Tafila Technical University

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Metrology Science
Dr. Ahmad Mostafa
2nd semester 2019/2020
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS
1. Introduction
Temperature is a physical property of a material that gives a measure of the average kinetic energy
of the molecular movement in an object or a system. Temperature can be define as a condition of
a body by virtue of which heat is transferred from one system to another.

Temperature and heat are different:

Temperature is a measure of the internal energy of a system, whereas heat is a measure of the
transfer of energy from one system to another.

 Heat transfer takes place from a body at a higher temperature to one at a lower temperature.
The two bodies are said to be in thermal equilibrium when both of them are at the same
temperature.
 The rise in temperature of a body is due to greater absorption of heat, which increases the
movement of the molecules within the body.

History of thermometry
 The first thermometer was developed by Galileo Galilei in the 17th century.
 In 1724, D.G. Fahrenheit, a German physicist, contributed significantly to the development
of thermometry. He proposed his own scale, in which 32° and 212° were considered the
freezing point and boiling point of brine in water, respectively.
 The Swedish physicist Anders Celsius, in 1742, developed the mercury-in-glass
thermometer. He identified two points, namely the melting point of ice and the boiling
point of water, and assigned 0° and 100°, respectively, to them. He made 100 divisions
between these two points.
 In 1859, William John Macquorn Rankine, a Scottish physicist, proposed an absolute or
thermodynamic scale, known as Rankine scale when, after investigating the changes in
thermal energy with changes in temperature, he came to a conclusion that the theoretical
temperature of each of the substances was the same at zero thermal energy level. According
to him, this temperature was approximately equal to −460 °F.
 William Thomson, first Baron Kelvin, popularly known as Lord Kelvin, a British physicist,
introduced a new concept, known as the Kelvin scale, in 1848. He suggested 0 K as the
absolute temperature of gas and 273 K as the freezing point of water.
A comparison between Kelvin, Celsius, and Fahrenheit scales with respect to absolute zero, and
boiling and freezing points of water is shown Table 6.1.
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 Table 6.1: Comparison of temperature scales

2. Methods of measuring temperature

Measurement of temperature requires a standardized calibrated device or system and not by direct
comparison with basic standards such as length and mass. The following concepts are used for
temperature measurements:
1. Changes in physical dimensions
a. Liquid-in-glass thermometers
b. Bimetallic elements
2. Changes in gas pressure or vapor pressure
a. Constant-volume gas thermometers
b. Pressure thermometers (gas, vapor, and liquid filled)
3. Changes in electrical properties
a. Resistance thermometers (RID, PRT)
b. Thermistors
c. Thermocouples
d. Semiconductor-junction sensors
4. Changes in emitted thermal radiation
a. Thermal and photon sensors
b. Total-radiation pyrometers
c. Optical and two-color pyrometers
d. Infrared pyrometers
5. Changes in chemical phase
a. Fusible indicators
b. Liquid crystals
c. Temperature-reference (fixed-point) cells

The response of the temperature-sensing device is influenced by any of the following factors:
1. Thermal conductivity and heat capacity of an element
2. Surface area per unit mass of the element
3. Film coefficient of heat transfer

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 4. Mass velocity of a fluid surrounding the element
5. Thermal conductivity and heat capacity of the fluid surrounding the element

Temperature can be sensed using many devices, which can broadly be classified into two
categories: contact and non-contact type sensors.
In case of contact-type sensors, the object whose temperature is to be measured remains in contact
with the sensor. Inference is then drawn on the assessment of temperature either by knowing or by
assuming that the object and the sensor are in thermal equilibrium.
Contact-type sensors are classified as follows:
1. Liquid-in-glass thermometers
2. Bimetallic strip thermometers
3. Thermocouples
4. Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)
5. Thermistors
6. Pressure thermometers
In case of non-contact-type sensors, the radiant power of the infrared or optical radiation received
by the object or system is measured. Temperature is determined using instruments such as radiation
or optical pyrometers.
Non-contact-type sensors are categorized as follows:
1. Radiation pyrometers
2. Optical pyrometers
3. Fiber-optic thermometers

2.2. Liquid in glass thermometers

The liquid-in-glass thermometer is one of the most common types of temperature measurement
devices. The construction details of such an instrument are shown in the figure below.

Figure 6.1: Liquid in glass thermometer

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  A relatively large bulb at the lower portion of the thermometer holds the major portion of
the liquid, which expands when heated and rises in the capillary tube, upon which are
etched appropriate scale markings.
 At the top of the capillary tube another bulb is placed to provide a safety feature in case the
temperature range of the thermometer is inadvertently exceeded.
 Alcohol and mercury are the most commonly used liquids.
o Alcohol has the advantage that it has a higher coefficient of expansion than
mercury, but it is limited to low-temperature measurements because it tends to boil
away at high temperatures.
o Mercury cannot be used below its freezing point of −38.78◦F (−37.8◦C).
The size of the capillary depends on:
1- The size of the sensing bulb
2- The liquid
3- The desired temperature range for the thermometer

It is important to note that the expansion registered by the thermometer is the difference between
the expansion of the liquid and the expansion of the glass. To account for such differences the
thermometer is usually calibrated using melting points of elements as reference.

 These thermometers may achieve accuracies of ±0.05°C and can serve as calibration
standards for other temperature-measurement devices.
 Mercury-in-glass thermometers are generally applicable up to about 315°C (600°F)
 The detection range may be extended to 538°C (1000°F) by filling the space above the
mercury with a gas like nitrogen
 Nitrogen gas increases the pressure on the mercury, raises its boiling point, and thereby
permits the use of the thermometer at higher temperatures.

The main requirements of the liquid used in this method are:

1- It should have a linear thermal expansion with temperature rise
2- Liquid should not stick on the capillary tube
3- Liquid must be visible in the glass to allow better readability
4- Liquid must have a wide range between its freezing and boiling points

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2.3. Bimetallic strip
A very widely used method of temperature measurement is the bimetallic strip. Two pieces of
metal with different coefficients of thermal expansion are bonded together to form the device
shown in the figure below.

Figure 6.2: Illustration of bimetallic strip device

When the strip is subjected to a temperature higher than the initial bonding temperature, it will
bend in one direction; when it is subjected to a temperature lower than the bonding temperature, it
will bend in the other direction. The radius of curvature r may be calculated as:

Where

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 Figure 6.3: Illustration of parameters related to bimetallic strip deflection

From Figure 6.3 we observe that the angle through which the strip is deflected is related to the
strip length L and radius of curvature by:

θ = L/r (Radian)

Radian x (180/π) = Degree

The straight-line segment joining the ends of the strip has a length y of:

The deflection d is related to y by:

2.3.1. Advantages of the bimetallic strip:

Low-cost, negligible maintenance expense, and stable operation over extended periods of time.
The thermal-expansion coefficients for some commonly used materials are given in the
following Table.

2.3.2. Applications of bimetallic strips

1- Mechanical Clocks
2- Thermostats
3- Thermometer
4- Heat engine
5- Electrical devices (control switches)

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 Table 6.2: Thermal and mechanical properties of some commonly used thermal materials

Example: A bimetallic strip is constructed of strips of yellow brass and Invar bonded together at
30°C. Each has a thickness of 0.3 mm. Calculate the radius of curvature when a 6.0-cm strip is
subjected to a temperature of 100°C.

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2.4. Thermocouples (Thermoelectric effects)
 When two dissimilar metals are joined together an electromotive force (emf) generates
between the two points A and B, which is primarily a function of the junction temperature.
This phenomenon is called the Seebeck effect.

Figure 6.4: Junction of two dissimilar metals indicating thermoelectric effect

 If the two materials are connected to an external circuit in such a way that a current is
drawn, the emf may be altered slightly owing to a phenomenon called the Peltier effect.
 If a temperature gradient exists along either or both of the materials, the junction emf may
undergo an additional slight alteration. This is called the Thomson effect.

There are, then, three emfs present in a thermoelectric circuit:

 The Seebeck emf, caused by the junction of dissimilar metals
 The Peltier emf, caused by a current flow in the circuit
 The Thomson emf, which results from a temperature gradient in the materials

The Seebeck emf is of prime concern since it is dependent on junction temperature. If the emf
generated at the junction of two dissimilar metals is carefully measured as a function of
temperature, then such a junction may be utilized for the measurement of temperature.

2.4.1. Thermocouple Materials

Any two different materials can be used to form a thermocouple. However, only a few are suitable
for temperature measurement applications. Thermocouple materials are divided into base metal
type, rare, noble or precious metal-type and refractory type.

1. Base metal-type thermocouples:

a. Copper-constantan (constantan = 55 % Cu and 45% Ni): possesses high resistance
to condensed moisture corrosion.
b. Iron–constantan type: is essentially an inexpensive thermocouple capable of
enduring oxidizing and reducing atmospheres.
c. The chromel–alumel thermocouple: can resist an oxidizing atmosphere.

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  Chromel =90 % Ni and 10 % Cr
 Alumel = 95 % Ni, 2 % Al, 2 % Mn, and 1 % Si
2. Rare, noble or precious metal-type thermocouples:
a. Platinum (platinum–rhodium) thermocouples: are called noble thermocouples,
and all other thermocouples belong to the base metal type.
3. Refractory-type thermocouples: are used for a high temperature range of 1500–2300°C.
a. Tungsten–tungsten–rhenium
b. Iridium–tungsten
c. Iridium–iridium–rhodium
For high-temperature measurements, the thermocouple wire should be thicker. However, an
increase in the thickness of the wire lowers the time of response of the thermocouple to temperature
variations.
Table 6.3: Temperature range of various thermocouple materials

Depending on the range of temperature that thermocouples can measure, they are designated by a
single letter and grouped accordingly:
 Base metals, which can measure up to 1300 °C, are designated as Type K, Type E, Type
T, and Type J.
 Noble metals, which can measure up to a temperature of 1800 °C, is classified as Type R,
Type S, or Type B.

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  Refractory metals, which can measure up to a temperature of 2330 °C, are designated as
Type C, Type D, or Type G.

Different combinations of thermocouple materials should possess the following characteristics in

order to be used for temperature measurement:
1. Capable of producing a reasonable linear temperature–emf relationship
2. Able to generate sufficient thermo-emf per degree temperature change to facilitate
detection and measurement
3. Capable of withstanding persistent high temperatures, rapid temperature variations, and the
effects of corrosive environments
4. Good sensitivity to record even small temperature variations
5. Very good reproducibility, which enables easy replacement of the thermocouple by a
similar one without any need for recalibration
6. Good calibration stability
7. Economical

2.4.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Thermocouple Materials

The following are some distinct advantages that merit the use of thermocouples:
1. Temperature can be measured over a wide range.
2. Thermocouples are self-powered and do not require any auxiliary power source.
3. A quick and good response can be obtained.
4. The readings obtained are consistent and hence are consistently repeatable.
5. Thermocouples are rugged, and can be employed in harsh and corrosive conditions
6. They are inexpensive.
7. They can be installed easily.

However, thermocouples also have certain disadvantages, which are listed as follows:
1. They have low sensitivity when compared to other temperature-measuring devices such as
thermistors and RTDs.
2. Calibration is required because of the presence of some non-linearity.
3. Temperature measurement may be inaccurate due to changes in the reference junction
temperature; hence thermocouples cannot be employed for precise measurements.
4. For enhancing the life of thermocouples, they should be protected against contamination
and have to be chemically inert.

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2.4.3. Thermocouple insulation
The wires that make up the thermocouple must be insulated from each other everywhere, except
at the sensing junction. Any additional electrical contact between the wires, or contact of a wire to
other conductive objects, can modify the voltage and give a false reading of temperature.
 Plastics are suitable insulators for low temperatures parts of a thermocouple
 Ceramic insulation can be used up to around 1000 °C
 Vacuum or inert gas are insulators used for parts of thermocouples at very high
temperatures or in contamination-sensitive applications

Table 6.4: Insulation materials

Max. single Abrasion Moisture Chemical
Type of Insulation
reading resistance resistance resistance
Nextel ceramic fiber 1427 °C/2600 °F Fair Fair Fair
Vitreous-silica braid 1093 °C/2000 °F Fair Poor Poor
"S" glass with binder 871 °C/1600 °F Fair Fair Good
Mica–glass tape 705 °C/1300 °F Good Fair Good
Double glass braid 538 °C/1000 °F Good Good Good
Enamel–glass braid 538 °C/1000 °F Fair Good Good
Double glass wrap 427 °C/800 °F Fair Good Good
Non-impregnated glass braid 427 °C/800 °F Poor Poor Fair
Nylon 130 °C/266 °F Excellent Good Good
Polyvinyl/nylon 120 °C/248 °F Excellent Excellent Good
Polyvinyl 105 °C/221 °F Good Excellent Good
PVC 105 °C/221 °F Good Excellent Good
Double cotton braid 120 °C/248 °F Good Good Poor

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2.5. Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)
An RTD is a temperature sensor that works on the principle that the resistance of electrically
conductive materials is proportional to the temperature to which they are exposed. Resistance of a
metal increases with an increase in temperature. Hence, metals can be classified as per their
positive temperature coefficient (PTC).

 When temperature measurement is performed by a resistance thermometer using metallic

conductors, it is called a resistance temperature detector (RTD);
 When semiconductors are used for temperature measurement they called thermistors.

RTD measures temperature using the principle that the resistance of a metal changes with
temperature. In practice, the RTD element located in proximity to the area where the temperature
is to be measured transmits an electrical current, which is measured by a device. RTDs are more
stable and have more or less linear characteristics over a wide temperature range between 200 and
650°C.

 Many materials are commonly used for making resistance thermometers, such as platinum,
nickel, and copper. However, platinum is the most popular and internationally preferred
material.
 When platinum is employed in RTD elements, they are sometimes termed platinum
resistance thermometers.

The popularity of platinum is due to the following factors:

1. Chemical inertness
2. Almost linear relationship between temperature and resistance
3. Large temperature coefficient of resistance
4. Greater stability over a long period of time

Classifications of RTDs:

1. A partially supported wound element: A small coil of wire inserted into a hole in a ceramic
insulator and attached along one side of that hole
2. Wire-wound RTD: Prepared by winding a platinum or metal wire on a glass or ceramic bobbin
and sealed with a coating on molten glass known as wire-wound RTD elements
3. Thin film RTD: Prepared by depositing or screening a platinum or metal glass slurry film onto
a small flat ceramic substrate called thin film RTD elements

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 Figure 6.5: Wire-wound RTD, General construction of an RTD and Thin film RTD

The temperature-resistance relation of an RTD must be determined experimentally. For most

metals, the result can be accurately represented by the linear approximation to the resistance
variation as:

where, R(T) is the resistance at temperature T, Ro is the resistance at a reference temperature To,
and A is the temperature coefficient of resistance depending on material.

Table 6.5: Typical Properties of Resistance-Thermometer Elements

Advantages of RTDs:
1. The resistance versus temperature linearity characteristics of RTDs are high.
2. They possess greater accuracy (as high as ±0.1 °C)
3. RTDs show high flexibility with respect to the choice of measuring equipment,
interchangeability of elements, and assembly of components

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 4. Multiple resistance elements can be used in an instrument
5. RTDs have a wide working range without any loss of accuracy and, at the same time, can
be employed for small ranges also.

Disadvantages of RTDs:
1. The use of platinum in RTDs makes them more expensive than other temperature sensors.
2. Although its temperature sensitivity is high, it is less than that of thermistors.

2.6. Thermistors
Thermistor is a contraction of term “Thermal Resistor”. They are essentially semiconductors
which behave as indicators with a high negative temperature coefficient. As the temperature
increases, the resistance goes up. This is just opposite to the effect of temperature changes on
metals.

 A high sensitivity to temperature changes (decrease in resistance as much as 6% for each

1°C rise in temperature in some cases) makes the thermistors extremely useful for precision
temperature measurement, control and compensation in the temperature range of -100 to
300°C.
 The thermistors are composed of metal oxides. The most commonly used oxides are those
of manganese, nickel, cobalt, iron, copper and titanium.

Figure 6.6 shows typical temperature-resistance relations for thermistors in relation to that of a
typical RTD.

Figure 6.6: Typical thermistor temperature-resistance relations

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The temperature resistivity and temperature coefficient characteristics are influenced by:

1. Varying the types of oxides used

2. The relative proportions of oxides
3. The sintering atmosphere
4. The sintering temperature

Thermistors are very sensitive to small variations in temperature and respond very quickly. The
relationship between temperature and resistance is given by the following equation:

where, R is the resistance at any temperature T, in K, Ro is the resistance at reference temperature

To, in K, and β is a constant, in K.

Figure 6.7: Various thermistors forms commercially available

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 Table 6.6: representative Metal-Oxide thermistor specifications

The use of thermistors as temperature sensors has several advantages:

1. Thermistors possess very high sensitivity, which is much higher than that of RTDs and
thermocouples, and hence have the capability to detect very small changes in temperature.
2. Their response is very fast, and hence, they are employed for precise control of
temperature.
3. They are inexpensive.

Thermistors also have certain disadvantages:

1. They have highly non-linear resistance temperature characteristics.
2. The temperature range is narrow.
3. Low fragility is often a problem.
4. High-temperature performance of thermistors is not good and they exhibit instability with
time.
5. They are prone to self-heating errors.

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