The petroleum industry began with the successful drilling of the first commercial oil well in 1859,

and the opening of the first refinery two years later to process the crude into kerosene. The
evolution of petroleum refining from simple distillation to today’s sophisticated processes has
created a need for safety and risk based management procedures. Refining is the processing of one
complex mixture of hydrocarbons into a number of other complex mixtures of hydrocarbons. The
safe and orderly processing of crude oil into flammable gases and liquids at high temperatures and
pressures using vessels, equipment, and piping subjected to stress and corrosion requires
considerable knowledge, control, and expertise.
Petroleum refining begins with the distillation, or fractionation, of crude oils into separate
hydrocarbon groups. The resultant products are directly related to the characteristics of the crude
processed. Most distillation products are further converted into more usable products by changing
the size and structure of the hydrocarbon molecules through cracking, reforming, and other
conversion processes. These converted products are then subjected to various treatment and
separation processes such as extraction, hydrotreating, and sweetening to remove undesirable
constituents and improve product quality. Integrated refineries incorporate fractionation,
conversion, treatment, and blending operations and may also include petrochemical processing.

Crude Oil

Crude oil can be made of a thousand to several hundred thousand different hydrocarbon
compounds. Each of them has different characteristics, such as weight, viscosity, and boiling point.
Crude oil will boil at approximately 150 degrees Fahrenheit, 450 degrees, 750 degrees, and 900
degrees. Each fraction vaporizes at these approximate temperatures, while others are left behind.
When a container of crude is heated to a boil and held at one of the boiling temperatures, some of
the crude will vaporize. This first boil is the lightest fraction (which may be butane or other light
fractions.) The second boil will remove the gasoline, the third will remove naphtha and so on. This
process of boiling and reboiling a batch of crude oil is the simplest form of refining, or distillation;
it is commonly called batch distillation.
However, this process of boiling off fractions of crude oil is not the most efficient way to produce
petroleum products. In the 1920s, fractional distillation was developed. In this method, petroleum is
heated then piped into a distillation column or fractionation tower. Inside the tower or column are
perforated trays, which catch liquid petroleum products at various levels and drain the separated
components off to storage or further processing. The benefits to distilling in the towers include
increased efficiency, less labor, and simpler facility construction. In fact, distilling crude oil is most
efficient and least expensive when done in two steps: first, fractioning at atmospheric pressure, then
feeding the residuum from the first column into a vacuum tower and distilling again.
In boiling off separate fractions of the crude, a distillation curve can be plotted. This is a graph of
temperature verses percent evaporated. Each type of crude oil will have a different, unique
distillation curve that helps to describe it. As is shown in the following image, the distillation curve
can be marked with the approximate locations of the fractions one will get out of the crude.

Asphalt emulsion

Asphalt emulsions are colloidal mixtures of bitumen and water. Due to the different surface tensions
of the two liquids, stable emulsions cannot be created simply by mixing. Therefore, various
emulsifiers and stabilizers are added. Emulsifiers are amphiphilic molecules that differ in the charge
of their polar head group. They reduce the surface tension of the emulsion and thus prevent bitumen
particles from fusing. The emulsifier charge defines the type of emulsion: anionic (negatively
charged) and cationic (positively charged).[84] The concentration of an emulsifier is a critical
parameter affecting the size of the bitumen particles - higher concentrations lead to smaller bitumen
particles.[84] Thus, emulsifiers have a great impact on the stability, viscosity, breaking strength, and
adhesion of the asphalt emulsion.[84] The size of bitumen particles is usually between 0.1 and
50 µm with a main fraction between 1 µm and 10 µm. Laser diffraction techniques can be used to
determine the particle size distribution quickly and easily.[84][85] Cationic emulsifiers primarily
include long-chain amines such as imidazolines, amido-amines, and diamines, which acquire a
positive charge when an acid is added.[84] Anionic emulsifiers are often fatty acids extracted from
lignin, tall oil, or tree resin saponified with bases such as NaOH, which creates a negative charge.
[84]
During the storage of asphalt emulsions, bitumen particles sediment, agglomerate (flocculation), or
fuse (coagulation), which leads to a certain instability of the asphalt emulsion. How fast this process
occurs depends on the formulation of the asphalt emulsion but also storage conditions such as
temperature and humidity. When emulsified bitumen gets into contact with aggregates, emulsifiers
lose their effectiveness, the emulsion breaks down, and an adhering bitumen film is formed referred
to as 'breaking'. Bitumen particles almost instantly create a continuous bitumen film by coagulating
and separating from water which evaporates. Not each asphalt emulsion reacts as fast as the other
when it gets into contact with aggregates. That enables a classification into Rapid-setting (R), Slow-
setting (SS), and Medium-setting (MS) emulsions, but also an individual, application-specific
optimization of the formulation and a wide field of application[84] (1). For example, Slow-breaking
emulsions ensure a longer processing time which is particularly advantageous for fine
aggregates[84] (1).
Adhesion problems are reported for anionic emulsions in contact with quartz-rich aggregates. They
are substituted by cationic emulsions achieving better adhesion. The extensive range of asphalt
emulsions is covered insufficiently by standardization. DIN EN 13808 for cationic asphalt
emulsions has been existing since July 2005. Here, a classification of asphalt emulsions based on
letters and numbers is described, considering charges, viscosities, and the type of bitumen.[84] The
production process of asphalt emulsions is very complex. Two methods are commonly used, the
"Colloid mill" method and the "High Internal Phase Ratio (HIPR)" method.[84] In the "Colloid
mill" method, a rotor moves at high speed within a stator by adding bitumen and a water-emulsifier
mixture. The resulting shear forces generate bitumen particles between 5 µm and 10 µm coated with
emulsifiers.[84] The "High Internal Phase Ratio (HIPR)" method is used for creating smaller
bitumen particles, monomodal, narrow particle size distributions, and very high bitumen
concentrations. Here, a highly concentrated asphalt emulsion is produced first by moderate stirring
and diluted afterward. In contrast to the "Colloid-Mill" method, the aqueous phase is introduced
into hot bitumen, enabling very high bitumen concentrations.[84]
T The "High Internal Phase Ratio (HIPR)" method is used for creating smaller bitumen particles,
monomodal, narrow particle size distributions, and very high bitumen concentrations. Here, a
highly concentrated bitumen emulsion is produced first by moderate stirring and diluted afterward.
In contrast to the "Colloid-Mill" method, the aqueous phase is introduced into hot bitumen, enabling
very high bitumen concentrations (1).he "High Internal Phase Ratio (HIPR)" method is used for
creating smaller bitumen particles, monomodal, narrow particle size distributions, and very high
bitumen concentrations. Here, a highly concentrated bitumen emulsion is produced first by
moderate stirring and diluted afterward. In contrast to the "Colloid-Mill" method, the aqueous phase
is introduced into hot bitumen, enabling very high bitumen concentrations (1).
Asphalt emulsions are used in a wide variety of applications. They are used in road construction and
building protection and primarily include the application in cold recycling mixtures, adhesive
coating, and surface treatment (1). Due to the lower viscosity in comparison to hot bitumen,
processing requires less energy and is associated with significantly less risk of fire and burns.[84]
Chipseal involves spraying the road surface with asphalt emulsion followed by a layer of crushed
rock, gravel or crushed slag. Slurry seal is a mixture of asphalt emulsion and fine crushed aggregate
that is spread on the surface of a road. Cold-mixed asphalt can also be made from asphalt emulsion
to create pavements similar to hot-mixed asphalt, several inches in depth, and asphalt emulsions are
also blended into recycled hot-mix asphalt to create low-cost pavements. Bitumen emulsion based
techniques are known to be useful for all classes of roads, their use may also be possible in the
following applications: 1. Asphalts for heavily trafficked roads (based on the use of polymer
modified emulsions) 2. Warm emulsion based mixtures, to improve both their maturation time and
mechanical properties 3. Half-warm technology, in which aggregates are heated up to 100 degrees,
producing mixtures with similar properties to those of hot asphalts 4. High performance surface
dressing.[86]

Anionic and Cationic Water Based Emulsions

E mulsion polymers that are manufactured by Gellner Industrial are Anionic and Cationic. An
emulsion can be Anionic, Cationic, and Non-Ionic. An Anionic emulsion has a negative charge, a
Cationic emulsion has a positive charge, and a Non-ionic emulsion has no charge. Most of the
things in the world are Anionic and that is why the majority of Research and Development,
formulating, and lab testing has been done in the Industrial Coatings Industry to make coatings from
Anionic systems.
When an Anionic emulsion is mixed with a Cationic emulsion a strong bond develops and the result
is the changing of the substance to a solid. This result is not ideal to be used as a coating because it
cannot be applied to substrates. When you apply a Cationic emulsion to an Anionic substrate there
is usually better adhesion. Therefore, a Cationic emulsion tends to have better adhesion properties
than an Anionic emulsion because of the positive charge.
Anionic emulsion is alkali soluble so therefore susceptible to dissolving by high pH or alkaline
detergents. Cationic emulsion will not dissolve that easily in alkaline solutions or alkaline
detergents. Anionic emulsions will have very good resistance to acids. Cationic emulsions will
readily dissolve in acid solutions once the film is dry.
Emulsion polymers usually dry faster and in certain cases this is not ideal. An example is in gravure
printing where a cylinder is rolled through ink to print onto the intended substrate. The company
that is using the ink doesn’t want to have the ink dry up quickly on the cylinder. In this case an ink
chemist may choose to add a calculated amount of a solution to the Cationic Emulsion to increase
the open time and create better flow for printability. With that added solution the emulsion will
provide the print with excellent resistance properties, but sometimes adding a solution can reduce
resistance properties and separate other chemicals from the emulsion.
Anionic Emulsion Polymers provide paint, inks, and coatings with exceptional adhesion to surfaces
like vinyl, plastic, PVC, mylar, polystyrene, and non-porous substrates that require a hard film.
Cationic Emulsion Polymers give industrial coatings products alkali resistance, scrub resistance,
block resistance, scuff resistance, improved flow, leveling, and open time.
A Cationic emulsion presents more of a challenge to get it to work with additives. The reason is
because some of those chemicals added may be Anionic. This will result in the emulsion turning
into a solid. So most of the time there are chemicals that are non-ionic that possess no charge that
are used as additives to formulate and manufacture coatings. 

Superpave Performance Grading

Superpave performance grading (PG) is based on the idea that an HMA asphalt binder’s properties
should be related to the conditions under which it is used. For asphalt binders, this involves
expected climatic conditions as well as aging considerations. Therefore, the PG system uses a
common battery of tests (as the older penetration and viscosity grading systems do) but specifies
that a particular asphalt binder must pass these tests at specific temperatures that are dependant
upon the specific climatic conditions in the area of use. Therefore, a binder used in the Sonoran
Desert of California/Arizona/Mexico would have different properties than one used in the Alaskan
tundra. This concept is not new – selection of penetration or viscosity graded asphalt binders
follows the same logic – but the relationships between asphalt binder properties and conditions of
use are more complete and more precise with the Superpave PG system. Information on how to
select a PG asphalt binder for a specific condition is contained in Superpave mix design method.
Table 1 shows how the Superpave PG system addresses specific penetration, AC and AR grading
system general limitations

Reliability
Reliability is defined as the percent probability in a single year that the actual temperature (seven-
day high or one-day low) will not exceed the corresponding design temperatures. The animation in
Figure 3 describes the basic process for selecting the pavement temperature extremes for a PG
asphalt binder. Note that pavement temperatures are more extreme than air temperatures.

Superpave Technology

• The Superpave is the acronym for ‘Superio

Performing Asphalt Pavements' system
• It is the product of the Strategic Highway
Research Program of USA
• It gives highway engineers and contractors the
tools they need to design asphalt pavements
that will perform better under extremes of
temperature and heavy traffic loads

Superpave includes a new mixture design and

analysis system based on performance
characteristics of the pavement.
• It is a multi-faceted system with a tried approach
to designing asphalt mixtures based on desired
performance.
• Using the Superpave system, materials and
mixes can be designed to reliably perform under
any conditions of load and environment.

Superpave system primarily addresses three

pavement distresses

1. P ermanent deformation, which results from inadequate

shear strength in the asphalt mix at high pavement
temperatures
2. Fatigue cracking, which occurs mainly because of
repeated traffic loads at intermediate pavement
temperatures
3. Low temperature cracking, which is generated when
an asphalt pavement shrinks and the tensile stress
exceeds the tensile strength at low pavement
temperatures

Benefits of Superpave
• Superpave technology offers significant potential for
mitigating pavement performance problems such as
extreme temperatures, environmental conditions, traffic
impacts of transit operations, and frequent stopping and
turning maneuvers
• Superpave improves the correlation between material
properties and pavement performance
• It evaluates the binders' abilities in resisting rutting,
fatigue and low temperature cracking based on their
rheological properties at the anticipated pavement
temperatures.

Viscosity Grading
In the early 1960s an improved asphalt grading system was developed that incorporated a rational
scientific viscosity test. This scientific test replaced the empirical penetration test as the key asphalt
binder characterization. Viscosity grading quantifies the following asphalt binder characteristics:
 • Viscosity at 60°C (140°F)
• Viscosity at 135°C (275°F)
• Penetration depth of a 100 g needle applied for 5 seconds at 25° C (77° F)
• Flash point temperature
• Ductility at 25°C (77°F)
• Solubility in trichloroethylene
• Thin-film oven test (accounts for the effects of short-term aging):
• Viscosity at 60° C (140° F)
• Ductility at 25° C (77° F)

Viscosity grading can be done on original (as-supplied) asphalt binder samples (called AC grading)
or aged residue samples (called AR grading). The AR viscosity test is based on the viscosity of aged
residue from the rolling thin film oven test. With AC grading, the asphalt binder is characterized by
the properties it possesses before it undergoes the HMA manufacturing process. The AR grading
system is an attempt to simulate asphalt binder properties after it undergoes a typical HMA
manufacturing process and thus, it should be more representative of how asphalt binder behaves in
HMA pavements. Table 1 lists key advantages and disadvantages of the viscosity grading system.

Kinematic Viscosity
The kinematic viscosity of a liquid is the absolute (or dynamic) viscosity divided by the density of
the liquid at the temperature of measurement.  The 135° C (275° F) measurement temperature was
chosen to simulate the mixing and laydown temperatures typically encountered in HMA pavement
construction.
The basic kinematic viscosity test measures the time it takes for a fixed volume of asphalt binder to
flow through a capillary viscometer under closely controlled conditions of head and temperature
(ASTM, 2001[2]).

Advantage of Viscosity Grade Bitumen

1. Unlike penetration grades, same viscosity grade bitumen gave a similar rutting performance in
hot weather.
2. Minimum penetration values were retained in the viscosity grading system to maintain
acceptable performance (in terms of resistance to fatigue cracking) at the yearly average service
temperature of 25˚C.
3. Minimum specified values of kinematic viscosity at 135˚C helped to minimize the potential of
tender mixes during construction.
4. Minimum specified penetration at 25˚C and the minimum specified kinematic viscosity at
135˚C established the maximum allowable temperature susceptibility (slope of temperature versus
stiffness line).
5. Viscosity grade bitumen were suitable for a wide range of temperatures: 25˚C for
raveling/fatigue cracking; 60˚C for rutting; and 135˚C for construction. Temperature susceptibility
(the change in asphalt binder rheology with temperature) can be somewhat determined because
viscosity is measured at three different temperatures (penetration only is measured at 25°C).
6. Since the viscosity values are measured at two temperatures, bitumen suppliers could provide to
the users rational and accurate asphalt mixing and compaction temperatures (corresponding to
bitumen viscosity of 170 and 280 centistokes, respectively).

Application of Viscosity Grade Bitumen (Asphalt)

Viscosity Grade Bitumen (Asphalt) is a standard grade Bitumen usually used as a Paving Grade
Bitumen suitable for road construction and for the production of asphalt pavements with superior
properties. This grade of Bitumen is mainly used in the manufacture of hot mix asphalt for bases
and wearing courses and possesses characteristics and qualities unique sand quite different from
other agents. They achieve very flexible and tenacious connections with other materials due mainly
to viscoelastic response of bitumen, which behavior depends on how fast charges are applied.
Viscosity Grade Bitumen supplied by RABIT (RAHA BITUMEN) is petroleum grade bitumen,
manufactured from fractional / vacuum distillation of crude oil, which practical appliance and
behavior vary according to its temperature. The Bitumen supplied by RABIT (RAHA BITUMEN)
is produced from the vacuum residue (short residue) feedstock. Viscosity Grade bitumens are
specified by the methods described in ASTM Standard D3381–09 and AASHTO M226-80
(2008). Viscosity Graded specifications cover bitumen (asphalt) graded by Viscosity at 60 C
(140 °F).
According to viscosity (degree of fluidity) grading, higher the grade, stiffer the Bitumen. Tests are
conducted at 60 C and 135 C, which represent the temperature of road surface during summer (hot
climate, similar to northern parts of India) and mixing temperature respectively. The penetration at
25 C, which is annual average pavement temperature, is also retained.
VG-10 BITUMEN: VG-10 is widely used in spraying applications such as surface dressing and
paving in very cold climate in lieu of old 80/100 Penetration grade. It is also used to manufacture
Bitumen Emulsion and Modified Bitumen products.
VG-20 BITUMEN: VG-20 is used for paving in cold climate & high altitude regions.
VG-30 BITUMEN: It is a kind of bitumen, which is produced during the process of oxidation of
vacuum bottom in distillation tower and is categorized based on its viscosity grade. The main
common usage of bitumen VG-30 is primarily used to construct extra heavy duty Bitumen
pavements that need to endure substantial traffic loads. Also, VG30 is in road construction,
waterproofing, building construction industries and also in cutback bitumen production. It can be
used in lieu of 60/70 Penetration grade. It is the most suitable for use in hot and rainy weather
condition and suitable to be used in mild regions.
VG-40 BITUMEN: VG-40 is used in highly stressed areas such as intersections, near toll booths
and truck parking lots in lieu of old 30/40 Penetration grade. Due to its higher viscosity, stiffer
Bitumen mixes can be produced to improve resistance to shoving and other problems associated
with higher temperature and heavy traffic loads.