Tangent Line

Derivatives
Basic Rules of Differentiation
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
Chain Rule
Higher Derivatives
Implicit Differentiation
Related Rate
Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric
Functions
Hyperbolic Functions
Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions
Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
Applications of Derivatives
Extrema of a Function f
The Mean Value Theorem
Increasing and Decreasing Functions
and The First Derivative Test
Concavity and Inflection Point
Curve Sketching
Indeterminate Forms and l’Hospital’s Rule
The Indeterminate Form 0/0 and ∞/∞
4—
The Indeterminate Form ∞ − ∞ and 0.∞
The Indeterminate Form ∞ − ∞ and 0.∞
Derivatives and Application of Derivatives

4.1 Tangent Line

Let P and Q be two distinct points on a curve, and consider the secant line passing through P and Q.
(See Figure (4.1)). If we let Q move along the curve toward P, then the secant line rotates about P
and approaches the fixed line T . We define T to be the tangent line at P on the curve. Let’s make

Figure 4.1: :As Q approaches P along the curve, the secant lines approach the tangent line T .

this notion more precise: Suppose that the curve is the graph of a function f defined by y = f (x) .
(See Figure (4.2)). Let P(a, f (a)) be a point on the graph of f , and let Q be a point on the graph of
f distinct from P. Then the x-coordinate of Q has the form x = a + h, where h is some appropriate
nonzero number. If h > 0, then Q lies to the right of P; and if h < 0, then Q lies to the left of P. The
corresponding y-coordinate of Q is y = f (a + h) . In other words, we can specify Q in the usual
manner by writing Q(a + h, f (a + h)) . Observe that we can make Q approach P along the graph
of f by letting h approach 0. This situation is illustrated in Figure (4.2)b. Next, using the formula

Figure 4.2:
60 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives
for the slope of a line, we can write the slope of the secant line passing through P(a, f (a)) and
Q(a + h, f (a + h)) as:
f (a + h) − f (a) f (a + h) − f (a)
M= = (4.1)
(a + h) − a h
The expression on the right-hand side of Equation 4.1 is called a difference quotient. As we observed
earlier, if we let h approach 0, then Q approaches P and the secant line passing through P and
Q approaches the tangent line T. This suggests that if the tangent line does exist at P, then its
slope m should be the limit of M obtained by letting h approach zero. This leads to the following
definition.
Definition 4.1.1 The tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at the point P(a, f (a)) is the line through
P with slope
f (a + h) − f (a) f (x) − f (a)
m = lim = lim (4.2)
h→0 h x→a x−a
provided that this limit exists.
We can find an equation of the tangent line at P by using the point-slope form of an equation of a
line. Thus,

y = m(x − a) + f (a)

Definition 4.1.2 The normal line to a curve at a given point is the line perpendicular to the tangent
line at that Point.

� Example 4.1 Find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola y = x2 at the point (1, 1) �

Solution: To find the slope of the tangent line at the point P(1, 1), we use Equation 4.1 with a = 1,
obtaining

f (a + h) − f (a) (1 + h)2 − (1)2

m = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
(1 + 2h + h2 ) − (1)
= lim
h→0 h
2
h + 2h
= lim = lim (h + 2) = 2
h→0 h h→0

To find an equation of the tangent line, we use the point-slope form of an equation of a line to obtain
y − f (a) = m(x − a) ⇒ y − 1 = 2(x − 1)
⇒ y = 2x − 1

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 4.2 Derivatives 61

√
� Example 4.2 Find an equation of the normal line to the curve y = x − 3 which is parallel to the
line 6x + 3y − 4 = 0. �

Solution: Let l be the given line. To find the slope of l, we write its equation in the slope-intercept
4
form, which is y = −2x +
3
Therefore, the slope of l is −2 and the slope of the desired normal line is also −2 because the two
lines are parallel.
Now we need to find the slope of the given curve at any point (a, f (a)), we have
√ √
f (x) − f (a) x−3− a−3
m = lim = lim
x→a x−a x→a x−a
�√ √ ��√ √ �
x−3− a−3 x−3+ a−3
= lim √ √
x→a x−a x−3+ a−3
(x − 3) − (a − 3)
= lim √ √
x→a (x − a)( x − 3 + a − 3)
1 1
= lim √ √ = √
x→a x − 3 + a − 3 2 a−3
Because the normal line at a point is perpendicular to the tangent line at that point,
√ the product of their
slopes is −1. Hence, the slope of the normal line at (a, f (a)) is given by −2 a − 3. Since the slope
of the desired line is −2, so we solve the equation
√
−2 a − 3 = −2 ⇒ a = 4
Therefore, the desired line is the line through point (4, 1) on the curve and has a slope of −2. Using
the point-slope form of an equation of a line we obtain,
y = −2(x − 4) + 1 ⇒ y = −2x + 9

4.2 Derivatives
Definition 4.2.1 The derivative of a function f with respect to x is the function f � defined by the
rule
f (x + h) − f (x)
f � (x) = lim (4.3)
h→0 h
The domain of f � consists of all values of x for which the limit exists.

R If we let x = a + h then h = x − a hence h → 0 iff x → a.

Therefore,
f (x) − f (a)
f � (x) = lim
x→a x−a

Two interpretations of the derivative follow.

1. Geometric Interpretation of the Derivative: The derivative f � of a function f is a measure of
the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at any point (x, f (x)), provided that the derivative
exists.
2. Physical Interpretation of the Derivative: The derivative f � of a function f measures the
instantaneous rate of change of f at x. (See Figure 4.3.)
Note:
1. The value of the derivative of f at a is denoted by f � (a)
2. The tangent line to y = f (x) at (a, f (a)) is the line through (a, f (a)) whose slope is equal to
f � (a).

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62 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives

Figure 4.3: f � (x) is the slope of T at P; f (x) is changing at the rate of f � (x) units per unit change in x
at x.

�
� Example 4.3 Let f (x) = 5 − x2 . Find
1. f � (x) and determine the domain of the derivative function
2. an equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) at x = −1
�

Solution:
1. From the above difinition we have, � √
� f (x + h) − f (x) 5 − (x + h)2 − 5 − x2
f (x) = lim = lim
h→0
�� h h→0
�h� �
√ � √
5 − (x2 + 2xh + h2 ) − 5 − x2 5 − (x2 + 2xh + h2 ) + 5 − x2
= lim � √
h→0 h 5 − (x2 + 2xh + h2 ) + 5 − x2
(5 − x2 − 2xh − h2 ) − (5 − x2 )
= lim � √
h→0 h( 5 − (x2 + 2xh + h2 ) + 5 − x2 )

−2xh − h2
= lim � √
h→0 h( 5 − (x2 + 2xh + h2 ) + 5 − x2 )

−2x − h −2x
= lim � √ =√ √
h→0 2 2
5 − (x + 2xh + h ) + 5 − x 2 5 − x + 5 − x2
2

−x
= √
x2
5 −√ √ √ √
Since f (x) exist if − 5 < x < 5, then the domain of f � (x) is (− 5, 5)
�

2. The slope m of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) at x = −1 is

−(−1) 1
f � (−1) = � =
5 − (−1)2 2

x−2 dy
� Example 4.4 Let y = . Find �
−x + 1 dx

Solution:

(x + h) − 2 x−2
−
dy f (x + h) − f (x) −(x + h) + 1 −x + 1
= lim = lim
dx h→0 h h→0 h
(x + h − 2)(−x + 1) − (x − 2)(−x − h + 1)
= lim
h→0 h(−x − h + 1)(−x + 1)
−x + x + h − xh − 2 + 2x − [−x2 + 2x − xh + 2h + x − 2]
2
= lim
h→0 h(−x − h + 1)(−x + 1)

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4.2 Derivatives 63
−h
= lim
h→0 h(−x − h + 1)(−x + 1)
−1 −1
= lim =
h→0 (−x − h + 1)(−x + 1) (x − 1)2

� Example 4.5 Calculate the instantaneous velocity at time t = 5 of an automobile whose position
at time t seconds is given by g(t) = t 3 + 4t 2 + 10 feet. �

Solution: We know that the required instantaneous velocity is g� (5). We calculate

g(5 + h) − g(5)
g� (5) = lim
h→0 h
� �
(5 + h)3 + 4(5 + h)2 + 10 − 53 + 4.52 + 10
= lim
h→0 h
115h + 19h2 + h3
= lim
h→0 h
= lim 115 + 19h + h2 = 115
h→0

We conclude that the instantaneous velocity of the moving body at time t = 5 is g� (5) = 115
ft/sec.

� Example 4.6 A rubber balloon is losing air steadily. At time t minutes the balloon contains

75 − 10t 2 + t cubic inches of air. What is the rate of loss of air in the balloon at time t = 1? �

Solution: Let f (t) = 75 − 10t 2 + t. We calculate

f (1 + h) − f (1)
f � (1) = lim
h→0 h
−19h − 10h2
= lim
h→0 h
= lim (−19h − 10h2 ) = −19
h→0

In conclusion, the rate of air loss in the balloon at time t = 1 is f � (1) = −19 f t 3 /sec. Observe that the
negative sign in this answer indicates that the change is negative, i.e., that the quantity is decreasing.
Other Notation:
If we denote the dependent variable by y so that y = f (x), then some common alternative notations
for the derivative are as follows:
dy df d
f � (x) = y� = = = f (x) = D f (x) = Dx f (x) The value of the
dx dx dx
dy
derivative at a is denoted by |x=a
dx
Definition 4.2.2 A function f is differentiable at a if f � (a) exists.

Definition 4.2.3 A function is said to be differentiable if it is differentiable at every number in its

domain.

� Example 4.7 Show that the function f (x) = |x| is differentiable everywhere except at 0. �

Solution: To prove that f is not differentiable at 0, we will show that f � (0) does not exist by
demonstrating that the one-sided limits of the quotient

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 64 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives
f (0 + h) − f (0) |h| − 0 |h|
= =
h h h
as h approaches 0 are not equal.
|h| h
First, suppose h > 0. Then |h| = h, so lim = lim = lim 1 = 1
h→0 h h→0 h h→0
Next, if h < 0, then |h| = −h, and therefore,
|h| −h
lim = lim = lim −1 = −1
h→0 h h→0 h h→0
Therefore
f (0 + h) − f (0) |h|
f � (0) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
does not exist, and f is not differentiable at 0.
To show that f is differentiable at all� other numbers, we rewrite f(x) in the form
x if x ≥ 0
f (x) =
−x i f x < 0
and then differentiate f(x) to obtain�
1 if x > 0
f � (x) =
−1 i f x < 0

Theorem 4.2.1 If a function f is differentiable at a then f is continuous at a

Proof. If x is in the domain of f and x �= 0 then we can write

f (x) − f (a)
f (x) − f (a) = (x − a) We have
x−a
f (x) − f (a) f (x) − f (a)
lim [ f (x) − f (a)] = lim (x − a) = lim . lim (x − a) = f � (x).0 = 0
x→a x→a x−a x→a x−a x→a

So,

lim f (x) = lim [ f (a) + ( f (x) − f (a))] = lim f (a) + lim [ f (x) − f (a)] = f (a) + 0 = f (a)
x→a x→a x→a x→a

and this shows that f is continuous at a, as asserted. �

4.3 Basic Rules of Differentiation

Theorem 4.3.1 — Derivative of a Constant Function. .
If c is a constant, then
d
(c) = 0
dx

Theorem 4.3.2 — The Power Rule. .

If n is any real number and f (x) = xn , then
d
f � (x) = (xn ) = nxn−1
dx

� Example 4.8 If
d
1. f (x) = x12 , then f � (x) = (x12 ) = 12x11
dx
1 d 1 −5
2. f (x) = 5 then f (x) = ( 5 ) = −5x−5−1 = 6
�
x dx x x
�

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4.3 Basic Rules of Differentiation 65

Theorem 4.3.3 — The Constant Multiple Rule. .

If f is a differentiable function and c is a constant, then
d
[c f (x)] = c f � (x)
dx

� Example 4.9 If f (x) = −6x2 , then f � (x) = −12x �

Theorem 4.3.4 — The Sum Rule. .

If f and g are differentiable functions, then
d d d
[ f (x) ± g(x)] = f (x) ± g(x) = f � (x) + g� (x)
dx dx dx

� Example 4.10 Find the derivative of f (x) = 6x8 + 3x4 − 4x3 + x2 − 5x + 9 �

Solution:
d
f � (x) = [6x8 + 3x4 − 4x3 + x2 − 5x + 9]
dx
d d d d d d
= 6 (x8 ) + 3 (x4 − 4 (x3 ) + (x2 ) − 5 (x) + (9)
dx dx dx dx dx dx
= 48x7 + 12x3 − 12x2 + 2x − 5

Theorem 4.3.5 — The Product Rule. .

If f and g are differentiable functions, then
d d d
[ f (x)g(x)] = g(x) f (x) + f (x) g(x) = f � (x)g(x) + g� (x) f (x)
dx dx dx

√
� Example 4.11 Find the derivative of f (x) = (x2 − 1)( x − 2x) �

Solution:
�√ � d 2 d √
f � (x) = x − 2x (x − 1) + (x2 − 1) ( x − 2x)
dx � dx �
√ 2 d √ d
= ( x − 2x)(2x) + (x − 1) ( x) − (2x)
dx dx
� �
√ 1
= 2x x − 4x2 + (x2 − 1) √ − 2
2 x
√ x 2 1
= 2x x − 4x2 + √ − 2x2 − √ + 2
2 x 2 x
√ x2 − 1
= 2x x − 6x2 + √ + 2
2 x

� Example 4.12 Find the derivative of f (x) = (xex + x)(x3 − ln x) �

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 66 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives
Theorem 4.3.6 — The Quotient Rule. .
If f and g are differentiable functions
� �and g(x) �= 0, then
d f (x) f � (x)g(x) − g� (x) f (x)
=
dx g(x) (g(x))2

x2 − x
� Example 4.13 Find the derivative of f (x) = 3 �
x +1

Solution:

� � (x3 + 1) d (x2 − x) − (x2 − x) d (x3 + 1)

� d x2 − x dx dx
f (x) = =
dx x3 + 1 (x3 + 1)2
(x3 + 1)(2x − 1) − (x2 − x)(3x2 ) 2x4 − x3 + 2x − 1) − (3x4 − 3x3 )
= =
(x3 + 1)2 (x3 + 1)2
5x4 + 2x3 + 2x − 1
=
(x3 + 1)2

4.4 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

Derivatives of Sines and Cosines
Theorem 4.4.1 Derivatives of sin x
d
(sinx) = cosx
dx

Let f (x) = sinx

f (x + h) − f (x) sin(x + h) − sinx

f � (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
sinxcosh + cosxsinh − sinx sinx (cosh − 1) + cosxsinh
= lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
(cosh − 1) sinh
= sinx lim + cosx lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= sinx.0 + cosx.1
= cosx

Theorem 4.4.2 — Derivative of cos x. .

d
cos x = sin x
dx

Theorem 4.4.3 — Rules for Differentiating Trigonometric Functions. .

d d d
a. sin x = cos x b. cos x = sin x c. (sec x) = sec x tan x
dx dx dx
d d d
d. (csc x) = − csc x cot x e. (tan x) = sec2 x f. (cot x) = − csc2 x
dx dx dx

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 4.5 Chain Rule 67

� Example 4.14 Differentiate y = (sec x)(x − tan x) . �

� Example 4.15 Find the derivative of

� �
(a) f (x) = (sin x + x)(x3 − ln x) ex + x sin x
sin x (c) g(x) =
(b) h(x) = tan x
1 − 2 cos x
�

sec x
Exercise 4.1 1. Differentiate . For what values of x does the graph of f have a
1 + tan x
horizontal tangent?
dy
2. y = (1 + cos 3x2 )4 . Find
dx
�

4.5 Chain Rule

Theorem 4.5.1 — The chain Rule. .
If g is differentiable at x and f is differentiable at g(x) , then the composite function F = f ◦ g
defined by F(x) = f (g(x)) is differentiable at x and F � is given by the product
F � (x) = f � (g(x)).g� (x)
dy dy du
Also, if we write u = g(x) and y = f (u) = f (g(x)) , then =
dx du dx

�
� Example 4.16 Find F � (x) if F(x) = x2 + 1. �

� Example 4.17 Find the derivative of

3 2
� �
(a) f (x) 2x
� −x )
� =2sin(x (c) g(x) = cos
x 1+x
(b) ln
x−2

dy
� Example 4.18 Find if y = u3 − u2 + u + 1 and u = x3 + 1 �
dx

Solution:

dy dy du
= = (3u2 − 2u + 1)(3x2 )
dx du dx
= 3x2 (3x6 + 4x3 + 2)

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 68 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives
4.6 Higher Derivatives
The derivative f � of a function f is itself a function. As such, we may consider differentiating the
function f � . The derivative of f � , if it exists, is denoted by f �� and is called the second derivative of f
. Continuing in this fashion, we are led to the third, fourth, fifth, and higher-order derivatives of f ,
whenever they exist. Notations for the first, second, third, and in general, the nth derivative of f are
f � , f �� , f ��� , . . . , f (n)
or
d d2 dn
[ f (x)], 2 [ f (x)], . . . , n [ f (x)]
dx dx dx
respectively.

1 6
� Example 4.19 Find the third derivative of y = =⇒ y��� = − 4 �
x x

� Example 4.20 The position of a particle moving along a straight line is given by
s = f (t) = 2t 3 − 15t 2 + 24t, t ≥ 0
where t is measured in seconds and s in feet.
(a) Find an expression giving the velocity of the particle at any time t. What are the velocity
and speed of the particle when t = 2 ?
(b) Determine the position of the particle when it is stationary.
(c) Find the acceleration function of the particle. What is the acceleration of the particle
when t = 2 ?
(d) When is the acceleration zero? Positive? Negative?
�

Solution:
(a) The required velocity of the particle is given by
ds
v(t) = = f � (t) = 6t 2 − 30t + 24 = 6(t − 1)(t − 4)
dt
The velocity of the particle when t = 2 is
v(2) = 6(2 − 1)(2 − 4) = −12
The speed of the particle when t = 2 is |v(2)| = 12 ft/sec. In short, the particle is moving
in the negative direction at a speed of 12 ft/sec.
(b) The particle is stationary when its velocity is equal to zero. Setting v(t) = 0 gives
v(t) = 6(t − 1)(t − 4) = 0
and we see that the particle is stationary at t = 1 and t = 4.
Its position at t = 1 is given by
f (1) = 2(1)3 − 15(1)2 + 24(1) = 11
Its position at t = 4 is given by
f (4) = 2(4)3 − 15(4)2 + 24(4) = −16
dv
(c) a(t) = = f �� (t) = 12t − 30
dt
In particular, the acceleration of the particle when t = 2 is
a(2) = 12(2) − 30 = −6
The particle is decelerating at 6 ft/sec 2 when t = 2 .
(d) The acceleration of the particle is zero when a(t) = 0 , or
5
12t − 30 = 0 =⇒ t = .
2
5 5
Since 2t − 5 < 0 when t < and 2t − 5 > 0 whent > , we also conclude that the
2 2
5 5
acceleration is negative for 0 < t < and positive for t > .
2 2

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 4.7 Implicit Differentiation 69

4.7 Implicit Differentiation

dy
Suppose that a function y = f (x) is defined implicitly via an equation in x and y. To compute :
dx
1. Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x. Make sure that the derivative of any
dy
term involving y includes the factor .
dx
dy
2. Solve the resulting equation for in terms of x and y.
dx

dy
� Example 4.21 Find if 2x2 y2 − 3x3 + 5y3 + 6xy2 = 5 �
dx

dy 9x2 − 6y2 − 4xy2

Solution: =
dx 4xy2 + 15y2 + 12xy

dy π
� Example 4.22 Find at ( , π) if x sin y − y cos 2x = 2x �
dx 2

dy 4
Solution: =
dx 2 − π

� Example 4.23 Find an equation of the tangent line to the bifolium

4x4 + 8x2 y2 − 25x2 y + 4y4 = 0
at the point (2, 1). �

dy
Solution: The slope of the tangent line to the bifolium at any point (x, y) is given by . To compute
dx
dy
, we differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x to obtain
dx
d � 4 � d
4x + 8x2 y2 − 25x2 y + 4y4 = (0)
dx dx
dy dy dy
=⇒ 16x3 + 16x2 y + 16xy2 − 25x2 − 50xy + 16y3 = 0
dx dx dx
By substituting x = 2 and y = 1 into the last equation, we obtain
dy
=3
dx
Using the slope-intercept form for an equation of a line, we see that an equation of the tangent line is
y = 3x − 5

� Example 4.24 Find y� (x) implicitly for y4 + x4 = 16. Then find the value of y�� at the point
(−2, 0). �

x3
Solution: 4y3 y� + 4x3 = 0 =⇒ y� = −
y3
To find y we differentiate this expression for y� using the Quotient Rule and remembering that y is a
��

function of x:
� 3�
2 3 3 2 x
� 3� 2 3 3 2 � 3x y − 3x y − 3
d x 3x y − 3x y y y
y�� = − 3 =− 6
=− 6
dx y y y
2 4 4
3x (y + x ) 2
3x (16) 48x 2
= − =− =− 7
y7 y7 y

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 70 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives
4.8 Related Rate
In a related rates problem the idea is to compute the rate of change of one quantity in terms of the
rate of change of another quantity (which may be more easily measured). The procedure is to find an
equation that relates the two quantities and then use the Chain Rule to differentiate both sides with
respect to time.
Guidelines for Solving a Related Rates Problem
(a) Draw a diagram, and label the variable quantities.
(b) Write down the given values of the variables and their rates of change with respect to t.
(c) Find an equation that relates the variables.
(d) Differentiate both sides of this equation implicitly with respect to t.
(e) Replace the variables and derivative in the resulting equation by the values found in Step
2, and solve this equation for the required rate of change.

� Example 4.25 At a distance of 12,000 feet from the launch site, a spectator is observing a rocket
being launched vertically. What is the speed of the rocket at the instant when the distance of the
rocket from the spectator is 13,000 ft and is increasing at the rate of 480 ft/sec? �

Solution:
Step 1 Let y = the altitude of the rocket and z = the distance of the rocket from the spectator at any
time t. (See Figure 4.4.)
Step 2 We are given that at a certain instant of time
dz dy
z = 13, 000 and = 480, =?
dt dt

Figure 4.4:

Step 3 Applying the Pythagorean Theorem to the right triangle in Figure 4.4, we find that
z2 = y2 + (12, 000)2 (4.4)
Step 3 Differentiating Equation (4.4) implicitly with respect to t, we obtain
dz dy
2z = 2y (4.5)
dt dt
Step 3 Using Equation (4.4) we see �that if z = 13, 000 , then
y = 130002 − 120002 = 5000
dz
Finally, substituting z = 13, 000, y = 5000 , and = 480 in Equation (4.5), we find
dt
dy dy
(13000)(480) = 5000 =⇒ = 1248 (4.6)
dt dt
Therefore, the rocket is rising at the rate of 1248 f t/sec.

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4.8 Related Rate 71

� Example 4.26 A 10-foot ladder leans against the side of a building. If the top of the ladder
begins to slide down the wall at the rate of 2 ft/sec, how fast is the bottom of the ladder sliding away
from the wall when the top of the ladder is 8 feet off the ground? �

Solution: Let y = the height of the top of the ladder and x = the distance from the wall to the bottom
of the ladder. Since the ladder is sliding down the wall at the rate of 2 ft/sec, we have that
dy
= −2
dt
By the Pythagorean Theorem, we have

Figure 4.5:

x2 + y2 = 100
Differentiating both sides of this equation with respect to time gives us
dx dy dx y dy
2x + 2y = 0 =⇒ =−
dt dt dt x dt
Since the height above ground of the top of the ladder at the point in question is 8 feet, we have that
y = 8 and from the Pythagorean Theorem, we get
100 = x2 + 82 ,
so that x = 6. We now have that at the point in question,
dx y dy 8 8
=− = − (−2) =
dt x dt 6 3
8
So, the bottom of the ladder is sliding away from the building at the rate of f t/sec.
3

� Example 4.27 A water tank has the shape of an inverted circular cone with base radius 2m and
height 4m. If water is being pumped into the tank at a rate of 2m3 /min, find the rate at which the
water level is rising when the water is 3m deep. �

Solution: Let V, r, and h be the volume of the water, the radius of the surface, and the height of the
water at time t, where t is measured in minutes.
dV dh
We are given that = 2m3 /min and we are asked to find when h is 3m. The quantities V and h
dt dt

Figure 4.6:

are related by the equation

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72 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives
1
V = πr2 h
3
To do this, we use similar triangles and deduce that
r 2 1
= =⇒ r = h
h 4 2
Substituting this value of r into the expression for V , we obtain
� �2
1 1 1
V= π h h = πh3
3 2 12
Now we can differentiate each side with respect to t:
dV 1 dh dh 4 dV
= πh2 =⇒ = 2
dt 4 dt dt πh dt
dV 3
Substituting h = 3m and = 2m /min, we have
dt
dh 4 8
= .2 =
dt π(3)2 9π

� Example 4.28 A boat is being pulled toward a dock by means of a rope attached to the front tip
of the bow. Initially there are 30 feet of rope out and the rope is taught and being reeled in by a
circular device the top of which is 10 feet higher than the point where the rope is attached to the
boat. This circular device has a radius of 1 foot and turns at the rate of one revolution every pi
seconds. How fast is the boat moving along the water when there are 15 feet of rope out? �

Let
y = amount of rope out
x = distance the boat is from the base of the dock
The circumference of the circular device is 2π ft. so 2π feet of rope are pulled in every π seconds.
2π
Thus y is decreasing by = 2 ft/sec. i.e.,
π
dy
= −2
dt �
dx √
We want to find when y = 15 (and so x = (152 − 102 ) = 5 5 by the Pythagorean Theorem).
dt
dx dy
x2 + 102 = y2 ⇒ 2x = 2y
dt dt
dx y dy 15 −6
⇒ = = −2 √ = √ f t/sec
dt x dt 5 5 5
when y = 15 f t (negative because x is decreasing).
What happens when the boat gets very close to the base of the dock?

� Example 4.29 At 1:00 P.M., ship A is 25 mile due south of ship B. If ship A is sailing west at a
rate of 16 mi/hr and ship B is sailing south at a rate of 20 mi/hr, find the rate at which the distance
between the ships is changing at 1:30 P.M. �

Let x and y denote the miles covered by ships A and B, respectively, in t hours after 1:00 P.M. We then
have the situation sketched in Figure 4.7, where P and Q are their respective positions at 1: 00 P.M.
and z is the distance between the ships at time t.
By the Pythagorean Theorem,
z2 = x2 + (25 − y)2
Differentiating with respect to t, we obtain
dz dx dy dz dx dy
2z = 2x − 2(25 − y) =⇒ z = x − (25 − y)
dt dt dt dt dt dt
It is given that

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4.8 Related Rate 73

Figure 4.7:

dx dy
= 16mi/hr and = 20mi/hr
dt dt
dz
Our objective is to find .
dt
At 1:30 P.M. the ships have traveled for half an hour and we have x = 8, y = 10, 25 − y = 15, and,
therefore, z2 = 64 + 225 = 289, orz = 17.
dz
Substituting in the equation involving gives us
dt
dz dz 172
17 = 8(16) − 20(25 − 10) =⇒ =− ≈ −10.12mi/hr
dt dt 17
The negative sign indicates that the distance between the ships is decreasing at 1: 30 P.M.

� Example 4.30 Water is poured into a conical funnel at the constant rate of 1in.3 /sec and flows
out at the rate of 12in.3 /sec (Figure 4.8a). The funnel is a right circular cone with a height of 4in.
and a radius of 2in. at the base (Figure 4.8b). How fast is the water level changing when the water
is 2 in. high? �

Solution: Let V = the volume of the water in the funnel

h = the height of the water in the funnel
and r = the radius of the surface of the water in the funnel We are given that

Figure 4.8:

dV 1 1
= 1− = (Rate of flow in minus rate of flow out)
dt 2 2
dh
and are asked to find when h = 2.
dt
The volume of water in the funnel is equal to the volume of the shaded cone in Figure 4.8b. Thus,

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74 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives
1
V = πr2 h
3
To do this, we use similar triangles and deduce that
r 2 1
= =⇒ r = h
h 4 2
Substituting this value of r into the expression for V , we obtain
� �2
1 1 1
V= π h h = πh3
3 2 12
Now we can differentiate each side with respect to t:
dV 1 dh dh 4 dV
= πh2 =⇒ = 2
dt 4 dt dt πh dt
dV 1 3
Substituting h = 2m and = m /min, we have
dt 2
dh 4 1 1
= . = ≈ 0.159
dt π(2) 2 2π
2
and we see that the water level is rising at the rate of 0.159in./sec.

Exercise 4.2 1. A passenger ship and an oil tanker left port sometime in the morning; the
former headed north, and the latter headed east. At noon the passenger ship was 40 mi from
port and moving at 30 mph, while the oil tanker was 30 mi from port and moving at 20 mph.
How fast was the distance between the two ships changing at that time?
2. A man who is 6 ft tall walks away from a streetlight that is 15 ft from the ground at a speed
of 4 f t/sec. How fast is the tip of his shadow moving along the ground when he is 30 f t from
the base of the light pole?(See figure 4.9)
3. A balloon is rising at a constant speed 4m/sec. A boy is cycling along a straight road at a
speed of 8m/sec. When he passes under the balloon, it is 36 metres above him. How fast is
the distance between the boy and balloon increasing 3 seconds later.
4. Suppose you have a cylindrical tank that has radius 10m and height 25m. You pump water
into the tank at a constant rate of 20 m3 /min. There is a hole in the bottom of the tank so that
you lose water at a rate proportional to the height of water in the tank, say if h is the height
h
of water, the tank looses m3 /min. How fast the height of water is changing when there are
4
15m of water in the tank. Does this tank ever overflow?
5. A coffee pot that has the shape of a circular cylinder of radius 4in. is being filled with water
flowing at a constant rate. At what rate is the water flowing into the coffee pot when the
water level is rising at the rate of 0.4in./sec? (See figure 4.10)
6. A car is traveling at 50 mph due south at a point 12 mile north of an intersection. A police
car is traveling at 40 mph due west at a point 14 mile east of the same intersection. At that
instant, the radar in the police car measures the rate at which the distance between the two
cars is changing. What does the radar gun register?
�

Figure 4.9:
Figure 4.10:

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 4.9 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 75

4.9 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Definition 4.9.1 — Inverse Trigonometric Functions.

Domain
−1
y = sin x iff x = sin y [−1, 1]
−1
y = cos x iff x = cos y [−1, 1]
y = tan −1
x iff x = tan y (−∞, ∞)
y = csc −1
x iff x = csc y (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞)
y = sec −1
x iff x = sec y (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞)
y = cot −1
x iff x = cot y (−∞, ∞)

The graphs of the six inverse trigonometric functions are shown in Figures 4.11a -4.11f

Figure 4.11:

Inverse Properties of Trigonometric Functions

sin(sin−1 x) = x for
−1 ≤ x ≤ 1
−1 π π
sin (sin x) = x for − ≤ x ≤
2 2
−1
cos(cos x) = x for − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1
cos−1 (cos x) = x for 0≤x≤π
tan(tan −1
x) = x for −∞ ≤ x ≤ ∞
π π
tan−1 (tan x) = x for − ≤x≤
2 2

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 76 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives
Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

d 1 du
(csc−1 u) = − √
d 1 du dx |u| u2 − 1 dx
(sin−1 u) = √ d 1 du
dx 1 − u dx
2
(sec−1 u) = √
d 1 du dx |u| u − 1 dx
2
(cos−1 u) = − √
dx 1 − u dx
2 d 1 du
(cot−1 u) = −
d 1 du dx 1 + u2 dx
(tan−1 u) = 2
dx 1 + u dx

Proof. Let y = sin−1 x =⇒ sin y = x. Differentiating implicitly with respect to x , we obtain

dy dy 1
cos y = 1 =⇒ =
dx dx cosy
π π
Now, cos y ≥ 0, since − ≤ y ≤ , so we can write,
2 2� �
cos y = 1 − sin2 y = 1 − x2
Therefore,
dy 1 1
= =√ , for − 1 < x < 1
dx cosy 1 − x2
Finally, if u is a differentiable function of x , then the Chain Rule gives
d 1 du
(sin−1 u) = √ �
dx 1 − u2 dx

� Example 4.31 Find the derivative of √

(a) f (x) = cos−1 5x (b) g(x) = tan−1 1 + 2x (c) y = sec−1 e−2x
�

4.10 Hyperbolic Functions

Definition 4.10.1 — The Hyperbolic Functions. .

1 sinh x
ex − e−x cschx = , x �= 0 tanh x =
sinh x = sinh x cosh x
2 1 cosh x
ex + e−x sechx = coth x = , x �= 0
cosh x = cosh x sinh x
2

Figure 4.12: The graphs of the hyperbolic sine and cosine functions

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 4.11 Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions 77

Figure 4.13: The graphs of the hyperbolic tangent, cosecant, secant, and cotangent functions

Hyperbolic Identities

sinh(−x) = − sinh x cosh(−x) = − cosh(x)

2 2
cosh x − sinh x = 1 sec h2 x = 1 − tanh2 x
sinh(x + y) = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh x sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x
cosh(x + y) = cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y cosh 2x = cosh2 x + sinh2 x
1 1
cosh2 x = (1 + cosh 2x) sinh2 x = (−1 + cosh 2x)
2 2

4.11 Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions

Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions

d
(csc hx) = − csc hx coth x
dx
d d
(sinh x) = cosh x (sec hx) = − sec hx tanh x
dx dx
d d
(cosh x) = sinh x (coth x) = −csch2 x
dx dx
d
(tanh x) = sech2 x
dx

� Example 4.32 Find the derivative of

(a) sinh(x2 + 2)
(b) cosh2 (ln 2x)
�

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 78 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives
4.12 Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
Definition 4.12.1 — Inverse Trigonometric Functions.

Domain
y = sinh −1
x iff x = sinh y (−∞, ∞)
y = cosh −1
x iff x = cosh y [1, ∞)
−1
y = tanh x iff x = tanh y (−1, 1)
−1
y = csch x iff x = csc hy (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)
−1
y = sech x iff x = sec hy (0, 1]
y = coth −1
x iff x = coth y (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞)

�
� Example 4.33 Show that sinh−1 x = ln(x + x2 + 1) �

Solution: Let y = sinh−1 x. Then

ey − e−y
x = sinh y = (4.7)
2
=⇒ e − 2x − e = 0 =⇒ e2y − 2xey − 1 = 0
y −y
(4.8)

which is a quadratic in ey . Using the quadratic formula, we have

�
y
� e = x ± x2 + 1 �
Only�the root x + x2 + 1 is admissible. To see why, observe that ey > 0, but x − x2 + 1 < 0 since
x < x2 + 1. Therefore, we have �
ey = x + �x2 + 1
so y = ln(x + x2 + 1)
That is �
sinh−1 x = ln(x + x2 + 1)
Representations of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions in Terms of Logarithmic Functions
�
sinh−1 x = ln(x + x2 + 1) (∞, ∞)
�
−1
cosh x = ln(x + x2 − 1) [1, ∞)
� �
1 1+x
tanh−1 x = ln (−1, 1)
2 1−x

The derivatives of the inverse hyperbolic functions can be found by differentiating the function in
question directly. For example,

d d �
(cosh−1 x) = (ln(x + x2 − 1)
dx dx � �
1 x
= √ 1+ √
x + x2 − 1 x2 − 1
�√ �
1 x2 − 1 + x
= √ √
x + x2 − 1 x2 − 1
1
= √
x2 − 1

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 4.13 Applications of Derivatives 79

Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

d 1 du
(csch−1 u) = − √
d 1 du dx |u| u2 + 1 dx
(sinh−1 u) = √ d 1 du
dx u + 1 dx
2
(sech−1 u) = − √
d 1 du dx u 1 − u dx
2
(cosh−1 u) = √ d 1 du
dx u − 1 dx
2
(coth−1 u) =
d 1 du dx 1 − u2 dx
(tanh−1 u) =
dx 1 − u2 dx

� Example 4.34 Find the derivative of y = x2 sech−1 3x �

4.13 Applications of Derivatives

4.13.1 Extrema of a Function f
Definition 4.13.1 — Extrema of a Function f. .
A function f has an absolute maximum at c if f (x) ≤ f (c) for all x in the domain D of f . The
number f (c) is called the maximum value of f on D. Similarly, f has an absolute minimum at c if
f (x) ≥ f (c) for all x in D. The number f (c) is called the minimum value of f on D. The absolute
maximum and absolute minimum values of f on D are called the extreme values, or extrema, of f
on D.

Figure 4.14:

Definition 4.13.2 — Relative Extrema of a Function. .

A function f has a relative (or local) maximum at c if f (c) ≥ f (x) for all values of x in some open
interval containing c. Similarly, f has a relative (or local) minimum at c if f (c) ≤ f (x) for all
values of x in some open interval containing c.

Figure 4.15: The function f has relative extrema at a, b, c, and d.

The tangent lines at a and b are horizontal. There are no tangent lines at c and d.

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80 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives
Theorem 4.13.1 — Fermat’s Theorem. .
If f has a relative extremum at c, then either f � (c) = 0 or f � (c) does not exist.

Definition 4.13.3 — Critical Number of f. .

A critical number of a function f is any number c in the domain of f at which f � (c) = 0 or f � (c)
does not exist.

√
� Example 4.35 Find the critical numbers of f (x) = x − 3 3 x �

x2/3 − 1
Solution: f � (x) = . Then the critical numbers are −1, 0, and 1.
x2/3
Theorem 4.13.2 — The Extreme Value Theorem. .
If f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b], then f attains an absolute maximum value f (c) for
some number c in [a, b] and an absolute minimum value f (d) for some number d in [a, b].

Guidelines for Finding the Extrema of a Continuous Function f on [a, b]

1. Find the critical numbers of f that lie in (a, b).
2. Compute the value of f at each of these critical numbers, and also compute f (a) and f (b).
3. The absolute maximum value of f and the absolute minimum value of f are precisely the largest
and the smallest numbers found in Step 2.

� Example 4.36 Find the extreme values of the function

(a) f (x) = 3x4 − 4x3 − 8 on [−1, 2]
1
(b) f (x) = 2cosx − x on [0, 2π] (c) f (x) = on [1, 3]
x
�

Solution:
(a) Since f is a polynomial function, it is continuous everywhere; in particular, it is continuous
on the closed interval [−1, 2]. Therefore, we can use the Extreme Value Theorem.
First, we find the critical numbers of f in (−1, 2):
f � (x) = 12x3 − 12x2 = 12x2 (x − 1)
Observe that f � (x) is continuous on (−1, 2). Next, setting f � (x) = 0 gives x = 0 or x = 1.
Therefore, 0 and 1 are the only critical numbers of f in (−1, 2).
Next, we compute f (x) at these critical numbers as well as at the endpoints −1 and 2.
These values are f (0) = −8, f (1) = −9, f (−1) = −1 and f (2) = 8
Thus, f attains the absolute maximum value of 8 at 2 and the absolute minimum value of
−9 at 1.

(b) The function f is continuous everywhere; in particular, it is continuous on the closed

interval [0, 2π]. Therefore, the Extreme Value Theorem is applicable. First, we find the
critical numbers of f in (0, 2π). We have f � (x) = −2sinx − 1 = 0
Observe that f � (x) is continuous on (0, 2π). Next, setting f � (x) = 0 gives
−1
−2 sin x − 1 = 0 ⇒=
2
7π 11π 7π 11π
Thus, x = or . (Remember x lies in (0, 2π).) So and are the only critical
6 6 6 6
numbers of f in (0, 2π).
Next, we compute the values of f at these critical numbers as well as at the endpoints 0
and 2π. These values are

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 4.13 Applications of Derivatives 81
7π √ 7π
f (0) = 2, f (2π) = 2 − 2π = −4.28, f ( ) = − 3 − = −5.40,
6 6
11π √ 7π
f( ) = 3− = −4.03
6 6
Thus, f attains the absolute maximum value of 2 at 0 and the absolute minimum value of
7π
approximately −5.4 at .
6
(c) Notice that on the interval [1, 3], f is continuous. Consequently, the Extreme Value Theo-
rem guarantees that f has both an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum on [1, 3].
1
Hence, f (x) reaches its maximum value of 1 at x = 1 and its minimum value of at x = 3.
3

4.13.2 The Mean Value Theorem

Theorem 4.13.3 Rolle’s Theorem
Let f be continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). If f (a) = f (b), then there exists at least
one number c in (a, b) such that f � (c) = 0.

� Example 4.37 Let f (x) = x3 − x

(a) Show that f satisfies the hypotheses of Rolle’s Theorem on [−1, 1].
(b) Find the number(s) c in (−1, 1) such that f � (c) = 0 as guaranteed by Rolle’s Theorem.
�

Solution:
(a) The polynomial function f is continuous and differentiable on (−∞, ∞) . In particular, it
is continuous on [−1, 1] and differentiable on (−1, 1) . Furthermore,
f (−1) = (−1)3 − (−1) = 0 and f (1) = 13 − 1 = 0
and the hypotheses of Rolle’s theorem are satisfied.
(b) Rolle’s Theorem guarantees that there exists at least one number c in (−1, 1) such that
f � (c) = 0. But f � (x) = 3x2 − 1, so to find c , we√solve
3
3c2 − 1 = 0 =⇒ c = ±
3
Theorem 4.13.4 The Mean Value Theorem
Let f be continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). Then there exists at least one number c in
(a, b) such that
f (b) − f (a)
f � (c) = (4.9)
b−a

� Example 4.38 Let f (x) = x3 − 5x2 − 3x

(a) Show that f satisfies the hypothesis of the Mean Value Theorem on [1, 3].
f (3) − f (1)
(b) Find the number(s) c in (1, 3) such that f � (c) = as guaranteed by the Mean
3−1
Value Theorem.
�

Solution:
(a) f is a polynomial function, so it is continuous and differentiable on (−∞, ∞) . In particular,
it is continuous on [−1, 1] and differentiable on (−1, 1). So the hypotheses of the Mean
Value Theorem are satisfied.

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 82 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives
(b) f � (x) = 3x2 − 10x − 3, so f � (c) = 3c2 − 10c − 3. With a = 1 and b = 3 , Equation (4.9)
gives

f (3) − f (1)
f � (c) =
3−1
−27 − (−7)
3c2 − 10c − 3 =
3−1
2
3c − 10c − 3 = −10 =⇒ (3c − 7)(c − 1)
7
c = 1 or c =
3
7
So there are two numbers, c1 = 1 and c2 = , in (1, 3) that satisfy Equation (4.9).
3

4.13.3 Increasing and Decreasing Functions and The First Derivative Test
Definition 4.13.4 Increasing and Decreasing Functions
A function f is increasing on an interval I, if for every pair of numbers x1 and x2 in I,
x1 < x2 implies that f (x1 ) < f (x2 )
f is decreasing on I if, for every pair of numbers x1 and x2 in I,
x1 < x2 implies that f (x1 ) > f (x2 )
f is monotonic on I if it is either increasing or decreasing on I.

Figure 4.16:

Theorem 4.13.5 Suppose f is differentiable on an open interval (a, b).

1. If f � (x) > 0 for all x in (a, b), then f is increasing on (a, b).
2. If f � (x) < 0 for all x in (a, b), then f is decreasing on (a, b).
3. If f � (x) = 0 for all x in (a, b), then f is constant on (a, b).

Determining the Intervals Where a Function Is Increasing or Decreasing

1. Find all the values of x for which f � (x) = 0 or f � (x) does not exist. Use these values of x to
partition the domain of f into open intervals.
2. Select a test number c in each interval found in Step 1, and determine the sign of f � (c) in that
interval.
(a) If f � (c) > 0, then f is increasing on that interval.
(b) If f � (c) < 0, then f is decreasing on that interval.
(c) If f � (c) = 0, then f is constant on that interval.

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4.13 Applications of Derivatives 83

� Example 4.39 Determine the intervals where the function f (x) = x3 + x2 − 5x − 5 increasing and
where it is decreasing. �

Solution: f � (x) = 3x2 + 2x − 5 = (x − 1)(3x + 5)

5
from which we see that f � is continuous everywhere and has zeros at − and 1. These zeros of f �
3
5 5
partition the domain of f into the intervals (−∞, − ), (− , 1), and (1, ∞).
3 3
To determine the sign of f � (x) on each of these intervals, we evaluate f � (x) at a convenient test number
in each interval. These results are summarized in the following table.
Interval k Test value f � (k) sign of f � (x) variation of f
� � � �
5 5
−∞, − −2 3 + increasing on −∞, −
� 3� � 3�
5 5
− ,1 0 −5 - decreasing on − , 1
3 3
(1, ∞) 2 11 + increasing on (1, ∞)
� � � �
5 5
We conclude that f is increasing on −∞, − and (1, ∞) and decreasing on − , 1 .
3 3

1
� Example 4.40 Determine the intervals where the function f (x) = x + is increasing and where
x
it is decreasing. �

Solution: The derivative of f is

(x + 1)(x − 1)
f � (x) =
x2
from which we see that f � (x) is continuous everywhere except at x = 0 and has zeros at x = −1 and x =
1. These values of x partition the domain of f into the intervals (−∞, −1), (−1, 0), (0, 1), and (1, ∞).
1 1
By evaluating f � (x) at each of the test numbersx = −2, − , , and 2, we find
2 2
� 3 � � � 3
f (−2) = , f (−0.5) = −3, f (0.5) = −3, and f (2) = . We conclude that f is increasing on
4 4
(−∞, −1) and (1, ∞) and decreasing on (−1, 0) and (0, 1). Note that f � (x) does not change sign as
we move across the point of discontinuity.

Theorem 4.13.6 The First Derivative Test

Let c be a critical number of a continuous function f in the interval (a, b) and suppose that f is
differentiable at every number in (a, b) with the possible exception of c itself.
If f � (x) > 0 on (a, c) and f � (x) < 0 on (c, b), then f has a relative maximum at c
1. If f � (x) < 0 on (a, c) and f � (x) > 0 on (c, b), then f has a relative minimum at c
2.
3. If f � (x) has the same sign on (a, c) and (c, b), then f does not have a relative extremum at c

Figure 4.17:

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 84 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives

� Example 4.41 Find the relative extrema of f (x) = x4 − 4x3 + 12 �

Solution: The derivative of f ,

f � (x) = 4x3 − 12x2 = 4x2 (x − 3)
is continuous everywhere. Therefore, the zeros of f � , which are 0 and 3, are the only critical numbers
of f . The sign diagram of f � is shown in Figure 4.18. Since f � has the same sign on (−∞, 0) and
(0, 3), the First Derivative Test tells us that f does not have a relative extremum at 0. Next, we note
that f � changes sign from negative to positive as we move across 3, so 3 does give rise to a relative
minimum of f . The relative minimum value of f is f (3) = −15 . The graph of f is shown in Figure
4.19 and confirms these results.

Figure 4.18: The sign diagram of f �

Figure 4.19: The graph of f

� Example 4.42 Find the local extrema of f if f (x) = x2/3 (x2 − 8). �

Solution: The derivatives of f

8(x2 − 2)
f � (x) = 1/3
.
√ 3x√
�
The critical numbers
√ are √− 2, 0, and√ 2. These √ suggest an examination of the sign of f (x) in the
intervals (−∞, − 2), (− 2, 0), (0, 2) and ( 2, ∞).
Interval k Test value f � (k) sign of f � (x) variation of f
� √ � 248 � √ �
−∞, − 2 −8 − - decreasing on −∞, − 2
� √ � 3 � √ �
8
− 2, 0 −1 + increasing on − 2, 0
√ 3 √
8
(0, 2) 1 − - decreasing on (0, 2)
√ 3 √
248
( 2, ∞) 8 + increasing on ( 2, ∞)
3 √ √
By the First Derivative Test, f has local minima at − 2 and 2 and a local minima at 0.

� Example 4.43 Find the relative extrema of x3 − 6x2 + 9x + 1 �

4.13.4 Concavity and Inflection Point

Definition 4.13.5 Concavity of the Graph of a Function
Suppose f is differentiable on an open interval I. Then
1. the graph of f is concave upward on I if f � is increasing on I.
2. the graph of f is concave downward on I if f � is decreasing on I.

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 4.13 Applications of Derivatives 85

Theorem 4.13.7 Suppose f has a second derivative on an open interval I.

1. If f �� (x) > 0 for all x in I, then the graph of f is concave upward on I.
2. If f �� (x) < 0 for all x in I, then the graph of f is concave downward on I.

Definition 4.13.6 — Inflection Point. Let the function f be continuous on an open interval con-
taining the point c, and suppose the graph of f has a tangent line at P(c, f (c)). If the graph of f
changes from concave upward to concave downward (or vice versa) at P, then the point P is called
an inflection point of the graph of f .

Theorem 4.13.8 The Second Derivative Test

Suppose that f has a continuous second derivative on an interval (a, b) containing a critical number
c of f .
1. If f �� (c) > 0, then f has a relative minimum at c.
2. If f �� (x) < 0, then f has a relative maximum at c.
3. If f �� (x) = 0, then the test is inconclusive.

4
� Example 4.44 Find the relative extrema of f (x) = x4 + x3 − x2 using the Second Derivative
3
Test. �

Solution: f � (x) = 4x3 + 4x2 − 2x. √ √

� −1 − 3 −1 + 3
Setting f (x) = 0 , we see that 0, and are critical numbers of f . Next, we compute
2 2
f �� (x) = 12x2 + 8x − 2
��
Evaluating f (x) at the critical number 0, we find
f �� (0) = −2 < 0
and the Second Derivative Test � implies that 0 gives rise to a relative maximum of � f . Also
√ � √ �
�� −1 − 3 �� −1 + 3
f => 0 and f => 0
2 2
√
−1 ± 3
so gives rise to a relative minimum of f .
2

4.13.5 Curve Sketching

Guidelines for Sketching a Curve
1. Find the domain of f .
2. Find the x- and y-intercepts of f .
3. Determine whether the graph of f is symmetric with respect to the y-axis or the origin. That is
(a) If f (−x) = f (x) for all x in the domain D, then f is an even function and the curve is
symmetric about the y-axis.
(b) If f (−x) = − f (x) for all x in the domain D ,then f is an odd function and the curve is
symmetric about the origin.
4. Determine the behavior of f for large absolute values of x.
5. Find the asymptotes of the graph of f .
6. Find the intervals where f is increasing and where f is decreasing.
7. Find the relative extrema of f .
8. Determine the concavity of the graph of f .
9. Find the inflection points of f .
10. Sketch the graph of f

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86 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives

x2
� Example 4.45 Let y = 2 . Then sketch the graph of y. �
x −1

Solution:
1. The denominator of f is (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, 1) ∪ (1, ∞).
2. Setting x = 0 gives 0 as the y -intercept. Next, setting f (x) = 0 gives x2 = 0, or x = 0 . So the x
-intercept is 0.
(−x)2 x2
3. f (−x) = = = f (x) and this shows that the graph of f is symmetric with
(−x)2 − 1 x2 − 1
respect to the y-axis.
x2 x2
4. lim 2 = lim 2 =1
x→−∞ x − 1 x→∞ x − 1
5. Because the denominator of f (x) is equal to zero at −1 and 1, the lines x = −1 and x = 1 are
candidates for the vertical asymptotes of the graph of f . Since
x2 x2
lim − 2 = ∞ and lim− 2 = −∞
x→−1 x − 1 x→1 x − 1
we see that x = −1 and x = 1 are indeed vertical asymptotes. From part (4) we see that y = 1 is
a horizontal asymptote of the graph of f .
2x
6. f � (x) = − 2
(x − 1)2
Notice that f � is continuous everywhere except at ±1 and that it has a zero when x = 0. The
sign diagram of f � is shown in Figure 4.20.
From the diagram we see that f is increasing on (−∞, −1) and on (−1, 0) and decreasing on

Figure 4.20:

(0, 1) and on (1, ∞).

7. From the results of part (6) we see that 0 is a critical number of f . The numbers −1 and 1 are
not in the domain of f and, therefore, are not critical numbers of f .
Also, from Figure 4.20 we see that f has a relative maximum at x = 0. Its value is f (0) = 0.
2(3x2 + 1)
8. f �� (x) = 2
(x − 1)3
Notice that f �� is continuous everywhere except at ±1 and that f �� has no zero. The sign diagram
of f �� is shown in Figure 4.21, we see that the graph of f is concave upward on (−∞, −1) and
on (1, ∞) and concave downward on (−1, 1) .

Figure 4.21:

9. f has no inflection points. Remember that −1 and 1 are not in the domain of f .

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 4.14 Indeterminate Forms and l’Hospital’s Rule 87

Figure 4.22:

Slant Asymptotes
The graph of a function f may have an asymptote that is neither vertical nor horizontal but slanted. We
call the line with equation y = mx + b a slant or oblique (right) asymptote of the graph of f if
f (x)
lim = m and lim ( f (x) − mx) = b
x→∞ x x→∞

4.14 Indeterminate Forms and l’Hospital’s Rule

4.14.1 The Indeterminate Form 0/0 and ∞/∞
If lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0, then the limit
x→a x→a
f (x)
lim
x→a g(x)
is called an indeterminate form of the type 0/0 . As the name implies, the undefined expression
0/0 does not provide us with a definitive answer concerning the existence of the limit or its value, if
the limit exists.
If lim f (x) = ±∞ and lim g(x) = ±∞, then the limit
x→a x→a
f (x)
lim
x→a g(x)
is called an indeterminate form of the type ∞/∞
To see why this limit is an indeterminate form, we simply write
1
g(x)
lim
x→a 1
f (x)
which has the form 0/0 and, therefore, is indeterminate.

Theorem 4.14.1 — l’Hôpital’s Rule. Suppose that f and g are differentiable on an open interval I
f (x)
that contains a , with the possible exception of a itself, and g� (x) �= 0 for all x in I. If lim is
x→a g(x)
indeterminate form of the type 0/0 or ∞/∞, then
f (x) f � (x)
lim = lim �
x→a g(x) x→a g (x)
provided that the limit on the right-hand side exists or is infinite.

R l’Hôpital’s Rule is also valid for one-sided limits as well as limits at infinity or negative infinity;
that is, we can replace �� x → a�� by any of the symbols x → a+ , x → a− , x → ∞, or x → −∞.

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 88 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives

� Example 4.46 Evaluate

sin 3x ex − x − 1
(a) lim (d) lim
x→0 sin 2x x→0 x2
ln x x 3
(b) lim (e) lim 2x
x→∞ x x→∞ e
sin πx x3
(c) lim+ √ (f) lim
x→1 x−1 x→0 x − tan x

4.14.2 The Indeterminate Form ∞ − ∞ and 0.∞

If lim f (x) = ∞ and lim g(x) = ∞, then the limit
x→a x→a
lim ( f (x) − g(x))
x→a
is said to be an indeterminate form of the type ∞ − ∞. An indeterminate form of this type can often
be expressed as one of the type 0/0 or ∞/∞ by algebraic manipulation.
If lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = ±∞, then the limit
x→a x→a
lim ( f (x)g(x))
x→a
is said to be an indeterminate form of the type 0.∞. An indeterminate form of this type can often be
expressed as one of the type 0/0 or ∞/∞ by algebraic manipulation.

� Example 4.47 Evaluate

� �
1 1 (c) lim+ x ln x
(a) lim+ − x x→0
x→0
� x e −1 � (d) lim
ln x
1 1 x→∞ x
(b) lim −
x→0 ln(x + 1) x

4.14.3 The Indeterminate Form ∞ − ∞ and 0.∞

The limit
lim [ f (x)]g(x)
x→a
is said to be an indeterminate form of the type
00 if lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0
x→a x→a
0
∞ if lim f (x) = ∞ and lim g(x) = 0
x→a x→a
10 if lim f (x) = 1 and lim g(x) = ∞
x→a x→a

These indeterminate forms can usually be converted to indeterminate forms of the type 0.∞ by taking
logarithms or by using the identity
[ f (x)]g(x) = eg(x) ln f (x)

� Example 4.48 Evaluate � �

1 x 1
(a) lim+ xx (b) lim 1 + (c) lim+ x x−1 �
x→0 x→∞ x x→1

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