Investigations in Electric Power Technology: Modularized Systems Volumes 1 To 4

Electric Power / Controls
Investigations in Electric Power Technology

1-800-Lab-Volt Modularized Systems
www.labvolt.com Volumes 1 to 4
25990-01
Instructor Guide
|3025990010000Q~
Electric Power / Controls
Investigations in
Electric Power Technology
Modularized Systems
Volumes 1 to 4
Instructor Guide
25990-01
AB
ELECTRIC POWER / CONTROLS
INVESTIGATIONS IN
ELECTRIC POWER TECHNOLOGY
MODULARIZED SYSTEMS
VOLUMES 1 TO 4
by
the Staff
of
Lab-Volt Ltd.
Copyright © 2004 Lab-Volt Ltd.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

in any form or by any means, without the prior written permission
of Lab-Volt Ltd.
Legal Deposit – Second Trimester 2004
ISBN 2-89289-725-4
THIRD EDITION, MAY 2004
Printed in Canada
December 2005
To the Instructor
The Lab-Volt Electrical Power Technology training system is a modularized program

designed to effectively prepare the students for the realities of the contemporary job market.
This method of presentation is unique in its modular concept and places emphasis upon
electrical laboratory procedures performed by the individual student.
A major benefit derived from dynamic laboratory investigations is that students quickly realize
that actual circuit performance data will usually vary somewhat from calculated performance
data. As they learn to anticipate these disparities, they also learn to consider component
circuit and meter tolerances when calculating the maximum permissible deviation of actual
circuit results from the ideal or calculated values. The numerical results given in this guide
have been rounded off to the appropriate number of significant digits.
This instructor guide contains complete solutions to all procedure and review questions found
in the student manual. Each experiment begins with a discussion of the subject. The
discussion may include background or historical information to aid in introductory discussion
of the subject. It may also contain additional data which will open other possible avenues of
investigation or technical data to facilitate conduct of experiment and evaluation of results.
Each experiment has several performance objectives. You should insure that students
understand each of them.
III
IV
Table of contents
Power Circuits
Ex. 1 Series and Parallel Equivalent Resistances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
Ex. 2 Resistances in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5
Ex. 3 Resistances in Series and in Series-Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9
Ex. 4 Safety and the Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-15
Ex. 5 Ohm’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-19
Ex. 6 Circuit Solution – Part I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-23
Ex. 7 Circuit Solution – Part II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-27
Ex. 8 Power in DC Circuits – Part I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-33
Ex. 9 Power in DC Circuits – Part II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-39
Ex. 10 The Transmission Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-45
Ex. 11 AC Voltage and Current – Part I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-51
Ex. 12 AC Voltage and Current – Part II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-57
Ex. 13 The Wattmeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-61
Ex. 14 Phase Angle, Active, and Apparent Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-65
Ex. 15 Capacitive Reactance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-71
Ex. 16 Inductive Reactance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-73
Ex. 17 Watt, Var, Volt-Ampere, and Power Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-75
Ex. 18 Vectors and Phasors – Series Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-77
Ex. 19 Vectors and Phasors – Parallel Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-83
Ex. 20 Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-91
Ex. 21 Three-Phase Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-95
Ex. 22 Three-Phase Watts, Vars, and Volt-Amperes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-99
Ex. 23 Three-Phase Power Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-103
Ex. 24 Phase Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-105
V
Table of Contents (cont'd)
DC Machines
Ex. 0 Safety and the Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1
Ex. 1 Prime Mover and Torque Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3
Ex. 2 The Direct Current Motor – Part I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7
Ex. 3 The Direct Current Motor – Part II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-11
Ex. 4 The DC Shunt Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-17
Ex. 5 The DC Series Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-21
Ex. 6 The DC Compound Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-25
Ex. 7 The DC Separately Excited Shunt Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-29
Ex. 8 The DC Self-Excited Shunt Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-33
Ex. 9 The DC Compound Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-37
Ex. 10 DC Motor Starter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-41
Ex. 11 Thyristor Speed Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-43
Ex. 12 Thyristor Speed Controllers with Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-49
Appendix D SCR Speed Control – Part I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-1
Appendix E SCR Speed Control – Part II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-1
Single-Phase Transformers and AC Machines
Ex. 0 Safety and the Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
Ex. 1 The Single-Phase Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3
Ex. 2 Transformer Polarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9
Ex. 3 Transformer Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13
Ex. 4 The Autotransformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-17
Ex. 5 Transformers in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23
Ex. 6 The Distribution Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-27
Ex. 7 Prime Mover and Torque Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-31
Ex. 8 The Split-Phase Inductor Motor – Part I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-33
VI
Table of Contents (cont'd)
Ex. 9 The Split-Phase Inductor Motor – Part II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-37
Ex. 10 The Split-Phase Inductor Motor – Part III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-41
Ex. 11 The Capacitor-Start Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-45
Ex. 12 The Capacitor-Run Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-49
Ex. 13 The Universal Motor – Part I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-53
Ex. 14 The Universal Motor – Part II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-57
Three-Phase Transformers and AC Machines
Ex. 0 Safety and the Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
Ex. 1 Three-Phase Transformer Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3
Ex. 2 Prime Mover and Torque Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7
Ex. 3 The Wound-Rotor Induction Motor – Part I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9
Ex. 4 The Wound-Rotor Induction Motor – Part II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-13
Ex. 5 The Wound-Rotor Induction Motor – Part III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15
Ex. 6 The Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-19
Ex. 7 The Synchronous Motor – Part I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-23
Ex. 8 The Synchronous Motor – Part II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-25
Ex. 9 The Synchronous Motor – Part III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-29
Ex. 10 The Three-Phase Alternator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-33
Ex. 11 The Alternator Under Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-37
Ex. 12 Alternator Synchronization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-39
Ex. 13 Alternator Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-41
Ex. 14 Three-Phase Motor Starter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-45
Ex. 15 Frequency Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-49
Ex. 16 Reactance and Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-51
Ex. 17 Selsyn Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-53
VII
Power Circuits
Experiment 1
Series and Parallel Equivalent Resistances
DISCUSSION
This Laboratory Experiment is primarily a review of the basic electricity principles

involving calculation of equivalent resistances in series and parallel circuits. It is a
means of establishing a firm starting platform for all students with the basic
prerequisites for this course. Instructions for performing circuit calculations are brief,
serving more as a review than basic instruction. For that reason, the formula for
calculating equivalent resistance of several different valued resistors in parallel is
limited to that for calculating conductance or the reciprocal of resistance. The
student should know from previous studies that the actual equivalent resistance is
the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistors.
PROCEDURE
G 1. Answers for Figure 1-5.
a) Requivalent = 600 S
b) Requivalent = 900 S
c) Requivalent = 2100 S
d) Requivalent = 1200 S
e) Requivalent = 2100 S
Answers for Figure 1-6.
This problem involves calculation of two equal resistances in parallel. When

equal resistances are connected in parallel, the equivalent resistance is
equal to the value of one resistor divided by the number of equal parallel
resistors in the circuit. In this case - Requivalent = 600/2 = 300 S. If four 600 S
resistors are connected in parallel, R equivalent will be 600/4 = 150 S.
b) Requivalent = 200 S
c) Requivalent = 240 S
e) Requivalent = 171.4 S
1-1
Answers for Figure 1-7.
b) Requivalent = 133.3 S
c) Requivalent = 92.3 S
e) Requivalent = 120 S
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. a. Infinitely high.
b. Very low or 0 S.
c. A solid conducting path (with approximately zero resistance) between two

terminals or conductors.
2. High.
3. 0 S
4. a) 1/R equivalent ' (1/5) % (1/12) % (1/20)

' (12 % 5 % 3)/60
' 20/60 ' 2/6
Requivalent ' 6/2 ' 3 S
b) Requivalent ' R1 x R3/(R1 % R3)

' 5 x 20/(5 % 20)
' 100/25 ' 4
Requivalent ' 4 x R2/(4 % R2)

' 4 x 12/(4 % 12)
' 48/16
' 3 S
The decision as to which of the two methods is the easier depends upon which
two resistors are selected for the initial calculation in method b). If resistors R1
and R2, or R2 and R3 are used first, the calculation will involve fractions, in
which case method a) will be considered the easier method. Obviously, where
many resistors are involved, method b) can become cumbersome and time
consuming.
5. See Figure 1-8.
1-2
Figure 1-8.
1-3
6. See Table 1-1.
SWITCHES SWITCHES EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT AND CALCULATION

(Open) (Closed) OF EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE
S1
S2
S3
Requivalent = infinity S
S1
S3
S2
Requivalent = 39 S
S1
S3
S2
Requivalent = 37 S
S1
S2
S3
Requivalent = 47 S
Table 1-1.
1-4
Experiment 2
Resistances in Parallel
DISCUSSION
Electric current, like water, will flow through any path provided for it. If a single
resistor is connected across a power source, a certain amount of current will flow
through the resistor. If a second resistor is connected in parallel with the first, the
current will have two paths to flow through and more current will flow. If the second
resistor has the same resistance value as the first, the same amount of current will
flow through each resistor so that adding the second resistor to the circuit doubles
the current flow (or reduces resistance to current flow by one-half). If a third resistor,
having the same resistance as the first two, is added in parallel, a third current path
is formed and, obviously, three times as much current now flows as when only one
resistor was connected. If three times as much current flows, the effective
resistance must be one-third that of a single resistor. Current flow through the
various parallel resistance paths will always distribute in inverse proportion to the
resistance ratios.
If a number of equal resistors are connected in parallel, their equivalent resistance

is equal to the value of one resistor divided by the number of parallel connected
resistors. Example: Five 100 S resistors are connected in parallel. Their equivalent
resistance is:
Requivalent = 100/5 = 20 S
PROCEDURE
G 5. Yes; see Table 2-1.
BLACK SECTION
RED SECTION BLUE SECTION
(WHITE FOR 240 V SYSTEM)
R
1200 S 600 S 300 S 1200 S 600 S 300 S 1200 S 600 S 300 S
(listed)
R
1200 S 600 S 300 S 1200 S 600 S 300 S 1200 S 600 S 300 S
(measured)
Table 2-1
G 7. Requivalent (calculated) = 300 S
Requivalent (measured) = 300 S
1-5
G 11. Requivalent (calculated) = 171.4 S
G 13. Requivalent (calculated) = 133.3 S
G 14. Yes, the variations are well within the rated meter accuracy, plus zero
setting and human measurement errors.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. 1/R (equivalent) = (1/1200) + (1/1200) + (1/1200) + (1/600) + (1/600) +

(1/600) + (1/300) + (1/300) + (1/300)
= (1 + 1 + 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 4 + 4 + 4)/1200 = 21/1200
R (equivalent) = 1200/21
= 57.1 S
This calculation can be performed in more than one way.
a) The effective resistances of the three sets of equal values resistors are first
calculated as follows:
1200/3 = 400; 600/3 = 200; 300/3 = 100
1-6
b) The resistances are then used to calculate the equivalent resistance.
(1/400) + (1/200) + (1/100) = 7/400
= 400/7
= 57.14 S
2. Yes.
3. 1) 300 x 600/(300 + 600) = 200 S
2) 300 x 1200/(300 + 1200) = 240 S
3) 600 x 1200/(600 + 1200) = 400 S
4) (1/300) + (1/600) + (1/1200) = 7/1200 = 1/R
R= 1200/7 = 171.4 S
4. 1) (1/300) + (1/300) +(1/600), R = 120 S
2) (1/300) + (1/600)+ (1/600), R = 150 S
3) 200 x 200/(200 + 200) = 40 000/400
R= 100 S
4) 171.4 x 171.4/(171.4 + 171.4) = 29 388/342.8
R= 85.7 S
5. 1) (1/100) + (1/100) + (1/100), = 66.7 S
2) (1/240) + (1/240) + (1/240), R = 80 S
3) (1/400) + (1/400) = (1/400), R = 133.3 S
4) (1/300) + (1/600) + (1/300) + (1/600) + (1/300) + (1/600),
R = 66.7 S
6. 1200 S
1-7
1-8
Experiment 3
Resistances in Series and in Series-Parallel
DISCUSSION
The series-parallel circuit usually presents no problems to the individual familiar with
series and parallel circuit calculations. It is only necessary to reduce the parallel
portions to their equivalent values then add them to the sum of the series
resistances. In this Laboratory Experiment, the student forms series and series-
parallel resistance combinations using the resistance module. He or she practices
translating circuit diagrams into actual circuits. He or she checks his work by
measuring the circuit resistance and comparing it with calculated resistance. Actual
measurements (experimental results) usually do not completely agree with
calculated values (theoretical values) so the student determines the error
percentage using the formula:
Theoretical Value & Experimental Result

Percent error ' x 100
Theoretical Value
If the experimental result is higher than the theoretical value, the two numbers in the
numerator must be reversed.
PROCEDURE
Percent error = 0.8 %
Percent error = 0 %
1-9
Percent error = 2 %
Percent error = 1 %
Percent error = 1 %
1-10
Percent error = 0 %
Students should have no trouble detecting the short across terminals A-B.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. See Figure 3-12.
Figure 3-12.
2. Requivalent = 100 S
3. See Figure 3-13.
Figure 3-13.
4. Requivalent = 4.8 S
5. See Figure 3-14.
1-11
Figure 3-14.
6. Requivalent = 26.32 S
7. R = 3600 S.
Connect the three 1200 S resistors in series with each other.
8. R = 3000 S.
By connecting a 600 S and two 1200 S resistors in series.
9. See Figure 3-15.
Figure 3-15.
The diagrams shown represent only one method of obtaining the required
resistances.
1-12
It might prove both challenging and rewarding to have the students work out
several other combinations such as the following:
1400 S
1) Connect the other two 600 S resistors in series instead of the 1200 S
resistor.
2) Connect three parallel 600 S instead of parallel 600 S and 300 S resistors.
2000 S
1) Connect the other two 300 S resistors in series instead of the 600 S
resistor.
2) Connect three 600 S resistors in parallel. Connect this parallel combination
in series with a series combination consisting of two 300 S resistors and
one 1200 S resistor.
1000 S
1) Connect two 300 S resistors in series with the parallel 1200 S and 600 S
resistors.
2) Connect two 300 S resistors in series with three parallel 1200 S resistors.
500 S
1) Connect three 1200 S resistors in parallel and three 300 S resistors in
parallel. Connect the two parallel combinations in series.
2) Connect two 600 S resistors in parallel and a 600 S resistor in parallel with
a 300 S resistor. Connect the two parallel combinations in series.
1-13
1-14
Experiment 4
Safety and the Power Supply
DISCUSSION
Safety is a vital factor in every activity. It cannot be scheduled for an hour or two of
discussion and then abandoned in favor of another subject. Whether or not an
accident occurs is usually dependant upon the degree to which basic, common
sense safety rules are followed and the extent to which application of these rules
overcomes the accident potential.
The modules used in this course are designed and constructed for maximum safety
commensurate with effective instruction. However, the students will be working near
potentially dangerous voltages and, if accident are to be avoided, the safety rules
on page 4, 0, 0, 0-3 of the student manual must be implemented and enforced
constantly. You should insist that all mishaps, whether they result in injury or not,
be reported to you. You can then investigate, determine the cause, and initiate any
indicated action to prevent recurrence. In many cases, electrical shock immobilizes
respiratory muscles and breathing stops. When this happens, artificial respiration
must be administered without delay.
Individual student calculations of body susceptibility to voltage and current merit

some comment. Chances are that the hand-to-hand and hand-to-foot (or ankle)
resistance measurement were made when the body was relatively cool and dry and
pulse and respiration were normal. Body resistance varies widely with a number of
physiological factors such as body temperature, pulse, respiration, perspiration and
metabolism. Ambient temperature and humidity are contribution factors. This means
that the body’s susceptibility to shock varies – sometimes on an hour-to-hour basis.
Resistance (dry):
From right to left hand: 70 kS
From hand to foot: 50 kS
Resistance (wet):
From right to left hand: 24 kS
From hand to foot: 20 kS
Voltage:
between two hands (dry): 7000 V

between one hand and one foot (dry): 5000 V
between two hands (wet): 2400 V
between one hand and foot (wet): = 2000 V
1-15
PROCEDURE
G 2. a. Terminals 1 and N = 120 V, 15 A ac

b. Terminals 2 and N = 120 V, 15 A ac
c. Terminals 3 and N = 120 V, 15 A ac
d. Terminals 4 and N = 0-120 V, 5 A ac
e. Terminals 5 and N = 0-120 V, 5 A ac
f. Terminals 6 and N = 0-120 V, 5 A ac
g. Terminals 7 and N = 0-120 V, 8 A dc
h. Terminals 8 and N = 120 V, 2 A dc
i. Terminals 1, 2 & 3 = 208 V, 15 A ac
j. Terminals 4, 5 & 6 = 0-208 V, 5 A ac
k. The low power connector = 24 V, 3 A ac
G 5. V dcminimum = 0 V V dcmaximum = 170 V
This dc voltage should measure high without a load because this dc source
is of the capacitor input type.
G 6. V acminimum = 0 V V acmaximum = 120 V
G 7. Terminals 5 and N = 120 V ac
Terminals 6 and N = 120 V ac
Terminals 4 and 5 and 6 = 208 V ac
G 8. d. Terminals 1 and 2 = 208 V ac
Terminals 2 and 3 = 208 V ac
e. No.
1-16
G 9. c. Terminals 8 and N = 144 V dc.
This dc voltage should measure high without a load because this dc

source is of the capacitor input type.
G 10. c. Terminals 4 and 5 = 208 V ac
1-17
1-18
Experiment 5
Ohm’s Law
DISCUSSION
The voltmeter is used to measure voltage or potential across a circuit or component.

To do this, it is connected across, or in parallel with, the circuit or component. Since
the voltage is the same across all branches of a parallel circuit, the voltage across
the circuit or component under test will also appear across the voltmeter.
The ammeter measures current and is connected in series with the circuit under
test. Since there is only one current path in a series circuit, all of the circuit current
flows through the meter. However, the ammeter must not introduce any additional
resistance into the circuit. Current flow in a series circuit varies inversely with the
total resistance of the circuit so, if total resistance is increased, circuit current will
decrease and the ammeter will not indicate the true circuit current value.
Obviously, an ammeter will always add some resistance to a circuit (and a voltmeter
will always draw some current) but the object of good meter design is to disturb the
circuit being measured as little as possible.
PROCEDURE
G 1. R = 200 kS
G 2. R = 0.35 S
G 3. R = 0.65 S
G 4. Yes. The meters must not disturb appreciably the circuit being measured.
G 6. See Table 5-1.
VOLTS 0 20 40 60 80 100 120

E
AMPS 0 0.067 0.132 0.2 0.27 0.33 0.4

I
Table 5-1.
1-19
Ohm’s Law
G 8. Yes. See Figure 5-4.
Figure 5-4.
G 9. See Table 5-2.
E 20 40 60 80 100 120
E/I 298 302 300 297 303 300
Table 5-2.
G 10. E/I = 300 S
G 11. Imeasured = 0.3 A dc
Yes.
G 12. Emeasured = 120 V dc
Yes.
1-20
Ohm’s Law
G 13. a. Requivalent = 200 S
b. Requivalent = 200 S
Yes.
G 14. Requivalent = 205 S
The variation is well within the rated meter accuracies and component
tolerances.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. See Table 5-3.
NO. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
E (V) 6 125 4 9 72 5 12 12 100 k 120
I (A) 2 5 0.5 3 6 10 3 30 100 1.2 k
R (S) 3 25 8 3 12 0.5 4 0.4 1000 0.1
Table 5-3.
2. I = 1200 A dc
Since only 3 A dc causes maximum deflection, the application of 1200 A dc

would destroy the meter.
3. E = 0.3 V dc
4. I = 0.0008 A dc
5. I = 0.024 A dc
Yes.
6. Uninsulated bus-bars would produce current losses through the low resistance
paths created by the meter and electrolyte covered surroundings. However,
they would not offer much danger to workers. Their internal body resistances
would be many thousands of times greater than the water and electrolyte
covered surfaces. Even if internal body resistance dropped to an unlikely
1000 S, current through the body, with a 6 V potential, would be:
I = E/R = 6/1000 = 0.006 A
1-21
Ohm’s Law
Insulated bus-bars could eliminate these current losses; the electrical insulation
material would however impair the cooling of the bus-bars which would run
hotter and cause more voltage drop.
In practice, the bus-bars are never insulated. They are however guarded
against possible inadvertent short-circuiting with metal parts.
7. No. The birds are in contact with only one terminal (wire) of a power source;
therefore, there is no potential difference between their feet.
In order for current to flow through one of the birds there must be a potential
difference of voltage across it. As long as the bird’s feet are both at 2300 V,
there is no potential difference between them, and therefore, no current through
the bird. However, if one foot is on the 2300 V wire and the other on a ground
wire, there is a 2300 V potential across the bird and some high value of current,
determined by internal body resistance, will flow through the bird.
8. 0.3 A dc
1-22
Experiment 6
Circuit Solution – Part I
DISCUSSION
During this Laboratory Experiment, students calculate voltages and currents in

series and parallel circuits. They use Ohm’s Law and the basic rules regarding
voltage and current distribution in series and parallel circuits. These rules can be
reduced to stark simplicity as follows:
Series circuit – the current is the same in every component of a series circuit.
Parallel circuit – the voltage is the same across every component branch of a
parallel circuit.
This points up the fact that voltage and current distribution in a series circuit is
opposite to that in a parallel circuit. With that difference in mind, circuit computation
involves calculating first the value that is common to all components in a series
circuit (current) or all branches of a parallel circuit (voltage). After that, the unknown
values are calculated individually. A knowledge of the characteristics of series and
parallel circuits plus the use of Ohm’s Law enables the student to determine circuit
value with comparative ease.
PROCEDURE
G 2. V1 = 120 V
I1 = 0.4 A
IT = 0.4 A
G 3. V1 = 60 V
V2 = 60 V
I1 = 0.2 A
I2 = 0.1 A
IT = 0.3 A
1-23
G 4. V1 = 120 V
V2 = 120 V
V3 = 120 V
I1 = 0.4 A
I2 = 0.2 A
I3 = 0.1 A
IT = 0.7 A
G 5. V1 = 30 V
V2 = 60 V
IT = 0.1 A
I1 = 0.1 A
I2 = 0.1 A
Since this is a series circuit, the value that is constant throughout the circuit,
current, should be calculated first. Students who have difficulty with this
problem are allowing themselves to be influenced by the order in which the
answers are arranged. The voltage values in this problem can, of course,
be calculated first – even by observation, due to the association of the
number values of the resistors and power source voltage. This would not
be true of circuits with less obvious component values. However, it might
be worthwhile to point out at this time that voltage in a series circuit
distributes in accordance with the ratios of the series resistance in the
circuit. In this case, the voltage across the 600 S resistor must equal twice
the voltage across the 300 S resistor. The actual resistance values are
unimportant in this calculation. It is their ratio that matters. If one resistance
was 3 S and the other 6 S, the voltage distribution would be the same. The
circuit current would change but not the voltage division.
G 6. IT = 0.1 A
I1 = 0.1 A
I2 = 0.1 A
V1 = 40 V
V2 = 60 V
1-24
G 7. IT = 0.1 A
I1 = 0.1 A
I2 = 0.1 A
I3 = 0.1 A
V1 = 30 V
V2 = 60 V
V3 = 20 V
G 8. I2 = 0.133 A
I1 = 0.133 A
V1 = 40 V
VA = 120 V
IT = 0.133 A
G 9. V1 = 60 V
V2 = 60 V
V3 = 60 V
VA = 60 V
I2 = 0.1 A
I3 = 0.05 A
IT = 0.35 A
G 10. V3 = 60 V
V2 = 60 V
I2 = 0.1 A
I1 = 0.3 A
V1 = 60 V
VA = 120 V
1-25
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. If the applied voltage is doubled, the voltage across each paralleled resistor
also doubles. Since voltage and current are directly related, the currents would
also double.
2. All voltages would reverse their polarity. All currents would reverse their
direction of flow.
3. See Figure 6-10.
As pointed out in a previous Laboratory Experiment, conventional current flow

is used in this manual to conform with current practice in the electric power
industry. With current flowing from positive to negative, it is apparent that the
terminal through which current enters a component is positive with respect to
the terminal through which the current exits.
Figure 6-10.
4. V1 = 18 V V3 = 40 V
V2 = 8 V V4 = 18 V
1-26
Experiment 7
Circuit Solution – Part II
DISCUSSION
During this Laboratory Experiment, the students check out the calculations
performed in the previous laboratory experiment (Circuit Solution – Part I). They
connect each circuit and measure the voltages and currents, then compare the
measured values with the calculated values. They have an opportunity to apply
Kirchhoff’s current law in calculating current flow in parallel circuits. The simple fact
that the current leaving a junction must be equal to the current entering the junction
is an extremely useful tool for parallel circuit calculations. Its counterpart for series
circuits is Kirchhoff’s voltage law which specifies that the sum of the voltage drops
around a series circuit must equal the applied voltage. In connecting the circuits and
meters the students acquire additional practical experience in translating schematic
diagrams into actual operating circuits. This experience will be a great help later in
the course when several modules and metering units must be connected in different
ways. The remarks column in each procedure problem should be used to indicate
significant variation between calculated and measured values. Variations of 10 %
or less are well within tolerance and need not be remarked. Note that the answer
columns are located below the figures.
PROCEDURE
G 2.
MEASURED CALCULATED
REMARKS
VALUES VALUES
V1 = 120 V V1 = 120 V agree
I1 = 0.4 A I1 = 0.4 A agree
IT = 0.4 A IT = 0.4 A agree
G 3.
MEASURED CALCULATED
REMARKS
VALUES VALUES
V1 = 60 V V1 = 60 V agree
V2 = 60 V V2 = 60 V agree
I1 = 0.2 A I1 = 0.2 A agree
I2 = 0.1 A I2 = 0.1 A agree
1-27
G 4.
MEASURED CALCULATED
REMARKS
VALUES VALUES
V1 = 120 V V1 = 120 V agree
V2 = 120 V V2 = 120 V agree
V3 = 120 V V3 = 120 V agree
I1 = 0.41 A I1 = 0.4 A agree
I2 = 0.2 A I2 = 0.2 A agree
I3 = 0.1 A I3 = 0.1 A agree
IT = 0.72 A IT = 0.7 A agree
G 5.
MEASURED CALCULATED
REMARKS
VALUES VALUES
I1 = 0.1 A I1 = 0.1 A agree
I2 = 0.1 A I2 = 0.1 A agree
V1 = 30 V V1 = 30 V agree
V2 = 60 V V2 = 60 V agree
G 6.
MEASURED CALCULATED
REMARKS
VALUES VALUES
I1 = 0.1 A I1 = 0.1 A agree
I2 = 0.1 A I2 = 0.1 A agree
V1 = 40 V V1 = 40 V agree
V2 = 60 V V2 = 60 V agree
1-28
G 7.
MEASURED CALCULATED
REMARKS
VALUES VALUES
IT = 0.099 A IT = 0.1 A agree
I1 = 0.099 A I1 = 0.1 A agree
I2 = 0.099 A I2 = 0.1 A agree
I3 = 0.099 A I3 = 0.1 A agree
V1 = 30 V V1 = 30 V agree
V2 = 60 V V2 = 60 V agree
V3 = 20 V V3 = 20 V agree
G 8.
MEASURED CALCULATED
REMARKS
VALUES VALUES
I2 = 0.132 A I2 = 0.133 A agree
I1 = 0.132 A I1 = 0.133 A agree
V1 = 40 V V1 = 40 V agree
VA = 120 V VA = 120 V agree
IT = 0.132 A IT = 0.133 A agree
G 9.
MEASURED CALCULATED
REMARKS
VALUES VALUES
V1 = 60 V V1 = 60 V agree
V2 = 60 V V2 = 60 V agree
V3 = 60 V V3 = 60 V agree
I2 = 0.1 A I2 = 0.1 A agree
I3 = 0.05 A I3 = 0.05 A agree
IT = 0.35 A IT = 0.35 A agree
1-29
G 10.
MEASURED CALCULATED
REMARKS
VALUES VALUES
V3 = 60 V V3 = 60 V agree
V2 = 60 V V2 = 60 V agree
I2 = 0.1 A I2 = 0.1 A agree
I1 = 0.3 A I1 = 0.3 A agree
V1 = 60 V V1 = 60 V agree
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. See Figure 7-12.
Figure 7-12.
2. See Figure 7-13.
1-30
Figure 7-13.
The position of the ammeter is not particularly important as long as it is in series

with the load resistor and the power source. However, the placement of the
voltmeter is important if the load resistance is not many times the resistance of
the ammeter. For low values of load resistance, the voltmeter must be across
the load resistor only. If the load resistance is appreciably greater than that of
the ammeter (which is usually the case) the voltmeter can be connected across
the combination of ammeter and load resistor and the voltage measurement will
be well within acceptable tolerance.
3. No. The indicator may possibly bend but the meter movement will not be
damaged unless its rated overload capacity is exceeded.
4. The ammeter. Its low internal resistance would cause it to draw excessive
current.
5. Yes.
No. It could be measured but the reading would be very low on the scale and
impossible to read accurately.
6. See Figure 7-14.
1-31
Figure 7-14.
1-32
Experiment 8
Power in DC Circuits – Part I
DISCUSSION
Power is the rate at which work is done and, in electricity, is the combination of
voltage (pressure) and current (rate of electron flow). When a given voltage forces
a given amount of current through the resistance of a load, power is consumed by
the load in the form of heat or light or some form of work. In dc circuits, power is the
product of voltage and current. However, the resistance offered by the load, since
it controls current through the load, is a factor in power calculations. Where either
voltage or current is known and the load resistance is known, power can be
calculated by substituting the Ohm’s Law equivalent of the unknown value. For
example, in Procedure 2 (Figure 8-1) the applied voltage is 120 V and the
resistance is 300 S.
The formula for calculating power is:
P=ExI
By Ohm’s Law:
I = E/R
Simplifying:
P = E²/R
Applying the formula to the problem:
P = 120²/300
= 14 400/300
= 48 W
PROCEDURE
G 2.
CALCULATED POWER POWER SUPPLIED

VALUES DISSIPATED (IT x Ein)
V1 = 120 V PR1 = 48 W
I1 = 0.4 A PT = 48 W PS = 48 W
IT = 0.4 A REMARKS satisfactory
1-33
G 3.

V1 = 60 V PR1 = 12 W
V2 = 60 V PR2 = 6 W PS = 18 W
I1 = 0.2 A PT = 18 W
I2 = 0.1 A
IT = 0.3 A
REMARKS satisfactory
G 4.

V1 = 120 V PR1 = 48 W
V2 = 120 V PR2 = 24 W PS = 84 W
V3 = 120 V PR3 = 12 W
I1 = 0.4 A PT = 84 W
I2 = 0.2 A
I3 = 0.1 A
IT = 0.7 A REMARKS satisfactory
G 5.

IT = 0.1 A
I1 = 0.1 A PR1 = 3 W
I2 = 0.1 A PR2 = 6 W PS = 9 W
V1 = 30 V PT = 9 W
V2 = 60 V
1-34
It might prove instructional at this point to compare power dissipation

versus resistance for series and parallel circuits.
In Procedure 4 the voltage across each parallel resistor is the same –

120 V. Since the smallest value resistor draws the most current, it also
dissipates the most power. In this case, the 300 S resistor dissipates 48 W
and the larger value resistors dissipate less. Now consider the circuit of
Procedure 5. This is a series circuit, so the current through each resistor is
the same – 0.1 A. Since the largest value resistor drops the most voltage,
it will also dissipate the most power. In this case, the 600 S resistor
dissipates 6 W and the smaller value resistor only 3.
G 6.

IT = 0.1 A
I1 = 0.1 A PR1 = 4 W
I2 = 0.1 A PR2 = 6 W PS = 10 W
V1 = 40 V PT = 10 W
V2 = 60 V
G 7.

IT = 0.1 A
I1 = 0.1 A
I2 = 0.1 A PR1 = 3 W
I3 = 0.1 A PR2 = 6 W PS = 11 W
V1 = 30 V PR3 = 2 W
V2 = 60 V PT = 11 W
V3 = 20 V
1-35
G 8.
I2 = 0.133 A
I1 = 0.133 A PR1 = 5.32 W
V1 = 40 V PR2 = 10.64 W PS = 15.96 W
VA = 120 V PT = 15.96 W
IT = 0.133 A
G 9.
V1 = 60 V
V2 = 60 V
V3 = 60 V PR1 = 12 W
VA = 60 V PR2 = 6 W PS = 21 W
I2 = 0.1 A PR3 = 3 W
I3 = 0.05 A PT = 21 W
IT = 0.35 A
G 10.
V3 = 60 V
V2 = 60 V PR1 = 18 W
I2 = 0.1 A PR2 = 6 W PS = 36 W
I1 = 0.3 A PR3 = 12 W
V1 = 60 V PT = 36 W
VA = 120 V
1-36
REVIEW QUESTIONS
J/s
1. Power (J/s) ' 600 W x 1 ' 600 J/s
W
600 J/s x 60 s/minute = 36 000 J in one minute
Btu/hr
Power (Btu/hr) ' 600 W x 3.43 ' 2058 Btu/hr
W
2. The 300 S resistor has twice the current flowing through it, therefore, it
dissipates twice the power and is hotter.
3. The 600 S resistor has twice the voltage across it, therefore, it dissipates twice
the power and is hotter.
4. The resistor dissipating the most power (R2) must be the largest, while the one
dissipating the least power (R3) must be the smallest in order for all resistors
to attain the same temperature.
5. See Table 8-1.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
P (watts) 30 40 50 10 k 10 k 50 70 72
E (volts) 5 20 5 100 1000 0.5 140 12
I (amps) 6 2 10 100 10 100 0.5 6
Table 8-1.
6. See Table 8-2.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
E (volts) 120 20 120 60 0.2 144 50 40
I (amps) 1 3 1 6 50 12 5 8
P (watts) 120 60 120 360 10 1728 250 320
R (ohms) 120 6.67 120 10 0.004 12 10 5
Table 8-2.
1-37
To solve the problem in column seven without getting ahead of the manual, use
the applicable equations R = E/I and P = E x I as follows:
(1) E/I = 10
(2) E x I = 250
Use equation (1) and solve for E in terms of I.
E = 10 x I
Substitute this value for E in equation 2.
(10 x I) x I = 250
Solve for I.
10 x I² ' 250
I² ' 250/10 ' 25
I ' 25 ' 5
7. a) I = P/E = 100/120 = 0.833 A
R (hot) = E/I = 120/0.833 = 144 S
b) R (cold) = 1/12 x R (hot)
= 1/12 x 144
= 144/12 = 12 S
c) I (instantaneous) = E/R (cold)
= 120/12 = 10 A
d) P (instantaneous) = E x I (instantaneous)
= 120 x 10 = 1200 W
1-38
Experiment 9
Power in DC Circuits – Part II
DISCUSSION
In this Laboratory Experiment, the students learn that resistance is also a factor in
calculating power and that when any two of the Ohm’s Law factors (voltage, current
or resistance) are known, power can be calculated. The size, or total exposed area
of a resistor is a factor in determining the amount of power it can handle; it has no
bearing on the ohmic value.
PROCEDURE
G 1. a. 300 S, 600 S, 1200 S.
b. The ohmic value, tolerance, and power rating are printed on the body
of resistors. The 300 S resistor can dissipate 50 W, the 600 S resistor,
25 W and the 1200 S resistor, 12 W.
G 3. IR1 = 0.4 A
G 4. PR1 = 120 V x 0.4 A = 48 W
G 5. Heat energy = 2880 J
G 6. IR1 (600) = 0.2 A
G 7. 1) (P = E x I) = 120 x 0.2 = 24 W
2) (P = I² x R) = 0.04 x 600 = 24 W
3) (P = E²/R) = 14 400/600 = 24 W
Each equation yielded a power of 24 W.
G 9. a. I = 0.1 A
ER1 = 20 V
b. ER2 = 30 V
c. ER3 = 40 V
1-39
G 10. a. PR1 = ER1 x IR1 = 20 x 0.1 = 2 W
b. PR2 = ER2 x IR2 = 30 x 0.1 = 3 W
c. PR3 = ER3 x IR3 = 40 x 0.1 = 4 W
d. Total power dissipated = 9 W
e. PS = ES x IS = 90 x 0.1 = 9 W
Yes.
G 12. I = 0.133 A
a. PR1 = I² x R1 = 0.0177 x 200 = 3.54 W
b. PR2 = I² x R2 = 0.0177 x 300 = 5.31 W
c. PR3 = I² x R3 = 0.0177 x 400 = 7.08 W
d. Total power dissipated = 15.93 W
e. PS = ES x IS = 120 x 0.133 = 15.96 W
Yes.
G 13. PR1 = 8100 / 300 = 27 W
PR2 = 8100 / 600 = 13.5 W
PT = 27 + 13.5 = 40.5 W
G 14. IT = PT/E = 40.5 / 90 = 0.45 A
G 15. IT (measured) = 0.45 A
Yes, since the difference between the calculated and measured values is
well within the accuracy of the measuring instrument.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. a) PR1 = 80 W
PR2 = 3 W
PR3 = 54 W
PTOTAL = 137 W
1-40
b) PR5 = 200 W
PR6 = 160 W
PTOTAL = 360 W
c) PR7 = 640 W
PR8 = 180 W
PR9 = 300 W
PTOTAL = 1120 W
S m
2. a) R ' 5.58 x 50 m/1000 ' 0.279 S
km km
P = I²R = 10² x 0.279 = 27.9 W
b) E = I x R
E = 10 x 0.279 = 2.79 V
R ' 1.6 x (200/1000) ' 0.32 S
P ' I²R ' 10² x 0.32 ' 100 x 0.32 ' 32 W
E ' I x R
' 10 x 0.32 ' 3.2 V
3. P = E²/R
= 120²/240 = 14 400/240 = 60 W
4. P ' I² x R, I² ' P/R,

I² ' 5/0.2 ' 25
I ' 25 ' 5 A
5. a) P = I²R = (2 x 104)² x 2
P = 4 x 108 x 2 = 8 x 108 W
= 800 000 000 W = 800 MW
b) E = IR
= 2 x 104 x 2 = 4 x 104 V = 40 000 V
= 40 kV
1-41
6. Power (W) = E²/R = 120²/12 = 1200 W
J/s
Power (J/s) = 1 x 1200 W = 1200 J/s
W
)T = 80E ! 20E = 60E
g J
Energy Required (J) = 50 kg x 1000 x 60E x 4.18 = 12.54 x 106J
kg deg x g
J s
time (hr) = 12.54 x 106J / (1200 x 3600 ) = 2.9 hours
s hr
Power dissipated in the resistance element, which is in watts, must be

converted into a figure which describes its heating rate. Multiplication by the
factor 1.0 (number of J/s in one watt) converts the 1200 W into a heating rate
of 1200 J per second. The next requirement is to determine how many joules
are required to raise the temperature of 50 000 g of water from 20E to 80E or
60E. This is calculated by multiplying the weight of the water by the temperature
change:
Energy (J) = 50 000 x 60E x 4.18 = 12.54 x 106J
The heating rate is 1200 J per second and the total heat required is 12.54 MJ;
therefore, the time required is:
t = 12.54 x 106 / (1200 x 3600) = 2.9 hours
A single equation can be used as follows:
t = weight x temperature change x 4.18/(E²/R)

= 50 000 x 60E x 4.18/(1200 x 3600)
= 12.54 x 106/4.32 x 106 = 2.9 hours
1-42
7. P (in) = I (in) x E (in)

= 50 x 230 = 11 500 W
P (out) = P (in) ! P (dissipated)

= 11 500 ! 1200 = 10 300 W
= 10.3 kW
1-43
1-44
Experiment 10
The Transmission Line
DISCUSSION
Electric power engineers probably think of Utopia as a place where power sources
deliver exactly what the loads required, with no power wasted in the intervening
transmission lines. However, in this imperfect world, it is a sad but unalterable fact
that even the best conducting material has some resistance and, if long lengths of
the material are used, the resistance becomes a factor to be reckoned with.
Consider a 3-meter length of copper wire with a resistance of 0.01 S
connecting a 10 V power source to a load having a resistance of 10 S. For all
practical purposes, all of the power source voltage appears across the load and the
power dissipated by the load is 10²/10 = 10 W. The line resistance can safely be
ignored. But if 3.2 kilometers of the same size wire is used to connect
power source and load, the resistance of the wire becomes approximately 10.6 S
and more power would be dissipated in the transmission line than in the load. The
object of the game is to keep the losses as low as possible. This demonstration
shows the students that, as the load current increases, the amount of power
dissipated in the line increases until, when a dead short is placed across the ends
of the line, the line overheats and is soon destroyed. It is advisable tu use wire with
enamel or varnish insulation rather than plastic, cloth or rubber. The insulation will
smoke and burn when the transmission line is shorted and enamel or varnish
insulation makes for less mess and odor. If 0.2 mm wire is not readily
available, any smaller wire down to 0.1 mm will be suitable.
PROCEDURE
G 4. d. See Table 10-1.
V1 V2 V3 I
(VOLTS) (VOLTS) (VOLTS) (AMPS)
120 120 120 0
Table 10-1.
G 5. Yes.
G 6. c. See Table 10-2.
V1 V2 V3 I
120 116 112 1.175
Table 10-2.
1-45
G 7. b. V1 ! V3 = 8 V
c. Yes.
V1 V2 V3 I
120 113 106 1.9
Table 10-3.
G 9. b. V1 ! V3 = 14 V
c. Yes.
d. Yes. The increase in current through the line caused a larger voltage
drop than in Procedure 7 (b).
e. Yes.
f. EI = 120 x 1.9 A = 228 W
g. I2R = 3.61 x 57 = 206 W
h. 22 W
G 10. e.
Note to the Instructor: Bear in mind the fact that, with a dead short as a
load, the transmission wire becomes extremely hot. Check the
transmission line before applying power and make sure it is not touching
anything that will melt, char or burn.
G 11. The line overheated, sagged and the insulation burned.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. R (line) = E/I = (V1 ! V3)/I

= (120 ! 106)/1.9
= 14/1.9 = 7.37 S
2. If the line sags it may touch other nearby transmission lines causing further
shorts. The external heat may cause fires.
1-46
3. With a dead short, the line current was limited only by the low resistance of the
line. The high current caused the line to heat.
4. a) See figure 10-4.
Figure 10-4.
b) I line = E source/(R load + R line)

= 24 000/(180 + 20)
= 24 000/200 = 120 A
c) P source = E source x I line

= 24 000 x 120 = 2 880 000 W
= 2.88 x 106 W = 2.88 MW
d) P load = I² x R load
= 120² x 180 = 14 400 x 180
= 2.592 MW
e) P line = I² x R line
= 120² x 20 = 14 400 x 20
= 288 kW
f) E load = I x R load
= 120 x 80 = 21.6 kV
E load = P load/I
= 2.592 x 106/120 = 21.6 kV
1-47
Load voltage can also be calculated by multiplying the ratio of load resistance
to total resistance by the source voltage.
EL = [RL/(RL + R line)] x 24 000

EL = (180/200) x 24 000
EL = 21 600 V
g) With the load disconnected, there will be no line current flowing; therefore,
there will be no line voltage drop and the full 24 kV will appear.
No Load Volts&Full Load Volts

h) Regulation ' x 100%
Full Load Volts
' [(24 000 & 21 600)/21 600] x 100
' (2400/21 600) x 100
' 0.111 x 100 ' 11.1%
5. a) I short = E source/R line

= 24 000/20 = 1200 A
b) I short = 24 000/(20 x 0.4)

= 24 000/8 = 3000 A
6. a) P = E²/R R = E²/P
R heater = 120²/2000 = 14 400/2000

= 14.4/2 = 7.2 S
b) R line = 5.58 S x 0.2 km x 2 = 2.232 S

km
I line = E source/(R heater + R line)

= 120/(7.2 + 2.232) = 12.72 A
E line = IR = 12.72 x 2.232

= 28.4 V
c. P heater = I² x R heater
= (12.72)² x 7.2 = 161.8 x 7.2
= 1165 W
1-48
1-49
1-50
Experiment 11
AC Voltage and Current – Part I
DISCUSSION
Since both alternating and direct current are widely used, we must have some
convenient means of comparing them or evaluating alternating current in terms of
direct current. Because power is a function of the square of voltage (P = E²/R) or
current (P = I²/R), the heating effect or equivalent DC value must be calculated
using squared values of voltage or current. If the instantaneous voltage values of
Procedure 1 are taken at very small angular intervals, squared, added together and
then the average or mean value taken, the square root of the result will be the
effective, or root-mean-square, value – 70.7 V. If the same procedure is followed for
current, it will be found that the 50 A peak AC current is as effective as 35.35 A of
direct current. The frequency of the squared values will be double that of the original
sine wave since all squared values are positive and are now alternating about the
effective value. The power waveform has twice the frequency of the initial sine
wave.
PROCEDURE
G 1. See Figure 11-2.
1-51
Figure 11-2.
G 2. 20E e = +34 V 220E e = !64 V
40E e = +64 V 310E e = !76 V
80E e = +98 V 350E e = !17 V
1-52
G 3. 30E i = +25.0 A 210E i = !25.0 A
60E i = +43.5 A 240E i = !43.5 A
90E i = +50.0 A 270E i = !50.0 A
120E i =+43.5 A 300E i = !43.5 A
150E i = +25.0 A 330E i = !25.0 A
180E i=0A 360E i=0A
G 5. 0E P =0x0=0W
30E P = 50 x 25 = 1250 W
60E P = 87 x 43.5 = 3785 W
90E P = 100 x 50 = 5000 W
120E P = 87 x 43.5 = 3785 W
150E P = 50 x 25 = 1250 W
180E P =0x0=0W
210E P = !50 x !25 = 1250 W
240E P = !87 x !43.5 = 3785 W
270E P = !100 x !50 = 5000 W
300E P = !87 x !43.5 = 3785 W
330E P = !50 x !25 = 1250 W
360E P =0x0=0W
G 7. a. Pmax = 5000 W
b. Pmin = 0 W
c. PRL = 2500 W
1-53
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. a) 1/60 or 0.0167 s
b) (1/2) ( 1/60) = 1/120 or 0.0083 s
c) (1/4) (1/60) = 1/240 or 0.0042 s
2.
Figure 11-4.
AC power line frequencies are 60 Hz unless otherwise specified.
3. E rms = 0.707 x E peak
E peak = E rms/0.707
= 120/0.707 = 169.7 V
4. The amount of light would be the same. Unless otherwise specified, all AC
values are understood to be in rms which is as effective as DC values.
5. Zero to maximum occurs in one quarter of a cycle or 90E. Time for 90E is:
(1/4) (1/60) = 1/240 or 0.00417 s or 4.17 ms.
6. Since only half the cycle is positive, the time duration is: (1/2) (1/60) = 1/120 or
0.00833 s or 8.33 ms.
7. I rms = 0.707 x I peak

= 0.707 x 4 = 2.828 A
8. Effective current and voltage alternating values which have the same heating
effect on a resistive load as equivalent direct current values.
9. rms (root-mean-square)
1-54
10. a) Yes.
b) Yes.
11. a) 0E, 180E and 360E
b) 90E and 270E
1-55
1-56
Experiment 12
AC Voltage and Current – Part II
DISCUSSION
In this Laboratory Experiment, the student verifies experimentally, the theoretical

findings of the previous Laboratory Experiment. He compares effective AC values
with equivalent DC values by observing and measuring the power capabilities under
simultaneous A-B conditions. This type of experimental verification is an effective
learning vehicle since learning retention is considerably greater when the
knowledge is acquired through physical action and observation of cause and effect.
This Laboratory Experiment can be enlarged considerably in scope, if desired,
through the use of a number of different resistance combinations and source
voltages.
PROCEDURE
G 1. c. Note to the Instructor: The “open” position of the synchronizing switch is

indicated schematically on the face of the module. The toggle should point in
the direction which “opens” the three switches shown directly under the lamps.
G 3. a. Edc = 120 V dc
G 4. b. See Table 12-1.
1 2 3 4
E ac 120 V 120 V 120 V 120 V
E dc 120 V 120 V 119 V 121 V
Table 12-1.
c. Yes.
Note to the Instructor: If separate variable AC and DC power sources are

used, this procedure can be enlarged upon by adjusting one of the power
sources to light one lamp and then adjusting the other power source to
achieve the same brightness with the other lamp. This could be done by
having students team up.
G 6. Eac = 120 V Edc = 0 V
Iac = 2.1 A Idc = 0 A
1-57
G 8. See Table 12-2.
RL = 57 S 100 S 57 S 100 S
Eac = 100 V 100 V 120 V 120 V
Iac = 1.75 A 1A 2.1 A 1.2 A
E/I = 57.1 S 100 S 57.1 S 100 S
ExI = 175 W 100 W 252 W 144 W
Table 12-2.
G 9. a. R = E/I= 100 / 1.75 = 57.1 S

100 / 1 = 100 S
120 / 2.1 = 57.1 S
120 / 1.2 = 100 S
G 9. b. P = EI = 100 x 1.75 = 175 W

100 x 1 = 100 W
120 x 2.1 = 252 W
120 x 1.2 = 144 W
c. Yes.
d. Yes.
e. Yes.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. The meters cannot follow the AC alternations and indicate only the average
values, which are zero.
If the alternating frequency is low enough, the meter will oscillate between two
extreme values; the values being limited by the inertia of the meter movement
and its ability to follow the alternations. A zero center meter will move the same
distance in each direction and the average value (in this case, zero) will be
midway between the two extremes. If the AC voltage is alternating about some
DC level, the midpoint between the extremes will be the DC level.
2. The effective or rms values are of primary importance in most calculations. The
peak or peak-to-peak values can be calculated when needed.
3. Yes.
1-58
4. E rms = 0.707 E peak
E peak = E rms/0.707
= 600/0.707 = 848.7 V
5. a) I rms = P/E
= 60/120 = 0.5 A ac
b) R = E/I
= 120/0.5 = 240 S
c) I rms = 0.707 I peak
I peak = I rms/0.707
= 0.5/0.707 = 0.707 A
1-59
1-60
Experiment 13
The Wattmeter
DISCUSSION
Inductors and capacitors are called reactive devices. A perfect reactive device will
cause a phase shift of 90E between voltage and current so that, when a voltage is
maximum, current is zero and vice versa. Although voltage and current are present
in reactive circuits, their product, E x I, is “apparent” power – often called “wattless”
power, because it does no work. Most reactive circuits produce a phase shift angle
somewhere between zero and 90E. The precise phase shift and “actual” or “true”
power produced can be calculated using trigonometry. However, the wattmeter
indicates true power without the need for calculation. The wattmeter contains a
current coil and a voltage or potential coil, one of which is movable and is attached
to an indicator. The interaction of the magnetic fields resulting from current flow
through the two coils is additive and causes the indicator to move up the scale.
When voltage and current are in phase, the deflecting force is always in the same
direction. When a phase differential exists, current through one coil will reverse
before current reverses in the other, resulting in a reverse torque while the two
currents are flowing in opposite directions. The inertia of the indicating element
prevents it from following the torque reversals, however, and the resulting indication
is the resultant of the two torques. If the torques are equal, and opposite, as when
the phase angle is 90E, the wattmeter will indicate zero power.
PROCEDURE
G 3. a. IL = 2.1 A ac
b. Pin = 252 W
c. Pin = 252 W
d. Yes.
G 6. b.
E= 0V 40 V 80 V 120 V
I= 0A 0.7 A 1.4 A 2.1 A
W= 0W 28 W 112 W 252 W
ExI= 0W 28 W 112 W 252 W
Table 13-1.
1-61
The Wattmeter
G 7. Yes
G 9. a. IL = 2.1 A ac
b. Pin = 0 W
c. E x I = 252 VA
G 11. a. IL = 2.1 A ac
b. Pin = 15 W. The small amount of active power is dissipated in the wire

resistance of the inductance load.
c. E x I = 252 VA
G 12. Note to the Instructor: Have the students use the next higher range of the
ammeter. The total capacitive reactance at 60 Hz is 57 S so current through the
capacitance is 120/57 = 2.1 A. The same value of current flows through the
resistance but the two currents are 90E out of phase. The actual line current as
measured by the ammeter flows at a 45E angle and can be calculated as follows:
I actual ' IR2 % IC2 ' 2.12 % 2.12

' 8.82 ' 2.97 A
However, the active power must be limited to the power in the resistance, which is
252 W.
I = 2.97 A
Active power = 252 W
Apparent Power = 356.4 VA
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. No. Voltage and current are always in phase in a resistive load so the product
of voltage and current (VA) give the active power (W).
2. Apparent power (VA) is always greater than active power (W) in circuits that
contain inductance or capacitance.
3. a) Apparent power = volt-ampere (VA)
b) Active power = W
4. Procedure 3) PF = 252/252 = 1
1-62
The Wattmeter
Procedure 9) PF = 0/252 = 0
Procedure 11) PF = 15/252 = 0.060
Procedure 12) PF = 252/356.4 = 0.707
5. 1. Toaster, stove, lamps.
2. Iron, heaters.
6. Vacuum cleaner, washer, dryer, fans, refrigerator, power tools.
7. When the connections to one of the coils is reversed.
1-63
1-64
Experiment 14
Phase Angle, Active and Apparent Power
DISCUSSION
Power is produced when force causes movement. In an electrical circuit, voltage is

the force and current is the movement. If voltage is present but current is not
flowing, there can be no power. When both are present in a circuit, the amount of
active power produced is dependent upon the degree to which voltage and current
work together or in phase. If voltage is applied in one direction but current flows in
the opposite direction, it is obvious that the current flow will reduce the force of the
voltage and the voltage will reduce the amount of current flow. Inductors and
capacitors react to alternating current by causing a shift in the phase angle between
current and voltage. Although both values alternate at sine waves, they reach their
maximum and minimum peaks at different times so that sometimes they work
together and sometimes they work against each other. The phase shift can be any
angle between 0E and 90E. If it is 90E, no active power is produced; if it is 0E,
maximum active power is produced. In Laboratory Experiment No. 12, the students
observed the effect of voltage and current phase relationship on power. In this
Laboratory Experiment, they calculate instantaneous power values and draw the
power sine wave, observing its shape, frequency and magnitude in comparison with
the voltage and current sine waves.
PROCEDURE
G 1. 70.7 x 35.3 = 2500 VA
This power is both real and apparent and is indicated by the wattmeter.
Apparent power is the product of voltage and current and is expressed in
volt-amperes (VA). Active power is the product of voltage, current and
power factor and is expressed in watts (W). (Power factor will be covered
in a later Laboratory Experiment.) In a resistive circuit, apparent power (VA)
equals active power (W), and the voltage and current waveforms are in
phase.
G 2. a. No.
b. Yes.
c. Yes, the power sine wave is drawn between extremes of 0 and

5000 W, so it is alternating about an average value of 2500 W.
d. 2500 W
G 3. 70.7 x 35.3 = 2500 VA
This power is apparent and is not indicated by the wattmeter.
1-65
E 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360
e (V) 0 70.7 100 70.7 0 !70.7 !100 !70.7 0
i (A) 50 35.3 0 !35.3 !50 !35.3 0 35.3 50
p (W) 0 2500 0 !2500 0 2500 0 !2500 0
Table14-1.
Figure 14-7.
1-66
G 7. a. Peak power = ±2500 W
b. Peak power occurs at 45E, 135E, 225E, and 315E
c. Yes.
d. Yes.
e. Yes.
f. 2500 VA. Apparent power was calculated in Procedure 3 by multiplying

the rms voltage by the rms current.
g. 0 W.
G 8. 70.7 x 35.3 = 2500 VA
This power is apparent and is not indicated by the wattmeter.
E 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360
e (V) 0 70.7 100 70.7 0 !70,7 !100 !70.7 0
i (A) !50 !35.3 0 35.3 50 35.3 0 !35.3 !50
p (W) 0 !2500 0 2500 0 !2500 0 2500 0
Table 14-2.
1-67
Figure 14-9.
G 12. a. Peak power = ±2500 W
b. Peak power occurs at 45E, 135E, 225E, and 315E
c. Yes.
d. Yes.
e. Yes.
f. 2500 VA
g. 0 W
1-68
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. A resistor. Current and voltage are in phase when all instantaneous power
values are positive. An inductor or capacitor cause “negative” power loops.
2. a)
Figure 14-10.
b)
Figure 14-11.
1-69
c)
Figure 14-12.
3. A reactive device takes power from the source during half a cycle and returns
power during the other half cycle. The average power is zero.
When the reactive phase angle is 90E, the power sine wave alternates about a
zero value. When the phase angle is less than 90E, the power sine wave
alternates about some value greater than zero.
4. a) 90E = 1/4 cycle
Time lag = (1/4) x (1/60)

= 1/240
= 0.00417 s
b) 0E= 0 cycle
Time lag = 0 x (1/60)

=0s
c) 60E = 1/6 cycle
Time lag = (1/6) x (1/60)

= 1/360
= 0.00278 s
1-70
Experiment 15
Capacitive Reactance
DISCUSSION
This Laboratory Experiment deals with the effects of capacitance on AC circuits.

Capacitance exists wherever two conducting surfaces are separated by a non-
conducting medium. Thus, the contacts of an open switch, the terminals of a battery,
the insulated windings of a coil or transformer, even the parallel conductors of a
power transmission line, are capacitors. However, practical capacitors are
manufactured to be compact, have specific capacitance, and meet specific circuit
requirements. When a DC circuit containing capacitance is initially energized,
current flows and electrons pile up on one plate and leave the other. An electrostatic
field or force is created in the area between the plates as the excess electrons on
one plate attempt to cross over to the other. The initial maximum current decreases
as the potential across the capacitor plates builds up until, when the capacitor
potential is equal to the source potential, no more current can flow. If the capacitor
is removed from the circuit, it will retain this potential for some time. If a conducting
path is provided between the plates, current will flow for a short period of time until
the capacitor achieves equilibrium. After a capacitor is charged in a DC circuit, it
represents an open circuit since current can no longer flow. Capacitive reactance
at DC is, therefore, infinite.
PROCEDURE
G 6. c. I = 2.1 A ac
P=0W
G 7. a. XC = 57.1 S
b. C = 46.5 µF
c. S = -252 VA
d. Q = -252 var
This reactive volt-amperes must have a negative sign when the

reactive component is capacitive.
1-71
Capacitive Reactance
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. 90E
2. 90E
3. a) S = -1800 VA
b) Q = -1800 var
c) The phase angle is 90E, therefore, there is no active power being

dissipated.
d) XC = 200 S
e) C = 13.26 µF
4. a) XC = 50 S
b) XC = 200 S
c) Capacitive reactance varies inversely with frequency.
d) C = 26.5 µF
e) C = 26.5 µF
f) At DC, the frequency term in the equation is zero.
XC = infinite
5. C = 8.84 µF
The calculated value of 8.84 µF is within 0.45% of the rated value.
1-72
Experiment 16
Inductive Reactance
DISCUSSION
As a generalization, we can say that inductance is the antithesis of capacitance. In

DC circuits, capacitors block current flow while inductors pass it readily. In AC
circuits, current leads voltage across a capacitor while, across an inductor, voltage
leads current. The reactance formulas are reciprocal – inductive reactance varies
directly with frequency while capacitive reactance varies inversely with frequency.
This Laboratory Experiment is similar to the previous one, except that the student
works with inductive reactance instead of capacitive reactance. He observes that,
like capacitive reactance, pure inductive reactance dissipates no power.
PROCEDURE
G 6. c. I = 2.1 A ac
P = 15 W
The power indicated is due to the resistance of the wire in the inductor.
G 7. a. XL = 57.1 S
b. L = 0.151 H
c. S = 252 VA
d. Q = 252 var
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. a) S = 1800 VA
b) Q = 1800 var
c) P = 0 W.
The phase angle is 90E, therefore, there is no active power being

dissipated.
d) XL = 200 S
e) L = 0.53 H
1-73
Inductive Reactance
2. No. The measured resistance (1 S) is the DC resistance. Performance in an AC

circuit can be calculated only if the inductance or inductive reactance is known.
3. L = 0.796 H
4. It compares favorably. The calculated value of 0.796 H is within 0.5% of the

rated value.
It should be noted that capacitor and inductor values used in the variable
capacitor and inductor modules have been selected to present reactances to
60 Hz AC that are comparable to the values of the resistors in the resistance
modules.
5. a) XL = 200 S
b) XL = 50 S
c) Inductive reactance varies directly with frequency.
d) L = 0.265 H
e) L = 0.265 H
f) XL = 0 S
1-74
Experiment 17
Watt, Var, Volt-Ampere, and Power Factor
DISCUSSION
The last two Laboratory Experiments brought out the fact that, when an AC circuit
contains pure reactance, either capacitive or inductive, voltage and current are 90E
out of phase and no real or useful power is developed. Most practical AC circuits
have some reactance, and the apparent power (VA) is greater than the active power
(W). The difference between apparent power and active power is caused by
reactance and is called reactive power (var).
In this Laboratory Experiment, the students observe the effect of the inductance of
the R-L load on apparent power and line current. They then reduce the line current
and apparent power by adding capacitance. They learn that, although the added
capacitive reactance can reduce the reactive line current to a minimum value, it
does not change the active power consumed by the load.
PROCEDURE
G 3. a. IL = 1.79 A ac
b. P = 160 W
G 4. b. S = 215 VA
c. PF = 0.74
d. Q = 143.6 var
G 6. d. IL = 1.35 A ac
e. P = 160 W
G 7. b. S = 162 VA
c. PF = 0.99
d. Q = 25.4 var
G 8. a. Yes.
b. No. Since the voltage across the R-L load did not change, the current
drawn by the R-L remains the same.
1-75
Watt, Var, Volt-Ampere, and Power Factor
c. Yes, because the capacitance does not draw any active power; it draws
only reactive power.
G 9. a. IL = 1.63 A ac
b. XC = 100 S
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. a) S = 5 kVA
b) PF = 0.6
2. a) S = 3 kVA
b) Q = 0 var
c) P = 3 kW
The two reactances cancel, and apparent power is equal to active power.
Therefore, the power factor is one.
d) PF = 1
3. a) S = 5 kVA
b) Q = !4 kvar
The new reactive power is negative because it is now capacitive.
c) The active power remains unchanged, P = 3 kW.
d) PF = 0.6
The new power factor is the same as that calculated in 1. b) because the
reactance is the same in both cases. However, the reactive power factor
was lagging while this one is leading.
e) Yes. The additional negative var increased the apparent power by 2 kVA.
4. No. The R-L load still draws inductive current plus in-phase resistive current.
5. No. The motor operation does not change and the active power needed to
overcome friction, windage, copper and iron losses remains the same.
1-76
Experiment 18
Vectors and Phasors – Series Circuit
DISCUSSION
This Laboratory Experiment introduces the student to the rotating vector or phasor,
a means of measuring the resultant of phase differentiated quantities and resultant
phase angles. The vector is assumed to rotate in a counterclockwise direction from
a starting line which coincides with %x line of the x-y coordinate plane. Rotation from
%x through %y to !x represents the positive half-cycle of a sine wave while rotation
from !x through !y back to the starting point represents the negative half-cycle. The
in-phase component (current in series circuits and voltage in parallel circuits) is
drawn along the starting or zero degree line. Leading quantities, such as voltage
across an inductance, are drawn in the %y direction from the in-phase component.
If all given values are drawn to scale, the resultant can be measured directly from
the diagram as can the angle between the resultant and the in-phase component.
PROCEDURE
G 1. ES = 100 V. See Figure 18-5 (b).
Figure 18-5b.
G 2. b. ER = 80 V
EL = 60 V
ES = 100 V
1-77
G 3. a. ER + EL = 80 + 60 = 140 V
No. This is different from ES which is 100 V.
b. ES = 100 V. Yes. The plotted resultant phasor seen is equal to the

measured source voltage.
G 5. See Figure 18-6 (b).
Figure 18-6b.
Phasor ER = 60 V Measured ER = 60 V
Phasor EC = 60 V Measured EC = 60 V
Phasor ES = 85 V Measured ES = 84.8 V
The vector representing the resultant value, in this case, ES, must start at
the point where ER and EC originate. A line connecting the ends of vectors
ER and EC is not the vector ES. Remember that the ES vector rotates about
the same point as the ER and EC vectors.
1-78
Figure 18-7b.
Phasor EL = 80 V Measured EL = 80 V
Phasor ES = 20 V Measured ES = 20 V
1-79
Figure 18-8b.
Phasor ER = 80 V Measured ER = 80 V
Phasor ES = 82.5 V Measured ES = 82.5 V
1-80
Figure 18-9b.
Phasor ES = 0 V Measured ES = 0V
The inductor wire has some DC resistance, therefore, there will be a small
amount of in-phase voltage and, consequently, the measured ES will have
some value.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. a) 37E leading.
The actual value of this phase angle is 36.9E. The cosine of the angle is
equal to the ratio of the adjacent side, ER to the hypotenuse, ES, or 0.8. The
arc cosine of 0.8 is approximately 36.9E.
b) 45E lagging.
c) 14E leading.
2. a) S = 100 VA, P = 80 W
b) S = 84.8 VA, P = 60 W
1-81
c) S = 82.5 VA, P = 80 W
Active power can be calculated using any of the circuit

values pertaining solely to the resistance of the circuit. Thus,
any of the following equations will yield active power.
P = IER = I2R = ER2/R
3. a) PF = 0.8
b) PF = 0.707
c) PF = 0.97
4. A circuit condition wherein the inductive and capacitive

reactances are equal and because the reactances are of
opposite polarity, they cancel each other. Circuit current flow is
limited only by the circuit resistance.
1-82
Experiment 19
Vectors and Phasors – Parallel Circuits
DISCUSSION
Vector analysis can be applied with equal facility to both series and parallel circuits.
In solving series circuits, current is the reference quantity because it is common to
all of the circuit components. In parallel circuits, voltage is the reference because
it is common to all of the circuit branches. The out of phase component in parallel
circuits is current so the direction of phasors representing reactive currents is
reversed from that representing reactive voltages in series circuits - that is, the
phasor for capacitive current is drawn upward since it is leading and the phasor for
inductive current is drawn downward since it is lagging.
PROCEDURE
Figure 19-1b.
Phasor IR = 1.5 A Measured IR = 1.5 A
Phasor IC = 1.5 A Measured IC = 1.5 A
Phasor IS = 2.12 A Measured IS = 2.12 A
IS phase angle = 45E leading
1-83
Figure 19-2b.
Phasor IR = 2 A Measured IR = 2A
Phasor IC = 1 A Measured IC = 1A
IS phase angle = 26.6E leading
1-84
Figure 19-3b.
Phasor IR = 1.5 A Measured IR = 1.5 A
Phasor IL = 1.2 A Measured IL = 1.2 A
IS phase angle = 38.7E lagging
1-85
Figure 19-4b.
IS phase angle = 56.3E lagging
1-86
Figure 19-5b.
IS phase angle = 90E leading
1-87
Figure 19-6b.
IS phase angle = 8.5E leading
1-88
Figure 19-7b.
Phasor IC = 2 A Measured IC = 2A
Phasor IL = 2 A Measured IL = 2A
Phasor IS = 0 A Measured IS = 0A
IS phase angle = 0E
If the coil winding resistance is significant, the measured resultant current

(Measured IS) may have some small value.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Yes. Minor variations are caused by meter and component tolerances and by
DC coil resistances.
2. a) Yes. Since current varies directly with voltage all current values would be
reduced by one-half.
b) No. The phase angle would change only if the reactance values or the
frequency changed.
3. Yes. The same voltage is applied across equal reactances. Since the var are
equal and opposite in sign, they cancel each other.
1-89
4. a) Yes. Capacitive reactance XC would halve and IC would double; inductive

reactance XL would double and IL would halve.
b) IC would be four times as great as IL thus IS would increase from zero to

some value of leading current.
c) IC = 4A
IL = 2A
IS = 3A
Capacitive reactance is reduced by one half so capacitive current, IC, will double
from 2 A to 4 A. Inductive reactance is doubled so inductive current will be halved
from 2 A to 1 A. The resultant current will be that portion of capacitive current not
cancelled by inductive current or 4 ! 2 = 3 A. Since the resultant current is
capacitive, the phase angle will be close to 90E and leading.
1-90
Experiment 20
Impedance
DISCUSSION
Impedance calculations for series circuits are fairly straightforward and involve
phasor addition or application of the Pythagorean Theorem i.e.
Z ' R 2 % (XL & XC)2
If the reactances are equal, the quantity (XL !XC)2 is zero and the impedance is
simply the circuit resistance with a phase angle of zero. Where the reactances are
unequal, determination as to whether the phase angle is leading or lagging can be
readily accomplished by comparing the magnitudes of the reactances.
Parallel circuit impedance calculations involve a variation of product-over-the-sum

calculations used in solving parallel resistance circuits. The denominator of the
fraction is a phasor sum (equations 11 and 12). Another method which is similar to
the one used to solve series circuits involves conversion of resistance and
reactance values to their reciprocals (conductance, G and susceptance, B) and
calculating their phasor sum. The result is the reciprocal of impedance (admittance,
Y). The note on procedure 4 applies this calculation to the circuit of Figure 20-4. As
with series circuit calculations, it is often easier to determine parallel impedance by
first calculating phasor current and then using Ohm’s Law to compute impedance.
PROCEDURE
G 2. Z = 100 S
Phase Angle = arc cos R/Z = 53.1 E
Calculated ES = 100 V Measured ES = 100 V
Calculated EC = 80 V Measured EC = 80 V
Calculated ER = 60 V Measured ER = 60 V
G 3. Z = 100 S
Phase Angle = arc cos R/Z = 36.9E
Calculated EL = 30 V Measured EL = 30 V
1-91
Impedance
G 4. Z = 48 S
Phase Angle = arc cos Z/R = 36.9E
Calculated IS = 2.5 A Measured IS = 2.5 A
Calculated IR = 2 A Measured IR = 2A
Calculated IC = 1.5 A Measured IC = 1.5 A
G 5. Z = 100 S
Phase Angle = arc cos R/Z = 36.9E
Calculated EL = 150 V Measured EL = 150 V
Calculated EC = 120 V Measured EC = 120 V
G 6. Inductive and capacitive reactances are equal and cancel each other. The
circuit impedance is, therefore, equal to the resistance of 80 S.
Z = R = 80 S
Phase Angle = arc cos Z/R = 0E
Calculated IS = 1.5 A Measured IS = 1.5 A
Calculated IC = 2 A Measured IC = 2A
Calculated IL = 2 A Measured IL = 2A
Calculated IR = 1.5 A Measured IR = 1.5 A
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Z = 40 S
2. No. The phase angle can only be calculated if two of the three factors, R, Z or
X are known.
3. False. This equation indicates apparent power (VA) which may include reactive
and active powers.
1-92
Impedance
Note to the Instructor: It would be appropriate at this point to review apparent power,
active power, and reactive power.
Apparent power is the product of line voltage times line current, and does not take into
account their phase relationship. When voltage and current are in phase, apparent power
is equal to active power. S = E x I
Active power is the power actually consumed by the circuit. It is calculated as the phasor
difference between apparent power and reactive power.
P ' S2 & Q2
Reactive power or var is the product of the out-of-phase voltages and currents. It is
calculated as the phasor difference between apparent power and active power.
Q ' S2 & P2
4. Yes. Impedance includes resistance and reactance. If the circuit has only
resistance the reactive component is 0 S.
5. Yes. The reactive component of impedance varies with frequency. This causes
impedance to vary with frequency.
1-93
1-94
Experiment 21
Three-Phase Circuits
DISCUSSION
A three-phase electric circuit is energized by three alternating voltages of the same

frequency. These three voltages have equal magnitudes and are displaced 120
electrical degrees from each other.
The three-phase circuit is merely a combination of three single-phase circuits.

Therefore, current, voltage and power of three-phase circuits may be studied by the
application of single-phase rules to the component parts of the three-phase circuit.
The analysis of three-phase circuits is little more difficult than that of single phase-
circuits.
In a single-phase circuit, the power is of a pulsating nature. At unity power factor the
power is zero twice each cycle. When the power factor is less than unity, the power
is negative during parts of each cycle. Although the power supplied to each of the
three phases of a balanced three-phase load is pulsating, the total power is
constant. Because of this, the operating characteristics of three-phase machines in
general, are superior to those of similar single-phase machines.
PROCEDURE
G 1. c. E4 to 5 = 208 V ac
E5 to 6 = 210 V ac
E4 to 6 = 209 V ac
Note to the Instructor about three-phase measurements: The three line voltages
of a three-phase system are not always exactly equal in magnitude. This condition
can be caused by unbalanced loading somewhere between the power company
generators and the receptacle furnishing power to the Power Supply. Therefore,
when performing experiments that call for a specific three-phase input voltage
setting, it is possible to be metering a high or low line-to-line or line-to-neutral
voltage. Also, due to the multiplicity of meter and component tolerances plus human
errors, the measurements taken by the students may vary considerably from the
values listed in this manual. However, the desired trend, or changes indicated by
their results will be comparable to the answers given.
e. Eline-to-line = 209 V ac
G 2. c. E4 to N = 120 V ac
E5 to N = 120 V ac
E6 to N = 120 V ac
1-95
e. Eline-to-line = 120 V ac
G 3. a. Eline-to-line / Eline-to-neutral = 1.74
b. Yes.
G 4. a. E1 to 2 = 214 V ac E1 to N = 125 V ac
E2 to 3 = 217 V ac E2 to N = 123 V ac
E1 to 3 = 215 V ac E3 to N = 122 V ac
b. Yes.
c. Single-phase voltage.
G 5. d. E1 = 122 V ac I1 = 0.304 A ac
E2 = 121 V ac I2 = 0.302 A ac
E3 = 120 V ac I3 = 0.308 A ac
f. Yes.
g. Eload = 121 V ac
h. Eline-to-line = 209 V ac
i. Eline-to-line / Eload = 1.74
j. Yes.
k. P1 = 37.1 W
P2 = 36.5 W
P3 = 37 W
l. PT = 110.6 W.
The total three-phase power PT is equal to the sum of the powers

dissipated by each of the load resistors.
G 6. d. E1 = 121 Vac I1 = 0.301 A ac
E2 = 119 V ac I2 = 0.299 A ac
E3 = 120V ac I3 = 0.305 A ac
1-96
f. Yes.
g. Iload = 0.302 A ac
j. I4 = 0.52 A ac
I5 = 0.51 A ac
I6 = 0.52 A ac
If the currents exceed 500 mA, have the students change to the next
higher meter ranger.
l. Iline = 0.517 A ac
m. Iline / Iload = 1.71
n. Yes.
o. P1 = 36.4W
P2 = 35.6W
P3 = 36.6 W
p. PT = 108.6W
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Eline-to-neutral = Eline-to-line / 3
= 200 V
2. Iline = Iload x 3 = 34.6 A
3. In a wye connected circuit, the line current and the load current are equal.
Therefore, if the load current is 10 A, the line current is also 10 A.
4. Single load power = 3 000 / 3 = 1 000
Since P = E2 / R, E2 = P x R
E2 = 1 000 x 10 = 10 000
E= 10 000 = 100 V
Eline-to-line = Eload x 3 = 173 V
1-97
5. a) The current through each load

= Eline-to-line / R
= 40 A
Iline = Iload x 3
= 69.2 A
b) Since it is a balanced three-phase load, the total power is three times the
power dissipated in each phase.
PT = 3 x Eline x Iload
or
PT = Eline x Iline x 3
= 52 800 W
1-98
Experiment 22
Three-Phase Watts, Vars, and Volt-Amperes
DISCUSSION
In a balanced wye (Y) connected three-phase load, the line-to-line (Eline) voltage is
equal to 3 , or approximately 1.73 times each line-to-neutral (Ephase) voltage. Each
line current (Iline) is the same as each load current (Iphase). However, in a balanced
delta ()) connected three-phase load, the voltage and current characteristics are
opposite to those of a wye connection. The line-to-line voltage (Eline) is the same as
each load voltage (Ephase) but the line current (Iline) is equal to 3 times each load
current (Iphase).
The formulas used for calculating active, apparent and reactive three-phase power
are essentially the same as used for single-phase power except for the additional 3
factor. From the formula for power in a single-phase circuit, the power developed
in each phase (P phase) of either a delta or wye connection is:
Pphase = Ephase x Iphase x cos 2 (1)
where 2 is the angle between the phase current and the phase voltage.
The total power in all three phases of a balanced three-phase load is then:
Ptotal = 3 x Pphase
= 3 x Ephase x Iphase x cos 2 (2)
But in a wye connection:
Iphase = Iline and Ephase = Eline / 3
Thus, the three-phase power in a wye-connected system in terms of line voltage

and current is:
Ptotal = 3 x (Eline / 3 ) x Iline x cos 2

= 3 x Eline x Iline x cos 2
= 1.73 x Eline x Iline x cos 2
In a delta connection:
Ephase = Eline and Iphase = Iline / 3
1-99
Again the three-phase power in terms of line current and voltage is:
Ptotal = 3 x Eline x (Iline / 3 ) x cos 2
= 3 x Eline x Iline x cos 2
= 1.73 x Eline x Iline x cos 2
Thus, the expression for three-phase power in a balanced system either wye- or
delta - connected, is equal to:
P = 1.73 x Eline x Iline x cos 2 (3)
If (Ephase x Iphase x cos 2) is the power per phase in watts, then (Ephase x Iphase)
represents the volt-amperes per phase. If follows, then, that the three-phase
apparent power in either a wye or delta system may be found by:
S = 1.73 x Eline x Iline (4)
The power factor of a balanced three-phase connection is equal to:
PF = P / S (5)
or is equal to the cosine of the angle between the phase current and phase voltage.
Three-phase reactive power is equal to the sum of the three reactive powers per
phase or:
Q ' S2 & P2 (6)
Q2 = S2 ! P2
PROCEDURE
G 1. d. E1 = 117 V ac I1 = 0.402 A ac
E2 = 114 V ac I2 = 0.402 A ac
E3 = 114 V ac I3 = 0.408 A ac
f. Yes.
g. Iline = 0.404 A ac
h. Eline-to-line = 208 V ac
i. E1 x I1 = 47 var (L1)
E2 x I2 = 45.8 var (L2)
E3 x I3 = 46.5 var (L3)
j. varL1 + varL2 + varL3 = 138.6 var
1-100
k. Eline-to-line x Iline x 1.73 = 145.5 var
l. Yes. They are within 5% of each other.
G 2. d. E1 = 72 V ac I1 = 0.225 A ac
E2 = 69 V ac I2 = 0.225 A ac
E3 = 70 V ac I3 = 0.23 A ac
g. E4 = 90 V ac
E5 = 90 V ac
E6 = 90 V ac
i. 90 x 0.225 = 20.3 W
90 x 0.225 = 20.3 W
90 x 0.23 = 20.7 W
Total 3N active power = 61.3 W
j. 72 x 0.225 = 16.2 var

69 x 0.225 = 15.5 var
70 x 0.23 = 16.1 var
Total 3N reactive power = 47.8 var
k. 61.3² + 47.8² = 6042
Total 3N apparent power = 6042 = 77.7 VA
l. Iline is the average of the three line currents (I1, I2, I3) listed in 2 (d)
= 0.226 A.
Eline-to-line x Iline x 1.73 = 81.3 VA
m. Yes.
n. 61.3 / 77.7 = 0.789
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. a) S = 7 612 VA
b) P = 6 090 W
c) Q = 4 567 var
2. I = 28.9 A
1-101
1-102
Experiment 23
Three-Phase Power Measurement
DISCUSSION
Electrodynamometer wattmeters may be used for the measurement of either AC or

DC power. Since power in a DC circuit is always a product of current and voltage,
it is seldom necessary to use a wattmeter in a DC circuit. The power can be
calculated easily from the voltmeter and ammeter readings.
Power in an AC circuit depends on the power factor of the circuit as well as the
current and the voltage. At unity power factor, the current in both the current and
potential coils of a wattmeter reverses at the same time, resulting in a deflecting
force on the moving element which is always in the same direction. However, at
power factors less than unity, the current in one element reverses torque during the
time that the two currents are in opposite directions. The inertia of the moving
element prevents it following the torque reversals, so that the meter indication is the
resultant of the two torques. Thus, the wattmeter indicates the active or actual
power of an AC circuit.
PROCEDURE
G 2. c. I1 = 0.4 A ac
P1 = +70 W
P2 = +70 W
G 3. a. S = 144 VA
P = 140 W
PF = 0.972
b. Yes. Since the load is resistive the power factor should be unity.
Because of meter and load tolerances, the calculated power factor may
not be exactly unity.
G 4. c. I1 = 0.4 A ac
P1 = +10 W
P2 = !10 W
P1 + P2 = 0 W
1-103
Three-Phase Power Measurement
d. S = 144 VA
P=0W
PF = 0
Q= 144 var
G 5. c. I1 = 0.39 A ac
P1 = !36 W
P2 = +42 W
P1 + P2 = 6 W
d. S = 140 VA
P=6W
The inductors will dissipate some active power due to the winding
resistance and core losses.
PF = 0.043
Q = 140 var
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. No. Each meter measures a portion of the total 3 N power, depending on the
power factor and how well the loads and line voltages are balanced.
2. That the load power factor is less than 50%. This occurs when the phase angle
between the voltage and current seen by the wattmeter is greater than 90E.
3. Yes. The total power would be three times the indicated power if the meter were
connected to measure one of the loads. See Figure 23-2.
4. Yes. Because of the missing neutral wire, two measurements must be made.
Single scale polyphase wattmeters are often used in heavier power circuits. Of
course, one single-phase wattmeter could be used to measure the total three-
phase power by switching it around to the various connections and positions,
and then taking the algebraic sum of the readings.
5. Yes. When the voltage and current are exactly 90E out of phase,
E x I x cos N = 0.
1-104
Experiment 24
Phase Sequence
DISCUSSION
A three-phase power line with unmarked wires can be tested with this phase
sequence indicator, and the wires then labeled accordingly. If the wires are already
labeled as A, B, and C, then the sequence indicator will show whether the actual
sequence is ABC or ACB, these two being opposite sequences.
PROCEDURE
G 2. d. Terminal 4 = Bright
Terminal 5 = Dim
Terminal 6 = Capacitor
The bright lamp will be connected to the leading phase of the three, the
dim lamp will be connected to the middle phase of the three, and the
capacitor will be connected to the most lagging phase of the three. If
the wall receptacle is wired correctly, terminal 4 of the power supply will
be the leading phase (bright lamp), terminal 5 of the power supply will
be the middle phase (dim lamp), and terminal 6 of the power supply will
be the most lagging phase (capacitor). This classification of the
terminal voltages as the leading, the middle, and the most lagging of
the three, means that the voltage on terminal 4 will lead the terminal 5
voltage by 120 electrical degrees, and the terminal 5 voltage will lead
the terminal 6 voltage by 120 electrical degrees. We can then say that
the phase sequence or the order in which the three voltages reach their
peak values, is 4 - 5 - 6. If this 4 - 5 - 6 sequence is repeated as 4 - 5 -
6 - 4 - 5 - 6 - 4 - 5 - 6..., it can be seen that sequence 4 - 5 - 6 is the
same as sequence 5 - 6 - 4, which is the same as sequence 6 - 4 - 5.
It just depends on which phase is used as the reference phase from
which to compare the others.
G 3. c. Terminal 4 = Bright
Terminal 5 = Dim
Terminal 6 = Capacitor
With two of the leads interchanged, the lamp that was dim in Procedure
2 will now be the bright one, and the bright-dim-capacitor sequence will
still determine the phase sequence which will be 5 - 6 - 4, 6 - 4 - 5 or 4 -
5 - 6, which are all identical.
e. Yes. The phase sequence did not change because the power company
does not change its phase sequence.
1-105
Phase Sequence
G 4. d. The phase sequence now becomes bright-inductor-dim.
The phase sequence becomes bright lamp-inductor-dim lamp. The

bright lamp indicates the leading phase, the inductor now identifies the
middle phase, and the dim lamp now identifies the lagging phase. The
sequence of the three terminals will still be 4 - 5 - 6 or 5 - 6 - 4, or 6 -
5 - 4, because the power company sequence does not change.
f. The phase sequence of the three power supply terminals 4 - 5 - 6

remains unchanged because the power company sequence did not
change.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Yes. By observing the direction of rotation and then comparing it when the
motor is connected across another three phase line.
A three-phase induction motor could be used to establish the phase sequence

of a three-phase line, by observing its direction of rotation. The motor could be
run in a given direction, say clockwise as viewed from one end, and then its
three input terminals could be labelled according to the existing phase
sequence. Then, to find the phase sequence of a different three-phase supply,
one could hook up the motor and observe its direction of rotation. If this
direction was clockwise, the unknown power line could be labelled identically
to the terminals of the motor. If it rotated counterclockwise, the power line could
be labelled with the opposite sequence to that of the motor terminals. This
method of sequence indication is sometimes used, with a small portable
induction motor which can be carried in a pocket or hand-case.
2. No.
The three line-to-neutral voltages are not 120E out of phase with each other,
because the neutral point is not at zero potential when the phase loads are
unbalanced as they are in this circuit.
1-106
DC Machines
Experiment 0
See Experiment 4 of the volume titled Power Circuits (page 1-15 of this manual).
2-1
2-2
Experiment 1
Prime Mover and Torque Measurement
DISCUSSION
During this Laboratory Experiment, the student becomes familiar with the basic
operation of the 3N synchronous motor, the Prony brake, and the electrodynamo-
meter. The synchronous motor must, by its nature and design, run at a constant,
unvarying speed. If it is loaded beyond where it can maintain constant speed, it will
come to a stop. As will be seen in later Laboratory Experiments, this capability is
unique in that it is the only motor that maintains constant speed despite variations
in load or applied power. Single phase synchronous motors are small and are
intended for steady but light loads. They are used extensively for quality
phonograph motors, magnetic tape drives, and electric clock movements.
The electrodynamometer indicates torque. The strength of the stator magnetic field
can be increased or decreased by a front panel control. The strength of the
magnetic field determines the degree to which the revolving rotor is able to cause
the stator to change position on its axis. The arc described by the shifted stator
represents torque and is indicated on a scale marked on the perimeter of the stator
housing.
The Prony brake also indicates torque. The difference between the forces applied
at the two ends of the friction belt is equal to the retarding force applied to the
friction pulley. This force, multiplied by the radius of the friction pulley, constitutes
the motor loading torque. The built-in spring balance converts the retarding force
into an accurately calibrated torque indication.
This Laboratory Experiment demonstrates how to use either torque measuring

device; if only one of these devices is included in your set of equipment, the student
will have to skip part of the Procedure and will also have to rely on the explanations
given in the text to answer some of the questions.
PROCEDURE
G 5. b. I1 = I2 = I3 = 0.13 A ac.
The AC Ammeter range (2.5 A) is specified so that the high motor

starting current will not pin the indicators. The armature current is quite
low at optimum DC excitation and the ammeters, in the 2.5 A range, will
indicate values close to zero. The current values shown were
measured on 0-0.5 A range. Values measured by the students using
the 2.5 A range may be somewhat different. Depending on the actual
3 N line voltage values and individual meter accuracies, the stator
currents should be equal.
d. I1 = I2 = I3 = 0.55 A ac
2-3
G 6. Control knob scale position = 8 o’clock.
G 7 a. The speed remains constant at 1800 r/min for all levels of excitation.
b. Rotation = Clockwise.
G 8. b. Rotation = Counterclockwise.
Note that, when the synchronous motor is connected to the power

supply as shown in Figure 1-1 the direction of rotation should be
clockwise. All experiments involving the synchronous motor are based
upon clockwise rotation when so connected. If the motor rotates
counterclockwise when connected according to Figure 1-1, any two of
the three-phase input power wires should be interchanged. This can be
done by having two of the three lines reversed at the wall outlet. This
should only be done by a qualified electrician.
G 11. b. Yes.
Yes.
G 12. b. Yes.
d. No.
G 16. a. I1 = I2 = I3 = 0.8 A ac
b. 1800 r/min
G 17. a. The three stator currents increase to approximately 1 A each.
b. 1800 r/min in both cases.
c. No.
G 18. b. “Breakdown” torque = 2.4 N·m
G 20. e. I1 = I2 = I3 = 0.13 A ac
h. I1 = I2 = I3 = 0.8 A ac
i. Speed with load = 1800 r/min
2-4
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. By interchanging any two of the three stator connections.
2. Excitation above or below the optimum, or unity power factor setting, causes the
current through the stator windings to increase.
3. By increasing the DC rotor excitation which, in turn, increases the strength of

the rotor produced magnetic field causing stronger attraction between the rotor
and stator poles.
4. Mechanical Output Power = 2B x N x T / 60
= 2B x 1800 x 1 / 60
= 188.5 W
5. Mechanical Output Power = 2B x N x T / 60
= 2B x 1800 x 2.4 / 60
= 452 W
6. The electrodynamometer is easier to use; the torque can be varied by simply

turning the control knob and the torque value is read directly on the scale
mounted on the stator housing.
The Prony brake requires turning one wheel to vary the torque and another
wheel to bring the balance in equilibrium and read the torque.
7. The power is dissipated in the rotor bars of the electrodynamometer.
8. The power is dissipated in the friction wheel.
2-5
2-6
Experiment 2
The Direct Current Motor – Part I
DISCUSSION
In this Laboratory Experiment, the student investigates the fundamental

characteristics of the DC motor. The DC motor used in this Laboratory Experiment
is arranged so that it can be connected as a shunt, series or compound motor by
connecting leads between the front panel terminals. Since DC currents and voltages
are used, particular attention should be given to polarity.
PROCEDURE
G 2. c. 4 poles.
G 3. b. 75 commutator bars.
c. 2 brushes.
G 4. a. 5 and 6.
b. 3 and 4.
c. Yes. The higher current winding uses the heavier wire.
d. 1 and 2.
G 5. a. 7 and 8.
b. R(field rheostat) = 500 S
G 7. b. E(shunt field) = 79.5 V dc.
There are a number of variables involved in this and subsequent

calculations; therefore, you can expect students to come up with values
within 10% of those shown.
d. R(shunt field) = E/I = 79.5/0.3 = 265 S
e. P(shunt field) = I²R = 0.09 x 265 = 23.85 W
G 8. c. E(series field) = 5.2 V dc
e. R(series field) = E/I = 5.2 / 3 = 1.7 S
2-7
f. P(series field) = I²R = 9 x 1.7 = 15.3 W
G 9. c. E(armature) = 25 V dc
This value may be a little above or below 20 V dc. If above, use the
200 V dc range.
e. R(armature) = E/I = 25 / 3 = 8.3 S
f. P(armature) = I²R = 9 x 8.3 = 74.7 W
G 10. c. E = 25 V dc, R = 8.3 S, P = 74.7 W
G 11. b. E = 25 V dc, R = 8.3 S, P = 74.7 W
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. I = 0.45 A dc
2. E = 5.1 V dc
3. Iminimum = 0.16 A dc Imaximum = 0.45 A dc
4. It is a good conductor.
Copper is an excellent conductor and offers very low resistance to current flow.
Resistance is a factor in power dissipation (I2R) and should be as low as
possible to prevent losses due to coil heating. With lower power losses,
efficiency is increased and, with less heat to dissipate, the frame and motor size
and bulk can be made smaller.
5. There is less friction between carbon and copper.
The carbon brushes are inexpensive and easy to replace. Use of carbon
brushes insures minimum wear on the commutator which is relatively expensive
and difficult to replace.
6. a) I = 70.6 A
b) P = 8 472 W
c) Yes.
2-8
d) It would overheat and burn.
7. Current or voltage at rated load.
8. I = 12 A dc
9. Yes, but there may be variations.
Any slight differences in resistance would be caused by contact pressure

between a brush and commutator bar, dirt or film on the surfaces, or a small
imperfection on a commutator bar which would prevent most of the brush
surface from contacting that particular bar.
2-9
2-10
Experiment 3
The Direct Current Motor – Part II
DISCUSSION
In this Laboratory Experiment, the student further investigates the basic properties
of DC motors. An important aspect of DC motor operation is counter, or back, EMF;
the voltage induced in the armature windings due to their cutting through the stator
magnetic fields. Counter EMF (CEMF) opposes the source EMF; therefore, current
through the armature windings is a function of the difference between applied EMF
and CEMF. If the applied voltage or source EMF is increased, current through the
armature will increase and so will the motor speed. CEMF is caused by the current
carrying armature coils cutting through the magnetic field between the stator poles.
If this magnetic field is made weaker, less CEMF is induced and more current will
flow through the armature coils. The armature will rotate faster in an attempt to
induce more CEMF to limit armature current. Speed then is affected by two factors:
the applied voltage and the strength of the stator magnetic field.
PROCEDURE
G 7. a. Yes.
b. Series speed = 5 270 r/min
Some students may be hesitant about applying the full 120 V;

especially if the motor housing and frame resonate at some
intermediate voltage. You may even find it expedient to demonstrate
motor performance at 120 V dc. Have the students take several speed
measurements and average them out, reducing power and then
increasing it again between measurements. This will serve to acquaint
them with motor performance characteristics and the operation of the
tachometer.
G 8. a. Reducing the source voltage reduces the motor speed.
b. Rotation = Clockwise.
G 10. Series speed(reversed) = 5 270 r/min.
Rotation = Counterclockwise.
G 11. Rotation direction is reversed if armature connections are reversed.
2-11
G 13. c. Shunt speed(zero ohms) = 1 225 r/min
e. Rotation = Clockwise.
G 15. a. No.
b. No.
G 17. Rotation = Counterclockwise.
G 18. b. CEMF drops due to loss of magnetic field, causing armature current to
increase, causing speedup.
When the shunt coil is opened, the magnetic field strength in the stator
fields is limited to the residual flux in the stator. The armature coils are
cutting through extremely weak magnetic flux lines and very little CEMF
is induced in the armature. Without CEMF to limit it, armature current
and rotational speed increase greatly. The Lab-Volt motors have been
designed to withstand this mistreatment. However, a great majority of
motors would increase in speed until destruction.
c. No. Removing the field power also removes the armature power
stopping the motor.
E
0 30 60 90 120
(volts)
SPEED
0 285 590 840 1 200
(r/min)
Table 3-1.
2-12
d. See Figure 3-6.
Figure 3-6.
e. Yes.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. With AC applied to the armature, adjust brushes for zero induced AC in shunt
winding.
2. No. Assuming no residual stator flux, a large armature current would flow, but
the motor would not start. If sufficient residual flux is present, the motor would
start and rapidly accelerate to excessive speed due to high armature current
and a weak stator field.
3. The motor could speed up and destroy itself.
The series motor of Procedures 5 through 11 did not run away because it has
been designed to have its power losses limit maximum speed to a practical
value.
4. 1- Interchange armature connections.
2- Interchange field connections.
5. To prevent motor runaway and possible destruction.
6. a) No. Armature DC resistance and other losses prevent exact doubling.
2-13
b) Yes. With the exception of the losses mentioned in (a) motor speed varies
directly with armature voltage.
7. a) See Figure 3-7.
Figure 3-7.
b) See Figure 3-8.
Figure 3-8.
2-14
c) See Figure 3-9.
Figure 3-9.
8. a) Vary the shunt field voltage.
b) Vary the armature voltage.
9. a) Method (b).
b) Method (a).
Control of stator flux or shunt voltage is more economical because shunt

current is low and a comparatively simple rheostat provides adequate
control. However, since the shunt coil is across the power source, low
speed is limited to the power source voltage. High speed is determined by
the maximum resistance of the rheostat and the safe speed of the motor.
2-15
2-16
Experiment 4
The DC Shunt Motor
DISCUSSION
During this Laboratory Experiment, the student encounters the DC shunt motor. As
its name implies, the field coil and armature windings are connected in shunt or
parallel across the power source. The armature winding consists of relatively few
turns of heavy gauge wire. The voltage across the two windings is the same, but the
armature draws considerably more current than the field coil. Torque or rotation is
caused by the interaction of the current carrying armature winding with the magnetic
field produced by the field coil. Although speed regulation is quite good, the speed
is not precisely constant as is that of the synchronous motor. As the armature
rotates within the magnetic field an EMF is induced in its winding. This EMF is in a
direction to oppose the source EMF and is, therefore, called counter EMF or CEMF.
CEMF varies directly with rotational speed. Current flow through the armature
winding is a result of the difference between source EMF and CEMF, and of course,
speed is a function of armature current. If the load increases, the motor tends to
slow down and less CEMF is induced. The decrease in CEMF permits increased
armature current flow, thus providing more torque for the increased load. Motor
speed is increased by inserting resistance into the field coil circuit which weakens
the magnetic field. Thus, the speed can be increased from “basic” or full-load, full-
field speed to some maximum speed set by the electrical and mechanical limitations
of the motor. Since speed is increased by weakening the field flux, care must be
taken never to open the field circuit of a shunt motor that is running unloaded.
PROCEDURE
E I SPEED TORQUE
(volts) (amps) (r/min) (N·m)
120 0.35 1 800 0
120 0.97 1 735 0.3
120 1.55 1 680 0.6
120 2.13 1 635 0.9
120 2.69 1 600 1.2
Table 4-1.
2-17
The DC Shunt Motor
E I SPEED TORQUE
(volts) (amps) (r/min) (lbf·in)
120 0.35 1800 0
120 1.05 1725 3
120 1.7 1665 6
120 2.35 1620 9
120 2.95 1585 12
Table 4-1.
G 7. a. See Figure 4-2.
Figure 4-2.
2-18
The DC Shunt Motor
G 8. Speed regulation = 12.5 %
G 10. b. E = 25 V Torque = 0.28 N·m
G 11. b. Starting current = 14.4 A
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Pout = 201 W
2. Input power = 323 W
3. Efficiency = 62.2 %
4. Losses = 122 W
5. Armature and field winding resistances, windage, bearing and brush friction,
rheostat and brush resistance.
6. No. The fan would only help to dissipate the heat generated by the losses.
2-19
The DC Shunt Motor
7. 1- Power is wasted.
2- Heat causes breakdown.
8. 5.4 times
2-20
Experiment 5
The DC Series Motor
DISCUSSION
The DC series motor has the field coil and armature windings connected in series
across the power source. Since armature current flows through it, the field coil is
wound with a few turns of heavy gauge wire. Unlike the shunt motor, the field flux
of a series motor varies as the armature current varies. When the series motor is
lightly loaded and very little armature current flows, the field flux is weak, very little
CEMF is induced in the armature winding so the motor speed is quite fast. As the
load increases, armature current and field flux strength increase so the motor speed
is slower. If the load is removed completely, the motor could speed up to the extent
that it would fly apart. Small series motors usually have enough windage and
bearing friction to limit maximum unloaded speed to a safe value. The series DC
motor, in comparison with the shunt DC motor, has high starting torque and poor
speed regulation.
PROCEDURE
G 5. See Table 5-1.
E I SPEED TORQUE
120 0.65 5 270 0
120 1.43 2 710 0.3
120 1.89 2 090 0.6
120 2.33 1 860 0.9
120 2.72 1 560 1.2
Table 5-1.
2-21
The DC Series Motor
E I SPEED TORQUE
120 0.65 5270 0
120 1.5 2563 3
120 2.0 2030 6
120 2.5 1745 9
120 2.8 1525 12
Table 5-1.
Speed and current for 0 N·m torque were measured with the
electrodynamometer disconnected from the series DC motor. Although
Table 5-1, when completed, shows quite plainly how load changes affect
motor speed, another simple demonstration will emphasize the difference
in motor speed between “no-load” and “almost no-load”. With the
electrodynamometer disconnected from the motor, the speed is 5 270 r/min
, limited by windage, bearing friction and brush friction. With
the electrodynamometer connected but adjusted for zero load the speed
drops to about 3 600 r/min . The decrease of 1 670 r/min
is caused by the coupling belt losses and the loading effect of
the electrodynamometer rotor with its windage and bearing friction. This
points up the fact that, as the series DC motor approaches no-load
conditions, the speed increases in very large increments.
2-22
The DC Series Motor
Figure 5-2.
G 6. Speed regulation = 238%
2-23
The DC Series Motor
G 8. b. E = 38 V Torque = 1.56N·m
The resistance of the armature winding and field coil (connected in

series) is:
R = E/I = 38 / 3 = 12.7 S
Starting current at full line voltage is:
I = E/R = 120 / 12.7 = 9.5 A
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Pout = 196 W
3. Efficiency = 60 %
4. Losses = 130 W
5. 3.5 times.
6. a) Starting torque is much greater for the series motor.
b) Starting current is less for the series motor.
c) Efficiency is slightly higher for the series motor.
d) Speed regulation is much poorer for the series motor.
2-24
Experiment 6
The DC Compound Motor
DISCUSSION
The cumulative compound motor combines the operating characteristics of the

series and shunt motors. The shunt field winding places a practical limit on
maximum no-load speed and it may, therefore, be operated at no-load. The shunt
coil also provides for better speed regulation than a series motor while the series
coil provides for greater starting torque than a shunt motor. Some compound motor
applications involve use of the series field coil for starting in order to realize the
higher torque characteristic of the series motor. After the motor is started the series
coil is shorted out in order to realize the better speed regulation of the shunt motor.
Cumulative compound motors are used where fairly constant speed under irregular
loading is a requirement.
PROCEDURE
E I SPEED TORQUE
120 0.35 1 800 0
120 0.9 1 545 0.3
120 1.3 1 410 0.6
120 1.65 1 335 0.9
120 2 1 265 1.2
Table 6-1.
E I SPEED TORQUE
120 0.35 1800 0
120 0.95 1510 3
120 1.4 1400 6
120 1.8 1300 9
120 2.2 1210 12
Table 6-1.
2-25
G 8. b. See Figure 6-3.
Figure 6-3.
G 9. Speed regulation = 42.3%
G 11. b. E = 38 V Torque = 1.85 N·m
2-26
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Pout = 159 W
3. Efficiency = 66.3%
4. Losses = 81 W
5. 4.75 times.
6. The shunt winding provides a fairly constant flux field for speed regulation
limiting the no-load speed. The series winding improves the starting
characteristics by increasing torque.
7. a) Starting torque is low for the shunt wound DC motor, and is high for the
series and compound wound motors.
It should be noted that the same physical series winding is used for the
series and compound motors, hence, the compound motor starting torque
is greater than that of the series motor due to the additional torque
contributed by the shunt winding (assuming the two windings are aiding).
Ordinarily, the starting torque of a series motor is greater than that of an
equally rated compound motor.
b) Starting current is approximately 50% greater for the shunt wound motor
than for the series and compound wound motors.
c) Efficiency is about equal for each of the motor types at a full load torque.
d) Speed regulation is relatively good for the shunt motor, poor for the
compound motor and very poor for the series motor.
2-27
2-28
Experiment 7
The DC Separately Excited Shunt Generator
DISCUSSION
The DC shunt generator’s construction is identical to that of the DC shunt motor. In

operation, however, its rotor is driven by mechanical power, and DC voltage taken
from the commutator brushes on the rotor shaft. In order to generate electricity, the
rotor must rotate within a magnetic field. A DC voltage is, therefore, applied to the
stator to create the necessary magnetic field. This can be accomplished by
connecting a battery or some other separate source of DC voltage to the stator
terminals. When the stator is thus separately excited, the generator is called a
separately excited generator. By varying the field excitation, a fairly wide range of
output voltages may be obtained, However, it is expensive and, in many cases,
impractical or inconvenient to provide a separate source of DC excitation.
PROCEDURE
G 4. a. The rotor of the synchronous motor must rotate in a clockwise direction

if the meters used to measure output voltage and current are to deflect
up-scale. In Experiment 1 it was recommended that, if, with the
synchronous motor connected as shown, the rotor did not turn in a
clockwise direction any two of the power supply input wires be
interchanged. If that was not done and any of the synchronous motors
turn counterclockwise when connected as shown in Figure 7-1, then
two of the fixed 208 V ac leads must be interchanged, at the power
supply, to insure satisfactory meter operation.
d. See Table 7-1.
IF EA
(milliamperes) (volts)
0 13
50 30
100 53
150 78
200 100
250 117
300 129
350 140
400 150
Table 7-1.
2-29
f. A weak magnetic field, caused by residual stator flux, exists even when
no excitation voltage is applied. Armature rotation within this field
generates a small voltage.
G 5. c. Yes.
G 6. c. EA = 129 V dc
d. Yes.
G 7. c. Yes.
G 8. c. EA = 129 V dc
d. Yes.
G 10. c. IF = 320 mA
RL IA EA POWER
(ohms) (amps) (volts) (watts)
4 0 132 0
600 0.2 130 26
300 0.4 125 50
200 0.6 125 75
150 0.8 120 96
120 1 120 120
100 1.15 118 135.7
80 1.4 115 161
75 1.5 112 168
Table 7-2.
G 12. b. Yes.
2-30
G 14. e. IF = 600 mA.
The motor should start slowing down at about 200 mA and continue to
slow down as excitation current is increased to 600 mA.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. 1) Reverse the polarity of the shunt field excitation current.
2) Reverse the direction of rotation of the armature by reversing the driving

motor.
2. Pmin. = 225 W
3. The “bending over” is due to magnetic saturation of the stator core, whereby an
increase in magnetizing current produces a smaller increase in magnetic field
strength. See Figure 7-4.
Figure 7-4
2-31
4. See Figure 7-5.
Figure 7-5.
5. Regulation = 10%
2-32
Experiment 8
The DC Self-Excited Shunt Generator
DISCUSSION
The self-excited DC shunt generator provides its own field excitation. The shunt field
is connected to the armature through the commutator so that direct current flows
through the shunt field. This arrangement leaves the self-excited generator
independent of any separate source of DC excitation. However, regulation is poorer
than that of the separately-excited generator because the field current is dependent
on armature voltage. If the generator load increases, output voltage decreases due
to armature reaction and the IR drop across the armature winding resistance. Since
excitation voltage comes from the generator output, a decrease in output voltage
causes a decrease in field current and field flux which, in turn, causes a further
decrease in output voltage. Output voltage can be varied to compensate for load
changes by manually adjusting the field rheostat. However, automatic adjustment
is more convenient and more rapidly responsive to load changes. Such devices as
the Terril regulator, the diactor, and the saturable reactor or magnetic amplifier
provide automatic means of varying field flux inversely with changes in output
voltage.
PROCEDURE
G 4. c. Yes.
e. EA = 160 V dc
G 5. Yes. Varying the rheostat varies the strength of the magnetic field through
which the armature is rotating, thus, varying the voltage induced in the
armature winding.
2-33
G 7. See Table 8-1.
RL IA EA POWER
4 0 160 0
600 0.25 140 35
300 0.43 135 58
200 0.6 130 78
150 0.8 125 100
120 1 120 120
100 1.1 115 126.5
80 1.3 107 139.1
75 1.35 105 141.8
Table 8-1.
G 8. d. No. Residual voltage due to residual magnetism, causes a current to

flow through the stator windings; this current causes an opposing
magnetic field cancelling the residual magnetism.
In Laboratory Experiment No. 7, a small output voltage was noted even

when no field excitation current was flowing in the shunt coil. This was
due to residual magnetism which, in a separately excited generator is
little more than an interesting phenomenon. In a self-excited generator,
however, the residual field flux is essential to the “build-up“ of output
voltage. The residual flux causes a low value of residual voltage which,
in turn, causes a small current to flow in the field coils. The resulting
magnetomotive force either aids or opposes the residual magnetism
depending on the manner in which the shunt terminals are connected
to the armature. If the residual flux is aided, the generated voltage will
rise or “build-up”. This rise will, in turn, cause an increase in field
current, a further increase in flux, and a still larger output voltage. Build
up continues until the field current caused by the generated output
voltage is sufficient to develop the required excitation to sustain the
output voltage at the desired level.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. No.
2. By connecting only the stator windings to a separate DC source, such as a

battery, for a few seconds. This is referred to as “flashing the field”.
2-34
3. Yes.
4. See Figure 8-3.
Figure 8-3.
5. Regulation = 33.3%
6. The regulation of the separately excited DC generator is much better (10% vs

33.3%) than that of the self-excited generator.
7. Excitation current for the separately excited generator is independent of

armature current so the magnetic field strength is the same for all values of
armature current.
The self-excited generator provides its own field flux from the generated output
voltage. If the output voltage varies, the field flux also varies, so a change in
output voltage is magnified by a reduction in field flux, which causes less
voltage to be induced in the armature winding and a further reduction in
generated output voltage.
2-35
2-36
Experiment 9
The DC Compound Generator
DISCUSSION
The compound motor can be connected with the series field flux either aiding or
opposing the shunt field flux. When flux created by the two coils is in the same
direction, the generator is said to be cumulative-compounded. If the series field flux
opposes the shunt field flux, the generator is said to be differential-compounded.
Differential compounding is rarely used, and then only to meet certain special
requirements. Since most compound generators are cumulative-compounded, they
are simply called compound generators. The shunt coil can be connected directly
across the armature (short-shunt) or across the series connected armature and
series coil (long-shunt). There is no appreciable operational difference between the
two methods of connection. The number of turns comprising the series winding
determines the ratio of full-load to no-load output voltage. If the series winding has
many turns, the generator is overcompounded and full-load voltage is greater than
no-load voltage. If, on the other hand, the series winding has few turns, the
generator is undercompounded and full-load voltage is less than no-load voltage.
If the series winding is such that full-load voltage equals no-load voltage, the
generator is said to be flat compounded. The compound generator is used more
than other types because it can be designed to have a wide variety of
characteristics.
PROCEDURE
G 4. c. Yes.
e. EA = 165 V dc
G 5. Yes. The field rheostat controls current through the shunt coil thus
controlling the magnetic field flux which in turn varies the output voltage.
2-37
G 7. See Table 9-1.
RL IA EA POWER
4 0 120 0
600 0.2 120 24
300 0.4 120 48
200 0.6 120 72
150 0.8 120 96
120 1 120 120
100 1.2 120 144
80 1.5 120 180
75 1.6 120 192
Table 9-1.
Figure 9-3.
2-38
RL IA EA POWER
4 0 120 0
600 0.2 110 22
300 0.3 96 28.8
200 0.38 80 30.4
150 0.4 60 24
120 0.36 45 16.2
100 0.32 35 11.2
80 0.3 25 7.5
75 0.3 23 6.9
Table 9-2.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. a) Procedure 10.
b) Procedure 7.
2. See Figure 9-4.
Figure 9-4.
2-39
3. From 45 V dc to 90 V dc
4. See Figure 9-5.
Figure 9-5.
5. Regulation = 0%
6. The compound generator has the best regulation (0%) and the self-excited
shunt generator has the poorest regulation (33.3%) while the regulation of the
separately excited shunt generator (10%) is about midway between the other
two types.
It should be remembered that the ampere-turns of the series coil is one of the
things that determines the full-load to no-load voltage ratio of a compound
generator. A flat-compounded generator will have zero regulation while over
and under-compounded generators can have varying degrees of regulation.
7. The series field creates more flux so as to maintain a constant output voltage.
2-40
Experiment 10
DC Motor Starter
DISCUSSION
If a DC motor were connected directly to a power line, the armature inrush current
would be 20 to 30 times the normal full-load motor current. Since torque is directly
proportional to armature current, the starting torque could be 30 times normal and
the initial heating of the motor would be 900 times normal. Except for small
machines, neither motor, driven machine, nor power lines would stand this
punishment. The voltage across the motor must therefore be reduced in some way,
and the simplest and most usual method is to connect a resistor in series with the
armature. The resistor should allow more than full-load current to flow, so that the
torque will be sufficient to accelerate the rated load. A usual starting resistor will
allow 150 to 300% of normal full-load current to flow.
Industry often requires that DC motors be started automatically. The same simple
principle used in the manual face-plate starter, of progressively short-circuiting
accelerating (or starting) resistors as the motor comes up to speed, is used. These
automatic starters for DC motors can be classified under two general methods of
acceleration, namely, current-limit acceleration and definite-time acceleration. In the
current-limit starter, sensing relays operate for changing values of armature current
or voltage as the motor accelerates. The relays successively cut-out (short-circuit)
the accelerating resistors.
Definite-time (time-limit) acceleration method, on the other hand, employs a set of

timed relays that function in sequence at a definite rate, regardless of armature
current, to short-circuit progressively a group of resistors.
More modern DC motor starters are the SCR controllers which operate directly off
the AC supply. These controllers accomplish the functions of rectifying the AC
power and of limiting the DC voltage or current available to the load (the DC motor).
The SCR speed control will be studied in a later Laboratory Experiment.
PROCEDURE
G 4. a. IA = 3.4 A dc
b. Time = 0.5 s
d. Yes.
Yes.
e. Time = 1.2 s
g. Since no more current flows through the electromagnet, it cannot

attract the holding plate any more; the spring pulls the starter handle to
its rest position and disconnect the motor from the power source.
2-41
DC Motor Starter
G 5. b. Yes.
Yes.
d. The handle is held in position by the electromagnet which is energized

through the 600 S resistor. The motor speed increases very rapidly
because of the very weak residual flux and draws excessive current.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. To provide a maximum starting torque and to reduce the starting period during
which the armature current limiting resistor is in the circuit.
2. Because a 3-point starter protects the motor from overspeeding if the shunt-field
circuit is opened.
3. The circuit breaker in series with the high-wattage resistor would open the
circuit to the motor. If a breaker were not used, the resistor would overheat and
burn.
4. The motor should normally be started with maximum shunt-field excitation. At

start-up, the voltage at terminal 3 is zero and there would not be any excitation.
The voltage at the first fixed contact is always equal to the supply voltage,
except for the small voltage drop through the resistor due to the shunt-field
current.
5. It provides a fixed current through the electromagnet to hold the starter handle
at its maximum CW position.
2-42
Experiment 11
Thyristor Speed Controllers
PROCEDURE
EA IA IF SPEED
(V) (A) (mA) (r/min)
0 0 385 0
10 0.1 385 95
20 0.1 375 215
30 0.12 375 325
40 0.12 365 435
50 0.12 362 560
60 0.13 362 685
70 0.14 362 820
80 0.15 360 940
90 0.15 359 1055
100 0.18 359 1200
Table 11-1.
G 7. Yes.
G 8. Yes.
2-43
LOAD SETTING EA IA IF SPEED

(N@m) (V) (A) (mA) (r/min)
0.0 90 0.34 378 1000
0.1 85 0.42 375 930
0.2 75 0.51 370 795
0.3 65 0.69 370 680
0.4 59 0.8 370 610
0.5 55 0.92 365 535
0.6 50 1.06 360 450
0.7 48 1.2 358 400
0.8 42 1.35 358 340
0.9 40 1.48 358 305
1.0 38 1.62 358 260
Table 11-2.

(lbf@in) (V) (A) (mA) (r/min)
0 90 0.35 360 1000
1 85 0.43 362 940
2 75 0.58 358 816
3 68 0.72 358 700
4 60 0.85 358 600
5 55 1.00 355 510
6 50 1.20 350 450
7 45 1.35 350 380
8 40 1.50 350 330
9 40 1.60 350 280
10 38 1.72 350 250
2-44
1100
1000
900
800
700
Motor Speed (r/min)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Load (N-m)
Open Loop
Closed Loop without IR Compensation
Closed Loop with IR Compensation
Figure 11-3.
2-45
1100
1000
900
800
700
Motor Speed (r/min)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Load (lbf-in)
Open Loop
Closed Loop without IR Compensation
Closed Loop with IR Compensation
G 15. Yes.
2-46

(N@m) (V) (A) (mA) (r/min)
0.0 90 0.35 378 1000
0.1 90 0.45 377 987
0.2 90 0.58 375 975
0.3 90 0.71 372 969
0.4 90 0.82 365 961
0.5 90 0.96 360 946
0.6 90 1.11 359 940
0.7 90 1.26 358 931
0.8 90 1.42 355 919
0.9 90 1.56 355 909
1.0 90 1.72 355 900
Table 11-3.

(lbf@in) (V) (A) (mA) (r/min)
0 90 0.32 360 1010

1 90 0.42 360 1000
2 90 0.60 360 985
3 90 0.75 360 975
4 90 0.90 360 960
5 90 1.05 350 955
6 90 1.22 345 940
7 90 1.40 342 930
8 90 1.60 341 915
9 90 1.77 341 905
10 90 1.90 340 890
G 19. Yes.
2-47
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. The purpose of the diode single-phase, full-wave bridge rectifier is to convert

the fixed AC voltage into a fixed DC voltage.
2. The purpose of the thyristor single-phase, full-wave bridge rectifier is to convert

the fixed AC voltage into a variable DC voltage.
3. The purpose of the FIRING ANGLE potentiometer on the Thyristor Speed

Controller is to set the firing angle of the thyristors manually.
4. The armature voltage decreases because the average value of the pulsated
voltage produced by thyristor rectifiers decreases when the current increases.
2-48
Experiment 12
Thyristor Speed Controllers with Regulation
PROCEDURE
G 9. Minimum motor speed = 0 r/min
Maximum motor speed = 1100 r/min
EA (V) IA (A) IF (mA) SPEED (r/min)

LOAD
SETTING
Without With Without With Without With Without With
(N@m)
IR COMP. IR COMP. IR COMP. IR COMP. IR COMP. IR COMP. IR COMP. IR COMP.
0 88 88 0.35 0.32 378 360 1000 1000

0.1 88 88 0.45 0.42 377 359 987 994
0.2 88 88 0.58 0.57 375 358 975 994
0.3 88 88 0.71 0.71 372 357 969 992
0.4 88 88 0.82 0.83 365 350 961 988
0.5 88 88 0.96 0.98 360 345 946 981
0.6 88 90 1.11 1.12 359 345 940 982
0.7 88 90 1.26 1.25 358 345 931 980
0.8 88 90 1.42 1.41 355 342 919 978
0.9 88 91 1.56 1.55 355 342 909 975
1 88 91 1.72 1.71 355 340 900 974
Table 12-1.
2-49
EA (V) IA (A) IF (mA) SPEED (r/min)

LOAD
SETTING
Without With Without With Without With Without With
(lbf@in)
IR COMP. IR COMP. IR COMP. IR COMP. IR COMP. IR COMP. IR COMP. IR COMP.
0 88 88 0.32 0.31 360 362 1010 1000

1 88 88 0.42 0.42 360 360 1000 1000
2 88 89 0.60 0.59 360 360 985 995
3 88 90 0.75 0.73 360 358 975 995
4 88 90 0.90 0.90 360 358 960 995
5 88 90 1.05 1.05 350 350 955 990
6 88 91 1.22 1.21 345 350 940 990
7 88 91 1.40 1.40 342 345 930 990
8 88 92 1.60 1.59 341 341 915 985
9 88 93 1.77 1.75 341 341 905 989
10 88 95 1.90 1.90 340 340 890 980
G 13. Yes.
G 14. The results are similar. It shows that the closed-loop mode of control
automatically maintains the armature voltage constant.
G 18. Yes.
G 21. Yes.
G 23. Yes.
G 24. Yes.
2-50
LOAD SETTING EA IA IF
SPEED (r/min)
(N@m) (V) (A) (mA)
0 85 0.3 350 1000

0.1 * * * *
0.2 * * * *
0.3 * * * *
0.4 * * * *
0.5 * * * *
0.6 * * * *
0.7 * * * *
0.8 * * * *
0.9 * * * *
1 * * * *
* Motor torque limited by current limiter of the Thyristor Speed Controller.
Table 12-2.
LOAD SETTING EA IA IF
SPEED (r/min)
(lbf@in) (V) (A) (mA)
0 85 0.3 350 1000

1 * * * *
2 * * * *
3 * * * *
4 * * * *
5 * * * *
6 * * * *
7 * * * *
8 * * * *
9 * * * *
10 * * * *
* Motor torque limited by current limiter of the Thyristor Speed Controller.
Table 12-2.
G 28. No.
G 29. Yes.
2-51
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. The closed-loop system is provided with circuitry that senses the voltage and
current of the motor. It adjusts its output voltage to keep the motor speed
constant.
2. The purpose of the VOLTAGE REFERENCE potentiometer on the Thyristor

Speed Controller is to set the armature voltage to obtain a specific motor speed.
3. The purpose of the REFERENCE INTEGRATOR of the Thyristor Speed

Controller is to control the acceleration and deceleration of the motor.
4. The purpose of the CURRENT LIMIT potentiometer on the Thyristor Speed

Controller is to limit the armature current to prevent damage to the motor and
the controller. It is also used to limit the torque developed by the motor to
prevent damage to the devices driven by the motor.
2-52
Appendix D
SCR Speed Control – Part I
DISCUSSION
Most electronic control of DC motors is accomplished by providing a variable

magnitude DC component of voltage by controlled rectification of a sinusoidal AC
supply. Two functions are carried out simultaneously. First, the circuit components
including the SCR are arranged so as to provide only unidirectional flow of current
to the motor from the alternating supply. Various common circuits such as half-
wave, full-wave, single-phase or three-phase bridge, and others are used. Secondly,
the use of controlled rectifiers, that is, SCR’s, make it possible to control the point
in the AC cycle at which the device fires (or conducts). However, control can only
be exercised to keep the SCR from firing during the initial part of the period in which
it would have begun conduction as a diode. Thus, the maximum DC voltage is equal
to that provided by the basic diode circuit and may be reduced from this maximum
to zero.
PROCEDURE
G 2. c. See Table D-1.
EA IA I1 SPEED
(volts) (amps) (amps) (r/min)
90 0.2 0.34 1400
105 0.2 0.335 1620
120 0.2 0.33 1860
135 0.2 0.33 2090
150 0.2 0.33 2320
Table D-1.
e. Late.
f. Speed = 3650 r/min
Have the students disconnect the DC voltmeter from the circuit prior to
making the high speed test. Although the rated armature voltage is
being exceeded, no harm will be done, if the operating time is kept to
a minimum.
D-1
SCR Speed Control – Part I
G 3. e. EA = 100 V dc, IA = 1.55 A dc, IF = 0.3 A dc.
f. Yes.
g. Yes.
h. 60 Hz
G 4. b. EA = 175 V dc, IA = 0.52 A dc, IF = 0.31 A dc.
Motor speed = 2750 r/min
d. Yes.
e. Yes. If the motor was powering a variable load such as a passenger

elevator, its operating speed would vary with loading.
G 5. c. EA = 105 V dc, IA = 0.55 A dc, IF = 0.3 A dc
d. No.
e. No.
f. EA = 175 V dc, IA = 0.55 A dc, IF = 0.31 A dc
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. With filtered DC power, the form factor is closer to unity, there is less sparking
at the brushes, less noise and vibration, and less heat generated.
2. With no feedback (open-loop operation) the input DC voltage varies with loading
causing an even greater speed variation than normal.
3. A phase shift of 90E occurs only when a circuit looks like a pure capacitance.
Therefore, there can be no resistance in the circuit and R1 must equal 0 S.
D-2
Appendix E
SCR Speed Control – Part II
DISCUSSION
The triggering or firing angle of the SCR is determined by the DC bias voltage
between its gate and cathode. Since the gate is tied to a fixed DC reference voltage,
the firing angle is determined by the DC cathode voltage level. This DC voltage level
is also the armature voltage, and as its values varies with motor loading, it causes
the SCR to trigger either early (small angle) or late (large angle) thereby causing the
output power of the speed controller to increase or decrease as required.
PROCEDURE
G 2. If time permits, have the students repeat Procedures 3 and 4 with rheostat
R1 set at approximately 3/4 of its full clockwise position. The speed
regulation will improve.
G 3. b. EA = 90 V dc, IA = 2.05 A dc, IF = 0.31 A dc
d. EA = 80 V dc, IA = 0.5 A dc, IF = 0.32 A dc
e. Yes.
G 4. a. EA = 130 V dc, IA = 2.05 A dc, IF = 0.3 A dc
b. EA = 128 V dc, IA = 0.45 A dc, IF = 0.31 A dc
G 5. a. EA = 22 V dc, IA = 2 A dc, IF = 0.3 A dc
b. EA = 15 V dc, IA = 0.3 A dc, IF = 0.3 A dc
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. The feedback (closed-loop) controller can be adjusted to provide the desired

motor speed either manually or in response to an error signal or voltage. It
senses motor speed and automatically adjusts its output power to maintain
motor speed relatively constant with changes in loading.
E-1
SCR Speed Control – Part II
2. The generated CEMF depends on motor speed. The difference between EA and
CEMF determines IA. If the speed changes, CEMF changes causing IA to
change which, it turn, causes E A to change.
3. The armature tends to slow down, CEMF decreases and armature current
increases causing a drop in the armature supply voltage. This voltage drop is
also between the gate and cathode of the SCR and allows it to fire early in the
AC cycle, thus decreasing the triggering angle and increasing the output power.
4. By lowering the reference voltage, the gate of the SCR is made more negative
with respect to the cathode. It then fires later in the AC cycle increasing the
triggering angle, and decreasing output power, causing the motor to slow down.
E-2
Single-Phase Transformers
and AC Machines
Experiment 0
3-1
3-2
Experiment 1
The Single-Phase Transformer
DISCUSSION
All devices which transfer or transform energy lose some power during the process.
The transformer although relatively efficient, consumes power while transferring AC
energy between windings. With no load connected to the secondary, the current
input to the primary winding is about two to five percent of full load current. This no-
load primary current is the exciting current. Most of the exciting current is reactive
and provides the magnetizing flux for transformer operation. However, a small part
of it is in-phase current which supplies the winding and core losses, consisting of
eddy current and hysteresis losses. These losses are undesirable and are kept to
a minimum by good transformer design.
PROCEDURE
G 2. a. terminals 1 to 2 = 120 V ac
terminals 3 to 4 = 208 V ac
b. terminals 3 to 7 = 104 V ac
c. terminals 1 to 2 = 0.5 A ac
terminals 3 to 4 = 0.3 A ac
3-3
G 3. terminals 1 to 2 = 8.2 S
terminals 3 to 4 = 29 S
terminals 7 to 8 = 10.8 S
G 4. f. winding 1 to 2 = 120 V ac
winding 3 to 4 = 208 V ac
G 5. a. Yes. Some variation can be expected due to meter tolerances. Human

measurement error can occur in interpolating meter indication.
b. No. The exciting current is relatively small (typically 20 mA) and cannot
be measured using the 500 mA meter.
winding 1 to 2
G 6. a. ' 1
winding 5 to 6
winding 1 to 2
b. = 0.578
winding 3 to 4
G 7. c. I1 = 0.4 A ac
E1 = 10 V ac
I2 = 0.4 A ac
3-4
e. I1 / I2 = 1
f. Yes. The relationship between turns ratio and current ratio is

N1 / N2 = I2 / I1 so the current ratio is actually the inverse of the turns
ratio. In this case the turns ratio is unity.
G 8. c. I3 = 0.23 A ac
E1 = 7.5 V ac
e. I1 / I3 = 1.74
f. Yes. The inverse of the turns ratio is 1 / 0.578 = 1.74 which equals the
current ratio.
G 9. c. If a 0-100 mA ac meter is available, these measurements can be made

and plotted more accurately.
See Table 0-1.
E1 I1 E2
V ac mA ac V ac
25 6 25
50 9.5 50
75 12.5 75
100 16 100
125 21 125
150 29.5 150
175 46.5 175
200 81 200
Table 0-1.
3-5
Figure 0-5.
c. No. The voltage ratio depends on the turns ratio, which is fixed and
equal to unity in this case.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. I1-2 = 0.5 A ac
2. a) Current ratio is inversely proportional to the voltage ratio and turns ratio.
I7-8 = 0.79 A ac
b) The current ratings being exceeded, the windings will overheat.
3. a) winding 1 to 2 = 69.2 V ac
b) winding 5 to 9 = 34.6 V ac
c) winding 7 to 8 = 43.8 V ac
d) winding 5 to 6 = 69.2 V ac
4. Primary winding 1 - 2 draws out of phase exciting current as well as load current
so its I2R losses will be slightly higher than the I2R losses in the secondary
winding 5 - 6.
3-6
5. a) From Procedure 7. c):
when E1 = 10 V ac, I1 = 12 = 0.4 A ac
Current will increase to:
I1 = I2 x E1 / E2
= 0.4 x 120 / 10 = 4.8 A ac
b) From Procedure 2. c):
the normal value is 0.5 A ac. The short circuit current is 4.8 A ac or
9.6 times greater than normal.
c) The heat produced in a transformer under these conditions is mainly due

to copper losses, these losses being proportional to the square of the
current flowing in the windings. Since the short-circuit current is 9.6 times
greater than the normal current, then:
Pshort-circuit = 9.6² x Pnormal

= 92.2 x Pnormal
3-7
3-8
Experiment 2
Transformer Polarity
DISCUSSION
Transformers are alternating current devices and their polarity would appear to be
of minor importance. However, when two or more windings are connected together,
the relative instantaneous polarities have a profound effect on the resultant voltage.
If the voltage in one winding is at its positive peak when the voltage in another
winding is at its negative peak, they are opposing and the voltage measured across
the two windings will be the difference between the voltages across the individual
windings. In the United States, the American Standards Association (ASA) and in
Canada, the Canadian Standards Association (CSA) have developed a standard
system of marking transformer leads. High voltage leads are marked H1 and H2 and
low voltage leads are marked X1 and X2. When H1 is instantaneously positive, X1
is also instantaneously positive. Tests similar to that performed in Procedure 3 of
this Laboratory Experiment enable you to determine whether a transformer is
subtractive or additive where the leads are not marked. The H1 lead is always
assumed to be to the left when facing the transformer from the low-voltage side. The
leads of other windings are then marked in relation to the H1 lead.
PROCEDURE
G 1. f. 1 and 3.
h. 1 and 5.
G 2. c. E1 to 2 = 60 V ac
E5 to 6 = 60 V ac
E2 to 6 = 0 V ac
Students who measure 40 V ac to 50 V ac across windings 1 to 2 and

5 to 6 have neglected to reposition the power supply meter switch from
7-N to 4-N and, as a consequence, are adjusting the DC voltage output
instead of the AC voltage output.
g. E1 to 2 = 60 V ac
E5 to 6 = 60 V ac
E2 to 6 = 120 V ac
i. In Figure 2-3, the windings are connected series opposing (the voltage
in one winding is 180E out of phase with the voltage in the other
winding). Since the two voltages are equal and opposite in phase, they
3-9
cancel each other. In Figure 2-4, the two voltages are in phase with
each other and the output is equal to their sum.
j. 1 and 5, 2 and 6.
G 3. b. E1 to 2 = 60 V ac
c. E = 60 V ac and 164 V ac and 44 V ac.
e. E2 to 4 = 44 V ac
h. E2 to 3 = 164 V ac E1 to 2 = 60 V ac
j. Yes. With the windings connected series opposing, the net output
voltage is 104 ! 60 = 44 V ac. With the windings connected series
aiding, the output voltage is 104 + 60 = 164 V ac.
k. 1 and 3, 2 and 4.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. a) 120 + 120 = 240 V ac
Figure 2-1.
b) 208 ! 120 = 88 V ac
3-10
Figure 2-2
An output of 88 V ac can be obtained by connecting terminals 4 and 9

together and taking the output from terminals 6 and 8 (60 V ac +
28 V ac = 88 V ac). The same result can be obtained by connecting
terminals 4 and 5 together and taking the output from terminals 8 and 9.
c) 120 + 60 = 180 V ac
Figure 2-3.
3-11
An output of 180 V ac can be obtained by taking the output from terminals

3 and 8 (104 V ac + 76 V ac = 180). It can also be obtained by connecting
terminals 2 and 9 together and taking the output from terminals 1 and 6
(120 V ac + 60 V ac = 180 V ac).
d) 120 ! 28 = 92 V ac
Figure 2-4.
In all of these problems the same voltage can be obtained by connecting

the other ends of the windings together and taking the output from the
terminals that were originally connected together. In 1. a) for example, if
terminals 1 and 6 were connected together an output of 240 V ac could be
taken from terminals 2 and 5. In 1. b), terminals 2 and 4 could be connected
together and the output taken from terminals 1 and 3. In 1. c), terminals 1
and 9 could be connected together and the output taken from terminals 2
and 5. In 1. d), terminals 1 and 8 could be connected together and the
output taken from terminals 2 and 4.
3-12
Experiment 3
Transformer Regulation
DISCUSSION
A number of factors affect the operation of a transformer. The resistance and

inductive reactance of the windings cause internal voltage drops which vary
according to the current flowing in the windings. If the secondary is lightly loaded,
the current through the winding resistances and reactances (impedance) is small,
as are the internal power losses. As the load increases, current and internal power
losses also increase.
The type of load placed on the secondary winding has a significant effect on
transformer regulation. If the load is resistive, the load current and voltage are in
phase. This reduces the inductive phase angle of the secondary winding voltage
and current, tending to bring them more nearly into phase. The greater the load, the
greater the resistive current and the smaller the phase angle between the secondary
voltage and current. As the resistive load increases, voltage decreases and current
increases.
An inductive load increases the inductive reactance of the secondary circuit. The
voltage and current variations with an inductive load are greater than for a
comparable resistive load.
A capacitive load adds capacitive reactance in series with the inductive reactance
of the secondary winding. The combination forms a series LC circuit. The voltage
induced into the secondary is in series with the inductive reactance of the secondary
winding and the capacitive reactance of the load. The voltages across the reactive
components vary with frequency and component value. Capacitive reactance varies
1
inversely with frequency and capacitance ( XC ' ) so, when the circuit is below
2BfC
resonance, the capacitive reactance is high and the voltage across the capacitive
load is greater than the voltage across the inductive reactance of the secondary
winding. As the capacitive reactance is decreased, the circuit moves toward a
resonant condition and the voltages across the reactances increase until, at
resonance, the two reactances are equal and the reactive voltages are equal and
at maximum.
3-13
PROCEDURE
G 2. See Table 3-1.
ZL I2 E2 I1
(ohms) (mA ac) (V ac) (mA ac)
4 0 120 20
1200 100 119 100
600 190 117 200
400 285 115 290
300 380 112.5 395
240 475 110 480
Table 3-1.
G 3. a. 9.1 %
Winding 5 to 6 is rated at 0.5 A ac (500 mA ac). Full-load output voltage

is the voltage across winding 5 to 6 when secondary current is near
500 mA ac. In this case, full-load (approximately) occurs with a load
resistance of 240 S. Use this value of full-load resistance for the
inductive and capacitive loading test also.
b. No. Part of the primary current is exciting current which is dissipated as

copper and core losses and not transferred to the secondary.
ZL I2 E2 I1
4 0 120 20
1200 100 118 105
600 197 115 202
400 290 112 300
300 370 110 375
240 450 108 460
Table 3-2.
3-14
ZL I2 E2 I1
4 0 120 20
1200 100 122 80
600 230 125 220
400 330 127 310
300 445 130 425
240 530 132 500
Table 3-3.
Figure 3-3.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. The capacitive load creates a series LC circuit operating below resonance.

Since the circuit is capacitive, the voltage drop across the capacitor can be
greater than the voltage induced in the secondary winding of the transformer
(the inductance).
3-15
2. a) With low internal impedance there will be a low internal voltage drop, so
transformer regulation will be very good.
b) With very little impedance to limit current flow, the short circuit current will
be very high.
3. Circuit breaker size is a function of the amount of current it must interrupt.

Increasing internal impedance limits short circuit current and permits the use of
smaller circuit breakers.
4. No. For the same VA load, the capacitor will have more voltage and less current
thus causing the least transformer heating, inductive loading causes greatest
heating.
This can be verified by comparing Tables 3-1 and 3-3. From Table 3-1, when
the resistive load, ZL, is 600 S, the VA load is 0.190 x 117 = 22.23 VA. From
Table 3-3, when the capacitive load, ZL, is 600 S, the voltage is 125 V ac. For
a VA load of 22.23 VA the current through the windings would be only 22.23 /
125 = 178 mA.
3-16
Experiment 4
The Autotransformer
DISCUSSION
The autotransformer is somewhat more efficient than transformers having separate

windings because it has smaller core and copper losses. It is used primarily where
a requirement exists for comparatively small increases or decreases in voltage; for
example, to boost a power line voltage in order to compensate for losses caused by
lengthy transmission lines or to reduce motor starting voltages, thus holding the
starting currents within reasonable values. In industrial applications where several
voltages are required for complex circuit systems, a multi-tapped autotransformer
would be used. The autotransformer does not provide isolation between windings.
It is generally unadvisable to use it as a large ratio step-down device because, if the
low voltage section of the winding should open up, the high voltage input would be
placed across the low voltage load.
PROCEDURE
G 2. d. I1 = 0.25 A ac
I2 = 0.49 A ac
E2 = 58 V ac
G 3. a. 120 x 0.25= 30 (VA)P
58 x 0.49 = 28.4 (VA)S
b. Yes. The primary and secondary powers are equal when allowance is
made for exciting current losses.
c. Step-down.
G 5. d. I1 = 0.41 A ac
I2 = 0.195 A ac
E2 = 119 V ac
G 6. a. 60 x 0.41 = 24.6 (VA)P

119 x 0.195 = 23.2 (VA)S
b. Yes. If the transformer efficiency was 100%, the two power values
would be exactly equal.
3-17
The Autotransformer
c. Step-up.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. a) IP = VA / EP
= 60 000 / 600 = 100 A
IS = VA / ES
= 60 000 / 120 = 500 A
IS = (EP / ES) x IP
= (600 / 120) x 100 = 500 A
b) A load drawing 500 A ac at 120 V ac equals 60 kVA.
2. a) 720, 480, 120 V.
b) For 120 V ac output:
VA = 120 x 500 = 60 kVA
For 480 V ac output:
VA = 480 x 500 = 240 kVA
VA = 720 x 500 = 360 kVA
It must be understood that the same value of current does not flow through
the two winding sections. With 720 V output, the load is across the
complete winding but input power is to one section only. Therefore, when
the windings are connected series aiding, part of the power to the load is
due to transformer action and the rest is due to direct conductance from the
source. Figure 4-1a shows the current paths for the 360 kVA load (series
aiding) at the instant when point A is negative. The 360 kVA load, at
720 V ac, draws 360 000 / 720 = 500 A ac of current. The input power is
also 360 kVA but at 600 V ac so the input current is 360 000 / 600 =
600 A ac. At the instant when point A is negative, the 600 A input current
divides at point A with 500 A flowing upward through the 120 V winding to
the load and 100 A flowing downward through the 600 V winding. At point
B the 500 A load current and the 100 A primary current combine and flow
back through the source. The 100 A through the 600 V winding represents
60 kVA which is transferred to the core for transformer action. Therefore,
this section of the winding is the primary with a power input of 60 kVA. The
500 A that flows upward from point A has an increase of potential of 120 V.
The product of 500 A and 120 V is 60 kVA. This section of the winding is
the seconcary with a power output of 60 kVA. This 60 kVA is that portion of
the total load power (360 kVA) which has been transferred by transformer
action. The remainder of the output power is conducted directly from the
3-18
The Autotransformer
source through the upper winding to the load and can be calculated as
P = E x I =600 x 500 = 300 kVA. Total power consumed by the load is the
sum of conducted and transformed power: P total = conducted power +
transformed power = 300 + 60 = 360 kVA.
Figure 4-1a.

VA = 480 x 500 = 240 kVA
When the windings are connected series opposing the transformer action
is subtractive and total power consumed by the load can be calculated as
the difference between conducted power and transformed power:
P total = conducted power ! transformed power

= 300 ! 60 = 240 kVA
The load voltage is 600 ! 120 = 480 V (See Figure 4-1 b). Load current is
240 000 / 480 = 500 A. Input power is 240 kVA and, with a 600 V source,
input current is 240 000 / 600 = 400 A. With 400 A as input and 500 A
drawn by the load it must follow that the 100 A through the primary section
adds to the 400 A from the power source to flow upward through the
secondary section to the load. At point B the 500 A from the load separates,
with 100 A flowing up through the primary section and 400 A flowing back
through the source.
3-19
The Autotransformer
Figure 4-1b.
c) For 120 V ac output:

I120 V winding = 500 A ac, which is the rating of this winding.
(See Question 1 a)).
For 720 V ac output

I720 V winding = 500 A ac
I600 V winding = 600 ! 500 = 100 A ac
(See Figure 4-1a)).
For 480 V ac output

I480 V winding = 500 A ac
I600 V winding = 500 ! 400= 100 A ac
(See Figure 4-1b)).
All winding currents are within ratings.
3. a) Primary = 1 to 2
Secondary = 1 to 4
(connect the 28 V winding 8 to 4 in series with 1 to 2).
Since winding 1 to 2 has the same number of turns as winding 5 to 6, the

required output can be obtained by using winding 5 to 6 instead of winding
1 to 2. This applies to 3. b), c) and d) as well.
3-20
The Autotransformer
b) Primary = 1 to 2
Secondary = 1 to 4
c) Primary 1 to 2
Secondary 1 to 7
A 224 V output is also available using windings 1 to 2 to 7 to 4; 5 to 6 to 3

to 7 or 5 to 6 to 7 to 4.
d) Primary = 1 to 2
Secondary = 1 to 8
3-21
3-22
Experiment 5
Transformers in Parallel
DISCUSSION
In an ideal transformer, the power in the secondary is exactly equal to the primary
power. This is true for a transformer with a coefficient of coupling of 1.0 (complete
coupling) and no internal losses. In practice, such a transformer cannot be made.
The degree to which any transformer approaches these ideal conditions is called
the efficiency of the transformer. Mathematically, the efficiency is equal to the output
power divided by the input power. Or,
Efficiency = (Pout / Pin) x 100%
Since losses reduce the efficiency of a transformer, and therefore represent wasted
power, these losses are usually kept to a minimum. This is especially true in the
design of iron core transformers that must deliver large amounts of power.
The most common type of transformer losses are:
a) Copper Losses - Transformer windings are usually made of many turns of

copper wire. As with any wire, these windings have resistance. The more
turns there are to the windings, the longer is the effective length of the wire,
and so the greater is the resistance. When currents flow through the
windings, power is dissipated in the form of heat. These I2R losses are called
copper losses, and are proportional to the square of the current to the
resistance.
b) Stray Losses - Not all of the flux lines produced by the windings travel through
the iron core. Some of the lines stray (leak) from the windings out into space,
and therefore do not link the primary and secondary. This leakage of flux lines
represents wasted energy.
c) Hysteresis Loss - In an iron core transformer, the core is magnetized by the

magnetic field created by the current through the windings. The direction in
which the core is magnetized is the same as the direction of the magnetic
field that causes it to become magnetized. Thus, each time the direction of
the magnetic field around the windings changes, the direction in which the
core is magnetized also changes. However, the molecules in the iron core do
not follow the reversals of the magnetic field exactly. The lagging behind the
magnetizing force by the molecules is called hysteresis. The energy that has
to be supplied to the molecules to cause them to turn around and, in effect,
try to catch up with the magnetic field is called hysteresis loss of the core. The
more energy that is required, the greater is the hysteresis loss. Hysteresis
losses depend mainly on the type of core material used. Materials that retain
a large part of their magnetization after the magnetizing force is removed
have high hysteresis losses. These materials are said to have high
permanence.
d) Eddy Current Loss - Since the iron core is a conducting material, the
magnetic field of the transformer induces a voltage in the core. This voltage
3-23
causes currents to flow within the core. These currents are called eddy
currents. Eddy currents can be considered as short circuit currents, in as
much as the only resistance they encounter is the small resistance of the core
material. Like hysteresis losses, eddy currents remove energy from the
transformer windings, and so represent wasted power. Eddy currents can be
reduced by dividing the core into thin laminations, with the laminations
insulated from each other by means of an insulating coating applied to both
sides of each lamination. The eddy currents can then only flow in the
individual laminations, and, since the laminations are thin, the resistance
offered to the eddy currents is greatly increased.
e) Saturation Loss - When the current in the primary winding increases, the
number of flux lines increases. When an additional increase in current
produces only a few additional flux lines in the core, the core is then said to
be saturated. Any further increase in primary current results in wasted power,
since the magnetic field cannot couple the additional power to the secondary.
PROCEDURE
G 5. b. EL = 195 V ac
IL = 0.48 A ac
I1 = 0.24 A ac
I2 = 0.24 A ac
Pin = 100 W
G 6. a. 195 x 0.48 = 93.6 W
b. 93.6 / 100 x 100 = 93.6%
c. 100 ! 93.6 = 6.4 W
d. 0.24 x 195 = 46.8 W
e. 0.24 x 195 = 46.8 W
G 7. Yes. The load should be distributed reasonably evenly between the two
transformers because they have identical windings, and thus, they should
share the load equally.
3-24
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. See Figure 5-2.
Figure 5-2.
2. A pure capacitive load is reactive, and thus, draws no active power. Efficiency,
(Pout / Pin) has a zero in the numerator so efficiency is zero.
3. Copper (I2R) losses caused by the winding resistances. Core losses caused by
hysteresis and eddy currents in the iron. Dielectric losses in the insulating
materials. Stray losses produced by stray flux.
4. The efficiency of the transformer is better than that of the motors because it is
a static piece of equipment, and therefore does not exhibit the rotational losses
of motors such as windage and bearing friction losses.
3-25
3-26
Experiment 6
The Distribution Transformer
DISCUSSION
To obtain the advantage of a higher voltage-distribution circuit and yet provide

120 V for the operation of standard incandescent lamps and small appliances, the
120 / 240 V three-wire system of power distribution was developed. For a fixed
amount of line loss, power can be transmitted by means of the three-wire system
with much less line copper than required for a two-wire 120 V system. The three-
wire system has the further advantage of making available either 120 or 240 V for
the operation of electric equipment.
Distribution transformers are usually wound with the secondary of low-voltage

winding in two sections. When the two low-voltage sections are connected in series,
the transformer may be used to supply a two-wire 240 V load. The series connection
also used to supply a three-wire 120 / 240 V system by connecting the third or
neutral wire to the common terminal of the two secondary sections. With this
arrangement, 120 V lamps and appliances may be connected between either
outside wire and the neutral, while 240 V equipment such as ranges, dryers, electric
heaters and motors, may be connected between the two outside wires.
When the 120 V loads are balanced on each side of the neutral, the neutral carries
no current. If a heavier load is connected between one of the outside wires and
neutral, the neutral carries the unbalanced current from the transformer to the load.
The current flowing in the neutral wire is always the difference between the currents
in the two outside wires. It is desirable to keep the loads as nearly balanced as
possible to keep the flow of current in the neutral to a minimum.
If the load is connected to only one side of a three-wire system, the neutral carries
the full-load current. For this reason, the neutral is usually of the same size wire as
the two outside lines. An accidental opening of the neutral wire when an unbalanced
load is being supplied results in badly unbalanced voltages across the loads. For
this reason, the neutral is connected solidly from the transformer to the load and no
fuses or other overcurrent devices are installed in the neutral. For further protection
against an open neutral and for protection against damage by lightning, the neutral
wire is connected to ground.
PROCEDURE
3-27
c. The neutral line current is zero because it is made up of the difference

between the two line currents I1 and I2 which are equal.
PROCEDURE R1 R2 I1 I2 IN E1 E2 ET
NUMBER S S mA mA mA V V V
2 (c) 4 4 0 0 0 120 120 240
3 (b) 300 300 380 380 0 110 110 220
4 (b) 300 1200 390 100 280 112 115 230
5 (c) 300 1200 160 160 0 50 190 240
6 (f) 400 400 290 280 380 115 115 230
Table 6-1
d. Yes.
e. If the load R1 and R2 were incandescent lamps, R2 would be about 4

times brighter than R1 because the power dissipated by R2 is
approximately 4 times the power dissipated by R 1.
G 6. f. See Table 6-1.
h. No. Because these two currents are 90E out of phase with each other,
the neutral line current must be their phasor sum.
2 2
IN ' I1 % I2
' 0.084 % 0.078 ' 0.402 A
The calculated neutral current may differ slightly from the measured
value because the inductive current is not exactly 90E out of phase
(due to its internal winding resistance) plus meter and measurement
errors.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. a) Line 1 = 21.83 A ac
Line 2 = 25.5 A ac
The neutral line current is equal to the difference between the two line
currents: = 3.67 A ac
3-28
b) Line 1 and line 2 would be in series across 240 V. Since line 1 has the
higher resistance, its lamps would see a higher voltage drop and therefore
be brighter.
2. a) I secondary = VA / V secondary
= 60 000 / 240 = 250 A ac
b) Maximum load =VxA

Rated current = 250 A
Rated voltage = 120 V
Maximum load = 30 kVA
3-29
3-30
Experiment 7
DISCUSSION
The object of this Laboratory Experiment is to familiarize the student with torque
measuring devices. He or she will learn how they operate and how to use them. For
this, the student will be using the split-phase induction motor as a prime mover. He
or she will simply learn how to connect it; the complete study of its characteristics
will be studied in later Laboratory Experiments.
The student will study two types of torque measuring device, the
electrodynamometer and the Prony brake. In the electrodynamometer, the strength
of the stator magnetic field can be increased or decreased by a front panel control.
The strength of the magnetic field determines the degree to which the revolving
rotor is able to cause the stator to change position on its axis. The arc described by
the shifted stator represents torque and is indicated on a scale marked on the
perimeter of the stator housing.
The Prony brake also measures torque. It is essentially a balance which measures
the retarding force caused by a belt running over a friction wheel attached to the
shaft of the machine under test. The measuring scale is calibrated in torque units.
PROCEDURE
G 2. c. I = 3.25 A ac
d. Rotation = clockwise. When the motor is connected as shown in

Figure 7-1, the direction of rotation should be clockwise. If the motor
rotates counterclockwise when connected according to Figure 7-1, the
connections to either the main winding or the auxiliary winding should
be interchanged. This should only be done by a qualified electrician.
e. Speed without load = 1790 r/min
G 5. b. Yes.
Yes.
G 6. b. Yes.
d. No.
G 10 a. I = 4.4 A ac
b. Speed with load = 1730 r/min
3-31
G 11. “Breakdown” torque = 2.8 N·m
G 13. d. I = 3.25 A ac
g. Speed with load = 1730 r/min
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. By interchanging the lead connections to either the main winding or the auxiliary
winding.
2. P = 181.1 W

wheel to bring the balance in equilibrium and to read the torque.
3-32
Experiment 8
The Split-Phase Inductor Motor – Part I
DISCUSSION
The split-phase induction motor operates on the principle of induction. Current is

induced into the rotor by magnetic flux lines created by the stator. The action is
similar to that of a transformer with the stator representing the primary winding and
the rotor the secondary winding. In order for the rotor to start turning, the magnetic
field must rotate. This is accomplished by “splitting” the single phase into two
phases. The auxiliary winding has different values of resistance and inductive
reactance than the main winding so that current through the auxiliary winding is
displaced in time by some angle (less than 90E) with respect to current through the
main winding. In addition, the auxiliary winding is displaced physically from the main
winding so that it is midway between two main stator poles. For a two-pole motor
the displacement will be 90E, for a four-pole motor, 45E and for six-pole motor, 30E.
During this Laboratory Experiment, the students become familiar with the physical
characteristics of the split-phase induction motor, then measure and verify the
resistances of the two windings.
PROCEDURE
G 2. c. No. It is physically displaced 45E (90 electrical degrees) from the main
winding. This is a 4-pole motor, so the mid-point between two stator
poles is 45 mechanical degrees.
Mechanical degrees are a measure of relative physical positions with

respect to a 360E circle. Electrical degrees are vectorial and measure
angular velocity or time required to complete one full cycle. In a two-
pole motor, one full cycle of the movement from the positive pole
through the negative pole back to the positive pole is 360 electrical
degrees which is also 360 mechanical degrees. In a four-pole motor
one full cycle or 360 electrical degrees extends from one positive pole
through a negative pole to another positive pole which is 180
mechanical degrees. The equation is: electrical degrees = mechanical
degrees x pairs of poles. In the case of this motor, which has four poles
or two pairs of poles, electrical degrees = 45 x 2 or 90E.
d. 4 main poles.
e. 4 auxiliary poles.
There are four main stator windings and four auxiliary windings,
therefore, there are four main stator poles and four auxiliary poles.
f. 4-pole motor.
l. 0.4 mm [ ]
3-33
G 3. d. Higher.
G 4. a. 1 and 2.
b. 3 and 4.
c. 6 and 7.
d. 4 and 5.
G 5. main winding = 2.9 S
aux. winding = 6.5 S
G 7. Imain winding = 1.7 A dc
Rmain winding = E/I = 2.94 S
G 9. Iaux. winding = 0.76 A dc
Raux. winding = E/I = 6.58 S
G 10 b. The calculated and measured winding resistances agree within meter

tolerances and measurement error.
c. The larger diameter of the wire used for the main winding offers much
less resistance to current flow than the small diameter wire used for the
auxiliary winding.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. 2 poles.
2. Running Winding = 8 poles.
Starting Winding = 8 poles.
3. The auxiliary winding in conjunction with the main winding, provides a rotating
magnetic field for starting the motor.
3-34
4. With different values of resistance and inductive reactance, the current phase
angles will be different. The magnetic field strengths will reach maximum at
different times, seeming to rotate. This induces currents in the rotor, causing it
to turn.
5. There would be no phase difference between the two windings, therefore, the
single pulsating magnetic field cannot cause the rotor to start turning.
3-35
3-36
Experiment 9
The Split-Phase Inductor Motor – Part II
DISCUSSION
The induction motor is the most popular motor in use today. This is due to the
comparative simplicity of its construction and operation. Rotor current is induced by
the rotating magnetic field and thus no external rotor connections, such as slip rings
or brushes, are necessary. As the stator magnetic field revolves, its lines of force
cut through the rotor bars, which are low-resistance metallic conductors. Eddy
currents are induced into the rotor bars. These currents flow in a direction to oppose
the motion of the magnetic field (Lenz’s Law: induced current is in such a direction
as to oppose the motion which generates it). However, the force exerted by the rotor
currents against the magnetic field movement is also exerted on the rotor, (Newton’s
third law of motion: for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction). The
rotor shaft is mounted on bearings, so it turns readily and follows the rotating
magnetic field. However, its rotational speed must be less than that of the rotating
magnetic field because there must be relative motion between the rotor and the
magnetic field in order to induce current into the rotor bars and keep the rotor
turning.
PROCEDURE
G 2. c. Yes.
d. No.
G 3. c. Yes.
d. The direction in which the rotor shaft was rotated by hand.
The rotor will rotate in either direction in the absence of a rotating stator
magnetic field. The motor continues to run because the rotor creates
a magnetic field called a “cross-field” which contributes to an effective
rotating magnetic field.
G 4. d. Yes.
e. No.
G 5. d. Yes.
e. Yes.
f. Clockwise.
3-37
G 6. c. Counterclockwise.
d. The direction of rotation can be reversed by interchanging the lead

connections to either the main winding or the auxiliary winding.
G 8. b. Yes.
c. Yes.
d. T = 1.0 s
e. Speed = 1790 r/min
G 10. a. Yes.
b. Yes.
c. Yes.
d. The motor will start, the centrifugal switch will open, the motor will slow
down until the switch closes, then it will speed up again and open the
switch, etc.
The centrifugal switch is in series with the two field windings so, every
time it opens, it interrupts current flow to the windings and the rotor,
with no current being induced in it, starts coasting to a stop. When it
has slowed down to where the centrifugal force can no longer
overcome the tension of the centrifugal switch springs, the switch
closes and restores power to the windings. The rotor then picks up
speed and the switch opens again. This cycle repeats as long as the
power source is on.
G 11. c. Speed = 800 r/min
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. No.
2. Yes. The motor will and does run on the main winding after it has come up to
speed. It could run on the auxiliary winding but high current flow through the
comparatively fine wire of the auxiliary winding would soon burn it out.
3-38
3. By reversing the connecting leads to either the main winding or the auxiliary
winding.
4. The speed necessary for opening the switch contacts would be doubled. Since
the motor cannot reach this speed, the switch would remain closed and the
motor would run on both windings and overheat.
5. The motor started, the centrifugal switch opened and de-energized the
windings. The motor coasted until the switch closed and restored power to the
windings. The motor speeded up and the switch opened again.
6. No. The same current would flow through both windings. There would be no
phase shift and consequently no rotating magnetic field to cause the rotor to
turn.
7. No.
3-39
3-40
Experiment 10
The Split-Phase Inductor Motor – Part III
DISCUSSION
Once the split-phase induction motor is started and running, it develops torque
because of the action of the crossfield set up by the rotor. As the rotor revolves,
voltages are induced in the rotor bars because they are conductors cutting through
magnetic lines of force. These voltages are in phase with the stator magnetizing
current (this can be verified by applying Fleming’s Right Hand Rule). The induced
rotor voltages cause rotor current to flow. The impedance to rotor current flow is
almost entirely reactive, so the current will lag the voltage by nearly 90E. These rotor
currents set up a magnetic field, known as a crossfield which is displaced 90E from
the field set up by the stator winding. Thus, the effect of the magnetizing current set
up in the rotor is to produce a revolving magnetic field. The strength of the crossfield
is almost equal to that of the stator field at synchronous speed and becomes weaker
as speed is reduced.
PROCEDURE
G 2. Imain winding = 15 A ac
G 3. b. Iauxiliary winding = 12 A ac
G 4. e. Istarting = 25 A ac
E I P SPEED
VIBRATION
(volts) (amps) (watts) (r/min)
120 3.25 105 1790 Heavy
90 2.2 50 1790 Moderate
60 1.4 25 1790 Light
30 0.9 10 1755 Lighter
Table 10-1
3-41
TORQUE I Pin SPEED Pout

VA
(N·m) (amps) (watts) (r/min) (watts)
0 3.25 390 105 1790 0
0.3 3.45 414 210 1765 55
0.6 3.8 456 280 1750 110
0.9 4.2 504 345 1730 163
1.2 4.75 570 425 1700 214
Table 10-2

VA
(lbf·in) (amps) (watts) (r/min) (hp)
0 3.25 390 105 1790 0
3 3.5 420 220 1765 0.084
6 3.9 468 295 1745 0.167
9 4.4 528 375 1720 0.246
12 5.1 612 475 1680 0.321
G 9. a. See Table 10-2.
b. See Table 10-2.
G 10. d. Starting Torque = 1.5 N·m
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. a) apparent power = 390 VA
b) active power = 105 W
c) reactive power = 376 var
d) power factor = 0.27
3-42
e) power delivered = 214 W
f) efficiency of the motor = 50 %
g) motor losses = 211 W
3. I = 4.75 A ac
4. 5.3 times
5. Since it has less reactance XL (fewer turns) it carries almost as much current,
therefore, its I2R losses (finer wire) are greater.
6. No.
7. 1.25 times
3-43
3-44
Experiment 11
The Capacitor-Start Motor
DISCUSSION
The split-phase motor of Laboratory Experiment 10 achieves the phase differential

by lowering the inductance and increasing the resistance of the auxiliary winding
with respect to the main winding. As a result, current through the auxiliary winding
is more nearly in phase with the voltage than is current through the main winding.
The current phase angle creates magnetic flux fields that are displaced by the
amount of the current phase angle - about 25E. The capacitor-start motor has a non-
polarized electrolytic capacitor in series with the auxiliary winding. The value of the
capacitor is carefully chosen so that its reactance, combined with the reactance of
the auxiliary winding results in a current phase angle of approximately 90E between
the starting (auxiliary) and running (main) windings. Since starting torque is
proportional to the sine of the phase angle, the starting torque of a capacitor-start
motor can be made much greater than that of the split-phase motor. The difference
in the two motors is only in the starting; once they come up to speed the starting
winding is switched out and they run on the main windings.
PROCEDURE
G 2. Imain winding = 15 A ac
G 3. b. Iauxiliary winding = 8 A ac
G 4. e. Istarting = 16 A ac
It should be noted that the initial current surge is less for the capacitor-
start motor than for the split-phase motor. The capacitor acts to limit it
to a lower value.
G 5. a. The main winding is the same for both motors, so the main winding
current values are the same.
b. The auxiliary winding of the capacitor-start motor has higher

impedance, because of the series capacitor, and therefore draws less
current.
c. With less auxiliary winding current and a much greater current phase
shift, the starting current of the capacitor-start motor is lower.
3-45

VA
0 3.25 390 105 1790 0
0.3 3.45 414 210 1765 55
0.6 3.8 456 280 1750 110
0.9 4.2 504 345 1730 163
1.2 4.75 570 425 1700 214
Table 11-1.

VA
0 3.25 390 105 1790 0
3 3.5 420 220 1765 0.084
6 3.9 468 295 1745 0.167
9 4.4 528 375 1720 0.246
12 5.1 612 475 1680 0.321
b. See Table 11-1.
G 10. c. Starting Torque (60 V ac) = 0.67 N·m
d. Starting Torque (120 V ac) = 2.67 N·m
REVIEW QUESTIONS
3-46
f) efficiency of the motor = 50 %
3. I = 4.75 A ac
4. 3.4 times .
5. The starting current of the capacitor-start motor is smaller but the starting torque
is greater. This is due to the greater phase angle between the winding currents.
The running characteristics are the same because the main windings are the
same.
3-47
3-48
Experiment 12
The Capacitor-Run Motor
DISCUSSION
The capacitor-run motor provides a number of advantages over the regular split-
phase and capacitor-start types of induction motors. The presence of the capacitor
in series with the second stator winding, thus, sets up a part or all of the crossfield,
which, without the second winding, is set up by the rotor currents. This reduces or
eliminates the magnetizing currents in the rotor and the accompanying copper
losses, thus increasing the efficiency of the motor. At full load the torque is relatively
constant instead of pulsating at 120 Hz, therefore, the capacitor-run motor operates
with less vibration and noise, and a higher power factor than the other two motor
types.
PROCEDURE
G 2. b. Yes.
c. No. One winding is displaced from the other by an angle of 45E (90
electrical degrees).
d. There are four poles to each winding, therefore, this is a four-pole

motor.
e. 4-pole.
G 3. b. No. Electrolytic capacitors are not suitable for continuous high-current

operation. This is an oil-filled capacitor.
G 4. b. 1 and 2.
c. 3 and 4.
e. 5 and 6.
3-49

VA
0 1.23 148 125 1795 0
0.3 1.85 222 204 1773 56
0.6 2.15 258 248 1754 110
0.9 2.55 306 300 1735 164
1.2 3.10 372 367 1708 215
Table 12-1.

VA
0 1.23 148 125 1795 0
3 1.90 228 210 1770 0.084
6 2.25 270 260 1750 0.167
9 2.75 330 325 1725 0.247
12 3.4 408 400 1690 0.322
d. Yes.
b. See Table 12-1.
d. Starting Torque = 0.45 N·m
Starting Current = 8 A ac
REVIEW QUESTIONS
c) reactive power = 79.2 var
3-50
f) efficiency of the motor = 58.6 %
3. I = 3.1 A ac
4. 2.6 times .
5. The capacitor-run motor has a higher power factor, less starting torque. It is
more efficient and runs more smoothly at full-load than the other types.
6. By interchanging the connection leads on either one of the two identical stator
field windings.
7. Electrolytic capacitors have a high leakage factor and are unreliable for
continuous duty in high current applications. Oil-filled capacitors are much more
reliable and are less “lossy”.
3-51
3-52
Experiment 13
The Universal Motor – Part I
DISCUSSION
If the series DC motor were connected to a source of 120 V ac it would start and
run, but not as well as with a DC voltage source. The reason for this is that factors
which have no effect on DC operation become significant during AC operation. The
inductive reactance of the series field coil limits motor current to a comparatively low
value. Consequently, the power developed is small. The solid iron field poles
produce hysteresis and eddy current losses due to stator flux alternations.
Commutation is poorer and brush life is reduced because of transformer action
between the main field windings and the short-circuited coils undergoing
commutation. The universal motor is a modification of the series DC motor. It
reduces the limiting factors and operates well on AC or DC.
PROCEDURE
G 4. a. 3 and 4.
b. 5 and 6.
c. 1 and 2.
G 8. b. Note to the Instructor: If any of the universal motors have adjusted neutral
positions which do not coincide with the mark on the housing, have the students
mark the new neutral positions.
G 10 c. I = 3.5 A ac

VA
0 1.9 228 210 3450 0
0.3 2.25 270 240 2645 83
0.6 2.75 330 280 2000 126
0.9 3.25 390 315 1530 144
1.2 3.75 450 350 1100 138
Table 13-1.
3-53

VA
0 1.9 228 210 3450 0
3 2.3 276 245 2550 0.122
6 2.9 348 290 1860 0.177
9 3.4 408 325 1400 0.200
b. See Table 13-1.

0 1.7 204 4150 0
0.3 1.95 234 3395 107
0.6 2.4 288 2740 172
0.9 2.8 336 2295 216
1.2 3.2 384 1900 239
Table 13-2.

0 1.7 204 4150 0
3 2.0 240 3300 0.157
6 2.5 300 2600 0.248
9 2.9 348 2200 0.315
3-54
REVIEW QUESTIONS
e) motor speed = 3450 r/min
e) motor speed = 1100 r/min
f) power delivered = 138 W
g) efficiency of the motor = 39 %
h) motor losses = 212 W
3. a) power = 204 W
b) motor speed = 4150 r/min
4. a) power = 384 W
b) motor speed = 1900 r/min
c) power delivered = 239 W
d) efficiency of the motor = 62 %
e) motor losses = 145 W
5. When operated on DC: the efficiency is higher, the delivered power is higher,
the speed is higher but the input current is lower.
3-55
3-56
Experiment 14
The Universal Motor – Part II
DISCUSSION
To insure satisfactory operation of the universal motor from an AC power source,

some modification are necessary. The reactance of the series field and armature
windings must be reduced as much as practicable. The reactance of the series field
winding can be reduced somewhat by using fewer turns of heavier wire; however,
it would not be practical to eliminate the reactance voltage drop due to the series
field because that would also eliminate the magnetic field. The reactance voltage
drop due to the armature windings can be practically eliminated by the use of a
compensating winding. The compensating winding is connected in series with the
armature (conductive compensation) and arranged so that the ampere-turns of the
compensating winding oppose and neutralize the ampere-turns of the armature. To
realize this compensation, the compensating winding is displaced 90 electrical
degrees from the field winding. Since the motor used in this Laboratory Experiment
is a 4-pole motor, the mechanical displacement is 45 degrees. The compensating
winding also improves commutation considerably. This is a great advantage since
the field of a universal motor has been weakened by lowering the reactance of the
series field winding. If the compensating winding is short circuited (inductive
compensation), the alternating currents in the armature are induced by transformer
action into the shorted compensating winding, thus, effectively cancelling the
reactive armature currents.
To reduce losses due to hysteresis and eddy currents, the field structure (the stator
in the Lab-Volt universal motor), instead of being solid, is laminated. Few universal
motors operate at the same speed on AC as on DC. Whether it runs faster on AC
or DC is a matter of design. As noted in the previous Laboratory Experiment, this
particular universal motor runs faster when operated from a DC power source.
PROCEDURE
G 3. b. I = 3.7 A dc
Torque = 1.81 N·m
G 5. b. I = 1.4 A ac
Torque = 0.18 N·m
G 6. The inductive reactance of the armature and field windings limits field
current during AC operation. This reduces the AC starting torque
considerably below the DC starting torque.
3-57
G 8. d. I = 2.3 A ac
AC speed = 240 r/min
G 9. a. The current is about the same but the speed is much slower. Without
the compensating winding the motor produces less power and there is
more sparking at the brushes.
b. Yes.
G 11. I = 2.4 A dc
DC speed = 2725 r/min
G 12. a. The uncompensated DC motor draws more current and operates at a

slower speed. Commutation is poor as evidenced by excessive
sparking at the brushes.
b. Yes.
G 13. e. I = 3.25 A ac
AC speed = 1560 r/min
AC torque = 0.9 N·m
f. Yes.
h. As soon as the short was removed the motor stalled, since it cannot
develop full power when it is uncompensated.
G 14. b. I = 3.9 A dc
DC speed = 2500 r/min
DC torque = 0.9 N·m
c. No.
G 15. No. Inductive compensation is effective only when the current is alternating.
The DC performance is the same with the compensating winding shorted
as when it is open. On DC, the motor draws more current and there is
severe sparking at the brushes.
3-58
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. With inductive compensation, the compensating winding is shorted and currents

induced in it from the armature cancel the effect of the armature currents.
Conductive compensation results from connecting the compensating winding
in series with the armature so that the magnetizing effects cancel.
2. The conductively compensated motor operates effectively on either AC or DC.

The inductively compensated motor operates well on AC but, since the
compensating winding is ineffective on DC, it draws high current and
commutation is quite poor as evidenced by the excessive sparking at the
brushes.
3. The compensating winding is necessary to reduce or cancel the reactance

effects of the armature winding. This allows more AC current to be drawn thus
increasing the power output capability and improving commutation.
4. Inductive reactance is directly proportional to frequency. Therefore, the lower

the frequency, the less reactance to impede current flow. Efficiency and power
output would increase and commutation would improve at 25 Hz.
5. Small fans and blowers, hair dryers, electric shavers, electric hair clippers, can
openers, sewing machines, vibrators, coffee grinders, power screwdrivers,
nutdrivers, sabre saws, hedge clippers.
3-59
Three-Phase Transformers
and AC Machines
Experiment 0
4-1
4-2
Experiment 1
Three-Phase Transformer Connections
DISCUSSION
Single-phase transformers can be connected to form three-phase transformer banks

for raising or lowering the voltages of three-phase systems. Four common methods
of connecting three transformers for three-phase transformations are the delta-delta,
wye-wye, wye-delta, and delta-wye connections.
An advantage of the delta-delta connection is that if one transformer becomes

damaged or is removed from service, the remaining two can be operated in what is
known as the open-delta or V connection. By being operated in this way, the bank
still delivers three phase currents and voltages in their correct phase relationship,
but the capacity of the bank is reduced to 57.7 % (1/ 3 ) of what it was with all three
transformers in service.
In the wye-wye connection only 57.7 % of the line voltage is impressed upon each
winding, but full line current flows in each transformer winding. The wye-wye
connection is seldom used.
The delta-wye connection is well adapted for stepping up voltages since the voltage
is increased by the transformer ratio multiplied by the factor 3 . The wye-delta
connection can be used for stepping down voltages. The high-voltage windings of
most transformers are wye-connected.
PROCEDURE
G 1. a. Wye-wye.
b. See Table 1-1-A.
e. See Table 1-1-A.
CALCULATED VALUES MEASURED VALUES
E1 = 120 V, E2 = 120 V, E3 = 120 V E1 = 120 V, E2 = 120 V, E3 = 120 V
E4 = 69.3 V, E5 = 69.3 V, E6 = 69.3 V E4 = 69 V, E5 = 69 V, E6 = 69 V
E7 = 120 V, E8 = 120 V, E9 = 120 V E7 = 120 V, E8 = 120 V, E9 = 120 V
E10 = 69.3 V, E11 = 69.3 V, E12 = 69.3 V E10 = 69 V, E11 = 69 V, E12 = 69 V
Table 1-1-A.
4-3
G 2. a. Delta-wye.
b. See Table 1-1-B.
e. See Table 1-1-B.
E1 = 90 V, E2 = 90 V, E3 = 90 V E1 = 89 V, E2 = 90 V, E3 = 90 V
E4 = 156 V, E5 = 156 V, E6 = 156 V E4 = 153 V, E5 = 155 V, E6 = 155 V
E7 = 90 V, E8 = 90 V, E9 = 90 V E7 = 89 V, E8 = 90 V, E9 = 90 V
Table 1-1-B.
G 3. a. Wye-delta.
b. See Table 1-1-C.
h. See Table 1-1-C.
E1 = 120 V, E2 = 120 V, E3 = 120 V E1 = 120 V, E2 = 120 V, E3 = 120 V
E4 = 69.3 V, E5 = 69.3 V, E6 = 69.3 V E4 = 69 V, E5 = 69 V, E6 = 69 V
E7 = 69.3 V, E8 = 69.3 V, E9 = 69.3 V E7 = 69 V, E8 = 69 V, E9 = 69 V
Table 1-1-C.
G 4. a. Delta-delta.
b. See Table 1-1-D.
h. See Table 1-1-D.
E1 = 120 V, E2 = 120 V, E3 = 120 V E1 = 120 V, E2 = 120 V, E3 = 120 V
E4 = 120 V, E5 = 120 V, E6 = 120 V E4 = 120 V, E5 = 120 V, E6 = 120 V
Table 1-1-D.
4-4
G 5. b. See Table 1-1-E.
e. See Table 1-1-E.
E1 = 120 V, E2 = 120 V, E3 = 120 V E1 = 120 V, E2 = 120 V, E3 = 120 V
E4 = 120 V, E5 = 120 V, E6 = 120 V E4 = 120 V, E5 = 120 V, E6 = 120 V
Table 1-1-E.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. a) No.
b) No. The VA rating of the open-delta configuration is only 1 / 3 or 57.7 %

of the delta-delta rating. This is because the current rating of the windings
cannot be exceeded, and the winding currents are also the line currents in
the open-delta configuration. Therefore, if E is the line-to-line voltage and
I the rated secondary winding current, the maximum three-phase load that
can be supplied is:
Open-Delta: VA maximum = 3 x E x I.
In the corresponding delta-delta configuration, the line currents are 3 times

the rated secondary winding current I, so that the maximum three-phase
load that can be supplied with this delta-delta configuration is:
Delta-Delta: VA maximum = 3 x E x I
Thus, the open-delta rating is 1 / 3 or 57.7 % of the delta-delta rating.
c) No. In practice, even with a balanced load, the secondary voltages become
unbalanced under load due to the voltage drop across the two secondary
windings.
2. a) Wye-wye: The total capacity would be the sum of each of the three
transformer capacities.
3 x 60 kVA = 180 kVA
b) Wye-delta: The total capacity would be the sum of each of the three
3 x 60 kVA = 180 kVA
4-5
c) Delta-wye: The total capacity would be the sum of each of the three
3 x 60 kVA = 180 kVA
d) Delta-delta:Delta-wye: The total capacity would be the sum of each of the

three transformer capacities.
3 x 60 kVA = 180 kVA
e) Open-delta: Two transformers, each of 60 kVA rating can supply a total of
1 / 3 x 3 x 60 kVA = 1.73 x 60 = 104 kVA
3. a) No.
b) No.
c) No.
d) Yes. The secondary voltages and also the phase angles would become
unbalanced.
4. a) Yes.
b) Yes.
c) No.
d) No. The secondary voltages would not become unbalanced, but they would
probably drop in value due to the heavy load on the power source.
4-6
Experiment 2
DISCUSSION
The object of this Laboratory Experiment is to familiarize the student with torque
measuring devices. He or she will learn how they operate and how to use them. For
this, the student will be using the shunt-wound DC motor as a prime mover. He or
she will simply learn how to connect it; the DC shunt motor will be used as a driver
in later Laboratory Experiments.
The student will study two types of torque measuring device, the
electrodynamometer and the Prony brake. In the electrodynamometer, the strength
of the stator magnetic field can be increased or decreased by a front panel control.
The strength of the magnetic field determines the degree to which the revolving
rotor is able to cause the stator to change position on its axis. The arc described by
the shifted stator represents torque and is indicated on a scale marked on the
perimeter of the stator housing.
The Prony brake also measures torque. It is essentially a balance which measures
the retarding force caused by a belt running over a friction wheel attached to the
shaft of the machine under test. The measuring scale is calibrated in torque units.
PROCEDURE
G 3. b. Speed = 1350 r/min
d. I = 0.5 A dc
G 6. b. Yes.
Yes.
G 7. b. Yes.
d. No.
G 9. b. I = 2.6 A dc Speed = 1650 r/min
G 12. c. I = 2.6 A dc Speed = 1650 r/min
4-7
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. By interchanging the lead connections to either the shunt field winding or the
armature winding.
2. P = 173 W

wheel to bring the scale in equilibrium and to read the torque.
4-8
Experiment 3
The Wound-Rotor Induction Motor – Part I
DISCUSSION
The wound-rotor type of induction motor is adapted to installations in which high

inertia loads must be started smoothly and effectively or in which high starting
torque is required at comparatively low values of starting current. The principal
difference between squirrel-cage and wound-rotor motors is in the rotor winding.
The squirrel-cage rotor is a self-contained unit with a series of straight bars around
the periphery that are permanently short-circuited at both ends by rings. It has no
electrical or mechanical connection with the electrical supply source or the control
circuit. Its resistance is fixed, thus providing fixed full-load operating speed, starting
torque, and rate of acceleration characteristics.
The wound-rotor construction differs from that of the squirrel-cage in that it is wound
with insulated windings similar to the stator winding. This three-phase winding is
wye-connected with the open ends of each phase winding being connected via
three slip rings, and brushes, to three external variable resistors. Varying the
resistance produces variation in speed and torque.
In this Laboratory Experiment, the students will measure the voltages induced in the
rotor windings by the revolving stator magnetic field.
PROCEDURE
G 2. b. No.
G 3. a. 1 and 4, 2 and 5, 3 and 6.
b. 1.5 A ac
c. 120 V ac
d. Wye.
e. 7, 8 and 9.
f. 60 V ac
g. 2 A ac
h. Speed = 1500 r/min
Power = 175 W
4-9
G 6. c. E1 = 208 V ac, W1 = -25 W, W2 = 85 W
I1 = 0.64 A ac, I2 = 0.66 A ac, I3 = 0.64 A ac
E2 = 100 V ac
G 7. a. Apparent power = 234 VA
b. Active power = 60 W
c. Power factor = 0.26
d. Reactive power = 225 var
G 8. b. E1 = 208 V ac, W1 = -25 W, W2 = 85 W
I1 = 0.64 A ac, I2 = 0.66 A ac, I3 = 0.64 A ac
E2 = 154 V ac
c. Yes.
G 9. b. E1 = 208 V ac, W1 = -23 W, W2 = 90 W
I1 = 0.64 A ac, I2 = 0.66 A ac, I3 = 0.64 A ac
E2 = 208 V ac
d. Against. The induced rotor voltage increases as the rotor spins faster.
This occurs because the rate at which the magnetic flux of the rotating
stator field cuts the rotor windings increases.
G 10. c. E1 = 208 V ac, W1 = -24 W, W2 = 87 W
I1 = 0.64 A ac, I2 = 0.66 A ac, I3 = 0.64 A ac
E2 = 52 V ac
G 11. b. E1 = 208 V ac, W1 = -35 W, W2 = 80 W
I1 = 0.63 A ac, I2 = 0.64 A ac, I3 = 0.62 A ac
E2 = 0 V ac
4-10
d. With. The induced rotor voltage decreases as the rotor spins faster.
This occurs because the rate at which the magnetic flux of the rotating
stator field cuts the rotor windings decreases.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Synchronous speed = 1800 r/min
2. 4 poles
3. slip (6) = 1800 r/min, slip (8) = 2700 r/min
slip (9) = 3600 r/min, slip (10) = 900 r/min
slip (11) = 0 r/min
Rotor rotation in the same direction as that of the rotating stator field is called
positive (+), and rotor rotation in the opposite direction to that of the rotating
stator field is called negative (!). Therefore, the rotor speeds in 8 and 9 are
negative values.
4. slip (6) = 100 %, slip (8) = 150 %
slip (9) = 200 %, slip (10) = 50 %
slip (11) = 0 %
5. No.
6. The power needed to produce the magnetic field is reactive. (See Procedure
7. d)
Q = 225 var
7. The power needed is real. (See Procedure 7. b)
P = 60 W
4-11
8. Yes (within the meter and measurement tolerances). See Figure 3-2.
Figure 3-2.
4-12
Experiment 4
The Wound-Rotor Induction Motor – Part II
DISCUSSION
If the rotor windings are short-circuited, by reducing their external series resistance
to zero, the wound-rotor then behaves like the squirrel-cage rotor with its
permanently shorted conducting bars. As shown in the previous Laboratory
Experiment, three-phase voltages are induced in the rotor windings by the rotating
magnetic field produced by the three-phase stator current. These induced voltages
cause high currents to circulate in the rotor windings (or rotor bars in the squirrel-
cage rotor). The circulating rotor currents then produce their own strong magnetic
fields. These local rotor flux fields produce their own magnetic poles, which are
attracted to the rotating stator field. Thus, the rotor revolves with the rotating stator
field. In this Laboratory Experiment, the students will measure these circulating rotor
currents and their relationship to the stator current and developed motor torque.
PROCEDURE
G 3. b. I1 = 2.8 A ac, I2 2.9 A ac
I3 = 2.7 A ac, Torque = 0.52 N·m
c. Yes.
G 4. b. Yes.
c. I1 = 0.66 A ac, I2 = 0.68 A ac, I3 = 0.68 A ac
G 6. a. I1 = 3.4 A ac I2 = 6 A ac
E1 = 208 V ac, Torque = 2.52 N·m
b. Apparent power = 1225 VA
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Torque = 1.11 N·m
2. Starting torque = 2.52 N·m

(See Procedure 6. a)
Full load torque = 1.11 N·m
Torque ratio = 2.52 / 1.11 = 2.27
4-13
The Wound-Rotor Induction Motor – Part II
3. Starting current = 3.4 A

(See Procedure 6. a)
Full load current = 1.2 A
Current ratio = 3.4 / 1.2 = 2.83
4. If time permits, have the students verify their answers by performing Procedure
6 using the variable 3 phase output of the power supply, terminals 4, 5 and 6,
adjusted for an E1 of 100 V.
The students can compare their answers with the results of Procedure 3.
a) The stator current is proportional to the applied stator voltage, so with 50 %

voltage only 50 % current will flow.
b) With 1/2 of E and 1/2 of I, the apparent power will be:
(E/2) x (I/2) x 1.73 = 1.73 EI/4
Reduction = 75 %
c) Torque is proportional to both stator and rotor magnetic field strengths. With
1/2 of the currents the field strength is reduced to 1/4 of the original.
Reduction = 75 %
4-14
Experiment 5
The Wound-Rotor Induction Motor – Part III
DISCUSSION
Varying the resistance in the rotor circuit produces variations in operating speed as
much as 75 %; the greater the resistance inserted in the rotor circuit, the lower the
speed below synchronous speed. When the resistance is adjusted to its lowest
value, the speed is less than that obtained with squirrel-cage motors. This is due to
the internal resistance of the rotor windings, which is appreciably higher than that
of the shorted rotor bars in the squirrel-cage.
PROCEDURE
TORQUE I1 I2 I3 W1 W2 SPEED
(N·m) (amps) (amps) (amps) (watts) (watts) (r/min)
0 0.6 0.64 0.62 -20 92 1765
0.3 0.68 0.75 0.69 8 128 1679
0.6 0.81 0.89 0.8 38 162 1622
0.9 0.97 1.06 0.94 67 196 1568
1.2 1.16 1.25 1.13 108 233 1487
Table 5-1.
(lbf·in) (amps) (amps) (amps) (watts) (watts) (r/min)
0 0.60 0.64 0.62 ! 20 92 1765
3 0.70 0.78 0.70 12 133 1670
6 0.84 0.93 0.84 45 170 1610
9 1.04 1.12 1.00 80 210 1540
12 1.28 1.36 1.25 145 255 1425
4-15
0 0.6 0.66 0.61 -20 90 1730
0.3 0.69 0.75 0.68 7 126 1433
0.6 0.8 0.86 0.79 33 159 1186
0.9 0.95 1.01 0.93 63 193 911
1.2 Motor stalls
Table 5-2.
0 0.60 0.66 0.61 ! 20 90 1730
3 0.70 0.76 0.69 10 130 1400
6 0.84 0.90 0.82 40 168 1120
9 1.02 1.08 1.00 76 207 780
12 Motor stalls
Note to the Instructor: Due to the winding and rheostat resistance tolerances,
some of the wound-rotor motors may stall while operating in an overload
condition at low speed.
e. Yes.
f. Yes.
G 8. c. Note to the Instructor: The stator and rotor currents may be measured with
greater accuracy by changing both meters to the 2.5 A ac range.
G 9. a. I1 = 1.45 A ac, I2 = 2.25 A ac
E1 = 208 V ac, Torque = 1.79 N·m
4-16
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. a) average current = 0.62 A ac
b) apparent power = 223 VA
c) active power = 72 W
d) reactive power = 211 var
e) power factor = 0.32
f) mechanical output power = 148 W
g) efficiency = 56.3%
g) efficiency = 33.6%
4. a) Starting current = 1.45 A
Full load current = 0.96 A
1.45 / 0.96 = 1.51
b) Starting torque = 1.79 N·m
4-17
Full load torque = 0.9 N·m
1.79 / 0.9 = 1.99
c) Full load current = 0.96 A
No load current = 0.62 A
0.96 / 0.62 = 1.55
5. The input power supplies not only the actual output power plus the iron, copper,
windage, and friction losses, but also the power dissipated by the external
resistances.
6. As loading increases, the motor delivers more power, so the active input power
increases proportionately. However, the reactive power required for the
magnetic field remains relatively constant.
4-18
Experiment 6
The Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor
DISCUSSION
Unlike the wound-rotor motor with its poor speed regulation under load, the low
impedance rotor of the squirrel-cage motor provides good speed regulation. Since
the squirrel-cage rotor impedance is low, a small decrease in speed (increase in
slip) produces a large increase in rotor current. For this reason the speed regulation
of the squirrel-cage motor is good, the full-load slip being approximately 7 %. The
starting torque of the squirrel-cage motor is lower than that of the wound-rotor motor
because at rest the low impedance rotor with its relatively large inductance to
resistance ratio, has high induced currents that lag the induced voltage by 90E. As
the rotor begins to turn and pick up speed, the slip decreases, the frequency of the
induced voltage decreases, the rotor reactance decreases, the power factor
increases, and the motor efficiency increases. When the slip drops to some value
between 2 and 10 percent, depending on the load, the speed stabilizes and remains
relatively constant.
PROCEDURE
G 2. e. No.
G 3. a. 1 and 4, 2 and 5, 3 and 6.
b. 1.5 A ac
c. 120 V ac
d. speed = 1670 (r/min)
Power = 175 W,
4-19
0 0.58 0.59 0.58 -20 80 1800
0.3 0.68 0.7 0.68 12 126 1754
0.6 0.82 0.85 0.82 37 164 1727
0.9 1 1.04 1 70 201 1696
1.2 1.21 1.27 1.2 108 243 1650
Table 6-1.
0 0.58 0.59 0.58 !20 80 1800
3 0.7 0.72 0.7 15 130 1750
6 0.86 0.9 0.86 45 175 1720
9 1.08 1.12 1.08 85 215 1680
12 1.34 1.4 1.32 125 270 1620
G 8. a. E1 = 208 V ac, I1 = 4.3 A ac
Starting torque = 2.2 N·m
REVIEW QUESTIONS
4-20
g) efficiency = 59%
3. a) starting current to full load current
4.3 / 1.23 = 3.5
b) starting torque to full load torque
2.2 / 1.2 = 1.83
c) full load current to no load current
1.23 / 0.583 = 2.11
4. The squirrel-cage motor: is more efficient, has higher full-load speed and has
better speed regulation. The wound-rotor motor: has higher starting torque,
lower starting current, and its speed can be varied.
5. Its rotor construction is simple and very rugged, and cannot be burned out. The
absence of commutator, brushes, and slip rings eliminates any possible
troubles or need for maintenance of these items.
6. a) The rotating field would be:
(50 / 60) x 1800 = 1500 r/min
1500 ! slip = motor speed
b) It would increase due to the lower winding impedances.
4-21
4-22
Experiment 7
The Synchronous Motor – Part I
DISCUSSION
The three-phase synchronous motor is not naturally self-starting. Therefore, these

motors have to incorporate some type of starting device or system into their design.
In the single-phase synchronous clock motor, which has the same problem, the
motor can be started by either giving the rotor a spin by hand or through the use of
damper windings on the rotor. The case of the three-phase synchronous motor is
similar. Of course, since the three-phase synchronous motor is generally a larger,
more power-full device, starting by hand is out of the question. Instead, a practical
system is in use by which another motor, AC or DC, is used to bring the rotor of the
large synchronous motor up to about 90% of its synchronous speed. The starting
motor is then disconnected, the rotor locks in step with the rotating magnetic field
of the stator, and the motor continues to develop operating torque and runs at
synchronous speed.
In another system for starting the three-phase synchronous motor, a damper

winding is placed over the DC windings of the rotor. The damper winding allows
inductive self starting to take place. When the motor is started by this method, DC
rotor excitation is first removed. As the synchronous motor approaches operating
speed, the DC winding is excited and the rotor locks into step with the rotating
magnetic field.
PROCEDURE
G 2. b. No.
G 3. a. 1 and 4, 2 and 5, 3 and 6.
b. 120 V ac
c. 1 A ac
d. 7 and 8.
e. 120 V dc
Power = 175 W
G 5. a. Rotation = CW, 0.85 A ac

b. Rotation = CCW, 0.85 A ac
4-23
The Synchronous Motor – Part I
G 8. b. The motor will not start under load. It vibrates, growls, and chatters
heavily.
c. The indicator fluctuates at approximately 4.5 A.
d. No.
G 9. c. The motor starts smoothly under load. The starting current is 4.5 A. The
running current fluctuates at approximately 1 A.
d. Yes.
f. As the DC voltage increases, the fluctuating stator current decreases

to 0.4 A. It then rises steadily to 0.7 A where it remains constant as the
motor run.
g. Yes.
G 11. a. E1 = 208 V ac, E2 = 208 V ac, I1 = 3.9 A ac,

Starting torque = 2.71 N·m
c. Full load torque = 0.93 N·m
d. Ratio = 2.9
e. 208 V ac was induced in the rotor windings because of the rotating
stator magnetic field cutting the slowly rotating rotor windings.
G 12. The rate at which the rotating magnetic field cuts the rotor windings
decreases.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. The DC rotor excitation should be removed. It should not be fully loaded.
2. No.
3. a. The resistance partially shorts the rotor windings, preventing excessive high
voltage build-up.
b. The AC rotor current that flows, aids the rotating stator field producing extra
torque.
4. With approximately the same starting current, the synchronous motor has
greater torque due to its higher rotor winding resistance.
4-24
Experiment 8
The Synchronous Motor – Part II
DISCUSSION
A very special characteristic makes synchronous motors useful in industrial

applications employing many induction motors. If more DC current is supplied to the
rotor of a synchronous motor than is required, the motor is said to be overexcited
and will take a phase-leading current from the power line; like a capacitor connected
to the line.
Where many transformers and induction motors are used, for example, in large
industrial plants, the currents drawn tend to lag the impressed voltage, as is
common with inductive circuits. The greater the lag, the poorer the power factor. We
can improve the power factor by adding capacitance to the load circuits. It thus
becomes practical to replace the induction motors in some of the plant machinery
with synchronous motors, which help improve the power factor while furnishing
useful mechanical power. A synchronous motor used in this way is often said to be
operating as a synchronous capacitor.
PROCEDURE
G 2. c. I1 min = 0.14 A ac I2 = 0.4 A dc
W1 = 25 W W2 = 25 W
4-25
I2 E1 I1 POWER POWER
W1 W2 PF
(amps) (volts) (amps) (VA) (watts)
0 208 0.8 288 -47 114 67 0.23
0.1 208 0.62 223 -37 93 56 0.25
0.2 208 0.46 166 -17 70 53 0.32
0.3 208 0.24 86.4 10 40 50 0.58
0.4 208 0.14 50.4 25 25 50 0.99
0.5 208 0.2 72.1 40 10 50 0.69
0.6 208 0.35 126 66 -12 54 0.43
0.7 208 0.52 187 80 -24 56 0.3
0.8 208 0.68 245 100 -35 65 0.27
0.9 208 See Note to the Instructor
Table 8-1.
G 4. See Table 8-1.
Note to the Instructor: Due to line voltage, power supply and motor winding
tolerances, many students may not be able to increase the DC excitation current to
the 0.9 A level. This is of no consequence, as the Table contains more than enough
information to allow the characteristic “V” motor curves to be plotted as shown in
Figure 8-2.
Also if the line voltage is higher or lower than 208 V ac at the fixed output of the
power supply, the characteristic “V” motor curves should shift respectively right or
left in Figure 8-2. This is due to the fact that at a higher line voltage the rotor has to
supply more var to induce the line voltage and then a higher current must flow into
the rotor windings. The opposite is true for a lower line voltage.
(Remember that at PF = 100%, all the reactive power is supplied by the rotor.)
4-26
Figure 8-2
G 5. a. Q = 280 var
b. Lagging.
G 6. a. Q = 236 var
b. Leading.
G 7. Q = 6.34 var
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. b. See Figure 8-2.
d. See Figure 8-2.
e. As stator current decreases power factor increases. The power factor

peaks at the stator current minimum point. Due to their appearance,
these curves are called the “V” curves of the motor.
2. By over-exciting the rotor, it will have a leading power factor just like a
capacitor, and can be used to correct a lagging power factor line condition.
4-27
3. Yes.
4. This power supplies only the copper, iron, friction, and windage losses. Since
the speed is constant only the copper losses will vary because of the
changing stator currents.
4-28
Experiment 9
The Synchronous Motor – Part III
DISCUSSION
The most important advantage of the synchronous motor is its constant speed under
varying load conditions. Another important advantage is its ability to operate, even
under full-load conditions, at a lagging or leading power factor that can be readily
adjusted simply by changing the DC excitation supplied to the rotor. As the DC
excitation is increased, the motor tends to draw a more leading current, while the
current lags more as the excitation is reduced.
Usually the synchronous motor is used for the dual purpose of delivering a
mechanical load and correcting an otherwise low lagging power factor. This is true
in systems that must supply power to a considerable number of induction motors.
In such plants, it is frequently advantageous to install a synchronous motor to raise
the power factor to a suitable value and at the same time to have it drive some
constant speed continuous-duty load.
PROCEDURE
G 3. c. I1 = 0.84 A ac , I2 = 0.5 A dc ,
E1 = 208 V ac E2 = 140 V dc
E2 = 125 V dc W1 = 151 W ,
W2 = 151 W
G 4. Pull-out torque = 1.69 N·m
G 5. a. Note to the Instructor: If some of the students cannot increase the DC

excitation to 0.8 A have them disconnect the rotor from the fixed DC output
terminals 8 and N and connect them to the variable DC output terminals 7 and
N. Of course, the three leads going to the variable three-phase output of the
power supply, terminals 4, 5 and 6 will have to be re-connected to the fixed
three-phase output, terminals 1, 2 and 3.
b. I1 = 1.12 A ac , I2 = 0.8 A dc
E1 = 208 V ac E2 = 140 V dc
W1 = 221 W W2 = 103 W
4-29
c. With an overexcited rotor creating more magnetic field than the motor
needs, the power line supplies negative reactive power to the stator to
keep the total magnetic flux constant.
d. Leading.
G 6. Pull-out torque = 2.37 N·m
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. a) apparent power = 303VA
e) DC power = 62.5 W
g) efficiency = 57%
2. Pull-out torque = 1.69 N·m
Full-load torque = 1.1 N·m
1.69 / 1.1 = 1.54
e) DC power = 112 W
4. Negative (Leading power factor).
4-30
5. An increase in rotor current produces an increase in rotor magnetic strength

which locks in more strongly with the rotating stator magnetic field. Thus, the
pull-out torque is increased.
4-31
4-32
Experiment 10
The Three-Phase Alternator
DISCUSSION
DC and AC generators are similar in one important aspect – they both generate
alternating EMF. In the DC generator, the alternating voltage is rectified through the
medium of a commutator and brushes, where the AC generator has no rectifier and
delivers AC electricity energy to its loads.
AC generators are usually called alternators. But unlike DC generators, they must
be driven at a constant speed because the frequency of the generated EMF is
determined by that speed. The latter is usually referred to as the synchronous
speed, for which reason these machines are frequently called synchronous
alternators or synchronous generators. Remembering that generator action
depends upon the relative motion of conductors with respect to lines of force, it
should be clear that it is possible to construct an alternator with a stationary field
and a moving armature or with a stationary armature and a moving field. In practice,
the latter arrangement is the preferable one.
PROCEDURE
G 3. b. E1 = 9 V ac, E2 = 7.5 V ac,E3 =

8 V ac
c. There is some residual magnetism in the rotor, so some flux cuts the
stator windings, generating a small voltage.
I1 E1 E2 E3 Eac
(amps) (volts) (volts) (volts) (avg.)
0 9 7.5 8 8.2
0.1 58 52 55 55
0.2 105 100 103 103
0.3 142 138 140 140
0.4 175 170 175 173
0.5 198 192 195 195
0.6 212 208 210 210
0.7 225 220 220 222
0.8 235 230 230 232
0.9 245 238 240 241
4-33
Table 10-1
G 6. a. E2 = 204 V ac, E3 = 206 V ac
d. E1 to 4 = 120 V ac, E2 to 5 = 120 V ac
E3 to 6 = 120 V ac
f. Yes.
G 8. c. I1 = 0.48 A dc
e. I2 = 1.8 A ac
f. I1 = 0.48 A dc, I2 = 1.2 A ac
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. a) See Figure 10-3.
c) E = 200 V ac
d) E = 200 V ac
e) As the DC rotor current increases to 0.6 A, the iron in the rotor begins to
saturate. Therefore, as excitation current increases above this value, there
will be a smaller increase in the magnetic flux and the generated voltage.
4-34
Figure 10-3
2. It would require a relatively large increase in DC excitation in order to over-

excite the alternator. The alternator efficiency would be lowered due to the
increase in DC rotor power. The rotor would tend to overheat due to the higher
DC current. It would reduce the winding and iron quality tolerance factors and
may not operate properly under overloads.
3. The short-circuit armature current of the alternator drops to a relatively low

harmless value due to its high impedance. The separately excited DC shunt
generator has very low armature resistance, therefore, high short-circuit
currents can flow, burning out the windings, commutator, and brushes.
4-35
4-36
Experiment 11
The Alternator Under Load
DISCUSSION
Loading an alternator will affect its terminal voltage, just as it does in a DC

generator, but the manner in which it does will depend upon the character of the
load. If the load consists of pure resistance units, such as incandescent lamps or
heating devices, the power factor will be unity; this type of load will cause the
terminal voltage to drop about 8 to 20 percent below its no-load value. A lagging
power-factor load, such as induction motors, fluorescent lighting, and
electromagnetic devices, will cause the terminal voltage of the alternator to drop as
much as 20 to 50 percent below the no-load value. Leading power-factor loads,
however, such as capacitor devices or special types of synchronous motors, will
tend to raise the terminal voltage of the alternator above the no-load value. Exactly
how much the terminal voltage will drop or rise will depend upon (1) the magnitude
of the load and (2) the actual over-all power factor of the combined loads. In
general, it can be said that (1) the greater the load, the greater will be the drop or
rise; (2) the lower the lagging power factor, the greater will be the voltage drop; and
(3) the lower the leading power factor, the greater will be the voltage rise.
PROCEDURE
G 3. c. I1 = 0.395 A ac, I2 = 0.52 A dc
d. E1 = 223 V ac, I2 = 0.52 A dc
f. Regulation = 7.2 %
G 4. c. I1 = 0.385 A ac, I2 = 0.66 A dc
d. E1 = 243 V ac, I2 = 0.64 A dc
f. Regulation = 16.8 %
g. Opposes.
G 5. c. I1 = 0.395 A ac, I2 = 0.23 A dc
d. E1 = 140 V ac, I2 = 0.23 A dc
f. Regulation = -32.7 %
The regulation with capacitive loading is a negative quantity because

the full-load voltage is greater than the no-load voltage.
g. Aid.
4-37
The Alternator Under Load
G 6. c. The output voltage increased to 234 V while the load current increased
from 0.1 A to 0.32 A.
d. The output voltage increased to over 250 V while the output current
increases to 0.9 A.
f. Due to capacitive loading, the stator winding currents lead the output
voltage by 90E and create an increase in the MMF, increasing the
magnetic flux which in turn increases the output voltage.
G 7. c. E2 = 190 V ac, E3 = 205 V ac
f. E1 to 4 = 118 V ac
E2 to 5 = 110 V ac
E3 to 6 = 123 V ac
h. Yes. The effect of this unbalance would cause: large return currents in
neutral wires, unbalanced three-phase currents in motors, floating
neutral points in WYE connected loads, and large circulating currents
in DELTA connected transformers.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. In addition to the explanation given in Procedure 6. f), the voltage drop across
the winding reactances is such that it adds vectorially to the generated voltage
so that the output voltage rises with a capacitive load.
2. Yes. The output voltage could raise to a dangerous level, sufficient to break
down the winding insulation and damage the alternator. Associated switches
and breakers could also be damaged.
3. With a high power factor, DC rotor excitation is minimum. A lagging power factor
load tends to reduce the stator magnetic field, thus the DC excitation has to be
increased to maintain the rated output voltage.
4. As observed in Procedure 7, a large single-phase load will cause excessive

current to flow and cause a large voltage drop in that phase winding. This
unbalance is difficult to compensate for at the generator.
4-38
Experiment 12
Alternator Synchronization
PROCEDURE
G 3. b. E2 = 208 V ac
G 4. b. Note to the Instructor: If the lights flash in sequence instead of all together,
it indicates that the phase sequence of the three power supply terminals and
that of the alternator are different.
G 5. a. The stator current jumps quickly to 0.3 A and then returns to zero.
Note to the Instructor: The line current I1 will probably jump quickly and then
return to almost zero. The jump or current surge occurs because the two line
voltages are usually not completely equal and in phase with each other.
b. The stator current jumps quickly to 1.2 A and then returns to zero.
Note to the Instructor: When the lights are dim, there is a small phase
difference between the two voltages, which creates a greater voltage difference
than when the lights are dark. Therefore, the current I1 will surge to a higher
value than in part (a).
c. The stator current jumps quickly to 2 A and returns to zero.
If the lights are partially bright when the switch is closed, there is a
relatively large phase difference between the two voltages. This
produces a large voltage difference, which creates a larger surge
current than in part (b). The alternator will also jerk, as the rotor is
forced into the correct position by the large stator surge currents. After
the surge, the current will again drop back to almost zero.
G 6. c. I1 at closure= jumps from zero to a peak of 0.5 to 1 A.
I1 after closure = falls back to a low of 0.4 to 0.3 A.
G 7. c. The lights now flash in sequence instead of all together.
d. The phase sequence of the power company and that of the alternator
are different.
f. By interchanging any two of the leads coming from the stator of the
alternator.
4-39
Alternator Synchronization
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. The frequency, phase, and phase sequence, as well as the voltage amplitudes
must be equal to each other.
2. a. If the phase sequence is not correct.
When the phase sequence is wrong, and the alternator is joined to the
existing supply, it immediately tries to reverse its direction and run as a
motor in the opposite direction, against the rotation of the driving motor.
This occurs because the power line sets up a rotating magnetic field in the
alternator which tries to make the alternator run as a synchronous motor in
the reverse direction. This cause very large currents in the stator, overloads
and tries to stall the driving motor, and generates very large voltages in the
rotor of the alternator. The resulting electrical overloads and mechanical
shocks can damage both the alternator and the driving motor.
b. If the voltages are out of phase.
If the synchronizing switch is closed when the generated and existing

voltages are out of phase, a heavy surge current will flow in the stator,
which tries to force the rotor into the proper position to bring the two
voltages in phase with each other. This will develop a very sudden
acceleration or deceleration fo the rotor, and this mechanical shock could
damage the alternator and the driving motor.
3. Both frequencies must be the same in order for the alternator to deliver power.
4-40
Experiment 13
Alternator Power
PROCEDURE
G 3. e. E1 = 208 V ac, I1 = 0 A ac, I2 = 0.44 A dc
G 4. a. W1 = -25 W, W2 = 25 W
E1 = 208 V ac, I2 = 0.6 A dc
Note to the Instructor: If the DC excitation current exceeds 0.5 A dc, have the
students change to the 2.5 A dc meter range.
c. Apparent power (S) = 119 VA
Active power (P) = 0 W
d. Reactive.
With the rotor overexcited, the alternator draws leading reactive power
from the infinite bus.
G 6. a. W1 = -25 W, W2 = 25 W
E1 = 210 V ac, I2 = 0.25 A dc
c. Apparent power = 120 VA
Active power = 0 W
d. Reactive.
With the rotor underexcited, the alternator draws lagging reactive power
from the infinite bus.
e. No. The reactive power in Procedure 4 was leading or negative reactive

power, while the reactive power in Procedure 6 was lagging or positive
reactive power.
4-41
Alternator Power
G 8. a. W1 = 55 W, W2 = 30 W
E1 = 212 V ac, I2 = 0.4 A dc
c. Apparent power = 121 VA
Active power = 85 W
d. Active.
The alternator, with an increased driving torque, now supplies active

power to the infinite bus.
G 10. a. W1 = 0 W, W2 = 60 W
I1 = 0.4 A ac, I2 = 0.68 A dc
E1 = 208 V ac
b. W1 = 60 W, W2 = 0 W
I1 = 0.42 A ac, I2 = 0.32 A dc
E1 = 208 V ac
G 11. W1 = -25 W, W2 = 25 W
I1 = 0.33 A ac, I2 = 0.62 A dc
E1 = 210 V ac
G 12. W1 = 25 W, W2 = -25 W
I1 = 0.33 A ac, I2 = 0.25 A dc
E1 = 212 V ac
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. a) Decrease.
b) Increase.
2. Alternator output = 94 kW
4-42
Alternator Power
3. As shown in Procedure 10, the power factor of an alternator is determined by

its DC field excitation and not by the power factor of any electro-mechanical
devices connected to the power line.
4. The existing infinite bus voltage sets up a rotating magnetic field in the stator of
the alternator, and the speed of this rotating field is fixed by the system
frequency. This field forces the rotor to turn at the infinite bus synchronous
speed.
4-43
4-44
Experiment 14
Three-Phase Motor Starter
DISCUSSION
In industry, motor starters very often use an overload relay on only two of the phase
conductors but recent tendency is towards using three separate overload relays,
each with a normally-closed contact, or a single overload relay with three sensing
elements as supplied with the starters used in this Laboratory Experiment.
Some types of overload relays are also available with the manual reset or automatic
reset characteristic. The automatic reset type returns to its normal position a period
of time after the relay has tripped. In the manual reset type, the reset button must
be pressed to reset the starter to its normal position.
PROCEDURE
G 1. I = 1 A ac
G 5. a. E = 208 V ac
b. No.
c. No.
e. Yes.
Yes.
f. I = 0.73 A ac
g. The stop button opens the circuits to the contactor coil which opens
contacts M and disconnects the motor from the power source.
h. t = 108 s
j. Note to the Instructor: If the overload relay is of the automatic reset type,
there is no necessity for pressing the reset button.
n. I = 4.5 A ac t = 15 s
G 6. b. I = 1 A ac
c. E = 120 V dc I = 0.4 A dc
4-45
G 7. a. Yes.
G 9. a. E = 208 V ac
b. No.
c. No.
e. The “Motor Synchronized” lamp will come on very briefly and will stay
off.
f. The lamp comes on very briefly and stays off thereafter until the motor
is locked into synchronism by the starter. Then it comes back on.
g. I = 0.3 A ac
h. The stop button opens the circuit to the contactor coil which opens
contacts M and disconnects the motor from the power source.
j. t = 138 s
G 10. a. Note to the Instructor: If the overload relay is of the automatic reset type,
there is no necessity for pressing the reset button.
e. I = 3.9 A ac t = 11 s
G 11. d. Torque = 1.81N·m .
When the motor falls out of synchronism, it rapidly comes to a halt and
the line current increases. The current sensing relay opens the circuit
to the contactor coil and disconnect the motor from the source.
REVIEW QUESTION
1. The magnetic starter constitutes an easy means of controlling a motor while

providing an automatic overload protection.
2. The motor did not reach the speed at which the current sensing device
energizes the excitation field and completes the self-holding circuit of the
contactor coil.
3. The inverse-time curve of the overload relay makes it trip faster on higher
current.
4-46
4. This would have represented a heavier overload and the overload relay would
have tripped faster.
4-47
4-48
Experiment 15
Frequency Conversion
PROCEDURE
G 3. e. E2 = 208 V ac, I2 = 0 A ac, I1 = 0.8 A ac
W1 = -57 W, W2 = 105 W
G 4. b. E2 = 182 V ac, I2 = 1.2 A ac, I1 = 1 A ac
W1 = 50 W, W2 = 200 W
Note to the Instructor: Have the students re-adjust the DC excitation of the
synchronous motor so that I3 is at its minimum value. This procedure should be
followed whenever the synchronous motor is operated or has its loading
changed.
G 5. a. Power to stator = 250 W
The active power delivered to the stator (250 W) includes the active
power lost in the motor due to its iron and copper losses, windage and
friction. This power (48 W) is essentially the no-load power found in
Procedure 3. e.
b. Power to load = 378 W
c. Half of the load power (189 W) is supplied by the mechanical power

delivered to the rotor shaft by the synchronous motor. The difference
between 250 W (power to the stator measured in Procedure 5. a) and
189 W is 61 W. This power represents the losses in the converter.
Note to the Instructor: The fact that mechanical power is being supplied by
the synchronous motor can be verified by noting that its input stator current
increases as the power output of the wound rotor increases.
G 7. a. See “Note to the Instructor” at Procedure 4. b).
b. E2 = 198 V ac, I2 = 0.35 A ac, I1 = 0.95 A ac
W1 = -54 W, W2 = 134 W, Speed = 3580 r/min
4-49
Frequency Conversion
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. The squirrel cage motor speed is slightly less than twice the 60 Hz synchronous
speed of 1800 r/min, because it receives 120 Hz power from the rotor of the
frequency converter.
2. If the wound rotor were turning at 900 r/min in the same direction as the rotating
stator magnetic field, a frequency of 30 Hz would be generated. If it were
revolving at 900 r/min opposite to the direction of the rotating field, a frequency
of 90 Hz would be generated.
3. a) A 60 Hz input to the stator of the wound rotor motor would create a

magnetic field rotating at 1200 r/min, and if the squirrel cage motor turns the
rotor at 3600 r/min in the opposite direction to the rotating stator magnetic
field, a frequency of 240 Hz would be generated.
b) If the squirrel cage motor turns the rotor at 3600 r/min in the same direction
as the rotating stator magnetic field, the field will then cut the rotor windings
at 2400 r/min, and a frequency of 120 Hz will be generated.
Actually there will be some slip due to the squirrel-cage motor and both
frequencies will be slightly lower.
4-50
Experiment 16
Reactance and Frequency
PROCEDURE
G 2. e. IR = 0.248 A ac, IC = 0.245 A ac, IL = 0.242 A ac
G 3. a. R = E1 / IR = 302 S
XC = E1 / IC = 306 S
XL = E1 / IL = 310 S
b. Yes. The calculated values and the listed values should agree within
component and meter tolerances.
G 4. e. IT = 0.18 A ac, IC = 0.06 A ac, IL = 0.242 A ac
G 8. b. 150 S. The frequency doubled from 60 Hz to 120 Hz, and since

capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to frequency, the
reactance dropped to one-half of its 60 Hz value.
c. 600 S. Inductive reactance, being the opposite of capacitive reactance,

is directly proportional to frequency. Therefore, when the frequency is
doubled, the reactance also doubles.
e. IR = 0.25 A ac, IC = 0.49 A ac, IL = 0.12 A ac
G 9. a. R = E1 / IR = 300 S
XC = E1 / IC = 153 S
XL = E1 / IL = 625 S
b. The 120 Hz value of the resistance load should be the same as the
60 Hz value (within measurement error) but the 120 Hz reactance value
of the inductance load will be about twice the 60 Hz value, and the
120 Hz reactance value of the capacitance load will be about one-half
of the 60 Hz value.
Note to the Instructor: Remember, that the current values found in Procedure
8. e) are dependent on the exact setting of the power supply voltage. Any error
in the voltage setting or in the voltmeter itself will cause the current values to be
in error. The current meter accuracy and component value tolerances plus
measuring errors will introduce further errors in the calculations. Therefore,
when comparing two sets of calculated values which are subject to possible
cumulative errors one should expect some variation.
4-51
Reactance and Frequency
G 10. c. 600 S. The 120 Hz reactance of the capacitance load will be one-half
the 60 Hz value or 600 S.
d. 600 S. The 120 Hz reactance of the inductance load will be twice the
60 Hz value or 600 S.
f. IT = 0 A ac, IC = 0.12 A ac, IL = 0.12 A ac
Since the inductance is not a pure reactance (its impedance contains

a resistive component due to its winding resistance) some source
current IT should flow. However, this current is very small and cannot
be measured using the 0.5 A range of the meter.
g. Yes. Parallel resonance occurs because the capacitive reactance is

equal (and of opposite sign) to the inductive reactance at this
frequency.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. a) No.
b) No.
c) No.
d) Yes.
e) Yes.
2. Yes.
3. No. Capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to frequency.
4. IL = 0.1 A ac
IC = 0.4 A ac
The total current IT is equal to the algebraic sum of the two currents IC and IL,
and since capacitive current is considered as having a negative value, in this
case IT = -0.3 A ac.
The negative sign indicates that the total current IT is considered to be entirely
capacitive and will lead the line voltage by 90E.
4-52
Experiment 17
Selsyn Control
DISCUSSION
Selsyns (or synchros) are electromagnetic devices which are used primarily for the
transfer of angular position data. They are normally used to provide a means of
transmitting the position of a remotely located device to one or more indicators
located away from the transmitting area. In appearance they resemble small electric
motors. However, when appreciable power is to be transferred, they may be larger
in size.
A typical system includes a rotating device (transmitter) which is supplied with

single-phase rotor power and has an output stator voltage depending on the position
of the rotor. This output is fed to the stator windings of a second rotating device
(receiver) whose rotor (also supplied with single-phase power) follows the motion
of the first.
PROCEDURE
G 2. e. E1 = 90 V ac, E2 = 45 V ac, E3 = 45 V ac
f. E1 = 45 V ac, E2 = 90 V ac, E3 = 45 V ac
g. E1 = 45 V ac, E2 = 45 V ac, E3 = 90 V ac
G 4. d. I1 = 1.5 A ac, I2 = 0.7 A ac, I3 = 0.7 A ac
e. I1 = 0.7 A ac, I2 = 1.5 A ac, I3 = 0.7 A ac
f. I1 = 0.7 A ac, I2 = 0.7 A ac, I3 = 1.5 A ac
G 6. d. Yes.
g. Yes.
h. As the rotor is turned each stator current will, in turn, momentarily peak
to some maximum value depending upon the braking torque and then
fall to zero.
4-53
Selsyn Control
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Yes. As long as the three connecting stator leads are of heavy enough gauge
to keep losses to a minimum, they will work at any distance.
2. See Figure 17-a.
Figure 17-a
3. Wind direction indicator, antenna direction indicator, gun position indicator, and
remote position controller.
4-54
.
.

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Electric Power / Controls

Investigations in Electric Power Technology

Copyright © 2004 Lab-Volt Ltd.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

Legal Deposit – Second Trimester 2004

THIRD EDITION, MAY 2004

The Lab-Volt Electrical Power Technology training system is a modularized program

Ex. 1 Series and Parallel Equivalent Resistances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1

Ex. 2 Resistances in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5

Ex. 3 Resistances in Series and in Series-Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9

Ex. 4 Safety and the Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-15

Ex. 5 Ohm’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-19

Ex. 6 Circuit Solution – Part I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-23

Ex. 7 Circuit Solution – Part II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-27

Ex. 8 Power in DC Circuits – Part I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-33

Ex. 9 Power in DC Circuits – Part II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-39

Ex. 10 The Transmission Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-45

Ex. 11 AC Voltage and Current – Part I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-51

Ex. 12 AC Voltage and Current – Part II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-57

Ex. 13 The Wattmeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-61

Ex. 14 Phase Angle, Active, and Apparent Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-65

Ex. 15 Capacitive Reactance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-71

Ex. 16 Inductive Reactance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-73

Ex. 17 Watt, Var, Volt-Ampere, and Power Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-75

Ex. 18 Vectors and Phasors – Series Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-77

Ex. 19 Vectors and Phasors – Parallel Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-83

Ex. 20 Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-91

Ex. 21 Three-Phase Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-95

Ex. 22 Three-Phase Watts, Vars, and Volt-Amperes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-99

Ex. 23 Three-Phase Power Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-103

Ex. 24 Phase Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-105

Ex. 0 Safety and the Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1

Ex. 1 Prime Mover and Torque Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3

Ex. 2 The Direct Current Motor – Part I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7

Ex. 3 The Direct Current Motor – Part II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-11

Ex. 4 The DC Shunt Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-17

Ex. 5 The DC Series Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-21

Ex. 6 The DC Compound Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-25

Ex. 7 The DC Separately Excited Shunt Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-29

Ex. 8 The DC Self-Excited Shunt Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-33

Ex. 9 The DC Compound Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-37

Ex. 10 DC Motor Starter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-41

Ex. 11 Thyristor Speed Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-43

Ex. 12 Thyristor Speed Controllers with Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-49

Appendix D SCR Speed Control – Part I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-1

Appendix E SCR Speed Control – Part II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-1

Single-Phase Transformers and AC Machines

Ex. 0 Safety and the Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1

Ex. 1 The Single-Phase Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3

Ex. 2 Transformer Polarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9

Ex. 3 Transformer Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13

Ex. 4 The Autotransformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-17

Ex. 5 Transformers in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23

Ex. 6 The Distribution Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-27

Ex. 7 Prime Mover and Torque Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-31

Ex. 8 The Split-Phase Inductor Motor – Part I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-33

Ex. 9 The Split-Phase Inductor Motor – Part II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-37

Ex. 10 The Split-Phase Inductor Motor – Part III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-41

Ex. 11 The Capacitor-Start Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-45