Performance bond is issued by an insurance company or a Plans refer to the complete set of drawings needed to
bank to guarantee satisfactory completion of a project by a build a home.
contractor. Plasterboard see drywall.
Permeability is the ability to let water vapor pass through. Plat is a map of part of a city or township showing some
Permeability is expressed as perms. The acceptable specific area, such as a subdivision made up of several
amount of permeability depends on the application, such individual lots.
as example 0.3 perms is normally recommended for
Platform (computer) refers to a major piece of software,
residential construction.
such as an operating system, operating environment, or
Permit to occupy informs the owners that they can move database, under which smaller applications can run.
in, and lets suppliers and subcontractors know that they
Platform is any intermediate landing in a stairway, and is
have a specific amount of time to file a lien, if necessary.
also an extension of the floor landing, which is often used
Perspective refers to a drawing that shows height, width, as the top tread of a spiral stairs.
depth, and position of objects when viewed from a specific
Platform framing, also called light-frame construction, is
point.
the most popular residential framing practice used in the
Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants and
United States and Canada, and is like building a box where
some other organisms use sunlight to synthesize foods
the floor joists and rim joist form the sides of the box and
from carbon dioxide and water.
the subfloor is attached as the top of the box.
Photovoltaic comes from the Greek word photo, meaning
Plenum is a chamber which can serve as a distribution
light, and voltaic, meaning to produce electricity by
area for heating or cooling systems, generally between a
chemical action.
false ceiling and the actual ceiling, or between construction
Photovoltaic (PV) cells turn sunlight into electricity. In the members.
photovoltaic cells, photons strike the surface of a silicon
Plot see lot.
wafer, which is a semiconductor diode that stimulates the
release of electric charges that are guided into a circuit Plumb is the term used to describe true vertical.
where they become a useful electric current. Photovoltaic Plumb bob is a pointed weight that is suspended from a
modules produce direct current (DC) electricity. string and used as a vertical reference line, or plumb-line.
Picket see baluster. Plumber is a plumbing contractor.
Pier is a cylindrical, square, or rectangular-shaped cube Plumbing is residential piping.
made of concrete or concrete block and used to support
Plumbing schedules provide specific information
individual foundation members.
regarding plumbing equipment, fixtures, and supplies.
Pier foundation see pier.
Plumbing system includes all of the pipes, tanks, fittings,
Pilaster is a reinforcing column built into or against a and fixtures required for the water supply, water heating,
masonry or other wall structure. and sanitation in a home.
Pillar is a vertical structure of stone, wood, or metal, used Plumbing wall is any wall in a home where plumbing
as a support or decoration. pipes are installed.
Pilot hole is a small hole drilled with a diameter designed Plywood, also called sheathing, is sheets of material
for a specific nail or screw size. See pre-drill. generally 4 × 8 feet (1,200 × 2,400 mm) made of thin layers
Pipe slope drain see temporary slope drain. of wood called veneer. The veneer is glued together with the
Pitch see slope. grain of adjoining layers at right angles to each other.
Plain wire is smooth and is designated with a W. Pocket door slides horizontally into a frame that is
Plan and profile refers to a contour map and its related profile. enclosed in the wall.

Planed means to plane lumber by using a planer, which Pocket door kit is a complete package that contains the
is a machine with cutters that remove material from the door, split studs, a header assembly that has a track on
surface of the lumber to desired smoothness and finished which the door runs slides, and door hardware.
dimensions. Point of beginning (POB) see monument.

501
Glossary

Pole buildings are similar to timber-frame buildings except Power trowel has a base with rotating trowel blades for
the vertical supports are used directly from the round tree. use when concrete is just hard enough for walking on the
Pole buildings see post and beam. surface.
Pole construction see post and beam. Precast concrete beams are made by casting concrete
with steel reinforcing in a form or mold.
Polybutylene (PB) is plastic piping used for both hot and
cold water. Pre-drill means to drill a hole through the jam using a drill
diameter slightly smaller than the nail or screw used for
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a widely used building material
fastening.
found in products such as window frames, flooring, and
shower units. Prefabricated see pre-manufactured.

Pond-loop system is a geothermal exchanger inserted into Pre-finished cabinets and woodwork are finished at
a lake, river, or other natural body of water to extract heat the manufacturer and then delivered to the project for
by pumping the water up to the heat exchanger. installation.

Pony wall is a general term used to describe any short Prefinished door has all preparation work done at the
height wall, or partial wall, also called a knee wall. manufacturer, including cutting holes and pre-drilling for
door hardware, sanding, painting, or staining the door, and
Post and beam or pole construction is also referred to as
installing hinges.
timber-frame construction or pole buildings, generally
using large posts and beams or timbers for the horizontal Pre-hung door is a pre-manufactured door assembly with
and vertical members. Pole buildings are constructed using jambs and door mounted and ready for installation in the
a combination of post and beam, timber framing, and home.
conventional stud framing depending on the requirements Pre-manufactured, also referred to as prefabricated,
of the specific building. The vertical poles or posts are used are products that are built away from the job site by a
as the building supports to which the horizontal framing manufacturing company and delivered to the construction
beams are fastened. project for assembly into the building.
Post and beam construction uses wood posts supported Pressure-treated means that wood has had a liquid
by concrete piers or footings with beams above. The preservative forced inside to protect against deterioration
beams are generally spaced 48 inches (1,200 mm) apart due to rot or insect damage.
and run between the foundation walls. Wood decking is Pressure-treated wood is a treatment that forces chemical
placed above and perpendicular to the beams. preservatives into the wood to protect it from attack by
Post bases are used to provide a rigid connection between termites, other insects, and decay.
the footing. Prestressed concrete beam has steel reinforcing stretched
Post caps are used to provide a rigid connection between from both ends in the concrete form or mold, which is
the post and beam above. released after the concrete cures. The finished concrete
beam has a slight arch that makes it better for supporting
Postchlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) pipe has
heavy loads than precast concrete.
insulation value that retains heat and saves energy, when
compared with metal pipe that loses heat. Prevailing winds refers to the direction from which the
wind most frequently blows in a given area of the country.
Posts are vertical wood members that connect between a
pier or footing and support the beam above. Posts can be Prints are generally made on a printer that is a mechanical
any size depending on structural engineering, but they are process involving the transfer of text, images, or designs
commonly 4 × 4 or 4 × 6. from a computer file to paper.
Post-setting refers to proper post spacing and depth in the Professional engineer (PE) is an engineer who is
soil. registered or licensed within a specific state or states
where they pass rigorous qualifications needed to offer
Potable water is water of a quality that is suitable for
professional services directly to the public, and is generally
drinking.
licensed in one or more specific disciplines, such as a
Pour is the process of flowing the concrete into the forms. structural engineer who performs the engineering on the
Poured-in-place concrete is the concrete construction building structure, or civil engineer who does earth-related
method where concrete is poured into forms. engineering.
Powder coating is a polyester or epoxy powder placed on Professional home designer is normally not a registered
the surface and then heated to fuse with the metal forming architect, but can design homes for construction in some
a protective layer. jurisdictions, and usually works with a PE who performs

502
 Glossary

the required engineering and stamps the plans with a PE Raised hearth is built above the floor level by continuing
certification. the lower structure to support the hearth to the desired
Profile is a section view cut through the construction site height.
that is a vertical section of the surface of the ground, and Rake board see fascia.
underlying earth that is taken along any desired fixed line. Rake molding see fascia.
Propane is a flammable gas found in natural gas and
Ranch style home has one story.
bottled as fuel.
Range hood is a metal hood over a range that has lights
P.  S.D.E. stands for Public or Private Storm Drain Easement.
and an exhaust fan that vents to the outside.
Public land states are states in an area of the United
Rebar the term used to identify steel reinforcing bars in
States starting with the western boundary of Ohio to
the construction industry.
the Pacific Ocean, and including some southeastern
states and Alaska, established by the US Bureau of Land Rebond carpet pad is made from high density foam that
Management to create the rectangular survey system. is bonded together to make a variety of densities and
thicknesses.
Punchout or web opening is a hole or opening in the web
of a steel-framing member allowing for the installation Rectangular survey system see public land states.
of plumbing, electrical, and other utility installation. Reference stake see marker stake.
A punchout can be made during the manufacturing process
Reflected light is light bounced off a ceiling that has
or in the field with a hand punch, hole saw, or other
a uniform quality to help reduce the need for artificial
suitable tool.
lighting.
Purlins are horizontal lateral members that extend the
Reflective insulation includes radiant barriers that are
length of a roof, used to support and tie rafters together,
typically highly reflective aluminum foil backing on one or
and can be used to attach roof decking depending on the
both sides of the insulation.
installation practice.
Refrigerant-based system is also known as direct
R-2000 Standard is a specific Canadian home building
exchange where refrigerant flows in copper tubing around
technology that has earned a worldwide reputation for
a heat exchanger.
quality, comfort, and environmental responsibility.
R410a is a hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) which does not Refrigeration system includes the cooling coil called
contribute to ozone depletion and has been approved for an evaporator, the compressor, the condenser, and the
use in new residential air conditioners. expansion valve.

RA is return air. Register see air supply register.

Radiant barriers stop heat from radiating through the attic, Registered architect (RA) is a person trained in the
and help reduce attic temperatures in hot climates. planning, design and oversight of the construction of
buildings, and is licensed to practice architecture in
Radiant heat is heat that radiates from an electric or hot
a specific state or states where they pass rigorous
water element, warming objects rather than the air.
qualifications.
Radio frequency (RF) is electromagnetic radiation waves
that transmit audio, video, or data signals. Reinforced concrete is concrete poured around steel bars
placed in the forms.
Radius is a straight line from the center to the
circumference of a circle or sphere. Relative humidity is a percentage ratio of the amount
of water vapor in the air at a specific temperature to
Radon is a naturally occurring radioactive gas that breaks
the maximum amount that the air could hold at that
down into compounds that can cause cancer when large
temperature.
quantities are inhaled over a long period of time.
Remodeling is changing an existing structure, either
Rafters are the sloped structural members of a roof system
internally or externally.
used to support the roof loads and connect to the ridge.
Rafting is a system where trusses are erected, braced, Renovation is improving by renewing and restoring.
and sheathed on the ground, then an entire section of truss Resilient flooring, also called vinyl flooring, is either sheet
framing is hoisted in place. or tile vinyl material that is firm and flexible.
Rain drains are pipes buried along the foundation wall Retaining walls are concrete, masonry, or wood structures
used to transfer weather-related waters to storm sewers or designed to restrain soil on a slope between two different
other designated locations. elevations.

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Glossary

Return duct directs the air from the rooms over the Roofing contractor see roofer.
heating or cooling device. Roofing felt, also commonly called tar paper, is a heavy-
Reveal is located at the edge of a door or window, where duty material made by impregnating paper with tar to make
the casing edge is set back to expose the edge of the a waterproof material used as an underlayment for roofing
casing and a portion of the jamb. material.
Revision cloud is a cloud-shaped circle around a change Roofing underlayment is a weatherproof layer of material
made to a print after the drawing has been released for placed over the roof sheathing in an effort to keep the
construction. home dry before the final roofing material is installed.
Revision history block, also called the revision block, is Roof joists are flat roof rafters because they serve as
used to record changes to the drawing and is generally rafters and ceiling joists for the rooms below.
located in or next to the title block. Roof pitch is the slope of the roof in rise over run, such as
Ridge is the top horizontal member connecting two 1/12. This means that the roof has a slope of 12 inches of
intersecting roofs. rise in 12 inches of run. Rise is the vertical distance and run
Ridge vent is a low-profile roof venting system that runs is the horizontal distance. Roof pitch can also be referred to
the entire length of the roof on the ridge, and matches the as roof slope.
roofing material for an attractive appearance. Roof plan displays the outline of the roof, roof construction
Right hand (RH) inswing is when the door swings in members, roof vents, and roofing materials. The outline of
away from you and to the right. the walls below the roof can be shown with hidden lines
and dimensions, such as eave overhang are provided.
Right hand outswing is when the door swings out toward
you and to the right. This is also called right hand reverse Roof pond is usually constructed of containers filled with
(RHR). antifreeze and water on a flat roof. The water is heated
Rigid fiber board insulation contains fiberglass or during the winter days, and then at night the structure is
mineral wool material primarily used for insulating ducts, covered with insulation, which allows the absorbed heat
and for insulation that can withstand high temperature to radiate into the living space. This process functions in
applications. reverse during the summer, when the water-filled units are
covered with insulation during the day and uncovered at
Rigid insulation is made from fibrous material or plastic
night to allow stored heat to escape.
foams and pressed or extruded into sheets of varying
thickness. Roof slope see roof pitch.

Rim joist is used at the perimeter of the foundation to Rooftop garden see green roof.
support the ends of the joists and provide for perimeter Roof truss is a manufactured structural support for the roof
support. system.
Ring shank nails have ridges or grooves along the shank. Roof vents are screened venting devices that are attached
Riprap is a layer of large rocks used to protect soil from to the roof for providing attic ventilation.
erosion on steep slopes or slopes that are unstable Rotation is an action of studs rotating around their axis
because of seepage problems. caused by tension applied to the wall system by wind or
Riser (plumbing) is a pipe that extends vertically one story seismic activity.
or more to carry water to fixtures. Rough carpenter see framer.
Riser (stairs) is the vertical part of a stair, forming the Rough-in electrical, also known as rough-in, is when the
space between each step. electrical boxes and wiring are installed.
River rock is rounded rocks obtained from river beds. Rough-in plumbing is the installation of the plumbing
Road rugs see geotextiles. system that includes everything except putting fixtures in
place.
Roll insulation is the same as batts, except it comes in
approximately 40-foot (12,000 mm) rolls rather than strips. Rough lumber see nominal.
See blanket insulation. Rough opening (R.O.) is any unfinished opening that is
Roof is the supporting structure and exterior surface on top framed to specific measurements to accommodate the
of a home or other building. finish product.

Roofer, or roofing contractor, is the person who installs the Rough sawn see nominal.
roofing material. Routed stringer see housed stringer.

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 Glossary

Rowlocks are bricks oriented perpendicular to the face of space and moves hot air out through vents high in the roof
the wall; they are similar to headers, except they are used and in gable ends in some cases.
with the end and face exposed at sills and at the top of Screened vents are provided in the blocking to help
walls. ventilate the attic space.
Run (plumbing) refers to a portion of a pipe or fitting
Section is a type of drawing that shows a cut through
continuing in a straight line in the direction of flow in which
the home to display the construction practices being used
it is connected.
along with construction materials and principal dimensions.
Run (stairs) is the horizontal dimension one tread,
Section (rectangular survey system) piece of land one mile
measured from the face of one riser to the face of the next
square.
riser, or from the edge of one nosing to the edge of the
next nosing. Sectional view see section.
Rural refers to the country (rather than a town or suburb). Sediment is earth particles and other material that drop
R-value of a material is a measure of thermal resistance to out of the storm water runoff.
heat flow. Sediment basins and rock dams are used to confine
S4S means surfaced on four sides. sediment from storm water runoff in an excavated pool or
natural depression.
Sand box see borrow.
Sediment control is any practice used to keep soil on
Sand fences, also called wind fences are barriers made of
a construction site, so that it does not flow on to other
small, evenly spaced wooden slats or fabric used to reduce
wind velocity and to trap blowing sand. properties or cause water pollution in a stream, river, lake,
or ocean.
Sand filter system filters the effluent through a specially
designed sand filter before it enters the soil absorption Sediment traps are small temporary excavated pools that
field. allow sediment from construction runoff to collect.
Sanitary sewer system is a system of underground pipes Seeding is used to control and reduce erosion and
designed for the collection and transfer of waste water sediment loss by providing permanent stabilization
from domestic residences, businesses, and industries to a disturbed areas by establishing perennial vegetative cover
wastewater treatment plant, or private sewage treatment from seed.
such as a septic tank or cesspool. Seismic engineering see earthquake engineering.
Sash, plural sashes, is a framework that holds the panes of Seismic loads are caused by earthquakes.
a window in the window frame.
Self-tapping is the ability of a screw to create its own
Sash block is a concrete block unit manufactured with a thread without the need of a pilot hole.
vertical groove where the shear lug is placed.
Self-venting fireplaces can be vented directly out the wall
Saw set is the distance a saw tooth is bent away from the behind the fireplace.
saw blade. A saw typically has each tooth set alternating
Septic tank is an on-site treatment system for domestic
on opposite sides.
sewage, in which the sewage is held to go through a
Scale is a measurement unit representing a proportional
process of liquefaction and decomposition by bacterial
relationship between a reduced-size drawing and the actual
organisms.
full-sized feature.
Series circuit is a circuit that supplies electricity or a signal
Schedule is a grouping of related items that formats
to a number of devices connected so that the same current
information into rows and columns in order to more easily
passes through each device in completing its path to the
present design information.
source.
Scissor truss is a truss that has the bottom chord at a
slope, creating a sloped ceiling. Set means to sink the nail head below or flush with the
surface.
Screed is a flat board, or specially made aluminum tool as
shown here, used to smooth a concrete slab after it has Setback is the minimum distance required between the
been poured in the forms. It is also the process of using a structure and the property line.
screed to level and remove excess wet concrete to the top Set of working drawings is a complete set of
surface of a slab and to the accurate grade. construction documents containing drawings and
Screened soffit vents are part of a roof ventilation system specifications. See plans.
that circulates cool air in from the soffit vents into the attic Shank is the body of the nail that penetrates the wood.

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Glossary

Shear lugs are made with hard rubber or polyvinyl chloride Sill is the framing member that forms the bottom edge of
(PVC) plastic and placed in the sash block groove running an exterior door or window opening.
the entire height of the concrete block wall to transmit Sill pan see through-wall flashing.
externally applied loads to the structure.
Sill plate see sole plate.
Shear panel, also called a braced panel, is typically part
Silt fence is a temporary sediment barrier made of porous
of a wood frame stud wall that is covered with structural
fabric normally available in 3-foot tall × 100-foot long rolls.
sheathing such as plywood, but other materials such as
Single-faced fireplace see single fireplace.
steel and bracing systems can be used.
Single fireplace has one opening on one side of the
Shear plate is a special round plate inserted in the face of a
structure.
timber to improve shear resistance in the wood-to-wood joint.
Single-hung window has two sashes of glass, with the
Shear wall, also called a braced wall line, is a braced wall
top sash stationary and the bottom sash movable.
made of a shear panel to oppose the effects of lateral load
acting on a structure. Single-pole switch is a standard on and off wall switch
that is the only switch controlling one or more light fixtures
Sheathing is a layer of plywood, OSB, or other wood or
in a single electrical circuit.
fiber materials fastened to the floor joists, wall studs, or
roof rafters to reinforce the structure and provide a backing Single-wall construction uses structural plywood or OSB
for finish materials. siding over a vapor barrier placed over the exterior studs.
Shed roof has a single slope that is often used in modern Sinker nail is used for framing and is thinner than a
and contemporary architecture. common nail with a funnel-shaped head, a grid stamped on
the top of the head, and coated with adhesive for smooth
Sheet blocks are a group of informational areas normally
driving and to improve holding.
surrounded by border lines and grouped in one consistent
location on the drawings. Site identifies property corners, border lines, elevations,
and can include the location of construction corners,
Sheet metal screws have deep spiral threads along the
building outlines, and corner elevations.
entire body length, and have a pointed end for easy start
when threading. Site benching is where each adjacent site or lot is graded
separately toward the adjoining property line.
Sheetrock see drywall.
Site grading is the construction process of changing
Shelf angle is a horizontal steel angle that provides a break
the elevation and slope of the land to civil engineering
in the veneer for the masonry to expand and the connected
specifications and to site survey requirements at and near
structure to shrink. the proposed construction site.
Shoe is a blocking used to reinforce and stabilize the ends
Site orientation is the placement of a structure on the
of stringers at the floor. property with certain environmental and physical factors
Shoe rail is used to receive the square bottom end of taken into consideration.
balusters when they are not connected directly to the treads. Site plan is a drawing that describes how a parcel of land
Siding can be wood, metal, plastic, composite materials, is to be improved.
stucco, or masonry. The type of siding can be used to Site section see profile.
define or enhance the architectural style.
Site survey identifies property corners, border lines, and
Shims are thin strips of wedge-shaped or rectangular elevations, and can include the location of construction
wood used for leveling, making plumb, and positioning corners, building outlines, and corner elevations.
wood members, especially door frames.
16d nail is a common sinker nail. It is used in framing
Shingle siding is installed using wood shingles, which are and is 3-1/2 inches long, and the d in the nail specification
thin, tapered pieces of wood placed side-by-side in rows refers to penny, which is an old term still used to specify
with each row overlapping the row below. nail sizes today. The nail size gets larger as the number gets
Side dams see end dams. larger.
Silicon wafer is a semiconductor diode that stimulates Skim coating is the application of a thin layer of joint
the release of electric charges that are guided into a circuit compound over drywall to smooth out walls and ceilings.
where they become a useful electric current. Skirt board is a non-structural fascia used to trim the sides
Sill is a continuous pressure-treated wood member that of stairs to which the treads and risers are fitted.
provides a barrier between the foundation wall and the Skylight is a window in a roof used to allow sunlight to
framing above. enter.

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 Glossary

Skylight flashing is galvanized sheet metal that is bent Sodding is an immediate and permanent erosion control
in an L-shape and used around the skylight to direct water practice where grass sod is installed on exposed soils.
away from the curb and over the roofing material. Soffit is the term used to describe the underside of
Slab that is a flat concrete pad poured directly on the any architectural feature, such as a beam, arch, ceiling,
ground or on compacted gravel over the ground. overhang, or vault.
Slab door is a rectangular slab of wood that is not drilled Soft metric conversion is where the actual metric conversion
or processed for hinges or a locking mechanism. of 4 × 8 feet = 1,219 × 2,438 mm is rounded to the nearest
Slab rubber carpet pad is a single thickness of rubber 100 mm modules, resulting in 1,200 × 2,400 mm.
material that stands up under pressure for a long period of Software is the program or instructions that run the
time, and is used in high traffic areas. computer.
Slate is a natural occurring material composed of clay or Softwood is wood that comes from a coniferous tree,
volcanic ash. such as fir, hemlock, and pine.
Sliding door see bi-pass door. Softwood plywood is structural material made of layers of
Sliding window is a popular 50 percent operable window; softwood veneer glued together, under heat and pressure,
there are two panes in the window. with the grains of adjoining layers placed at right angles.
Slope of land or constructed site, refers to the amount of Soil feasibility test see percolation test.
incline of the surface using earth removal practices. Slope Soil pipe is a pipe that carries the discharge of water
is described by the ratio of the rise divided by the run closets or other similar fixtures.
between two points on a line or plane. Soil retention structures are used to hold soil in place on
Slope (roof), also called pitch, is the amount of rise a roof a slope site.
has compared to a horizontal measurement called the run. Soil roughening is a temporary erosion control practice
Sloped glazing is a glass and framing assembly that is often used while grading.
sloped more than 15 degrees from the vertical, forms the Soil stack is a vertical pipe that extends one or more floors
entire roof of the structure, and is generally a single slope and carries discharge of water closets and other similar
construction. fixtures.
Slope diversions are constructed by creating channels Solar access refers to the availability of direct sunlight to a
laterally across slopes to intercept the downslope flow of structure or construction site.
runoff and reduce the possibility of erosion.
Solar architectural concrete products absorb and collect
Slope stakes are used to determine the point at which the heat from the sun and outside air and transfer the heat
proposed slope intersects the existing ground. into water, glycol, or another heat-transferring fluid passing
Sludge is a thick, soft, wet mixture of liquid and solid through embedded tubes.
components. Solar collectors convert sunlight to heat, and can be
Small footprint home is generally designed for a small nearly 100% efficient.
urban lot. A small footprint home is also referred to as Solar energy is produced by sunlight that can be captured
a fit home, because it is designed to fit on lots where when it is transferred to something that has the ability to
traditional designs do not fit. store heat or energy.
Smoke chamber is a tapered area above the fireplace and Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC) measures how well a
below the flue, used to allow smoke to mix and rise into product blocks heat caused by sunlight.
the flue.
Solarium is a room with walls of glass that go beyond the
Smoke shelf, also called a wind shelf, is a ledge at the eaves. Solariums often have roofs made entirely out of glass.
bottom of a smoke chamber, used to deflect or break
Solar orientation allows for excellent exposure to the sun.
downdrafts from the chimney, and collect rain that enters
the chimney. Solar water heating (SWH) or solar hot water (SHW)
systems use solar radiation to heat water or air in buildings.
Sod, also called turf grass, is grass that has already been
planted in sections that are grass and soil held together Soldering is the joining of metal parts, such as wires, with
by roots or other materials, and available in pieces the use of heat on fusible alloys, usually tin and lead.
16–24 × 48 inches, or rolls 12–18 inches wide × 40–60 Soldiers add accent style to the brick wall by placing units
inches long. oriented vertically with the full face exposed.

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Glossary

Sole plate is the single bottom horizontal member of a wall Spotface is a flat-bottomed cylindrical enlargement of the
or partition to which the vertical members are attached. mouth of a hole with slight depth to insert a washer or
Solid blocking is placed between floor joists to help resist shear plate below the surface.
lateral loads, to prevent joist rotation, and to provide nailing Spray-in foam see foam-in-place.
surface for the bottom plate of a wall or partition framed Square, used in construction, is any four-sided shape with
above, to provide stiffness to a floor system, to provide fire four straight sides, four right angles, and equal diagonal
blocking, and to support plumbing and heating equipment. measurements.
Solid fuel-burning appliances are products such as Stack, also called vent stack, is a general term referring to
airtight stoves, freestanding fireplaces, fireplace stoves, any vertical pipe for soil waste or vent piping.
room heaters, zero-clearance fireplaces, antique stoves,
Staggered means to alternate the nail placement so they
and fireplace inserts for existing masonry fireplaces.
are not in a straight row.
Sone is a sound rating, where the lower the number the
quieter the sound. Stain is a penetrating liquid used to preserve and tint
woodwork for a desired appearance.
Soot is finely divided carbon deposited from flames during
the incomplete combustion of organic substances such as Stain grade wood matches the wood species where it is
coal. assembled and is used with stain and clear finish to accent
the natural wood beauty.
Southern Building Code Congress (SBCC) codes
developed for the Southern United States. Stainless steel is steel containing chromium, used to
resist tarnishing and rust.
Space sheathing is wood boards spaced a few inches
apart to provide air circulation behind the roofing. Stair, commonly referred to as stairs, is a set of steps
leading from one floor of a building to another.
Span refers to the horizontal distance between two
supporting members. Stairbuilder is a specially skilled finish carpenter who
designs and builds stairways, and guardrail systems.
Span (roof) is the horizontal dimension across the building
measure from the outside of top plates. Staircase is the entire stair construction including framing
the stairwell opening, adjacent walls, and the railing
Spec refers to speculation, where the contractor is
building the home based on the assumption that it will systems.
sell for a profit. Also a slang term used when referring to a Stair horse see stringers.
specification. See also specification. Stairway see stair.
Spec home is a home designed for a contractor to build Stairwell is the opening in the floor where the stairs are
and offer for sale. located.
Specifications provide detailed written information placed Stamped concrete is a process of using rubber molds
on the drawing or in separate documents and provide exact pressed into the concrete to create patterns resembling
statements describing the characteristics of particular brick, slate, cobblestone, flagstone, or tile. When used with
aspects of the project. concrete colors, the stamped surface has a decorative
Specific heat is the amount of energy required to raise the appearance without the cost of natural stone.
temperature of any substance 1°F. Standby heat loss is the heat lost when water is heated
Specific notes describe individual features. and waiting for use.
Spindle see baluster. Standing seam roofing is a raised seam between each
Spiral stairs, also called a circular stairs, has parallel metal sheet where one sheet is joined to the next,
treads winding around a center newel. creating an interlocking, watertight seam.
Spirit level is a tool used to establish true horizontal or Starter course is made by placing the top edge of a full
vertical by centering a bubble in a glass tube mounted on shingle along the entire bottom edge of the roof.
the tool. Static slicing is the insertion of a narrow custom-shaped
Split studs are narrower than normal studs and used to blade at least 10 inches into the ground, and at the same
frame each side of the pocket part of a pocket door kit, time pulling silt fence fabric into the opening created, as
providing space between the split studs for the door to the blade is pulled through the ground.
slide into the wall. Steel hanger is a pre-manufactured steel bracket used to
Split-wired outlet is a duplex outlet that has one outlet hold and support a construction member such as a beam,
controlled by a switch. joist, post, or rafter.

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 Glossary

Steel reinforcing is placed in the slab to help stabilize the Stringers, also called carriage or stair horse, are the
concrete and minimize cracking. supporting member running the length of a stair incline on
Stem wall is a general term used to describe any short height which treads and risers are mounted.
wall, or partial wall, also called a pony wall or knee wall. Stripped means concrete forms are removed after the
Stem walls are used at the interior of the foundation pour has hardened.
system to support structural members at mid-span. Structural brick is economic brick used to build a structure
Step flashing is small pieces of flashing material used to and not selected for appearance.
overlay each other where a vertical surface meets a sloping Structural concrete is any steel reinforced concrete
roof. structure.
Stick framing is one board or stick used at a time to Structural engineering is a branch of engineering that
assemble the structure. deals with the design and construction of structures to
Stock house plan has been preemptively designed and withstand physical forces or displacements without danger
made available for sale by a professional home designer. of collapse, or without loss of serviceability or function.

Stockpile refers to the earth material that is piled and Structural insulated panels (SIP) are a high energy-
stored during excavation for later use on the site, such efficient building system for residential and light
as backfill, and the on-site storage of other construction commercial construction that is custom manufactured for
material, such as lumber, or the piling of construction each home and delivered to the project site for installation.
waste for later removal. Structural masonry is the primary structural system for home
Stop molding is a small rectangular-shaped molding or commercial building construction that can be combined
positioned on the jamb, slightly past the width of the with wood, steel, and reinforced concrete applications.
door, and is used to stop the door in the jamb at a specific Structural masonry walls are typically constructed using
location. concrete masonry units.
Storm sewer is used for carrying groundwater, rainwater, Structural steel is used as a construction material for
surface water, or other nonpolluting waste to locations making structural steel shapes formed with a specific cross
where it can be safely dispersed. section and following chemical composition standards and
Storm water easement is a low area or swale between mechanical properties.
properties that allows storm water to drain away from Structured wiring systems are high-speed voice and data
homes. lines and video cables wired to a central service location.
Storm Water Pollution Prevention Plans (SWPPPs) Stub partition is a short partition framed near the lower
are a requirement of the National Pollutant Discharge end of the stair stringers to provide a wall at the back of a
Elimination System (NPDES) that regulates water closet under the stairs.
quality when associated with construction or industrial Stucco siding is composed of cement, sand, and lime,
activities. The SWPPP addresses all pollutants and their and is applied while wet. The stucco dries to a hard durable
sources, including sources of sediment associated material for exterior and interior walls.
with construction, construction site erosion, and all Studs are vertical framing members used to construct
other activities associated with construction activity walls and partitions, and are usually 2 × 4 or 2 × 6 and
and controlled through the implementation of Best spaced 16 or 24 inches on center.
Management Practices (BMPs).
Stud wall is a wall constructed using studs.
Straight flight of stairs is a flight between landings
Sub-base is a layer of compacted gravel, such as crushed
without any turns.
rock with 10%–20% fines, on top of the subgrade.
Stray voltage is a low voltage present on grounded metal
Subcontractor is a person or business who carries out
objects, and can be controlled with quality equipment,
work for a general contractor as part of a complete project,
fixtures, and proper grounding.
and there can be a number of subcontractors on a project,
Stretchers are the most common brick pattern with units including electrical, heating, ventilating, air conditioning,
oriented horizontally with the full face exposed. plumbing, framing, concrete work, and roofing, just to
Strike jamb is the vertical side of the door frame on the name a few.
lock side of the door. Subdivision is a parcel of land that has been divided into
Strike plate is a metal plate attached to the door frame two or more pieces and developed with roads and utilities
that the lock engages. for easier sale.

509
Glossary

Subfloor is a layer of structural material fastened above Tails are the bottom of the rafters that generally extend
the floor joists to tie the floor joists together and to provide past the exterior wall a desired distance to create an eave
support for the finished floor. or overhang.
Sub grade is a preliminary grade prior to doing work to Tamper-resistant (TR) outlet has a spring-loaded shutter
finish grade. that closes the contact openings for child safety.
Substrate see backer board. Tankless water heaters, also called instantaneous or
Suburban refers to the suburb or near the city or town. demand water heaters, heat water directly without use of
the storage tank found with traditional water heaters.
Sunroom is a room with walls of glass that stop at the
eaves and normally have traditional looking roofs. Tar paper is a thick product that is manufactured in
rolls and is made by impregnating paper with tar, producing
Survey is the result of establishing the exact corners,
a waterproof material.
boundaries, and elevations of a piece of land using
surveying techniques. Technologically advanced materials represent advances
over the traditional materials, refer to all new materials
Surveying for construction is the measurement of
and modifications to existing materials to obtain superior
dimensional relationships, horizontal distances, elevations,
performance in one or more characteristics for the
directions, and angles, on the Earth’s surface especially for
application, and materials that are early in their technology
use in locating property boundaries, construction layout,
lifecycle.
and site plan drafting.
Tempered glass is a safety glass that is four to five times
Survey stakes are used to control alignment and grade of
stronger than standard glass and shatters into small oval-
building corners, roads, and other features during construction.
shaped pebbles when broken.
Survey tack is a small, sharp, broad-headed nail.
Temporary (electrical) is the installation of a temporary
Sustainable describes anything that is capable of being underground or overhead electrical service near the
continued or maintained with minimum or no long-term construction site and close to the final meter location
effect on the environment. provides electricity during construction.
Sustainable buildings are buildings capable of maintaining Temporary electric service is provided during construction
their desired function into the future. and is used for construction electricity purposes. This
Sustainable sites offer enrichment with trees and plants service is installed on a temporary pole, which is placed
that provides shade, aesthetic value, habitat for native near the permanent power pole or transformer. The
species, and a way to absorb carbon and enrich the soil. temporary service has a meter base and meter, and usually
Sweep 45-degree to 90-degree turns in the conduit with two 20-ampere, 120 VAC, grounded, duplex outlets and
a large radius that makes it easy to pull wire through the one 50-ampere, 4-wire, single-phase, 240 VAC (208 VAC
conduit during the electrical work. at some locations) outlet mounted in a weatherproof
enclosure.
Switch box is an electrical box that houses a switch or
group of switches. Temporary slope drain can be used to divert storm water
from one elevation to another with a corrugated metal,
Switch leg is the electrical conductor from a switch to the
plastic, or concrete pipe extending from the upper to the
electrical device being controlled.
lower elevation.
System Development Charges (SDCs) are charged
Tensile strength is the strength the material has against
by local jurisdictions to fund the development of parks,
pulling forces.
schools, transit systems, and other municipal facilities
associated with an increase in population due to the Tension is caused by stretching.
construction of new homes. Tension system see continuous steel wall frame bridging.
T1–11 siding is the most common structural plywood Termination bar is used to secure the top edge of the
siding that has a textured finish exterior veneer that flashing to the concrete block wythe.
provides the appearance of traditional solid-wood siding. Terrain is the characteristics of land, especially as
Tack means to drive the nail partially into place to hold the considered with reference to its natural features such as
work before driving the nail all the way. flat or sloping.
Tail joists are used to tie the outside wall to the adjacent Texturing is applied to drywall to make the surface look
joists when the main joists run perpendicular to the rafters. even and cover any surface irregularities.

510
 Glossary

Thermal break system is a longitudinal channel, kept to a minimum for the maximum amount of insulation
longitudinal flange, or side walls that create a hollow center to be used.
in which a thermal barrier is integrally formed. Title block provides a variety of information about the
Thermal mass is a dense material that can effectively company, client, and the drawing, such as company
absorb and store heat, and release the heat as the home and client name, the title of the drawing, sheet size,
cools at night. predominate scale, and sheet page number.
Thermal resistance is the ability of materials to slow heat Ton refers to the sizing of a heat pump where each ton of
transfer. rating removes approximately 12,000 BTU per hour (BTUH)
Thermal storage wall receives and stores energy from the of heat.
sun during the day and releases the heat slowly at night. Tongue-and-groove (T&G) edges where one joining edge
Thermostat is an automatic mechanism for controlling has a tongue that fits into the groove of the other joining
the amount of heating or cooling given by a central or zone edge.
heating or cooling system. Topography is shown as lines representing given heights
Thin-set mortar is used to adhere tile to the floor or wall, of the geographical landscape.
with a very thin layer of cement often containing other
Top plate is a framing member on top of a stud wall on
additives, such as acrylic for strength.
which joists rest to support an additional floor or to form a
Thin veneer bricks have normal face dimensions with ceiling, or upon which rafters rest to form a roof.
reduced thickness for application to surfaces with adhesive.
Topsoil is the upper part of the soil, which is usually rich in
Three-dimensional roofing see architectural roofing. nutrients and most favorable for landscaping lawn and plant
Three-faced fireplace is open on three sides. growth.
3/4 inch minus refers to the size of the rock, where Top track replaces the top plate used in wood framing.
3/4 inch (19 millimeters) is the largest piece that fits through
Total rise is the vertical dimension from the top of the
a 3/4-inch screen, and the approximate amount of fines in a
plate to the top of the ridge.
product. Minus material can have 60%–70% fines.
Total run (rafter) is half the span measured from the
Three-stud corner uses three studs to secure and
outside of a top plate to the center of the ridge.
strengthen the exterior corner and provide a nailing surface
for sheathing, siding, and interior drywall or other interior Total run (stairs) is the horizontal distance from the face of
finish materials. the first riser to the face of the last riser.
Three-tab roofing is the most popular type of asphalt Townships measure 6 miles square.
shingle, usually 12 × 36 inches with three profile sections Track is a steel framing member used for applications,
along the bottom of the shingle called tabs. such as band or rim joists, for flooring systems. A track
Three-way switch is used when two switches control a has a web and two flanges, but no lips. Track web depth
single light or group of lights. measurements are taken to the inside of the flanges.
Threshold is the metal, plastic, or wood sill on an exterior Tract homes are built in a housing development where
door. homes are similar and economical by keeping costs to
Throat is an opening between a fire box and the chimney a minimum by using standardized designs, materials,
where the damper is located. products, and labor.
Through-wall flashing, also called a sill pan flashing at Traditional architecture used here refers to architectural
the bottom, is a special fabricated flashing with sealed styles that evolved from the early American influence and
seams to keep water from entering the structure and allow from regions around the world.
rainwater to flow out. Transom is a horizontal crosspiece over a door or between
Tie-beams connect horizontally across the structure a door and a window above the door, or a normally small
between posts. horizontal operable window above a door or another
Timber-frame construction see post and beam. window.
Timber-frame construction uses generally large posts and Trap is a U-shaped pipe below plumbing fixtures that holds
beams or timbers for the horizontal and vertical members water to prevent odor and sewer gases from entering the
of the structural system. fixture.
T-intersection occurs when an interior partition intersects Tread is the horizontal portion of a stair where you step
an exterior wall, and the number of studs used needs to be when going up or down the stairs.

511
Glossary

Trenching is the digging of a ditch to a desired width and Typical wall section provides more detail than is normally
depth with a trenching machine or excavation machine such found in a building section, and is drawn at a larger scale
as a backhoe. such as 1/2″ = 1′-0″, 3/4″ = 1′-0″, or 1″ = 1′-0″.
Trim carpenters install all of the casings, base, coving, and Ultraviolet (UV) light can be beneficial for improving
other wood trim throughout the home. indoor air quality.
Trimmer is any construction member that runs parallel Underlayment is construction material used over
to other framing members and used as support or to subflooring and under the finish floor material to provide a
strengthen the perimeter of an opening. base for finish floor material.
Trombe wall is a thermal storage wall constructed as a Underwriters Laboratories (UL) is a global safety science
massive dark-painted masonry or concrete wall situated a few company that tests the latest products and technologies
inches inside and next to south-facing glass. The sun heats for safety before they are marketed to consumers.
the air between the wall and the glass. The heated air rises UniFormat is a uniform classification system for organizing
and enters the room through vents at the top of the wall. At preliminary construction information into a standard order
the same time, cool air from the floor level of adjacent rooms or sequence on the basis of functional elements.
is pulled in through vents at the bottom of the wall.
Unit skylight is a complete factory-assembled glass- or
Trowel (concrete) is a flat-bladed tool used for leveling, plastic-glazed opening consisting of not more than one
spreading, shaping, and smoothing concrete and mortar. panel of glass or plastic installed in a sloped or horizontal
This is the final concrete finishing process, unless the orientation primarily for natural daylighting.
concrete shall be broomed, stamped, or have an exposed
Universal design refers to broad range concepts meant
aggregate finish.
to produce buildings, products, and environments that are
Trowel (drywall) is a flat-bladed hand tool used for characteristically accessible to older people, people without
spreading, leveling, or shaping joint compound in drywall disabilities, and people with disabilities.
finishing applications.
Urban is characteristic of a city or town.
True north is determined by a line from the North Pole to
Urban heat island effect potentially tempers heating and
the South Pole. True north is the same as geographic north,
cooling loads in the building. The urban heat island effect
which is the North Pole.
means that city areas are warmer than suburbs or rural
Truss is a prefabricated or job-built construction member areas due to less vegetation, more land coverage, and
formed of triangular shapes used to support roof or floor other infrastructure.
loads over long spans.
Utility grid is the transmission system for electricity that is
Turf grass see sod. a network of coordinated power providers and consumers
Turnbuckle is a device for adjusting the tension or length that are connected by transmission and distribution lines
of ropes, cables, or rods, and generally made of two and operated by one or more control centers.
threaded fasteners, one with a left-hand thread and the U-shape stairs make a 180-degree turn at a landing.
other with a right-hand thread.
U-value is the coefficient of heat transfer expressed as
24-inch (600 mm) modules, which means that every BTUH sq. ft. / °F of surface area.
dimension is a 24-inch increment, such as 30 × 48 feet
UV-C light has a wavelength of 253.7 nanometers, which
(9,000 × 14,600 mm).
is called the germicidal bandwidth.
Two-faced fireplace is open on two sides.
VAC is the abbreviation for volts alternating current.
Two-pipe hot water system, has two pipes running
Valley is the corner of an interior angle formed by two
throughout the home. One pipe supplies heated water to
intersecting interior roof surfaces.
all of the outlets. The other is a return pipe, which carries
the water back to the boiler for reheating. Valley jack rafter is the jack rafter that connects to a valley.
Two-story home has two floors with two full-height walls Valley rafter is the rafter that forms the valley and runs
built with the second framed above the first, and a stairs from the ridge to the top plate.
for access between floors. Valve is a fitting used to control the flow of fluid or gas.
Two-stud corner has the least number of studs and allows Vanity is a bathroom lavatory fixture that is freestanding or
for the maximum amount of insulation in the corner. in a cabinet.
Type X gypsum is 5/8-inch thick drywall, manufactured Vapor barrier or vapor diffusion retarder is a material that
for use in locations where building codes require a fire reduces the rate at which water vapor can move through a
resistance rating in home construction. material.

512
 Glossary

Vapor diffusion retarder see vapor barrier. in vertical strips over the walls and ceilings to provide a
Variance is a request to depart from zoning requirements. decorative or textured surface.
Vaulted ceiling can have unequal sloping sides, a single Walls are typically vertical structures made from wood,
sloping side, an arch shape, or other design possibilities. steel, concrete, or masonry used to enclose, or divide the
Vaulted ceilings can have the same pitch or a different pitch floor area based on the design provided in the plans.
than the roof. Wall ties are used to transfer lateral forces, such as wind
Veneer is thin sheets of wood glued together to form loads, on the masonry veneer wall back to the wood-frame
plywood or glued to a wood base material. structure.
Vent-free gas fireplace is installed without a flue, does not Waste pipe is a pipe that carries only liquid waste free of
draw outside air to fuel the fire, and has no exhaust gases fecal material.
to the outside. Waste stack is a vertical pipe that runs one or more floors
Vent pipe is the pipe installed to ventilate the building and carries the discharge of fixtures other than water
drainage system and to prevent drawing liquid out of traps closets and similar fixtures.
and stopping back pressure. Water-based geothermal system has closed-loop and
Vent stack is a general term referring to any vertical pipe open-loop options. The closed-loop system has water or
for soil waste or vent piping. water-antifreeze fluid pumped through polyethylene tubes.
The open-loop system has water pumped from a well or
Vent system allows for a continuous flow of air through
reservoir through a heat exchanger, and then discharged
the system so that gases and odors can dissipate and
into a drainage ditch, a field tile, a reservoir, or another
bacteria do not have an opportunity to develop.
well.
Vestibule see air-lock entry.
Water closet is a water-flushing plumbing fixture, such as
View orientation provides optimum exposure to a view
a toilet, that is designed to receive and discharge human
and can be a major factor in the purchase of property for
excrement. This term is sometimes used to mean the
home construction.
compartment where the fixture is located.
Vinyl flooring see resilient flooring.
Water distribution pipe carries water from the service to
Virtual refers to something that appears to have the the point of use.
properties of a real or actual object or experience.
Water heater is an appliance used for heating, storing, and
Virtual reality (VR) refers to a world that appears to be a distributing hot water.
real or actual world, having many of the properties of a real
Water main is a primary water supply pipe, generally
world.
located in the street or public utility easement for public
Visible Transmittance (VT) measures how much light water.
comes through a product.
Water meter is a device used to measure the amount of
Volatile organic compounds (VOC) are chemicals water that goes through the water service.
contained in the items used in home construction, which
Water service is generally 1-inch plastic or galvanized steel
can emit pollutants throughout the life span of the product.
pipe. This size may vary in relation to the service needed.
Volt (V) is a unit of measure for electrical force.
Waterstop is a component of a concrete or masonry
Voussoirs are tapered bricks. structure, intended to prevent the passages of water
WA means warm air. running continuously through the joints.
Waffle rubber carpet pad is rubber material pressed into Water supply riser is a pipe that extends vertically one
a waffle shape that provides a soft cushion that is not story or more to carry water to fixtures.
designed for use in high traffic areas. Water well is a structure in the ground created by digging,
Wainscot is any wall finish where the material on the bottom driving, boring, or drilling to access groundwater in
portion of the wall is different from the upper portion. underground aquifers.
Walk-through can be described as a camera in a computer Watt or wattage refers to a unit measure of power
program that is set up like a person walking through a corresponding to the power in an electric circuit in which
building, around a building, or through a landscape. the potential difference is 1 volt and the current 1 ampere.
Wallboard see drywall. Web is the part of a C-shape or track that connects the two
Wallpaper is a paper or vinyl product that usually has flanges.
printed decorative patterns and colors, used for pasting Web opening see punchout.

513
Glossary

Web stiffener is additional material attached to the web to Wind shear refers to the variation of wind over either
strengthen the members. horizontal or vertical surfaces.
Weep holes (masonry) are openings in the first course of Wind shelf see smoke shelf.
masonry that allow water to drain out through the bottom Wind turbines capture energy from the wind.
of the wall, and help dry the structure by providing air
Wire gauge is a method of defining wire diameter by a
circulation behind the masonry veneer.
number, with wire diameter increasing as the number gets
Weep holes (windows) are fabricated through the frame smaller.
at the outside sill of aluminum and vinyl frame windows to
Wire Reinforcement Institute (WRI) provides detailed
allow moisture and rain to escape from the window.
information about welded wire reinforcement.
Welded wire reinforcement (WWR) is steel wires spaced
Wood flooring is any finish flooring product manufactured
a specified distance apart in a square grid, and the wires
from wood.
are welded together.
Wood plug is a cylindrical flat or rounded wooden plug of
Whole building refers to the building assembly designed
the same diameter as the counterbore, used to plug the
and built to maximize sustainable and economic function
holes bored for concealed fasteners.
through the use of energy and other resources, building
materials, site preservation, and indoor air quality for Wood shakes are split from slabs of wood, making them
a structure to run at its maximum efficiency, provide rougher and less uniform than wood shingles.
a comfortable and healthy environment, and have the Wood shingles are sawn from slabs of wood with a taper,
minimum impact on the environment. making one end thicker than the other.
Wi-Fi is the name of wireless networking technology Work results are traditional construction practices that
that uses radio waves to provide wireless high-speed typically result from an application of skills to construction
Internet and network connections. products or resources.
Winder is a special type of tread used for making a turn in Wythe is a continuous vertical section of masonry one unit
a staircase at a mid-staircase landing. in thickness.
Wind fence see sand fence. Zero clearance fireplace is a manufactured steel fireplace
Window is a fixed or operable framework enclosing a that can be placed safely near combustible material.
pane of glass or more than one pane of glass separated Zone heating system requires one heater and one
by mullions and muntons, and is typically framed in a wall thermostat per room.
or roof and functions to let in light and air to the area or Zoning (drawing sheets) is a system of numbers along the
room where the window is mounted in the home. top and bottom margins and letters along the left and right
Window jambs are the sides, top, and bottom members that margins of a sheet. Zoning allows the drawing to be read
continue from the window frame inside to cover the framing like a road map.
and extend flush with the drywall or other wall finish material. Zoning (land use planning) used by local governments for
Wind power electricity generator converts wind into land use planning based on mapped zones which separate
electricity. one set of land uses from another.

514
 Index

Note: Italicized page numbers indicate a figure on the corresponding page. Page numbers in bold indicate a table on the corresponding page.

accessibility concerns 102 attic space construction 287, 291

access point (AP) 451 automated concrete forms 176 – 8, 177 – 9
accordion doors 347 awareness and education 28 – 9
acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) pipe 441 awning windows 352, 352
active solar systems 32, 35 – 6, 36
actual sizes 194, 194, 194, 254 back draft damper 458, 459
additions on plans 93 backer rod 264
advanced technology underlayment 217 backfill 131, 131, 180, 191
A-frame roof 278, 283 backing material 256
air exchanger 457, 457 back pressure 431
air infiltration test 26 baffle, defined 303, 324
air leakage (AL) 357 balloon framing 218, 218 – 19, 219
air-lock entry 38, 38 balusters 381, 473
air quality safety 25; see also indoor air quality/safety banisters 473
air source heat pump 42 bargeboard 294. 296
air space 263 barrier-free design 102
air supply registers 422 base, defined 160
aldehydes 456 baseboard heaters 429
alignment stakes 115 baseboard millwork 468, 468, 469
alloys 454 basements/basement foundations: concrete systems 71, 75, 76,
alternating current 444 146; daylight basement 104; excavation 172; overview of 170 – 1,
American National Standard taper pipe threads 432, 433 170 – 81, 173 – 81; slab 178 – 81, 179, 180; types of 68
American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) 191 base metal 196
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) 102 battens, defined 323
American Wire Gauge (AWG) sizes 452 batt insulation 330, 332
amperage, defined 447 bay windows 353, 355
ampere, defined 444 beam key 75
anchor bolts 68, 151, 151, 154, 198, 273 beam pocket 198
angle of repose 121 bearing locations 77
aquifers 28, 433 bearing partitions 59, 207 – 9, 289
architectural drawing format 50 – 2 bearing pressure 148
architectural features: air-lock entry 38, 38; clerestory windows 39, bearings, defined 54, 54
39; earthen floors 41; green roofs 41, 41; light shelves 40; roof bearing wall 228 – 9
overhang 38, 38, 38 – 9, 39; roof ponds 41, 41; skylights 39, 40; bedding, defined 188, 191
solar architectural concrete products 42; solar energy design 32, bench/benching, defined 121
38, 38, 38 – 41, 39, 40, 41; solariums/sunrooms 35, 41 – 2, 42; berm, earth 108
thermal storage walls 40, 40 Best Management Practices (BMPs) 131
architectural roofing 317 between pours 160
area of architectural drawings 52 bevel siding 233, 234
asbestos board 418, 418 bi-fold doors 345 – 6, 347
ash dump 413 biofiltration 131
ash pit 413 biofuels 46 – 7
asphalt roofing 317 biomass energy 46 – 7
assemblies/systems 101 biopower 46 – 7
attachment, defined 142 bi-pass doors 345, 346

515
Index

birdsmouth 287 catch basin 124, 126

black pipe 431 cathedral ceiling framing 303, 308
blanket insulation 330 – 1 caulking as insulation 336, 336 – 7
blocking, defined 287 cavity, defined 330
blower-door system 26 ceiling joists 73
blue-line prints 50 ceiling vapor barrier applications 335
blueprints 50 cement board underlayment 214, 216 – 17
board and bat siding 233 center hinge screws 365, 368
boiler systems 427 centerline stakes 115
bolt, defined 316 central forced air 422, 423
bond beam 172, 174, 269, 270, 270 central vacuum systems 461, 461
bookshelves 471 – 2, 472 cesspool system 439, 442
borrow/borrow pit 121 chair rail 469 – 70, 470
bottom plate 228 chairs, defined 157
bottom rail 391, 392 – 3 chase, defined 426, 427
bottom track 248 – 9 check dam 135, 136
bow windows 353 checked-by, on architectural drawings 51
boxes, electrical 447, 448 – 9 chemical stabilizers 133
box nails 213 chimney 401, 408
braced wall line 151 chimney cap 414
breakers, electrical 447 chimney draft 414
bricks: mold for 360; orientation patterns 257; chimney framing 203, 305
types of 254, 256 – 7, 410 circuit breakers 447
broomed concrete 168, 169 circulator, defined 427
brownfield sites 47 clay masonry units 254
brush barriers 136 clay tile roofing 321, 322, 323, 324
BTU, defined 423 cleaning the air 459 – 61, 460
buckling walls 250 cleanouts 413, 432
Builder Option Packages (BOP) 30 clerestory windows 39, 39
building bricks 256 climate zones 326 – 7
building codes 1 – 3 closed-loop system 42, 44
building envelope 25, 26, 30 cold-formed steel (CFS) 195 – 6
building life cycle 27, 101 cold rolled channel system 252, 252
building permits: application 6, 15 – 16; defined 4; permit to occupy collar ties 285
17; solar energy design 33 Colonial architecture 279
building plans 3 combustion air 414, 418
building science 24 comfort zones 422
building section 80 commercial construction specifications 100 – 1
built-in masonry barbecue 410, 410 common areas 4
common masonry units 254 – 8, 255, 256, 257, 258
cabinets: custom cabinets 474, 475, 476; elevations of 96, 476, common masonry wall, residential practices 258 – 9, 258 – 63, 260,
477 – 8, 479, 479; millwork 473 – 6, 474 – 6; modular cabinets 261 – 2, 263
474 – 5, 475; prefabricated cabinets 474; substrate/finish tops common nails 213
475 – 6 common plumbing wall 437, 438
camber, defined 266 – 7 common rafter 285
Canadian Home Builders’ Association (CHBA) 31 compaction 141 – 2
cantilever framing 207, 208 composite roofing 317
cap, chimney 414 composition roofing 317, 321, 321
Cape Cod architecture 280 compost blankets 133
carbon dioxide 24, 456 compost filter berm 137
carbon footprint 24 compost filter sock 137
carbon monoxide 448, 456, 461 compressive strength 146
carbon neutral 24 compressor 422
carbon offsets 24 comp roofing 317
carpet pad 217 computerized programming 450
carpet underlayment 215 concrete board 199
carriage, defined 387 concrete construction: automated concrete forms 176 – 8, 177 – 9;
casement windows 351 basements/basement foundations 71, 75, 76, 146; block
casing for doors 345, 360, 368, 369 foundation 60, 146, 172, 173; broomed concrete 168, 169;
casing molding 471, 471 exposed aggregate concrete 168; insulated concrete forms

516
 Index

181 – 3, 181 – 4, 185 – 8, 333; overview of 146 – 52, 146 – 52; cricket, defined 91, 93
portable concrete mixer 260; poured-in-place concrete 147, cripple, defined 226
147, 148, 172 – 6, 173 – 6; precast concrete 266 – 7; prestressed crosslinked polyethylene (PEX) 431
concrete 266, 267; reinforced concrete 148 – 9, 149; roof framing cross section 80
materials 321, 322, 323, 324; roofing 321, 322, 323, 324; solar crown molding 470
architectural concrete products 42; stair construction 397, 399; C-shape steel 317
stamped concrete 168; steel-reinforced concrete 71, 148 – 9, cubic feet per minute (CFM) 425
149, 170, 176; structural concrete 264, 266 cul-de-sac 113
concrete masonry unit (CMU) 172, 254 curbs in road construction 124
concrete piers 160 curve of arc 114, 114
concrete slab foundation: overview of 68, 71, 73, 74, 146, 158 – 69, custom cabinets 474, 475, 476
159 – 69; plan 60; staking and excavation 162, 163 custom homes 5, 480
concrete stairs 397, 399 cut and fill 119
condensation in walls 243 cutout templates 476
condensation resistance (CR) 357 cut stakes 115
condenser 422 cutting plane line 80, 82, 119, 120
conditioned air 422
coniferous trees 107 dampers, defined 458, 459
construction documents 49 date of architectural drawings 51
construction exit stabilization 137 daylight basement 104
construction fabrics 133 daylighting 353
construction loan 6, 17 deadbolt 366 – 7
construction process 3, 4, 31 deciduous trees 107
construction sequencing 121 decking, wood 153
construction site and excavation: basement foundation 170 – 1, deeds 4
170 – 81, 173 – 81; concrete slab foundation 158 – 69, 159 – 69; deflection, defined 252, 253
corner staking 124 – 6, 125 – 6; environmental protection 126 – 7, deformed steel bars 148
127 – 30, 131, 131 – 2, 132; grading plan 119 – 24, 120, 122 – 4; delta angle of arc 114, 114
pier foundation 184; site orientation 103 – 7, 104, 105, 106; solar demand hot water heaters 435
orientation 105, 105 – 7, 106, 107; sound orientation 109 – 12, 110, dense-pack insulation 330
111; storm water runoff control 132 – 43, 133 – 42; survey basics Description of Materials 6, 7 – 10
112 – 19, 113 – 19, 118; topography 112, 112; under-slab electrical, design for all (dfa) 102
HVAC, plumbing 184 – 91, 185 – 91; wind orientation 107 – 9, 108, design notes on plans 93
109 detached garages 461
Construction Specifications Canada (CSC) 31 details: defined 82, 89 – 90, 91; drawings and specifications 80 – 2,
Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) 31 81, 82; foundation detail 162, 167
contemporary architecture 278 diazo process 50
continuous lateral bracing 305 dig-out 104, 119
continuous steel wall frame bridging 250, 252 dimensional lumber 59 – 60, 60, 226 – 32, 227 – 8, 229 – 32
contour interval 112 dimensional tolerances 257
contour lines 52, 112, 112 dimensions of floorplans 59
control joints 71, 160, 269, 271 direct current (DC) 451
convection air fireplaces 405 direct-vent fireplaces 408
convection current 429 distribution panel 451
convention construction 220 dome skylights 376
copper waterstop 264 doors: accordion doors 347; bi-fold doors 345 – 6, 347; bi-pass
copyright information, on architectural drawings 52 doors 345, 346; blower-door system 26; casing for doors 345,
corbels 353 360, 368, 369; door swing specifications 360 – 1, 362; double-
corner framing 236 – 8, 237, 238 acting doors 346; Dutch doors 346; entry doors 343; exterior
corner staking 124 – 6, 125 – 6, 128 doors 342 – 5, 342 – 5; French doors 343, 344, 346; garage doors
cornice: defined 292; molding 470, 470; on roof 82, 270, 287 347, 349; glass sliding doors 343, 345; hanging of 362 – 72, 363,
corrugated stainless steel tubing (CSST) 431 365 – 71; hinges for 369; installation of 362 – 72, 363, 365 – 71;
cost estimate 6, 11 – 14 interior doors 345 – 9, 346 – 8; introduction to 341 – 2; pocket
counterbore, defined 308 doors 345, 346, 369 – 72, 370 – 2; prefinished doors 369; pre-
course, defined 256 hung doors 359 – 60, 362 – 9, 363, 365 – 9; schedules for 358 – 9,
cove molding 470 360, 361; shims for 362, 364, 366, 367; slab doors 362; sliding
covenants, conditions and restrictions (CC&Rs) 4 doors 345; swing specifications 360 – 1, 362, 364
Craftsman style architecture 278, 281 dormer roof framing 279, 286, 297 – 301, 299 – 303
crawl space: construction 197; defined 68, 146; foundation 152 – 8, double-acting doors 346
153 – 8, 161; plan 72; ventilation 152 double header framing 203

517
Index

double-hung windows 351 – 2, 352 452; photovoltaic modules 36, 36 – 7, 37, 451 – 2, 453; reading
double walls 233, 234, 245 – 6, 246 electrical symbols 447, 448 – 51; schedules for 451; smoke
double-wythe wall 271 detectors 446 – 8; universal electrical installations 443; universal
downspouts 82, 292 installations 448 – 50; wind power electrical generation 451, 452
draft, defined 414 electric fireplaces 409, 409
drainage systems 436 – 7 electrician roles 188, 453
drains 431 electrostatic air filters 459 – 60
drawing name 51 elevation drawings 52, 60, 97
drawing number 51 elevation in topography 112, 112
drawings and specifications: architectural format 50 – 2; electrical energy and atmosphere 28
plans 77, 78 – 9, 80, 80; elevations 60, 97; floor plans 58, 58 – 60, energy efficiency 26 – 32, 29, 242
59, 60; foundation plans 60, 61 – 7, 68, 68 – 9, 69, 70, 71, 71, 72, Energy Policy Act (1992) 26
73, 73; framing plans 73 – 7, 74, 75, 76, 77; interior elevations Energy Rating Index (ERI) 26
93; introduction to 49 – 50; roof plan 82, 83 – 90, 91, 91, 92, 93; energy recovery ventilator (ERV) 457
schedules 96 – 9, 97 – 8, 99; sections and details 80 – 2, 81, 82; Energy Star program 30
site plan 52 – 8, 53, 54, 55 – 6, 57, 58; specifications 99 – 102, 100, engineered-wood products 68, 155, 160, 195, 198, 201, 232 – 3
101; structural engineering 93 – 6, 94 – 5, 96 entertainment centers 450
drawing/sheet identification 51 entry doors 343
drawn-by on architectural drawings 51 envelope in vent systems 459
drip cap 373 EnviroHome Initiative 31
drip edge in roofing 321 environmentally friendly building 24
drip line 132, 132 environmentally sound building 24
drive types 213 environmental protection 126 – 7, 127 – 30, 131, 131 – 2, 132
dropped beams 77, 80 erosion control 121, 130, 133 – 6, 134 – 6
dry-in, defined 314 evaporator 422
drywall: clips for 237; hanging for door installation 371; installation excavation 104, 119, 148, 156, 162, 163, 172; see also construction
and finish 464 – 6, 465 – 7; joint compound 464, 465, 466; site and excavation
overview of 236 – 7; Type X gypsum 389 exhaust systems 458 – 9, 458
drywall knife 465 expanding foam insulation 336, 337
drywall screws 465, 465 expansion joints 264, 265
drywall tape 465 expansion valve 422
ductless heat pumps 428, 428 exposed aggregate concrete 168
duct plenum 426 exterior doors 342 – 5, 342 – 5
ducts: defined 422; standards for 26; systems 422, 425 – 6 exterior envelope 422
ductwork 190, 190 extruded millwork 463
dummy knob 366 – 7
duplex convenience outlet 447 face brick 256, 410
duplex outlet 447 face plate 360
durable materials 31 face stringer 391, 392 – 3
dust control 136, 460 fan heaters 429, 429
Dutch doors 346 fascia, defined 292, 294
Dutch hip roof 278, 284 fenestration, defined 356, 357 – 8
fiber carpet pad 217
Earth Advantage certification programs 30 – 1 field nailing 211 – 12
earth berm 108 filler, defined 475
earthen floors 41 filler fabrics 133
earthquake engineering 96 fill stakes 115
easements 52 filter fabric sock 124
eave construction 82, 270, 274, 285, 317 filter rolls 137
edging trowel 169 fines, defined 160
egress, defined 347 finish, defined 368
electrical boxes 447 finish grade 116
electrical circuit line 448, 448 finish nails 213
electrical conduit 188, 452 – 3 finish phase 431
electrical legend 80 finish wood 375
electrical loads 36 – 7 finish work/materials: carpenter/carpentry 362; drywall 464 – 6,
electrical plans 77, 78 – 9, 80, 80 465 – 7; electrical work 447; introduction to 463 – 4, 464; masking
electrical service panel 447 before finishing 480; millwork 466 – 73, 467 – 72, 479, 479 – 80;
electrical systems: carbon monoxide alarms 448; home paint finishes 479; prefinished doors 369; stain finishes 479 – 80
automation 448 – 50; installation recommendations 446 – 8, fink truss 305
449; introduction to 422, 444 – 6; metric values in 452 – 3, fire blocking 389

518
 Index

firebox 401 freestanding fireplaces 402, 404

fireplace construction: built-in masonry barbecue 410, 410; freestanding stairs 392, 394 – 7, 395 – 7
convection air fireplaces 405; direct-vent fireplaces 408; electric French doors 343, 344, 346
fireplaces 409, 409; environmental restrictions and 408; floor French drains 121, 124, 126
plan representations 405 – 7, 405 – 8; freestanding fireplaces 402, Freon exchanger 42 – 3
404; gas fireplaces 402, 404, 408; introduction to 401, 402 – 4; frothed foam carpet pad 217
mantles for fireplaces 401, 402, 471, 472; masonry construction functional elements 101
410 – 16, 411 – 13, 414, 415 – 16; multilevel fireplaces 415 – 16, 416; furnace 422
natural gas fireplaces 402; propane fireplaces 402; self-venting furring for insulation 331
fireplaces 408; solid fuel-burning appliances 416 – 18, 417 – 19;
wood storage near 409, 410; zero clearance unit 401, 409 gable roof 278, 283, 296
fireplace footing 410 galvanized pipe 431
firewall 254 galvanized steel 196
fit house, defined 32 gambrel roof 278, 285
fittings for plumbing 431, 432 garage doors 347, 349
fixed windows 352 – 3, 354 garden windows 353, 355
fixture placement 431 gas fireplaces 402, 404, 408
fixture traps 431 gauge sheet 196
flange, defined 197, 373 General Contractor (GC): being your own 5; defined 4; hiring 5 – 6;
flashing tape 373, 375, 375, 377 – 8 inspection scheduling 17; insurance needs 5; role of 5
flat roof framing 278, 282, 296 – 7, 297, 298 general notes for beams 209
flight of stairs 381 general notes on plans 93
floor framing materials and construction: bearing partitions/ geotextiles 133
beams 207 – 9; bracing used for 207, 209; cantilevers 207, geothermal systems 42 – 3
208; introduction 193 – 4; openings and 203, 206, 207, 228; at girders 73
partitions 201 – 3, 202, 204, 205; platform and balloon framing girder truss 77
218, 218 – 19, 219; steel framing materials 195 – 7, 197, 198; glass sliding doors 343, 345
systems for 197 – 9; timber-frame construction 220, 220 – 3, 221, glazed bricks 257
222; wood framing materials 194, 194, 194 – 5, 195, 196 glazed tile roofing 323
floor joists 3 glazing efficiency 26
floor-level hearth 410 glued-laminated beams 209, 211
floor plans: additions on 93; building plans 3; for construction 49; grade stakes 115
design notes on 93; dimensions of 59; electrical plans and 77, grade stamp 213
78 – 9; fireplace construction 405 – 7, 405 – 8; notes on floor plans grading plan 119 – 24, 120, 122 – 4
59, 93; overview of 58, 58 – 60, 59, 60; plans for construction 49; grass-lined channel 135
schedules and 98; stair construction 382 – 3, 384, 385 gravel filter berm 138
flow rate in hydroelectric energy 46 green building technology: biopower 46 – 7; energy-efficient
flue, defined 408 alternatives/programs 26 – 32; geothermal systems 42 – 3; green
flue lining 414, 415 roof 41, 41, 282, 287; healthy impact of 24 – 6; hydroelectric
flush beams 77, 80 power 46, 46; International Energy Conservation Code 26;
flush-cut saw 366 introduction to 24; net-metering 43, 44 – 6, 45; net-zero energy
foam carpet pad 217 home 43, 44 – 6, 45; small footprint home 32; solar energy
foam-in-place insulation 333 design 32 – 7; standard for 2; sustainable development 47
foam underlayment 216 GreenFormat report 31 – 2
footing key 157 greenhouse gases 24
footings 60, 146, 162 green lumber 194
footprint, defined 32 green power systems 35
forced air heat 423 – 5 green roof 41, 41, 282, 287
forced-air system 279 GreenSeal 456
formaldehyde 456 green space 4
foundation, defined 146 grounded outlets 443 – 4
foundation materials/construction: concrete construction 146 – 52, grout joints 172
146 – 52; detail 162; plans 60, 61 – 7, 68, 68 – 9, 69, 70, 71, 71, 72, guardrails 381, 473, 474
73, 73; systems of 146 guard stakes 115
foundation vents 152 gusset, defined 289
foundation walls 60, 146 gutters 82, 292
four-way switch 446, 448 gyprock 236
foyer entries 343 gypsum board 236 – 7
frame, defined 373
framing plans 73 – 7, 74, 75, 76, 77, 81 half bathrooms 459
framing with studs 59 handrails 381, 473

519
Index

hanging doors 362 – 72, 363, 365 – 71 and vapor barriers 333 – 4, 334, 335; introduction to 329, 330;
hanging drywall 371 radiant barrier 335, 335; rigid insulation 242 – 4, 331, 333, 333;
hard metric conversion 195 thermal resistance in 329; types of 330 – 5, 331 – 5
hard-wired smoke detectors 446 insurance needs 5
hardwood for stairs 389, 391 interior doors 345 – 9, 346 – 8
headers: defined 228, 254; framing 203, 231; framing plan 73 interior elevations 93
head in hydroelectric energy 46 intermediate contours 112
head jamb 360 International Code Council (ICC) 2, 26
hearth, defined 410 International Energy Conservation Code (IECC) 26
heat exchanger 405, 456 – 7 International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 443
heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC): code intersecting partition framing 238, 238 – 9, 239, 240, 241
requirements 430; overview of 25, 425, 425, 426, 430 inverters, defined 36
heating systems: heat pump systems 427 – 8, 428; hot water inverters for wind systems 451
heating system 427; radiant heat 429; thermostats 429 – 30, isolation joints 269, 271
430; zone control heating 428 – 9, 429
heat pump systems 427 – 8, 428 jack rafters 290
heat recovery/ventilation (HRV) 456 – 8, 457 jack stud 226
herringbone, defined 256 jalousie windows 352, 353
High Efficiency Particle Arresting (HEPA) 459 jamb extensions 375, 376
hinge jamb 359 – 60 jambs, defined 248 – 9, 359
hinge screws 365, 368 joint compound 464, 465, 466
hinges, doors 369 joint trowel 169
hip jack rafters 290 joist construction: ceiling joists 73; crawl spaces 153; detail of 71;
hip rafters 290 differences in lumber used 159, 200, 201; floor joists 3; framing
hip roof 278, 284, 290 – 6, 290 – 6 of 197, 212; lookout joists 290; rim joist 68, 155, 198; roof joists
hold-down anchors 151, 152, 199, 203, 242 285, 296; spans 210; tail joist 290, 292
hollow bricks 257 joist hangers 209
home automation 448 – 51 junction box 447, 448 – 9
Home Energy Ratings System (HERS) 30 jurisdiction for building codes 2
Home Energy Rating System (HERS) 26
hopper gun 467 key brick 267
horizontal movement of masonry veneer 264 keyed footings 152
hose bibbs 436, 436 keyhole saw 465
hot water circulation system 435 keynote name for beams 209
hot water heating system 427 kiln 254
housed stringer 394, 394 kiln dried lumber 194
house wrap and vapor barriers 333 – 4, 334, 335 king studs 226
hub stakes 115, 120 knee wall 242
humidistat 459 knockdown texturing 467, 467
hydroelectric generators 46 knockouts, defined 250, 252
hydroelectric power 46, 46
hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) 43 laid masonry units 254
landing, defined 381
included angle of arc 114, 114 landscape plan 110
index contours 112 lap joint 223
indoor air quality/safety: central vacuum systems 461, 461; lap siding 233, 234
cleaning the air 459 – 61, 460; dust control 460; environmental laser line level 253
quality 28; exhaust systems 458 – 9, 458; heat recovery/ latch bolt 360
ventilation 456 – 8, 457; introduction to 25, 455; mold prevention latch bolt bore 360
460 – 1; pollutant sources 455 – 6; sealing from garage 461 latch jamb 360
infill needs 104 lateral loads 151, 240
inspections: defined 17; mandatory inspection schedules 17; lath stake 116
voluntary inspections/tests 17, 18 – 20 latitude, defined 35, 54
instantaneous hot water heaters 435 leach lines 439
insulated concrete forms (ICF) 181 – 3, 181 – 4, 185 – 8, 333 Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) system:
insulated glazing (IG) 347 awareness and education 28 – 9; energy and atmosphere 28;
insulated windows 355 – 6 indoor environmental quality 28; innovation and design 27;
insulation and barriers: air leakage 338; batt insulation 330, 332; location and linkages 27 – 8; material and resources 28; overview
blanket insulation 330 – 1; caulking as 336, 336 – 7; caulking as of 27 – 9; sustainable sites 28; water efficiency 28
insulation 336, 336 – 7; dense-pack insulation 330; expanding ledger, defined 292
foam 336, 337; foam-in-place 333; furring for 331; house wrap legal descriptions 52, 54, 57 – 8

520
 Index

legend for beams 209 meters for electrical 443 – 4

legend on plans 80 metric modules 194
level, defined 226, 253 metric values in electrical systems 452, 452 – 3
lien filing 17 metric valves in plumbing 441 – 3, 443
light fixture 447, 452 microns, defined 459
lighting outlet box 447 mid-span support 60
light shelves 40 milling, defined 93
light steel roof framing 308, 314 milling plant 463
limited impact on land 31 milling process 463
linkages, defined 28 millwork: appliances and fixtures 476; baseboards 468, 468,
linoleum floors 41 469; bookshelves 471 – 2, 472; cabinets 473 – 6, 474 – 6; casing
lintel, defined 414 molding 471, 471; chair rail 469 – 70, 470; cornice molding
lites, defined 343 470, 470; design basics 476; elevations 93; finishing 466 – 73,
load-bearing wall 228 – 9 467 – 72, 479, 479 – 80; finish work 463 – 4, 464; handrails/
local magnetic influence 106 guardrails 473, 474; mantle for fireplaces 471, 472; surface
local notes for beams 209 finishes 479, 479 – 80; wainscot 468 – 9, 469
lockset 360 Minimum Efficiency Reporting Value (MERV) 459
lockset bore 360 mini-split system heat pumps 428
long break line 382 mitred corners 368
longitude, defined 54 Model Energy Code (1992) 26
lookout joists 290 Model Green Home Building Guidelines 29
lookout rafters 293 – 4 modern architecture 278
loose-fill insulation 330, 331 modular cabinets 93, 474 – 5, 475
lot, defined 52 moisture barriers for underlayment 217
lot and block legal description 57 – 8, 59 mold prevention 460 – 1
lot preparation and design 29 monolithic 152
low-e glass 354 monument, defined 54
L-shaped stairs 382 monument in site surveys 113
mortar for masonry wall construction 168, 257 – 8
magnetic declination 106 mortar joints 172, 258
magnetic north 105, 106 mortise and tenon joining 220, 221
main circuit breaker 447 mortise cut 360
major appliances 476 movement joints 263
mandatory inspection schedules 17 mud, drywall 465
mansard roof 278 – 9, 285 mud sill 151, 154, 198
mantles for fireplaces 401, 402, 471, 472 mulching 133
marker stakes 115 mullions, defined 343
masking before finishing 480 multilevel fireplaces 415 – 16, 416
masonry arch construction 267, 268 muntins, defined 343
masonry fireplace construction 410 – 16, 411 – 13, 414, 415 – 16
masonry siding 233, 234, 235 nailer, defined 237
masonry units 253 – 4 nail gun 216
masonry veneer 254, 258 – 60, 261 – 3, 263 nail head 213
masonry wall construction: common masonry units 254 – 8, 255, nail set 365, 366
256, 257, 258; common residential practices 258 – 9, 258 – 63, nail sizes 213, 215
260, 261 – 2, 263; horizontal movement of masonry veneer 264; nanometers 460
introduction to 253 – 4; masonry arch construction 267; mortar National Association of Home Builders (NAHB) 29
for 257 – 8; structural masonry construction 267 – 74, 267 – 75; National Energy Conservation Code 422
vertical movement of masonry veneer 263 – 4 National Fenestration Rating Council (NFRC) 356 – 7, 359
mason subcontractor 254 National Green Building Standard 29 – 30
MasterFormat: Master List of Numbers and Titles for the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) 131
Construction Industry 101, 101 natural areas of vegetation 131
mechanical solar systems 32 natural gas fireplaces 402
mechanical subcontractor 190 neoprene pad 264
mechanical systems 422 – 7, 423 – 6, 427, 461; see also electrical net metering 43, 44 – 6, 45, 451
systems; heating systems; plumbing systems net-zero energy home 43, 44 – 6, 45
meets and bounds 54 newel posts 381, 473
meridians, defined 54 nominal pipe size (NPS) 432, 443
mesh drywall tape 466 nominal sizes 194, 194, 194, 254
metal roofing 323, 325, 326 non-bearing partitions 59
meter base 444 non-load bearing wall 232, 232

521
Index

nosing, defined 386 plumb bob 253

notes on floor plans 59, 93 plumber roles 190
plumbers 431
occupancy comfort 29 plumbing systems: drainage/vent systems 436 – 7; fire sprinkler
offset stakes 115, 126, 128 systems 438 – 9; hose bibbs 436, 436; installs 190, 191;
one and a half story home 283 introduction to 422, 431 – 2, 432; metric valves 441 – 3, 443;
one-pipe hot water system 427 pipe sizing 432 – 3; placement 437, 437 – 8; schedules for 438,
one-story home 283 438; sewage disposal 439 – 41, 441; water heaters 433, 434 – 6,
on-grade stakes 116 434 – 6; water systems 433 – 6, 433, 433 – 6
open eave 294 plywood sheathing 69, 155 – 6, 243
opened stairs see freestanding stairs plywood underlayment 216
openings: floor framing materials 203, 206, 207, 228; masonry pocket door installation 369 – 72, 370 – 2
construction 271 – 2, 275; roof opening framing 301 – 2; rough pocket doors 345, 346
openings 226, 229, 373, 374, 375; web opening, defined 197 point of beginning (POB) 54, 113
open-loop system 44 pole construction 68, 73, 184, 220
orange peel 467, 467 pollutant sources 455 – 9
organic materials 47 polybutylene (PB) 431
oriel windows 353 polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 431, 456
oriented strand board (OSB) 195, 195, 197, 211, 215 – 16 pond-loop system 42
OSHA-approved ladder 17 pony wall 152, 155, 242, 245
outer hearth 410 portable concrete mixer 260
outlet box 447, 448 – 9 post and beam foundation 68, 69, 73, 77, 146, 153, 197
overhang 82, 270, 285 post bases 152, 156
overhead garage doors 347, 349 post caps 152, 156
postchlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) 431
paint finishes 479 post-setting 142
paint grade wood 394 potable water 28, 431
pan, defined 326 poured-in-place concrete 147, 147, 148, 172 – 6, 173 – 6
pane, defined 347 powder coating 323
panel, defined 451 power trowel 168
paneling 237 precast concrete 266 – 7
parallel circuits 450 pre-drilling holes 363
parallels, defined 54 prefabricated cabinets 474
parapet, defined 297, 299 pre-fabricated products 3
particleboard 198 – 9 prefinished doors 369
particleboard underlayment 214, 215 pre-finished millwork 480
partition framing 201 – 3, 202, 204, 205 pre-hung doors 359 – 60, 362 – 9, 363, 365 – 9
passive solar systems 32, 33 – 5, 34, 35 pre-manufactured products 3
paving bricks 257 pressure-treated wood 68, 151, 154, 198
percolation test 439 prestressed concrete 266, 267
performance bond 5 prevailing winds 107 – 8
permeability 179 prints of construction drawings 50
permit to occupy 17 Professional Engineer (PE) 3, 4
perspective on plans 93 professional home designer 5
photosynthesis 24 profile drawing 119 – 20
photovoltaic (PV) cells 36, 36 – 7, 37, 451 – 2, 453 project/client block 51
picket, defined 381, 473 propane fireplaces 402
pier foundation 60, 68, 146, 146, 152, 184 P.S.D.E. water easement 127
pilaster 172, 178 public land states 54
pillar, defined 267 public/private land-use restrictions 4 – 5
pilot hole 250, 364 public sewers 439
pipe slope drain 134 punchout, defined 197
plain wire 149 purlins, defined 307
plan and profile 120
planed lumber 194 R410a (Puron) 43
planned unit/use development (PUD) 4 radiant barrier 335, 335
plans, creating/choosing 5 radiant heat 429
plasterboard 236 radio frequency (RF) systems 450
platform framing 218, 218 – 19, 219 radius of arc 114
plot, defined 52 radon gas 456
plumb, defined 226 rafters, defined 285

522
 Index

rafting technique 314 roof pitch 91

rain drains 440 roof ponds 41, 41
raised hearth 410 roof slope 91
rake, defined 294 roof styles 277 – 83, 278, 279 – 83
rake board 294 rooftop garden 41, 282
rake molding 294 roof trusses framing 305 – 7, 309 – 12
ranch style 283 roof vents 91, 326 – 7, 327
range down-draft systems 458 room placement and solar systems 32
range hoods 458, 458 rotation in walls 250
rebar 148, 152, 174 rough-in electrical 447
rebond carpet pad 217 rough-in phase 431
rectangular survey system 54, 57 rough openings 226, 229, 373, 374, 375
reduced water consumption 31 rough sawn (RS) lumber 194, 220, 220, 303
reflected light 40 routed stringer 394
reflective insulation 335 rowlocks, defined 256
refrigeration system 42, 422, 424 R-2000 Standard 31
Registered Architect (RA) 3, 4, 5, 52 run, for pipes 439
reinforced concrete 148 – 9, 149 run, in stairs 386
residential storm drains 440 – 1 rural homes 32
resilient flooring underlayment 215 R-value in insulation 329
resource efficiency 29
retaining walls 134, 134 safe materials 31
retarder, defined 179 sand box 121
return air (RA) 425 sand fence 134 – 5, 135
return ducts 422 sand fill system 439
reveal, defined 368 sanitary sewer system 439
revision history blocks 51 Sash blocks 269
revisions of architectural drawings 52 sashes, window 351
ridge, defined 285 saw set 366
ridge beams 317 scale of architectural drawings 51, 52
ridge vent 327 schedules: for construction 50; doors 342, 358 – 9, 360, 361;
rigid insulation 242 – 4, 331, 333, 333 drawings and specifications 96 – 9, 97 – 8, 99; electrical systems
rim joist 68, 155, 198 451; floor plans 98; mandatory inspection schedules 17;
ring shank nails 212 – 13 plumbing systems 438, 438; windows 342, 358 – 9, 360, 361
riprap 133 scissor truss 77, 305
risers 382, 390, 391 screed 167 – 8
river rock for landscaping 124 screened vents 287, 293
road rugs 133 screw drive types 217
rock dam 138 screw gun 216
rock storage for solar collectors 37 sectional view 80, 84 – 7, 88
roll insulation 330 – 1 sections, defined 54
roofers, defined 314 sections and details, drawings 80 – 2, 81, 82
roof framing materials: cathedral ceiling framing 303, 308; security systems 450
chimney framing 203, 305; composition roofing 317, 321, 321; sediment basin 138, 138
concrete/clay tile roofing 321, 322, 323, 324; dormer roof sediment control 121, 136 – 43, 137 – 42
framing 279, 286, 297 – 301, 299 – 303; flat roof framing 278, 282, sediment trap 138
296 – 7, 297, 298; hip roof 278, 284, 290 – 6, 290 – 6; installation seeding/sodding 133
of 314, 315, 316, 316; introduction to 277; joists 285, 296; light seismic engineering 96
steel roof framing 308, 314, 318 – 19; metal roofing 323, 325, seismic loads 151, 240
326; opening framing 301 – 2; overhang 38, 38, 38 – 9, 39; plans self-tapping end 250
82, 83 – 90, 91, 91, 92, 93, 94 – 5; roof opening framing 301 – 2; self-venting fireplaces 408
roof styles 277 – 83, 278, 279 – 83; roof trusses framing 305 – 7, septic tank system 439 – 40, 441
309 – 12; roof vents 326 – 7, 327; terminology and 283, 285, 287, series circuits 450
288, 289, 289 – 90; timber-frame roof construction 306 – 8, 313, setbacks 52
314; underlayment 314; vaulted ceiling framing 303 – 4, 307; sewage disposal 439 – 41, 440
wood roofing 316 – 17, 316 – 17; wood shingles 316, 320 shank, defined 212
roofing contractor 314 shear lugs 269
roofing felt 314 shear plate, defined 308
roofing underlayment 314 shear wall framing 239 – 42, 244, 245
roof joists 285, 296 shear walls 151, 153
roof overhang 38, 38, 38 – 9, 39 sheathing 233

523
Index

sheet blocks 51 105, 105 – 7, 106, 107; overview of 32 – 7; passive solar systems
sheet metal screws 248 – 9, 250 32, 33 – 5, 34, 35; photovoltaic modules 36, 36 – 7, 37
sheetrock 236 solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC) 356 – 7
sheet sizes for architectural drawings 50 – 1, 51 solar hot water (SHW) 37, 435 – 6, 436
shelf angle, defined 264, 264 solariums/sunrooms 35, 41 – 2, 42, 279, 286
shims for doors 362, 364, 366, 367 soldering skills 454
shingle siding 233, 234 sole plate 228
shoe, defined 389 solid blocking 201, 209
shoe rail 394 solid fuel-burning appliances 416 – 18, 417 – 19
silicon wafer 36 sone, defined 459
sill, defined 342, 343 soot 456
sill plan 272 sound orientation 109 – 12, 110, 111
sill plate 228 south-facing glass 35, 35
silt fence 127, 138 – 9, 139, 140 – 1, 141 – 3, 142 space sheathing 316 – 17
single-hung windows 352 span, defined 146, 198, 287
single-pole switch 446, 447 spec home 5
single-wall construction 233, 234, 235 specification formats 31
single-wythe masonry wall 269, 270 specifications 99 – 102, 100, 101, 423
sinker nails 213 specific heat, defined 42
site benching 121 specific notes for beams 209
site grading 121, 122 – 3, 124 specific notes on plans 93
site orientation 103 – 7, 104, 105, 106 spindle, defined 381, 473
site plan 52 – 8, 53, 54, 55 – 6, 57, 58 spiral stairs 397, 398
site section 120 spirit level 253
site survey 113 – 15, 113 – 15 split studs 369
16d sinker nails 236 split wired outlet 446, 448
skim coating 465 spotface, defined 308
skirt board 389 square, defined 226
skylight installation 376 – 9, 378 S4S lumber 194
skylights 39, 40, 91, 306, 353 – 5, 356 stacked stairs 387
slab, defined 148, 160 staggered nailing 236
slab doors 362 staggered stud walls 245 – 6, 246
slab rubber carpet pad 217 stain finishes 479 – 80
slate tile roofing 323, 325 stain grade wood 394
sliding doors 345 stairbuilder 389
sliding windows 351, 351 staircase 381
slope, defined 104, 116, 118 stair construction: basic characteristics 385 – 7, 385 – 7; concrete
sloped glazing 353 – 5, 357 stairs 397, 399; floor plan representation 382 – 3, 384, 385;
slope diversion 135 – 6, 137 framing of 387, 388 – 94, 394; freestanding stairs 394 – 7,
slope of roofs 278, 278 395 – 7; introduction to 381 – 2, 382; spiral stairs 397, 398; stair
slope stakes 115 calculations 381; stairwell framing 203; types of 382, 383
sludge, septic tank 439 – 40 stair design 381
small footprint home 32 stair horse 387
smoke chamber 414 stairway 381
smoke detectors 446 – 8 stairwell framing 203
smoke shelf 414 staking: basement foundation construction 172; concrete slab
soffit framing 290, 295 construction 162, 163; crawl space 156
soft metric conversion 195 stamped concrete 168
softwood plywood 211 – 12, 389 standby heat losses 435
soil feasibility test 439 standing-seam roofing 323
soil pipe 431 starter course, defined 321
soil retention structures 133 – 4 static slicing 141 – 2
soil roughening 134 steel framing materials 195 – 7, 197, 198
soil stack 431 steel hanger 198
solar access 107 steel-reinforced concrete 71, 148 – 9, 149, 170, 176
solar architectural concrete products 42 steel wall framing 248 – 53, 250 – 3
solar collectors 35 – 6, 36 stem walls 60, 68, 68, 146, 146, 152, 242
solar energy design: active solar systems 32, 35 – 6, 36; stick framing 285, 305
architectural features with 32, 38, 38, 38 – 41, 39, 40, 41; codes stock house plan 5
and rights 33; introduction to 32 – 3; living with 33; orientation stockpilers 127

524
 Index

stop molding 360 three-dimensional roofing 317

storage for solar collectors 37 three-stud corner 238
storm sewer system 439 three-tab roofing 317
storm water easement 127 three-way switch 77, 446, 448
Storm Water Pollution Prevention Plan (SWPPP) 127, 131 threshold 360
storm water runoff control 132 – 43, 133 – 42 throat, fireplace 414
straight flight of stairs 382 through-wall flashing 272
stray voltage 25 tie-beams 307
stretchers, defined 254 timber-frame construction: defined 73; floor framing materials and
strike jamb 360 construction 220, 220 – 3, 221, 222; pier foundation 184; roofs
strike plate 360 306 – 8, 313, 314
stringers in stair construction 387, 390, 392 T-intersections 238 – 9, 241
stripped footing forms 157 title blocks 51
structural brick 410 tongue-and-groove (T&G) lumber 196, 211, 316
structural concrete 264, 266 tons, heat pumps 427
structural engineering 93 – 6, 94 – 5, 96 top of wall applications 270, 271 – 4, 270
structural insulated panels (SIP) 247 – 8, 249, 333 topography 52, 112, 112
structural masonry construction 258, 267 – 74, 267 – 75 top plate framing 230
structural masonry walls 254 topsoil 131
structural steel 264, 265, 266 top track 248 – 9
structured wiring systems 450 total rise 287
stub partition 389 total run 287, 386
stucco siding 233, 234 townships 54, 57, 58
studs: defined 59, 207 – 8; framing with 226, 227, 229; staggered track, defined 197
stud walls 245 – 6, 246 track homes 480
sub-base 160 traditional architecture 278
subcontractors 5 – 6, 17 transom, defined 343
subdivision 52 treads 382, 390, 391
sub-flooring materials 195 trenching, defined 141
sub-grade 116, 160 trim carpenter 362
suburban homes 32 trimmer, defined 296
sunrooms 35, 41 – 2, 42 Trombe wall 40
survey basics 112 – 19, 113 – 19, 118 trowel tool 168, 465
survey stakes 114 – 19, 115 – 19, 118 true north 105, 106
sustainable buildings 24, 27, 242 – 3 trusses 73
sustainable development 47 T1 – 11 siding 235
sweeps, defined 190 tubular daylighting devices 354 – 5, 358
switch box 447 Tudor architecture 280
switch leg 448 turnbuckles 183
systems/assemblies 101 two-pipe hot water system 427, 428
two-story home 283
tail joist 290, 292 Type X gypsum 389
tails, defined 285 typical well section 82
tamper-resistant (TR) outlet 447
tankless hot water heaters 435 ultraviolet light systems 460, 460
technological advanced materials 214 underlayment: advanced technology underlayment 217; carpet
tempered glass 343 underlayment 215; cement board underlayment 214, 216 – 17;
temporary electrical service 443 – 4 foam underlayment 216; moisture barriers for 217; particleboard
temporary slope drain 134, 135 underlayment 214, 215; plywood underlayment 216; resilient
tensile strength 147, 147 flooring underlayment 215; roofing underlayment 314;
tension in walls 250, 252 subflooring and 198, 211 – 18, 214, 216
termination bar 268 under-slab electrical, HVAC, plumbing 184 – 91, 185 – 91
terrain orientation 104, 104 Underwriters Laboratories (UL) 446
texturing drywall 466 – 7, 467 Uniformat (uniform classification system) 101 – 2
thermal mass 35, 254 unit skylight 353
thermal resistance in insulation 329 universal design 102
thermal storage walls 40, 40 universal electrical installations 430 – 1, 448 – 9
thermostats 429 – 30, 430 urban heat island effect 41, 282
thin-set mortar 217 urban lots 32
thin veneer bricks 257 US Department of Energy 30

525
Index

US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 30 water heaters 433, 434 – 6, 434 – 6

US Green Building Council (USGBC) 27 water heating in solar energy design 37
utility grid 36, 451 water main 433
water meter 433
valley jack rafters 290 water service 433
valley rafters 290 water storage for solar collectors 37
valve installation 431 water supply risers 431
vanities 431 water systems 433 – 6, 433, 433 – 6
vapor barriers 179, 233, 333 – 4, 334, 335 watt/wattage 451
vapor diffusion retarder 333 web, defined 197
variance in solar energy design 33 web opening, defined 197
vaulted ceiling framing 303 – 4, 307 web stiffener, defined 197
vegetation, natural areas of 131 weep holes 263, 373
veneered wood 69 welded wire reinforcement (WWR) 149 – 50, 150, 167
veneering 468 well section 82
ventilation systems 326 – 7, 327, 436, 459 whole-building design process 27
vent pipes 431 Wi-Fi systems 450
vent stack 432 wind energy 43
vertical movement of masonry veneer 263 – 4 winder stairs 382, 387
vestibule 38, 38 wind orientation 107 – 9, 108, 109
Victorian architecture 280 windows: awning windows 352, 352; bay windows 353;
view orientation 104 – 5, 105 casement windows 351; double-hung windows 351 – 2,
visible transmittance (VT) 357 352; fixed windows 352 – 3, 354; garden windows 353, 355;
volatile organic compounds (VOC) 456 installation of 372 – 5, 373 – 5; insulated windows 355 – 6;
voltaic, defined 36 introduction to 347 – 8; jalousie windows 352, 353; schedules for
volts 447 358 – 9, 360, 361; single-hung windows 352; skylight installation
voluntary inspections/tests 17, 18 – 20 376 – 9, 378; skylights and sloped glazing 353 – 5, 356, 357;
voussoirs, defined 267 sliding windows 351, 351; types and styles 348 – 50, 348 – 9
wind power electrical generation 451, 452
waffle rubber carpet pad 217 wind shear calculations 96
wainscot millwork 468 – 9, 469 wind shelf 414
wallboard 236 wind turbines 43
wall framing materials and construction: corners 236 – 8, 237, 238; wire gauge sizes 452
energy-efficient measures 242; engineered-wood products wood decking 68, 153, 197
232 – 3; intersecting partitions 238, 238 – 9, 239, 240, 241; wood framing materials 194, 194, 194 – 5, 195, 196
introduction 225 – 6; rigid insulation sheathing 242 – 4; shear wood plug 394
walls 239 – 42, 244, 245; staggered studs and double walls wood roofing 316 – 17, 316 – 17
245 – 6, 246; steel walls 248 – 53, 250 – 3; structural insulated wood shakes 316
panels 247 – 8, 249; studs 226, 227, 229; systems for 226; wood shingles 316, 320
techniques 236 working drawings for construction 49
walls, defined 225 – 6 work results 101
warm air (WA) 425 wythe, defined 256, 258, 259
waste pipe 431
waste stack 431 zero clearance unit, fireplace 401, 409
water-based geothermal system 42 zone control heating 428 – 9, 429
water-distribution pipes 433 zone heating 428
water efficiency 28, 29 zoning: defined 4, 51; requirements 57 – 8, 58; solar energy design 33

526