PRACTICAL INTRODUCTION

NAME-CHESHTA MINOCHA ROLL NO. 21/1309

QUESTION 1. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

ANSWER. The term psychology basically is derived from two Greek

words psyche meaning soul and logos meaning science or study of a

subject. In short, the most basic definition of psychology is that it is

the study of soul and mind. But in today’s time it is considered as a

scientific discipline which deals with processes underlying human

experience and behaviour. The definition of psychology comprises

three main terms mainly- behaviour, mental processes and

experience.

Behaviour-it refers to the Reponses or our actions to any external

stimuli. Behaviour can be overt (external/that can be seen) or covert

(internal) for e.g., pounding of heart during examination or blinking

of eyes after seeing a hurdle

Experiences- according to psychologists these are subjective in

nature we cannot directly see or measure anyone’s experience as

they are embedded in our consciousness.

Moreover, mental processes such as remembering, learning,

knowing, perceiving feeling are the interest of psychologists. They

study these processes to understand how the mind works.

(REF.- NCERT CLASS 11, PSYCHOLOGY INDIAN SUBCONTINENT

EDITION ROBERT A. BARON, GIRISHWAR MISHRA)

QUESTION 2- WHAT ARE DEFINNATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY?

1)Psychology is the Science of Mind:

• In 1892 William James defined psychology as the ‘science of

mental processes. • In his view, psychology may be defined in terms

of conscious states.

2) Psychology is the Science of Consciousness: • In 1884 James

Sully defined psychology as the science of the ‘inner world’ as

distinguished from physical science which study the physical

phenomena. • In 1892 Wilhelm Wundt defined psychology as the

science which studies the ‘internal experiences.

3) Psychology is the Science of Behaviour: • In 1905 William

McDougall defined psychology as the ‘science of behaviour’.

• In 1911 W. B. Pillsbury also defined psychology as the ‘science of

behaviour’.

4) • J. B. Watson, however, discarded the concepts of the ‘mind’,

‘consciousness’, ‘purpose’ and the like from psychological use, and

defined psychology as ‘the science of behaviour’.

5) Psychology is the Science of the Experience and Behaviour of the

Individual in Relation to his Environment:

• K. Kafka holds that even though the concept of ‘consciousness’

cannot be completely discarded from psychological vocabulary the

main aim of psychology is the study of behaviour.

• R. S. Woodworth defines psychology as the “science of activities

of the individual.”
QUESTION 3. EXPLAIN THE NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY AS A

SCIENCE AND SOCIAL SCIENCE?

ANSWER- PSYCHOLOGY AS SCIENCE

(I) Modern Psychology has developed because of the application of

the scientific method to study, psychological phenomenon. (ii) As a

physical science, it emphasizes on data that is systematic and can

be studied under controlled conditions. (iii) It is quantitative and

requires analysis. (iv) It takes influences from both physics and

biology and believes in the Hypothetic Deductive Model (HDM). (v)

Every or any hypothesis can be accepted or rejected on the basis of

factors available. The model suggests that scientific advancement

can take place if you have a theory to explain a phenomenon. (vi) A

hypothesis is a tentative solution to a problem that helps in guiding

research or a theory. (vii) Hypothesis has been successfully used for

determining many theories related to learning and memory. For

example, the way a child has been brought up in his family will

shape his personality.

PSYCHOLOGY AS A SOCIAL SCIENCE

1) Psychology is recognised more as a social science as it studies

human behaviour in their socio-cultural contexts.
2) Psychology as a social science considers human beings as
social beings as humans are not only influenced by their socio-
cultural contexts but also creates and shapes it as well.
3) Thus, psychology as a social science focuses on individuals
and communities in relation to their physical and socio-cultural
environment.

REF.- NCERT CLASS 11 AND Ciccarelli-White Textbook Psychology_4th_Edition

QUESTION 4) WHAT ARE THE GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY?

ANSWER- THE GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY ARE

1. Description: • Describing things is something we do every

single day with no conscious thought or effort. But describing
in psychology has a slightly different meaning than the
describing we do in our everyday life. • Describing a problem,
an issue, or behaviour is the first goal of psychology. •
Descriptions help psychologists to distinguish between normal
and abnormal behaviour and gain a more accurate
understanding and perspective on human and animal
behaviour, actions, and thoughts.
2. Explanation: • Psychologists are very interested in being able
to explain behaviour rather than just being able to describe it.
• This helps in providing answers to questions about why
people react in a certain way, why they do the things they do
and the factors which affect their personality, their mental
health, their actions, etc.
3. Prediction- • Making predictions about how we think, and act
is the third goal of psychology. By looking at past observed
behaviour (describing and explaining) psychologists aim to
predict how that behaviour will appear again in the future and
whether other people might exhibit the same behaviour. •
Through the process of describing an explanation,
psychologists are able to understand more about what
thoughts, feelings, and behaviours are contributing factors. •
They can then use that knowledge to predict why, when, and
how those things might happen in the future.
4. Change/Control: • Psychology aims to change, influence, or
control behaviour to make positive, constructive, meaningful,
and lasting changes in people's lives and to influence their
behaviour for the better. This is the final and most important
goal of psychology
5. Application- This is the final goal of psychological research
which aims at bringing out positive changes in the lives of
people. Foe e.g., application of yoga or meditation helps to
make the body flexible and also increases its efficiency and
helps in reducing stress.
REF.- NCERT CLASS 11 AND Ciccarelli-White Textbook Psychology_4th_Edition
QUESTION.5. WHAT IS THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF
EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY IN INDIA?

ANSWER. In India psychology was first established in Calcutta

university under the department of philosophy in the year 1916. The
separate departments of psychology in India were established
between 1940-1960. Rajendra Nath drafted the first syllabus for
experimental psychology and a laboratory was also set up in 1905
for demonstration purposes in 1905 and after the long wait of 11
years it was upgraded as the first official PSYCHOLOGY
DEPARTMENT FOR EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY. An Indian
student (DR. NARENDRA NATH SEN GUPTA) of WILLIAM WUNDT
was the chairperson of the department. The Indian psychological
association was founded in 1924. After the Calcutta department,
other departments were established soon in Mysore and Patna. In
1956, UGC was set up its main responsibility was to provide funds
to various universities to set up psychology departments, as a result
of which there were about 32 departments in psychology by the end
of 1960. Soon after psychology was a trendsetter as it was being
offered in the colleges of engineering and agricultural courses.
Centres such as NCERT, NIPCCD started applied research in
different fields of psychology. Currently there are about 15000
psychologists in India as a result the subject and its significance
has been changes remarkably over the period of time.

References: Dalai, A. K. (2011). A journey back to the roots: Psychology in India.

Foundations of Indian Psychology Volume 1: Theories and Concepts, 27. 2) Jain, A. K.
(2005). Psychology in India. The Psychologist, 18(4), 206-208.
Mishra, G., & Paranjape, E. A. C. (2012). Psychology in modern India. InEncyclopedia of the
history of psychological theories (pp. 881-892). Springer US.
Singh, A. K. (1991). The comprehensive history of psychology. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.

QUESTION 6. DEFINE VARIABLES AND TYPES OF VARIABLES

ANSWER. VARIABLES.

A variable is something that can be changed or altered, FOR

EXAMPLE any characteristic or value. Any stimulus or event which
varies, that is, it takes on different values (or changes) and can be
measured is a variable. An object by itself is not a variable. But its
attributes are for example the pencil I am using for writing is not a
variable but verities of pencil available in different shapes, sizes,
colours are variables. Intelligence is a variable (there are people
with varying levels of intelligence (high, moderate, low)

There are different types of variables

INDEPENDENT- Independent variable is that variable which is

manipulated or altered or its strength varied by the researcher in
the experiment. It is the effect of this change in the variable which
the researcher wants to observe or note in the study. In the
experiment conducted by Latane and Darley the researchers
wanted to examine the effect of the presence of other persons on
reporting of the smoke. The independent variable was presence or
absence of other persons in the room.

DEPENDENT- The variables on which the effect of independent

variable is observed is called dependent variable. Dependent
variable represents the PHENOMENON the researcher wants to
explain. For e.g., in case of LATANE AND DARLEY experiment
frequency of reporting of smoke in the room was the dependent
variable.

EXTRANEOUS/CONFOUNDING – These are the variables which have an

impact on the relationship between the independent and dependent
variables and the variables which are not of the interest of the
researcher for e.g., sound in the above experiment are extraneous
variables which are controlled or manipulated by the researcher.

CONTROLLED- In many cases, extraneous variables are controlled

for by the experimenter. A controlled variable is one that is held
constant throughout an experiment.
REF.- NCERT CLASS 11 AND Ciccarelli-White Textbook Psychology_4th_Edition, PSYCHOLOGY
INDIAN SUBCONTINENT EDITION ROBERT A. BARON, GIRISHWAR MISHRA)

QUESTION 7. DEFINE EXPERIMENTAL GROUP.

ANSWER. EXPERIMENTAL GROUP- It is a group in which members of

the group are exposed to independent variable manipulation.
example, in the study by Latane and Darley, there were two
experimental groups and one control group. An experimental
group is the group that receives the variable being tested in an
experiment. The control group is the group in an experiment that
does not receive the variable you are testing. For your experiment,
the bag of popcorn that remained stored in the cabinet is the
control group. The only difference in the two groups is where the
popcorn is stored. This means that storing the popcorn in the
refrigerator is the variable, the condition that is allowed to change.

REF.-CLASS 11 NCERT, Statistical Reasoning in The Behavioural

Sciences Bruce M. King, Patrick J. Rosopa, Edward W. Minium

QUESTION 8. WHAT IS A CONTROLLED GROUP?

CONTROLLED- The control group is a comparison group that is

treated in every way like the experimental group except that the
manipulated variable is absent in it. FOR E.G. Imagine that a
researcher is interested in determining how distractions during an
exam influence test results. The researcher might begin by
operationally defining what they mean by distractions as well as
forming a hypothesis. In this case, he might define distractions as
changes in room temperature and noise levels. His hypothesis might
be that students in a slightly warmer and noisier room will perform
more poorly than students in a room that is normal in terms of both
temperature and noise. To test his hypothesis, the researcher
selects a pool of participants who are all taking the same college
math class. All students have been given the same instruction and
resources over the course of the semester. He then randomly
assigns participants to either the control group or the experimental
group.

Students in the control group take a math exam in their normal

classroom. The room is quiet for the duration of the test and the
room temperature is set as a comfortable 70 degrees Fahrenheit. In
the experimental group, students take the exact same test in the
exact same classroom, but this time the independent variables are
manipulated by the experimenter. A series of loud, banging noises
are produced in the classroom next door, creating the impression
that some type of construction work is taking place. At the same
time, the thermostat is kicked up to a balmy 80 degrees Fahrenheit.
As you can see, the procedures and materials used in both the
control and experimental group are the same.

The researcher has used the same room, same test administration
procedures, and the same test in both groups. The only thing that
differs is the amount of distraction created by noise levels and room
temperature in the experimental group.

After the experiment is complete, the researcher can then look at

the test results and start making comparisons between the control
group and the experimental group. What he discovers is that the
test scores on the math exam were significantly lower in the
experimental group than they were in the control group. The results
support his hypothesis that distractions such as excess noise and
temperature can affect test scores.

. -CLASS 11 NCERT, Statistical Reasoning in The Behavioural

Sciences Bruce M. King, Patrick J. Rosopa, Edward W. Minium

QUESTION 9. WHAT IS RANDOM ASSIGNMENT?

RANDOM ASSIGNMENT- It refers to equal chance opportunities in

psychological research. It ensures that each participant has a fair
and equal chance of being assigned in a group. Random assignment
of participants to different groups eliminates any potential
systematic differences between groups.

REF.-CLASS 11 NCERT, Statistical Reasoning in The Behavioural

Sciences Bruce M. King, Patrick J. Rosopa, Edward W. Minium

QUESTION 10. WHAT ARE TYPES OF EXPERIMENT?

ANSWER.1) LABORATORY EXPERIMENT- It is the type of experiment

conducted under highly controlled settings. The researcher takes
various kinds of decisions such as- where the experiment will take
place, at what time, with which participants, in what circumstances
and using a standardized procedure. Participants are allocated
randomly to various independent variables. Few examples of
laboratory experiments are- Milgram’s experiment on
obedience or Loftus and Palmer's car crash study.
2) FIELD EXPERIMENT- Field experiments are done in real life
environmental settings of the participants. In this type of
experiment the researcher is able to manipulate the independent
variable in real life settings only but cannot eliminate or manipulate
the extraneous variable. An example is Hofling’s hospital study on
obedience.

3) EXPLORATORY EXPERIMENT- Exploratory research is defined as

research used to investigate a problem which is not clearly defined.
It is conducted to have a better understanding of the existing
problem, but will not provide conclusive results. It gives an
indication to relationship among variables to be used in more
definitive experiment.

4) CONFIRMATORY EXPERIMENT-It is the Hypothesis testing where

researchers have a pretty good idea of what's going on. That is,
researcher has a theory (or several theories), and the objective is to
find out if the theory is supported by the facts.

REF.- CLASS 11 NCERT, McLeod, S. A. (2012, January

14). Experimental method. Simply Psychology.
www.simplypsychology.org/experimental-method.html

QUESTION 11. WHAT ARE STEPS OF EXPERIMENT?

ANSWER. 1) PERCIEVING A QUESTION- The first step in our

psychology experiment is to come up with a research question or
problem. For example, many people believe that staying up all night
to cram for a big exam can actually hurt test performance.

2) FORMING THE HYPOTHESIS- The next step in conducting the

psychology experiment is to develop a testable hypothesis. In the
above example, the hypothesis might be: "Students who are sleep-
deprived will perform worse than students who are not sleep-
deprived on a test performance."

3) TESTING THE HYPOTHESIS- The next step is testing the

hypothesis using an experimental design or this can be done by
doing a survey in which questions can be asked to the group of
participants or detailed observations can be made. FOR EXAMPLE-
we can design an experiment in which we can select a group of
students who are sleep deprived and on the other hand a group of
students with proper sleep pattern and we can measure their
performance in some way or the other.

4) DRAWING CONCLUSIONS- once the hypothesis testing is done,

we can either reject or select the hypothesis. Drawing conclusions,
is related to the goal of prediction which decides whether the
formulated hypothesis is supported or not.

5) REPORT YOUR RESULTS- Final task in conducting a

psychological experiment is to communicate the result with the
community. In the above case we can share the results in form of
formal write up of experiment in the format of lab report.
REF.- NCERT CLASS 11 AND Ciccarelli-White Textbook Psychology_4th_Edition

QUESTION 12) WHAT IS HYPOTHESIS?

ANSWER. Hypothesis is basically a tentative answer or an

intelligent guess which is defined as the formal statement of the
tentative or expected prediction or explanation of the relationship
between two or more variables in an experiment.
- A hypothesis helps to translate the research problem and
objective into a clear explanation or prediction of the expected
results or outcomes of the study.
REF.- NCERT CLASS 11, Garg, Gaurav Kothari, Research methodology methods and
techniques-New Age PUB.

QUESTION 13) WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF HYPOTHESES?

ANSWER. DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS - The hypothesis which

stipulates the direction of the expected differences or relationship.
Directional hypothesis is a statement of conjuncture where the two
variables of the study are expressed as having some relationship in a
certain direction. Example; There will be a positive relationship
between extra coaching and academic achievement.

NON-DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS - A research hypothesis which does

not specify the direction of expected difference or relationships is a
non-directional research hypothesis. In this case the difference can
be in any direction. Example; There will be a difference in adaptability
of fathers and mothers towards rearing of their children.
NULL HYPOTHESIS -The null hypothesis is the negative statement. It
states that no significant difference exists between the variables
concerned. Null Hypothesis can be tested statistically. So, it is
termed as statistical hypothesis. When declarative hypothesis tested
statistically by converting them to null form, they are also called
testing hypothesis.

EMPIRICAL HYPOTHESIS- Empirical which means it is based on

evidence. In scientific method the word "empirical" refers to the use
of working hypothesis that can be tested using observation and
experiment. Empirical data is produced by experiment and
observation.

QUESTION FORM OF HYPOTHESIS - It Is the simplest form of

empirical hypothesis. In simple case of investigation and research
are adequately implemented by resuming a question.

ALTERNATE HYPOTHESIS- The alternative hypothesis, denoted by

H1 or Ha, Is the hypothesis that sample observations are influenced
by some non-random cause.

STATISTICAL HYPOTHESIS- A hypothesis which can be verified

statistically called statistical hypothesis. The statement would be
logical or illogical but if statistic verifies it, it will be statistical
hypothesis.
REF.- John w for research methodology
Research methodology methods and techniques –Dr Kapoor, Ms
pooja Sehgal.

QUESTION 14) EXPLAIN EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN.

ANSWER- An experimental research design is a research design that

helps in measuring the influence of the independent variable on the
dependent variable Experimental research design is research
performed with a scientific approach with the help of the two sets of
variables in which first one is constant and the other one is not. The
first set is determined as a constant, which you use to calculate the
differences of the second set. It is necessary to determine the facts
if there is none availability of sufficient data to support the respective
decision. Experimental research collects the necessary data to
enable the researcher to think wisely and make the optimum
decisions. Any research performed under scientifically acceptable
conditions makes use of experimental methods. The success of
experimental studies relies on the researchers confirming the
variations of a variable which is simply based on the directions of the
constant variable. The research should determine a significant cause
and effect. For example-
1. Evaluation of exams after the end of the semester
2. Evaluation of employee’s skill in organization
3. Evaluation of teaching methods of different teachers by the
schools
REF.-- Garg, Gaurav Kothari, Research methodology methods and techniques-New
Age PUB.,
- John w for research methodology
Research methodology methods and techniques –Dr Kapoor, Ms
pooja Sehgal.

QUESTION 15. EXPLAIN PRE-TEST ANS POST TEST CONDITIONS.

ANSWER. Pre-test and post-test are a design of experiment in which

measurements are done on the participants before and after
administering the experiment or test. It may or may not include the
control group. FOR EXAMPLE-All students in a certain class take a
pre-test. The teacher then uses a certain teaching technique for one
week and administers a post-test of similar difficulty. She then
analyses the differences between the pre-test and post-test scores
to see if the teaching technique had a significant effect on scores.

QUESTION 16. EXPLAIN QUASI EXPERIMENT.

ANSWER. Quasi experimental research design involves the

manipulation of independent variable to observe the effect on
dependent variable. The study unlike true experimental study lacks
at least one of the three cardinal characteristics (Randomization,
Control)
Quasi experimental designs have an element of manipulation. •
Quasi experimental designs are generally used to establish the
causality (effect of independent variable on dependent variable) in
situations where researchers are not able to randomly assign the
subjects to groups for various reasons.
Quasi experimental design is more suitable for real natural world
setting than true experimental designs. This design allows the
researchers to evaluate the impact of quasi-independent variables
under naturally occurring conditions. In some cases, hypotheses are
practically answered through this design.

REF.- NCERT CLASS 11

QUESTION 17. EXPLAIN EX POST FACTO RESEARCH.

ANSWER. ex-post facto research can be defined as an empirically

based investigation which does not involve the researchers’ direct
control over the independent variables because they have already
led to effects which can no Ex-Post Facto Research more be
manipulated. The conclusions regarding the relationship between
the variables are inferred without intervening or varying the
independent or dependent variable. The term ex-post facto
according to Landman (1988) is used to refer to an experiment in
which a researcher, instead of finding a treatment, examines the
effect of a naturally occurring treatment after it has occurred. In
other words, it is a study that attempts to discover the pre-existing
causal conditions between groups. It should, however, be pointed
out that the most serious danger of ex-post facto research is the
conclusion that because two factors go together, one is the cause
and the other is the effect. For example, if a child is delinquent (that
is, one who indulges in criminal activities), then in order to find the
basic reason behind such delinquency, the researcher would try to
find out the various events that have occurred and the many
possibilities that could have contributed to the concerned
delinquent behaviour. The expected possibilities may be lack of
discipline at school/ family history/ peer effect/ neighbourhood or
socialisation.

REF.- Landman, WA (1988) Navorsingsmetodologiese Grond

begrippe. Pretoria: Serva.
QUESTION 18. ETHICS IN EXPERIMENT/RESEARCH.

ANSWER. *INSTITUTIONAL APPROVAL- When institutional approval is

required, psychologists provide accurate information about their research
proposals and obtain approval prior to conducting the research. They
conduct the research in accordance with the approved research protocol.

*INFORMED CONSENT TO RESEARCH-(a) When obtaining informed

consent as required Informed Consent, psychologists inform participants
about (1) the purpose of the research, expected duration, and procedures;
(2) their right to decline to participate and to withdraw from the research
once participation has begun; (3) the foreseeable consequences of
declining or withdrawing; (4) reasonably foreseeable factors that may be
expected to influence their willingness to participate such as potential
risks, discomfort, or adverse effects; (5) any prospective research
benefits; (6) limits of confidentiality; (7) incentives for participation; and
(8) whom to contact for questions about the research and research
participants' rights. They provide opportunity for the prospective
participants to ask questions and receive answers.

*DEBRIEFING-- a) Psychologists provide a prompt opportunity for

participants to obtain appropriate information about the nature, results, and
conclusions of the research, and they take reasonable steps to correct any
misconceptions that participants may have of which the psychologists are
aware. (b) If scientific or humane values justify delaying or withholding this
information, psychologists take reasonable measures to reduce the risk of
harm. (c) When psychologists become aware that research procedures have
harmed a participant, they take reasonable steps to minimize the harm.

*HUMAN CARE AND USE OF ANIMALS- (a) Psychologists acquire,

care for, use, and dispose of animals in compliance with current
federal, state, and local laws and regulations, and with professional
standards. (b) Psychologists trained in research methods and
experienced in the care of laboratory animals supervise all
procedures involving animals and are responsible for ensuring
appropriate consideration of their comfort, health, and humane
treatment. (c) Psychologists ensure that all individuals under their
supervision who are using animals have received instruction in
research methods and in the care, maintenance, and handling of the
species being used, to the extent appropriate to their role. (d)
Psychologists make reasonable efforts to minimize the discomfort,
infection, illness, and pain of animal subjects. (e) Psychologists use
a procedure subjecting animal to pain, stress, or privation only when
an alternative procedure is unavailable and the goal is justified by its
prospective scientific, educational, or applied value. (f) Psychologists
perform surgical procedures under appropriate anaesthesia and
follow techniques to avoid infection and minimize pain during and
after surgery. (g) When it is appropriate that an animal's life be
terminated, psychologists proceed rapidly, with an effort to minimize
pain and in accordance with accepted procedures.

*REPORTING RESARCH RESULTS- (a) Psychologists do not fabricate

data (b) If psychologists discover significant errors in their published
data, they take reasonable steps to correct such errors in a
correction, retraction, erratum, or other appropriate publication
means.

*PLAGIARISM- Psychologists do not present portions of another's

work or data as their own, even if the other work or data source is
cited occasionally.

REFERENCE- APA Ethical Guidelines for Research.

QUESTION 19. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF EXPERIMENTAL

METHOD.

ANSWER.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
1.It provides researchers with a high 1. Results are highly subjective due
level of control to the possibility of human error.
2.There is no limit to the subject 2. Experimental research can create
matter or industry involved situations that are not realistic.
3.Experimental research provides 3. It is a time-consuming process.
conclusions that are specific.
4. The results of experimental 4. There may be ethical or practical
research can be duplicated. problems with variable control.
5. Natural settings can be replicated 5. Experimental research does not
with faster speeds. provide an actual explanation.
6. Experimental research allows 6. Extraneous variables cannot
cause and effect to be determined. always be controlled.
7. It can be combined with other 7. Participants can be influenced by
research methods. their current situation.
8. Effect of extraneous variables 8. It is difficult to establish
can be controlled effectively. comparable control and
experimental group
9. Cause effect can be maintained 9. Experiment is often difficult to
better. design as it tends to be
expensive and time consuming.

QUESTION 20. LIMITATIONS OF EXPERIMENT METHOD.

ANSWER.

1. Artificiality: The experiment is not typical of real-life

situations. Most experiments are conducted in laboratories -
strange and contrived environments in which people are
asked to perform unusual or even bizarre tasks. The
artificiality of the lab, together with the 'unnatural' things that
the subjects may be asked to do, jointly produces a distortion
of behaviour. Therefore, it should be difficult to generalise
findings from experiments because they are not ecologically
valid (true to real life).

2. Behaviour in the laboratory is very narrow in its range. By

controlling the situation so precisely, behaviour may be very
limited.

3. A major difficulty with the experimental method is demand

characteristics. Some of the many confounding variables in
a psychology experiment stem from the fact that a
psychology experiment is a social situation in which neither
the Subjects or the Experimenters are passive, inanimate
objects but are active, thinking human beings. Imagine
you’ve been asked to take part in a psychology
experiment. Even if you didn’t study psychology, you would
be trying to work out what the experimenter expected to find
out. Experimenters too have expectations about what their
results are likely to be. Demand characteristics are all the
cues which convey to the participant the purpose of the
experiment.

4. The experimental method as used in psychology has a

history of using biased or unrepresentative sampling. George
Miller (1962) estimated that 90% of U.S. experiments have
used college students (who are accessible and 'cheap') and
yet the results still tend to be generalised to the U.S.
population as a whole, and often beyond that to Britain,
Western Europe, etc. But there is no reason to believe that
U.S. college students are typical of any other group in terms
of gender, age, personality, social class background or any
other subject variable which can influence how subjects will
perform in any experimental situation. What's more, these
students are often psychology students who are required to
participate in research as a course requirement!

5. It has already been noted that a strength of the

experimental method is the amount of control which
experimenters have over variables. However, it must also be
noted that it is not possible to completely control all
variables. There may be other variables at work which the
experimenter is unaware of. In particular, it is impossible to
completely control the mental world of people taking part in
a study.

6.A very major problem with the experimental method

concerns ethics. For example, experiments nearly always
involve deceiving participants to some extent and the very
term 'subject' implies that the participant is being treated as
something less than a person. Recently the use of the
experimental method has come under considerable criticism
for the way that researchers often break ethical
guidelines. It is also important to recognise that there are
very many areas of human life which cannot be studied using
the experimental method because it would be simply too
unethical to do so.

7. Another issue is to do with normative data. Some

researchers consider that an important advantage which
experiments have over, say, observational techniques is the
random assignment of research participants to experimental
conditions. This helps to reduce the problems of analysis
caused by systematic differences between people. Other
psychologists, however, argue that grouping people together
in this way, and trying to cancel out individual differences so
that we only look at a group norm, is limited in how much it
can tell us because it ignores what is special about people.

QUESTION 21. SCOPE OF EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY.

ANSWER. The scope of Experimental Psychology is widening with

the invention of new tools and instruments for experiments.
Therefore, it is in the fitness of things that experimental psychology
constitutes compulsory part of courses of psychology for the under-
graduate and post-graduate students in universities everywhere in
the world. Experimental Psychology studies external behaviour as
well as the internal processes of the different stages of human
development. Only those phenomena fall outside its field which
cannot be studied in controlled situations. The most important
areas covered by experimental psychology include psycho-physics,
animal psychology, learning psychology, psychology of individual
differences, child psychology, educational psychology, clinical
psychology and industrial psychology etc. Due to the development
of experimental psychology, other branches of psychology have
managed to also develop their breadth of knowledge.

REF.- NCERT CLASS 11 AND, PSYCHOLOGY INDIAN SUBCONTINENT EDITION ROBERT A. BARON,
GIRISHWAR MISHRA)

QUESTION 22. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EXPERIMENT AND TEST.

ANSWER.

EXPERIMENT TEST
An experiment refers to an A test or a psychological test
investigation in which the used by a psychologist or a
validity of a hypothesis is tested counsellor in order to
in a scientific manner. comprehend the psychological
makeup of an individual.
Most experiments require There are no hypotheses.
hypotheses.
Experiments lead to new Tests do not produce new
knowledge. knowledge but can be used to
assist people and also to
support experiments.
Experiments can go beyond a Tests centre on the individual’s
single individual. psychological construct.

QUESTION 23. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SUBJECT AND

PARTICIPANT.

ANSWER.

SUBJECT PARTICIPANT
Subjects: are the people in the Participants: participate and
researcher's experiment - usually answer questions in qualitative
quantitative research. (Example: studies (e.g. interviews and focus
in a medical experiment the groups). Because qualitative
control group of 10 subjects did studies are more in-depth than
not receive the medicine, while quantitative, the participant in
the experimental group of 10 qualitative studies contributes
subjects received the medicine.) more (is more active) than
Subjects is a term used more in respondents to a survey or
science. Subjects is generally a subjects in an experiment. The
more passive term (Example: Ten participant generally gives much
subjects were given the behaviour more detailed answers than a
therapy.) respondent would in a survey