INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY 1. Description: What is happening?

- Involves observing a behavior and noting

CHAPTER I: THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY everything about it.

Psychology - derived from two Greek words: 2. Explanation: Why is it happening?

“psyche” meaning "breath, spirit, soul" and - Finding explanations for behavior is a very
“logia” meaning “study of” or “research”. important step in the process of forming theories
of behavior.
Psychology - is the scientific study of behavior
and mental processes. 3. Prediction: When will it happen again?
- Determining what will happen in the future.
Scientific - to study behavior and mental
processes in both animals and humans, 4. Control: How can it be changed?
researchers must observe them. - The modification of some behavior is to
change a behavior from an undesirable one to
Behavior - includes all of our outward or overt a desirable one.
(obvious) actions and reactions such as talking,
facial expressions, and movement. What Psychologists do?
- Psychologist engage in research
Mental Processes - refers to all the internal,
covert (hidden) activity of our minds such as Two Types of Research that Psychologist
thinking, feeling, and remembering. Consider:
1. Basic/Pure Research
Biases - personal judgments based on beliefs - is undertaken when the researcher is interested
rather than facts. in the research topic.
- It has no immediate application to personal or
**Psychologists don’t want to let these biases social problems and has therefore been
cause them to make faulty observations. characterized as research for its own sake.
- it enhances tomorrow’s way of life.
Scientific Method - is used by psychologists to
study psychology in order to be precise, and to 2. Applied Research
measure as carefully as possible. - It is designed to find solutions to specific
personal or social problems
- It is used in business, medicine, and education
PSYCHOLOGY’S GOALS in order to find solutions that may cure diseases,
solve scientific problems, or develop
Specifically aimed at uncovering the mysteries technology.
of human and animal behavior which include:
 FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY 2. User-experience Researcher/Designer - using
psychological research techniques, they create
A. Academic Psychologists website and programs that are indispensable,
1. Social Psychologist - are interested in how engaging and intuitive.
people behave when they are together.
3. Human Factors Psychologist - most commonly
2. School Psychologist - help school systems working in the transportation industry, they
identify and assist students who have problems improve the design of signs, controls and
that interfere with learning. interfaces to improve safety on the roads and in
the air.
3. Educational Psychologist - research
theoretical issues related to learning 4. Sports Psychologist - help people improve
measurements and child development. their performances in sports.

4. Developmental Psychologist - study the 5. Consumer Psychologist - study the behavior

changes (physical, cognitive, social, and of shoppers in an effort to predict and influence
emotional) that occur throughout the life span. their behavior.

B. Medical Psychologists 6. Forensic Psychologist - apply principles of

1. Clinical Psychologist - help people with psychology to the criminal justice system.
psychological disorder adjust to the demands
of life.
HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY
2. Clinical Neuropsychologist - using therapy,
they help people who have suffered from brain 2000 years ago - Philosophers such as Plato,
disease or injuries regain the abilities they lost as Aristotle, and Descartes tried to understand or
a result of this brain damage. explain the human mind and its connection to
the physical body.
3. Counseling Psychologist - using specific
counseling methods, they help people cope 400 BCE - Democritus suggested that we could
with and overcome challenges in their lives, think of behavior in terms of a body and mind.
such as bereavement or relationship issues.
1879 - Wilhelm Wundt, considered as the “father
4. Health Psychologist - study the effects of stress of modern psychology”, a physiologist,
on health problems such as headaches, attempted to apply scientific principles to the
cardiovascular disease, and career. study of the human mind.

C. Applied Psychologists **Objective Introspection - the process of

1. Industrial/Organizational Psychologist - they objectively examining and measuring one’s
work in the business world and help make own thoughts and mental activities
people more efficient and happier at their jobs.
1894 - Margaret F. Washburn became famous  Introspection - careful self-examination
for becoming the first woman to receive a Ph.D. and reporting of one’s conscious
in psychology experiences.

**However in the same year, Mary Whiton 2. Functionalism by William James

Calkins, who completed every course and - This focused on behavior in addition to mind
requirement for earning a Ph.D. but was denied and consciousness
that degree by Harvard University because she - It was directed observations to supplement
was a woman and a guest speaker/student introspection
only.
3. Gestalt Psychology by Max Wertheimer
1920 - Francis Cecil Sumner became the first - German word “gestalt” can be roughly
African-American psychologist. translated as “unitary form” or “pattern”
- The school of psychology that studies the ways
1925 - Agustin Alonzo was the first Filipino in which the brain organizes and structures our
psychologist. perceptions of the world.
- The whole is greater than the sum of its parts
1940 - Hispanic psychologist George (Jorge) - This emphasized the tendency to organize
Sanchez conducted research in the area of perceptions into wholes, and to integrate
intelligence testing, focusing on the cultural separate stimuli into meaningful patterns
biases in such tests - Need to put details into a bigger picture

 Nature of Perception - the process by

which we organize our sense impressions
MAJOR SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY and form meaningful representations of
the world around us.
The different schools of psychology represent  Gestalt Psychologists believe the brain
the major theories within psychology. organizes our perceptions of the world by
grouping elements together into unified or
1. Structuralism by Wilhelm Wundt organized wholes rather than as individual
- The school of psychology that attempts to bits and pieces of sense experience.
understand the structure of the mind by
breaking it down into its component pairs. 4. Psychoanalysis by Sigmund Freud
- It breaks conscious experiences into: - It emphasized the importance of unconscious
a. Objective sensations (sight, taste) motives and conflict as determinants of human
b. Subjective feelings (emotional responses, behavior.
will) - It proposes that much of our lives is governed
c. Mental images (memories, dreams) by unconscious ideas and impulses the
originate in childhood conflict.
5. Behaviorism by John Broadus Watson 3. Humanistic Perspective (a.k.a. Humanistic
- This focuses on learning observable behavior Existentialist Perspective)
and relationships between stimuli and response. - Often called as the “third force” in psychology.
 Ivan Pavlov - made the Conditioned - Humanism was really reaction in both
Response Experiment wherein it also psychoanalytic theory and behaviorism.
studies unrelated stimulus. - Carl Roger and Abraham Maslow were the
 B.F. Skinner - used reinforcement as a earliest and most famous founder of this view.
stimulus that follows a response and
increases the frequency of the response. 4. Cognitive Perspective
- It has something to do with mental processes
such as sensations and perceptions, memory,
PSYCHOLOGY NOW: MODERN PERSPECTIVE intelligence, language, thought, and problem
solving.
1. Psychodynamic Perspective - The cognitive tradition has roots, in Socrates’
- In the 1940’s and 1950’s, psychodynamic advice “Know thyself”.
theory dominated the practice of
psychotherapy and are influential in scientific 5. Sociocultural Perspective
psychology and the arts - It combines two areas of study: social
- The focus may still include the unconscious psychology and cultural psychology.
mind and its influence over conscious behavior - It is a view that focuses on the roles of ethnicity,
and on early childhood experiences gender, culture, and socioeconomic status in
 Neo-analysists or Neo-Freudians - are behavior and mental processes.
contemporary psychologists who follow  Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1978)
theories derived from Freud. also used sociocultural concepts in
 Karen Horney and Erik Erikson focused forming his sociocultural theory of
lesson in unconscious processes and more children’s cognitive development.
on conscious choice and self-esteem.
6. Biopsychological Perspective (a.k.a.
2. Behavioral Perspective Biological Perspective)
- Behaviorism is still also very influential - It seeks the relationship between the brain
- This perspective focuses more on learning and hormones, heredity and evolution on the one
behavior. It described and explained in terms of hand, and behavior and mental processes on
stimulus-response relationship. the other.
 Operant Conditioning - to explain how  Biologically oriented psychologists also
voluntary behavior is learned. study the role of heredity in behavior and
 In this theory, behavioral responses that mental processes such as psychological
are followed by pleasurable disorders, criminal behavior and thinking.
consequences are strengthened, or
reinforced.
7. Evolutionary Perspective mirrors, or they might actually become
- It focuses on the biological bases for universal participants in a group.
mental characteristics that all humans share  Observer Bias - happens when the
such as traits and fear. person doing the observing has a
- This approach may also overlap with particular opinion about what he or she
biopsychology and the sociocultural expects to see.
perspective.
- This perspective is designed by the same 2. Laboratory Observation - observe people or
process of natural selection that of Charles animals in laboratory setting.
Darwin
3. Case Studies - individual is studied in greater
detail; researchers try to learn everything they
PSYCHOLOGY: THE SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY can about the individual.

Scientific Method - a system for reducing bias 4. Surveys - ask questions about topic
and error in the measurement of data. researchers are studying via telephone,
internet, or a questionnaire
The five steps of the scientific method is a way
to accomplish the goals of psychology:
1. Perceiving the Question (GOP: Description) SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
2. Forming a Hypothesis (GOP: Explanation)
3. Testing the Hypothesis Sample - is the subset of the population
 Methodologies, surveys, questionnaire, (representative sample).
interviews, observation, experiment
4. Drawing Conclusion (GOP: Prediction) Two Major Types of Sampling Techniques:
5. Report Your Results (GOP: Control) 1. Probability Sampling - uses randomization to
 Recommendation make sure that every element of the population
 Limitation gets an equal chance to be part of the
 Replication selected sample.
 Simple Random Sampling - a sample
drawn so that each member of a
DESCRIPTIVE METHODS population has an equal chance at being
selected to participate.
1. Naturalistic Observation - observe people or  Stratified Random Sampling - a sample
animals in natural environment. drawn so that identified subgroups in the
 Observer Effect - animals or people who population are represented proportionally
know they are being watched will not in the sample.
behave normally.
 Participant Observation - a technique in 2. Non-Probability Sampling - it does not rely on
which researchers might use one-way randomization and is more reliant on the
researcher’s ability to select elements for a 2. Negative Correlation - if there is an increase
sample. in one variable, the second variable will show a
 Convenience Sampling - the samples are decrease and vice versa.
selected based on the availability.
 Purposive Sampling - this is based at the 3. No Correlation - this means a change in one
intention or purpose of study. Only these variable may not necessarily see a change in
elements will be selected from the the other variable.
population which suits the best for the
purpose of the study.
 Quota Sampling - this type of sampling EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
depends on some pre-set standard. It
selects the representative sample from the Experiment - the only research method that will
population. allow researchers to determine the cause of a
 Snowball Sampling - this technique is used behavior by deliberately manipulating some
in the situations where the population is variable and measuring changes in the variable
completely unknown and rare. of interest.

Variables
CORRELATIONS: FINDING RELATIONSHIPS  Independent Variable - a condition in a
scientific study that is manipulate so that its
Correlation - is a measure of the relationship effects may be observed.
between two or more variables ( anything  Dependent Variable - a measure of an
that can change or vary). assumed effect of an independent
variable.
Correlation Coefficient
- It is a value produced by the correlation. Groups
- It represents both direction and strength of  Experimental Groups - in experiments,
relationship. groups whose members obtain the
- A statistic measure that calculates the strength treatment.
of the relationship between two variables.  Control Groups - in experiments, groups
- It does not prove causation ( variables can whose members do not obtain the
be related but you cannot assume that one of treatment; other conditions are held
them causes the other to occur). constant.

Types of Correlational Research Experimental Hazards

1. Positive Correlation - between two variables  Placebo Effect - a bogus treatment that
is when an increase in one variable leads to an has the appearance of being genuine.
increase in the other variable and a decrease  Single-blind Study - in experimental
in one variable will see a decrease on the other. terminology, subjects are unaware of
whether or not one has received a
treatment.
  Double-blind Study - a study in which 1. There are few “truths” that do not need to be
neither the subjects nor the observers know subjected to testing.
who has received the treatment. 2. All evidence is not equal in quality.
3. Just because someone is considered to be an
authority or to have a lot of experience does
ETHICS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH not make everything that person claims
automatically true.
1. Ethics of Research with Humans 4. Critical thinking requires an open mind.
 Ethical Review Committee and Ethical
Standards
- promote individual dignity, welfare and CHAPTER 2: THE BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
scientific integrity
- ensure no harm will come to the THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
participants
 Informed Consent - a participant’s The Anatomy of a Neuron
agreement to participate in research after Neuron - a specialized cell of the nervous system
receiving information about the purposes that receives and transmits messages.
of the study and the nature of the
treatment. Dendrites - branch-like structures that receive
 Debrief - it explains the purposes and neural impulses from other neurons.
methods of a completed procedures to a
participant. Soma/Cell Body - is responsible for maintaining
the life of the cell.
2. Ethics of Research with Animals
- Animals are used when research cannot be Axon - a long thin part of a neuron that transmits
carried out with humans. impulses to other neurons from branching
- Animals may be harmed, only when: structures called terminal buttons (or axon
 there is no alternative terminals)
 benefits of research justify the harm
Terminal Buttons/Axon Terminals - are at the
end of the neurons in small bulb-like structures.
CRITICAL THINKING
Nerves - group of axons.
Critical Thinking - means making reasoned
judgments. Myelin Sheath - a fatty substance that encases
and insulate axons, facilitating transmission of
Reasoned - means that people’s judgments neural impulses.
should be logical and well thought out.
Glial Cells How messages voyage from neuron to neuron?
- cells that remove dead neurons 1. Firing - conduction of neural impulse along
- remove waste products from the nervous the length of a neuron
system
- nourish and insulate neurons 2. Threshold - neurons will not fire unless the
- directs the growth of neurons and play a role incoming messages combine to reach a
in neural transmission of messages certain strength.

Neural Impulses - electrochemical discharge of 3. All-or-none Principle - an occurrence that

a nerve cell or neuron. transmits an impulse of same strength.

**If the axon does not have sufficient myelin Neurotransmitters - are often referred to as the
coating, a child will not be able to engage in body's chemical messengers.
activities requiring visual-motor coordination.
Two Types of Neurotransmitters
Two Types of Neuron 1. Excitatory - revolution up (booster ganon).
1. Afferent Neuron 2. Inhibitory - decrease action (pang-kalma).
- transmits messages from sensory receptors to
the spinal cord and brain. Examples of Neurotransmitters
- sensory neurons 1. Acetylcholine (ACh) - a neurotransmitter that
controls muscle contraction.
2. Efferent Neurons
- transmits messages from the brain or spinal 2. Dopamine - a neurotransmitter that acts in
cord to muscles and glands. the brain and affects to receive pleasure,
- motor neurons voluntary movement, learning and memory.

**Peripheral Nervous System is in action when 3. Norepinephrine - a neurotransmitter which is

these neurons are at work. largely produced when there is an emergency
situation this activates the sympathetic nervous
Electrochemical - is the process by which neural system.
impulses travel.
4. Serotonin - a neurotransmitter that is involved
Resting Potential - an electrical potential across in emotional arousal and sleep.
the neural membrane when it is not responding - deficiency of serotonin can cause
to other neurons. anxiety, mood disorders, eating disorders, and
insomnia.
Action Potential - an electrical potential that
provides the basis for the conduction of a 5. Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) - an
neural impulse along an axon of a neuron. inhibitory neurotransmitter that may help
anxiety reactions.
6. Glutamate - plays an important role in 2. Computerized Axial Tomography (CT Scan) -
learning and memory, and may also be three dimensional images of the brain.
involved in the development of the nervous
system and in synaptic plasticity (the ability of 3. Positron Emission Tomography (PET Scan) -
the brain to change connections among its method of brain study involves a computer-
neurons). generated image of brain activity by tracing
- an example of excitatory the amount of radioactive glucose
neurotransmitter. metabolized in areas of the brain.

7. Endorphins - pain controlling 4. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) - the

- morphine person lies in a powerful magnetic field and is
- an example of inhibitory exposed to radio waves that cause parts of the
neurotransmitter. brain to emit signals

Hippocampus - a structure involved in the 5. functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

formation of memories. (fMRI) - observe brain while it works with
repeated scans of the brain.
Central Nervous System - comprises the brain
and spinal cord.
THE BRAIN
Peripheral Nervous System - can be classified
into somatic nervous system and autonomic Brain - takes the information received from the
nervous system. senses, make sense out of it, makes decisions,
 Somatic Nervous System - nervous system and sends commands out to the muscles and
that transmits messages about sight, sound, the rest of the body.
smell, taste, and tactile information.
 Autonomic Nervous System - is classified into The Three Major Parts of the Brain
sympathetic and parasympathetic. 1. Cerebellum or Little Brain
 Sympathetic - emotional responses - essential to balance and coordination.
 Parasympathetic - restoring the body's Ex.: Stumbling, loss of muscle tone
energy - is divided into two hemispheres

2. Pons
Brain Imaging Techniques - “bridge”
1. Electroencephalogram (EEG) – records brain - is involved on attention, sleep, arousal, and
waves (electrical activity), relaxation, and respiration
neurological problem.
Ex.: It can tell feelings of relaxation. 3. Medulla
 Electroencephalograph - device used by - involved in regulation of heart rate, respiration,
researchers to see the EEG. circulation, and blood pressure.
**These are all connected to the spinal cord. LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS

Other Parts of the Brain Wernicke’s area

1. Cerebrum - this area of the brain appears to be involved
- center of thinking. in understanding the meaning of words.
 **From the internet, Cerebral Cortex – the
outer layer of cerebrum which is made up Wernicke's Aphasia
of gray matter. - a language disorder characterized by
 White Matter – is the inner layer of the difficulty comprehending the meaning of
cerebrum below the gray matter. spoken language.
 **From Ma’am Zambrano, Two - lies in temporal lobe
Hemispheres – are the outer layer of the
cerebrum. Broca’s area
 Corpus Callosum - divides the two - is an area of the brain devoted to the
hemisphere in the middle. production of speech.
- this area allows a person to speak smoothly
- Four Lobes of the Cerebrum: and fluently.
 Occipital Lobe - primary vision
 Temporal Lobe - hearing and auditory Broca's Aphasia
functions - a language disorder characterized by slow,
 Parietal Lobe - somatosensory cortex laborious speech.
 Frontal Lobe - motor cortex (muscles) - lies near the frontal lobe

*Fissures - divides the four lobes.

Left Brain or Right Brain
2. Thalamus - relay station for sensory Left Brain - primarily logical and intellectual.
information. Ex.: Pattern recognition

3. Hypothalamus - secreted hormones that Right Brain - intuitive, creative and emotional.
stimulate secretion of hormones by the pituitary Ex.: Good at analyzing details.
gland.
Ex.: Sweat, hunger
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
4. Reticular Formation - involved in regulation of
sleep and walking, when damage severely can 1. Pituitary Gland
cause coma. - lies below the hypothalamus
- labeled as "master gland"

**Hormones secreted by pituitary gland

regulates the growth and development of body
parts.
**Hypothalamus regulates pituitary gland - suggests that traits such as aggression and
activity. altruism help organisms survive and thus
reproduce.
2. Pineal Gland
- secretes the hormone melatonin
- helps regulate sleep-wake cycle References:
- may affect onset of puberty Ciccarelli, S. and White J. (2015). Psychology 4th
Edition
3. Thyroid Gland Pineda, B.Z. (2018). Notes in Introduction to
- body's accelerator Psychology
- produces thyroxine which affects the Torres, K.M. (2018). Lecture in Introduction to
metabolism Psychology
 Hypothyroidism - deficiency in thyroxine. Zambrano, Z.M. (2018). Prezi Presentations and
Syllabus in Introduction to Psychology
4. Adrenal Glands
- located above the kidneys
 Cortical Steroids Compiled by: Bryle Zyver Pineda | @zyverxpnd
- increase resistance to stress
- promote muscle development
 Epinephrine and norepinephrine - helps
arouse body in threatening situations.

5. Testes and Ovaries

 Testosterone
- produced by testes (smaller amounts
from adrenal gland)
- male sex characteristics

 Estrogen and Progesterone

- produced by ovaries (smaller amounts
from testes)
- female sex characteristics

Evolutionary Psychology
- studies ways in which adaptation and natural
seclection (survival of the fittest) can be applied
to mental processes and behavior.
- suggests that social behavior evolves and can
be transmitted from one generation to the next.