Welcome

to

GENERAL
PSYCHOLOGY
CLASS
INSTRUCTOR: WOSEN KESKES

1
 Learning Outcomes
Upon the completion of this course, the student will be able to:
• Describe basic psychological concepts.
• Compare and contrast the major theoretical perspectives in
psychology.
• Explain the difference between sensation and perception
• Compare and contrast different learning theories
• Summarize motivational and emotional processes
• Demonstrate social and interpersonal skills in everyday life.
• Set an adaptive goal and plan for future.
• Apply knowledge of psychology to one’s own life.
• Explain how self-confidence, self-esteem, self-efficacy, assertiveness,
responsible behaviors, interpersonal skills will be strengthened.
• Apply different stress coping mechanisms.
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 Course contents
Chapter One: Essence of Psychology
Chapter Two: Sensation and Perception
Chapter Three: Learning and Theories of Learning
Chapter Four: Memory and Forgetting
Chapter Five ፡ Motivation and Emotions
Chapter Six: Personality
Chapter Seven: Psychological Disorders and their Treatment
Techniques
Chapter Eight: Introduction to Life Skills
Chapter Nine: Intra-Personal Skills
Chapter Ten: Academic Skills
Chapter Eleven : Social Skills 3
UNIT ONE
Introduction
to
Psychology

INSTRUCTOR: WOSEN KESKES

4
 Overview
• Definition of Basic Concepts
• Goals of Psychology
• Historical Background of Psychology
• Major Perspective in Psychology
• Branches of Psychology
• Research Methods in Psychology

5
Meaning and Definition of Psychology
• The word “Psychology "comes from the two Greek
words. These are:
 psyche, which translates as “soul” or “sprit”, ”mind”
and
 logos, which means the study, knowledge or
discourse.
“ the study of the mind/soul/sprit”
represented by the Greek letter ᴪ (psi) which is read
as("sy")
psychology is a scientific study of behavior and its
underlying mental process of human beings and animals.6
 Key words in the definition
Science
 Follow scientific procedures and use empirical data
to study behavior and mental processes.
 Psychology does not rely on common sense or
speculation
Behavior
 All of our out ward or overt actions and
reactions ,such as talking, facial expressions,
movement ,etc.
 There is also covert behavior which is hidden, non-
observable and generally considered as a mental 7
 Cont…
Mental processes
 Refer to all the internal, covert activities of our
minds, such as thinking, feeling, remembering, etc.

 Psychologists strive to understand the mysteries of

human nature—why people think, feel, and act as
they do

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Psychologists also study animal behavior;
It purposes:
It is ethically forbidden to conduct experiment on
human beings.
 Conclusions obtained from experiments on animal
behavior are usually applicable to human behavior
 To formulate theories, laws & principles that
govern human behavior
To determine laws of behavior that apply to all
organisms

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 Review
• “Scientific study of behaviour and its
causes.”
– Overt (directly observable) and covert
behaviours
• Psychologists study:
– How you act (behaviour/overt)
– How you think (mental/covert)
– How you feel (covert & overt)
– How your brain and body respond
(physiological/covert)
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 Goals of Psychology

Description: what is happening?

Explanation: why it is happening?
Prediction: When will it happen again?
 Controlling: How can it be changed?

E.g. Sexual violence

Academic cheating

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 Description
 it involves observing the behavior and noticing
everything about it.
 Every behaviour has its own way of occurring
 In describing behaviour, a psychologist focuses
on how behaviour occurs.
 It is a search for answers for questions like
 What is happening? Where does it happen? To
whom does it happen?‘ And under what
circumstances does it seem to happen?.
 Explanation
 In explanation of behaviour, a psychologist
becomes concerned about why behaviour occurs
as it does.
 Every behaviour has its own causes. No
behaviour occurs without a cause.
 It is about trying to find reasons for the observed
behavior.
 This helps in the process of forming theories of
behavior (A theory is a general explanation of a
set of observations or facts).
 Prediction
 Prediction is about determining what will
happen in the future
 involves forecasting the likelihood of a behaviour
under certain circumstances.
 Prediction of behaviours is possible through the
use of theories or principles

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 Control ( Modification)
 How can it be changed? Control or modify or
change the behavior from undesirable one to a
desirable one).
 involves changing a behaviour which is anti social or
unacceptable.
 For healthy functioning of society and the individual,
these kind of negative (maladaptive ) behaviours
should be avoided
 In psychology, there are psychological techniques to
help an individual avoid a maladaptive behaviour.
 Historical Roots of Psychology
• Psychology has its roots in philosophy and physiology
• Philosophers had asked questions about human emotions,
thoughts and behavior. They had tried to deduce answers
to their questions by applying logic and common sense
reasoning. philosophers did not always make deduction
successfully.
• who contributed to the Development of Psychology
Hippocrates (460-377 B.C)- emotion(body humor)
Plato (428-348 B.C)_intelligence (inborn/inherited)
Aristotle (382-322 B.C)_thinking (heart)
Rene Descartes (1556-1650 A.D)_mind/body
John Locke (English Philosopher)_tabula rasa 16
 Empiricists (a group of philosophers who believed a
pursuit of truth through observation and experience)
Nativism (group of philosophers who believed a
knowledge is inborn or inherited)
• Physiologists were especially influential in
providing a new understanding of the brain and
the nervous system, and the way in which these
structures affect behavior.

It was the union between the questions asked by the

philosophers and the careful scientific
experimentation of the physiologists that led to the
field of study we call psychology. 17
 Major Perspective in Psychology
Early Schools of Psychology
Structuralism
• developed by Edward Bradford Titchener.
• Wilhelm Wundt, who established the first scientific
laboratory of psychology in Leipzig in 1879, and believed
that human mind could be scientifically studied.
• Task of Psychology
– is to identify the basic elements of consciousness
(image, feelings & sensation)
– to find out the units or elements, which make up the mind
• Methods: Introspection (looking in ward into our
consciousness & reporting)
Functionalism
• founded by William James (1848-1910) which proposed
that, the function of the mind, not the structure.
Task of Psychology
is to investigate the function, or purpose, of
consciousness rather than its structure
psychological processes are adaptive. They allow
humans to survive and to adapt successfully to their
surroundings.
Method
questionnaires, mental tests and objective descriptions of
behavior
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 Gestalt psychology
- Founders of this schools of thought are
 Max Wertheimer (1880-1943)
Task of Psychology
mind should be thought of as resulting from the whole pattern.
Psychology as a study of the whole mind
Argued that the mind is not made up of combinations of
elements.
The mind should be thought of as a result of the whole pattern of
sensory activity and the relationships and organizations within
their pattern
Methods
are Naïve Introspection and experimentation
 Behaviorism
- Founder-John B. Watson (1878-1958)
Task of psychology
Behaviorists view psychology as a study of
observable and measurable behaviors.
Three important characteristics; conditioned
response, learned rather than unlearned behaviors,
and focus on animal behavior
Methods
- are Observation and Experimentation
 Psychoanalysis
• founded by a Viennese physician Sigmund Freud (1856-1939).
Task of Psychology
 psychology studies about the components of the unconscious
part of the human mind.
The unconscious which is the subject matter of psychoanalys is
contains hidden wishes, passions, guilty secrets, unspeakable
yearnings, and conflict between desire and duty.
Methods
- free association, dream interpretation, analysis of slip of
tongue, jokes, and Transference

The mind is like an iceberg in that only a small part of its

substance is visible
 Modern Perspectives in Psychology
Psychodynamic perspective
 It has its origins in Freud's theory of psychoanalysis, but many other
psychodynamic theories exist.
 This perspective emphasizes the unconscious dynamics within the
individual such as inner forces, conflicts or instinctual energy.

 The psychodynamic approach emphasizes:

 The influence of unconscious mental behavior on every day
behavior
 The role of childhood experiences in shaping adult personality
 The role of intrapersonal conflict in determining human behavior
• Psychodynamic perspective tries to dig below the surface of a person's
behavior to get into unconscious motives.
• Psychodynamists think of themselves as archaeologists of the mind.
 Behavioral Perspective
• It emphasizes the role learning experiences play in
shaping the behavior of an organism.
• It is concerned with how the environment affects the
person‘s actions.
• Behaviorists focus on environmental conditions(e.g.
rewards, and punishments) that maintain or discourage
specific behaviors.
• Also called the "black box“ approach in psychology
because it treats the mind as less useful in understanding
human behavior and focus on what goes into and out of
the box, but not on the processes that take place inside
• This means, behaviorists are only interested in the effects
of the environment (input) on behavior (output) but not in
 Humanistic Perspective

 Human behavior is not determined either by

unconscious dynamics or the environment.
 Rather it emphasizes the uniqueness of human
beings and focuses on human values and
subjective experiences.
 This perspective places greater importance on
the individual‘s free will.
 The goal of humanistic psychology was helping
people to express themselves creatively and
achieve their full potential or self- actualization
(developing the human potential to its fullest).25
 Cognitive Perspective
• It emphasizes what goes on in people's heads; how people
reason, remember, understand language, solve problems,
explain experiences and form beliefs.
• This perspective is concerned about the mental processes.
• The most important contribution of this perspective has been
to show how people's thoughts and explanations affect their
actions, feelings, and choices.
• Techniques used to explore behavior from a cognitive
perspective include electrical recording of brain activity,
electrical stimulation and radioactive tracing of metabolic
activity in the nervous system.
 Biological Perspective
• It focuses on studying how bodily events or functioning
of the body affects behavior, feelings, and thoughts.
• It holds that the brain and the various brain chemicals
affect psychological processes such as learning,
performance, perception of reality, the experience of
emotions, etc.
• This perspective underscores that biology and behavior
interact in a complex way; biology affecting behavior and
behavior in turn affecting biology.
• It also emphasizes the idea that we are physical beings
who evolved over along time and that genetic heritage
can predispose us to behaving in a certain way.
 Socio-cultural Perspective
• It focuses on the social and cultural factors that
affects human behavior.
• Cultural psychologists also examine how cultural
rules and values (both explicit and unspoken) affect
people's development, behavior, and feelings.
• This perspective holds that humans are both the
products and the producers of culture, and our
behavior always occurs in some cultural contexts.

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 Branches of Psychology

Psychology is a broad field, there are many specialization under its

umbrella

Developmental Psychology
 Studies how people develop overtime thorough the process of
maturation and learning.
 Studies age related changes through the life span
 Aspects of Development( Physical, Cognitive, Social, etc)
 Stages of Development (Infancy, Babyhood, childhood,
adolescence, adulthood, old age)
 It attempts to examine the major developmental milestones that
occur at different stages of development.
 Cont…
Educational Psychology
• Concerned with the application of psychological
principles and theories in improving the educational
process including curriculum, teaching, and
administration of academic programs.

Counselling Psychology
• Helps individuals with less severe problems than those
treated by clinical psychologists.
• Assists people on issues of personal adjustment,
vocational and career planning, family life and may
work in schools, hospitals, clinics or offices
 Cont…
Personality Psychology
It focuses on the relatively enduring traits and characteristics of
individuals.
Study topics such as self-concept, aggression, moral
development, etc.
studies individual differences in personality and their effects on
behaviour.

Industrial( Organizational) Psychology

 Studies human behaviour in the workplace and how
behaviour affects production
 Applies psychological principles in industries and
organizations to increase the productivity of that
organization.
 Cont…
Social Psychology
 It studies the role of social forces in governing
individual behaviour.
 Examines the ways in which the pattern of a
person’s feeling, thinking and acting is affected
by others
 Deals with people‘s social interactions,
relationships, social perception, and attitudes.
 Cont…
Cross-cultural Psychology
 Examines the role of culture in understanding
behavior, thought, and emotion.
 It compares the nature of psychological processes
in different cultures, with a special interest in
whether or not psychological phenomena are
universal or culture-specific.

Forensic psychology
 Applies psychological principles to improve the
legal system (police, testimony,etc..).
 Cont…
Health Psychology
 Applies psychological principles to the prevention
and treatment of physical illness and diseases.

Clinical Psychology
 Is a field that applies psychological principles to
the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of
psychological disorders.
 Research Methods in Psychology

Definition of Terms
• Research: Is a scientific method of gathering and
testifying data by applying different methods and
making conclusion and prediction of the
phenomenon.
• Theory- is a statement which is generalized from
scientific study and which explains the
relationship among variables.
• It is an integrated set of principles helpful to
organize, explain and predict events.
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• Hypothesis : is any statement or assumption that
serves as a possible but tentative explanation of
certain observation.
- It is an educated guess that can be tested.
- It is a statement of cause and effect relationship.
- It is useful to guide a study.
E.g. Males have high self-confidence in making
decisions than females

Variables : are constructs that vary or change. There are

two events or constructs. The variation of one
construct may be followed by the variation of another
construct. 36
• Population is a group of subjects (universe) under
study.
For example, children under 5 years of age; primary
school children in Sidama Zone.

• Sample is a small portion of a population that is

expected to be representative of the population
(universe). Sample is better required than
population for different reasons

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 Major types of research methods
Descriptive research methods
 In this type of research, the researcher simply records
what she/he has systematically observed.
 Types: Include naturalistic observation, case studies,
and surveys.
Correlational research methods
 Is are search method that measures the relationship
between two or more variables
Experimental Research
 It is are search method that allows researchers to study
the cause and effect relationship between variables
1. Naturalistic Observation
• A researcher engages in careful observation of behavior
without intervening directly with the subjects.
• A research method in which various aspects of behavior
carefully observed in the setting where such behavior
naturally occurs.
• it allows researchers to study behavior under conditions
that are less artificial than in experiments.
2. Case Study
• is an in-depth investigation of an individual subject.
• is an intensive study of a person or group. Most case
studies combine long-term observations with diaries,
tests, and interviews.
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3. Survey
• use questionnaires or interviews to gather information
about specific aspects of participants’ background and
behavior.
• One of the most practical ways to gather data on the
attitudes, beliefs, and experiences of large numbers of
people is through surveys.
4. Longitudinal Studies
• It studies the same group of people at regular intervals
over a period of years to determine whether their behavior
and/or feelings have changed and if so, how.
5. Cross-Sectional Studies
• People studied from different age groups at same
time point.
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 6. Correlations
• studying the relationship between two variables such as
between weight and height, chewing chat and score, and
age and academic achievement.
• The correlation coefficient is a numerical index of the
degree of relationship between two variables. A correlation
coefficient indicates
(1) the direction (positive or negative) of the RXnship
(2) how strongly the two variables are related.
(1)
• A positive correlation indicates that two variables co-vary
in the same direction.
• A negative correlation indicates that two variables co-vary
in the opposite direction. 41
(2)
• the size of the coefficient indicates the strength
of an association between two variables. The
coefficient can vary between 0 and 1.00 (if
positive) or between 0 and -1.00 (if negative).
• A coefficient near 0 indicates no relationship
between the variables.

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 7. Experimental Method
• allows researchers to detect cause-and-effect relationships.
• the investigator manipulates a variable under carefully
controlled conditions and observes whether any changes
occur in a second variable as a result.
• There are two types of variables: independent and
dependent.

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• The independent variable : is a condition or event that an
experimenter varies in order to see its impact on another
variable.
• The dependent variable: is the variable that is thought to
be affected by manipulation of the independent variable.
Example
1) the number of hours you study affects your performance
on an exam.
2) the effect of watching violence TV program on children
behavior.

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• In an experiment the investigator typically assembles two
groups of subjects who are treated differently with regard
to the independent variable. These two groups are
referred to as the experimental group and the control
group.
a) The experimental group consists of the subjects who
receive some special treatment in regard to the
independent variable.
b) The control group consists of similar subjects who do
not receive the special treatment given to the
experimental group.

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 Steps of scientific research
Step one- Defining the Problem
 Noticing something attention catching in the
surrounding for which one would like to have an
explanation.
Step two-Formulating the Hypothesis
 after having an observation on surroundings
(perceiving the problem),you might form an
educated guess about the explanation for your
observations, putting it into the form of a
statement that can be tested in someway.
 Cont..
Step three-Testing the Hypothesis
 At this step, the researcher employs appropriate
research methods and collects ample data (information)
to accept or reject the proposed statement.
Step four- Drawing Conclusions
 This is the step in which the researcher attempts to
make generalizations or draw implications from tested
relationship
Step five-Reporting Results
 At this point, the researcher would want to write up
exactly whats he/he did, why she/he did, and what
she/he found.
 Reading Assignment
• What were the chief tenets of structuralism and
functionalism?
• What did Freud have to say about the
unconscious and sexuality, and why were his
ideas so controversial?
• What was the main idea underlying behaviorism?
• How do clinical psychology and psychiatry differ?
• Why study psychology? Why is psychology
important for medicine?
See you next week…
CHAPTER TWO
SENSATION
AND
PERCEPTION
 Learning Outcomes

• At the end of this chapter, you are expected to

understand the:
 meaning of sensation and perception
 difference and similarities of sensation and
perception
 factors affecting sensation and perception
 principles of sensation and perception, and
 reasons for sensory and perceptual differences
amount individuals
 2.1. Meanings of Sensation and Perception
Brainstorming questions
Have you heard of sayings like„
you watch but you don’t see;
you hear but you don’t listen;
you touch but you don’t grasp…

Which one do you think refers to sensation and

which one refers to perception?
Sensation and perception
 Transduction
Communication between the brain & the rest of the
body (& between different regions of the brain) occurs
via neuron. We recently learned how communication
between neurons occurs electrochemically (within
neurons: electrical; between neurons: chemical). So the
brain’s “language” is electrochemical!

All senses involve something called receptor cells.

Their job is to transduce (transform or even “translate”)
physical stimulation/physical energy from the
environment into electrochemical messages that can be
understood by the brain.
 Sensation
• Process where by stimulation of receptor cells in the
sensory systems sends nerve impulses to the brain.
e.g. Color, brightness, the pitch of tone or a bitter taste

• The starting of point of sensations is a stimulus. A

form of energy (such as light waves or sound
waves/vibration, pressure and temperature, and
chemical) that can affect sensory organs (such as the
eye, ear, nose, tongue, skin).
Therefore,
it is the process that detects the stimulus from one‘s
body or from the environment.
 Contd

 Sensation
 is the simple experience that

arises from:
• The stimulation of the sense organs.

 It is the detection of physical energy:

• Emitted or by
• Reflected physical objects.
 Sensation is our first awareness of some outside stimulus.
 Perception
• Process that organizes sensations into meaningful patterns.
• Process by which the brain selects, organizes, and interprets
these sensations
• a meaning making process
• Or process where by the brain interprets sensations, giving
them order and meaning.
 Perception is the cognitive process of:
• Selecting, organizing and interpreting
stimuli/sensory input to understand the world.
Eg: Detecting whether there are black lines on white sheet of
paper is sensation and Identifying them as letter, images and
2.2. The sensory laws: Sensory thresholds
and sensory adaption

Sensory threshold (Absolute & difference)

There are two laws of sensory threshold:

law of absolute threshold
law of difference threshold
 The absolute threshold

• The minimum a mount of stimulation a person can detect.

• As the minimum level of stimulation that can be detected

50 percent of the time when a stimulus is presented over
and over again-----Reliable detection

• Thus, if you were presented with a low intensity sound 30

times and detected it 15 times, that level of intensity would
be your absolute threshold for that stimulus.
 Difference Threshold
 The minimum amount of change that can be
detected
 Or minimum change in stimulation that can be
detected 50 percent of the time by a given person.
 Also, called Just Noticeable Difference
 Smallest difference that can be detected when 2 stimuli
are compared.
e.g., you would have to increase the intensity of the
sound from your tape recorder a certain amount
before you could detect a change in its volume.
 Cont…

 Difference thresholds:
 is the smallest difference in stimulation that a person
can detect reliably (again, half of the time)
For example, a person might be asked to compare:
- The weight of two blocks,

- The brightness of two lights or

- The saltiness of two fluids

63
 Sensory Adaptation
• if a stimulus remains constant in intensity, you
will gradually stop noticing it
• tendency of our sensory receptors to have
decreasing responsiveness to unchanging
stimulus
• Responding to potentially important change in
your environment while ignoring unchanging
aspects of it.
 Sensory Adaptation
Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of
constant stimulation.

Put a band aid on your arm and after awhile

you don’t sense it.
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 Attributes of Sensation
Sensory Deprivation- is the absence of normal level of sensory
stimulation.

- Human brain requires a minimum amount of sensory stimulation in

order to function normally. If it is too low it is bad for the brain to
function properly.

Sensory Overload- is experiencing too much amount of

stimulus from the environment. This is also bad for the brain to
function properly.

- Generally too little stimulation ( sensory deprivation) and too

much stimulation ( sensory overload) can lead to fatigue and
mental confusion.
 2.3. Perception
 Perception consists of three basic processes:

• Selection: the process selecting a stimuli to attend while

disregarding the rest – Selective attention

• Organization: assembling the selected sensations into

usual patterns

• Interpretation: explaining the selected and organized

sensations to make reasonable judgments from them
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 2.3. Perception
Major characteristics of the perceptual
process:
1. selectivity of perception
2. form perception,
3. perceptual constancy,
4. perceptual illusion
5. depth perception
6. Motion/movement perception
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 1. Selectivity of Perception--Attention
• Sense organ is bombarded by many stimuli….. But
perceive a few of them….. ignoring the other
unnecessary stimuli…..ATTENTION

• Attention
– It is perceptual process that selects certain inputs
for inclusion in your conscious experience, or
awareness, at any given time, ignoring others.
70
 Cont…

 External (Environmental) Factors:

• Intensity- The louder the sound, the brighter the light,
the more it captures our attention
• Size - We tend to notice usually large or small things
• Contrast - What contrasts with the surrounding env’t
attracts attention easily.
• Repetition - repetition of a stimulus is important to gain
attention
• Movement – Our eyes are involuntarily attracted to
movement
• Novelty- we are attracted to sth. New in the env’t-
(e.g. new guest, first born child)
 Cont…

 Personal Factors (Internal factors):

• Motivation – our current level of needs & desires influence our

perception (E.g. People who are hungry, thirst, or sexually
aroused are likely to pay attention to events in the
environment, which will satisfy these needs. )
• Belief - what we believe to be true about the world affects our
attention.
• Personality and interest- individuals select the stimulus and
give attention if they are interested.
E.g. in the football game, a person may give attention to the game
his wife may give attention to the music in the stadium.
 Cont…

• Experience - Previous experiences often affect how we

perceive the world

- Eg: hearing a certain lines in a song may remind you…. While

others are continuing their discussion

• perceptual set:

- A mental predisposition to perceive one thing & not another.

- The tendency to perceive what to expect.

E.g. consider the husband who is expecting an important phone call. He will hear the telephone
ring in the night while his wife does not. The wife, on the other hand, may more likely to hear the
baby crying than the telephone ringing. Of course, if the wife is expecting an important cell, the
 2. Form Perception
• The meaningful shapes or patterns or ideas that
are made perhaps out of meaningless and discrete
or pieces and bites of sensations
 Perceptual organization and
structure

 Everything we perceive has its own structure and

form. To make sense out of what we perceive, we
must know where one thing begins and another
ends
 This process of dividing up the world occurs
effortlessly (naturally) and makes our perception
more meaningful
 Principles (laws) of perceptual
organization
 Principle: The brain uses structures in order to give pattern,
shape and form to our visual perception.

 It is based on these principles that perceptual organization

becomes possible.

 The gestalt laws of organization are principles that describe

how we organize and construct pieces of information into
meaningful wholes.

Gestalt psychologist said -the whole is more than/greater than

the sum of its parts.
 Cont…

Figure-Ground Principle
• the perception of objects and forms of everyday
experience as standing out from a background.

• This is a principle by which we organize the

perceptual field into stimuli that stand out (the
figure) and those that are left over ( the ground).

77
 Cont…

 The figure ground principle:

- In organizing stimuli, we tend to automatically distinguish

between a figure and a ground

- The figure, with more detail, stands

out against the background, which

has less detail.

 Cont…
The principle of Closure
 This is a principle that states the brain tends to fill in
gaps in order to perceive complete forms.
 People need to decipher less than perfect images to
make perceptions. To help us do so, the brain tends
to finish what is unfinished, complete what is
incomplete.
The principle of Proximity
 This principle states that things that are near each
other tend to be grouped together. The closer
objects or events are to one another, the more likely
they are to be perceived as belonging together.
 chapter 6

Form Perception:
Gestalt principles

Proximity
Things close to one another are grouped together

Closure
The brain tends to fill in gaps to perceive complete forms
82
 Cont…
The principle of Similarity
 The principle of similarity states that things that
are alike in some way (for example, in colour,
shape or size) tend to be perceived as belonging
together.
 Things that are alike are perceived together
 Cont…

• Simplicity: - This rule says that we tend to

perceive complex figures as divided
into several simpler figures
- Simplest organization requires least cognitive effort
• Continuity: we tend to favour smooth

or continuous paths when interpreting a

series of points or lines.
 Cont…

Contour principle:

• The boundary of a perceptual figure which gives shape to

the objects in our visual field.

• provide shape for objects which have no shape

 3. Perceptual Constancy

perception does not change when sensory

information about stimuli changes.
 Our perceptual hypothesis remains the same
when information we receive about stimuli
through the visual sense organ change in colour,
size or shape.
Categories of Perceptual Constancy

A. Size Constancy
 refers to the perception that the size of objects
remains constant even though visual
information about the object change with
variations in distance.
 Cont…

B. Shape Constancy
 states that we continue to perceive objects as
having a constant shape even though the
shape of the retinal image changes when our
point of view changes.

 Viewing angle or position superficially

changes the shape of an object
91
 Cont...
C. Colour (Brightness) Constancy
 Sometimes objects may take different colour or
brightness because of variations in light reflected
on them.
 This principle states that the colour or brightness
of an object remains the same even though the
amount of light reflected on the objects change.
93
94
 Cont...

4. Location Constancy

 The location or position of stationary objects is always

the same even when our eyes tell us it is moving.
 We perceive stationary objects as remaining in the
same place even though the retinal image moves about
as we move our eyes, heads, and bodies.

Example: As we drive…telephone poles and trees fly by- our

retina…
 4. Perception illusion
• Illusions are special perceptual experiences in which
information arising from “real” external stimuli leads to an
incorrect perception, or false impression, of the object or
event from which the stimulation comes.

E.g.
a man looks out of his window and is horrified by what he perceives
to be a monstrous animal on a distant mountain. He learns only later
that the ―monster was actually an insect on his window.
 Optical Illusions

• can use color, light and patterns to create images

that can be deceptive or misleading to our brains.
• The information gathered by the eye is processed
by the brain, creating a perception that in reality,
does not match the true image.
 Auditory illusions
• Are false perceptions of a real sound or outside
stimulus.
• The listener hears either sounds which are not
present in the stimulus, or sounds that should not
be possible given the circumstance on how they
were created
 5. Depth and Distance Perception

• Refers to our remarkable ability to judge accurately how far

objects are from us or from each other.
• To perform this, we rely on:

(a) Binocular cues: that require the use of the two eyes
- Convergence: the turning of the
eyes inward, which occurs when
they focus on nearby object.
 Cont …

- Retinal disparity refers to a binocular depth cue that

depends on the distance b/n the eyes.

Retinal disparity-

is the difference between the

right and left eyes’ images.

 Cont…

(b) Monocular cues: cues that do not depend on using both

eyes.
i.e signals produced by a single eye.
- They commonly arise from the way objects are arranged
in the environment
 Some of the clues include:
 Linear perspective: When two lines seem to be parallel
appearing to come
together or converge,
they imply the
existence of depth.
 Cont…

 Interposition: When one object obstructs the view of

another object (overlaps), the object
that is in view appears closer than
the other
 Aerial perspectives: Objects that
are far away look fuzzy and blurred
in comparison to near objects b/c
of intervening particles of dust, haze,
or smoke in the atmosphere.
 Cont…

 Light and shadow: Brighter objects

appear closer, while darker or dimmer

objects are perceived as farther away..

 Texture gradient: Closer objects

appear to have a rough or detailed

texture. as distance increases, the
texture appears become finer and
finer
 Cont…

6) Motion/Movement perception
a) Real Motion: is the result of actual change of objects
in space. There are two ways
1) an image moves across the retina, and
2) the eye moves in the head to follow the path of the
moving object.
-b) Apparent Motion: perceiving movement in the
absence of any real motion.
 Some of them are:-
 Cont…

Stroboscopic motion: If you are seated in a darkened room

and look at two adjacent lights being turned on,

one after the other, it will seem that a single light is

jumping back and forth

 Cont…

Induced movement: occurs if a stationery spot or object is

perceived as moving when its frame or background moves.

E.g the moon seems moving when the background clouds

move.
The clouds moving in one direction induce a perception
that the moon is moving in the opposite direction
 2.4. Extra sensory perception

 ESP is a group of psychic experiences that involve

perceiving or sending information out side the normal
sensory process. Types of ESP:-
a) Telepathy: is a direct communication from one mind to
another without the usual visual, auditory and other sensory
signals.
 Cont …

b) Clairvoyance: is the ability to perceive events

or objects that are out of sight.
E.g. if sbd. is dead
 c) Psycho kinesis: is the ability to exert
mind over matter –
E.g., by moving objects without touching
them.
d) Precognition: is the perception of an event
that has not yet happened.
Chapter Three
Learning

109
 Brainstorming Questions
• What is the meaning of learning to you?
• What are the elements of learning?
• How do we learn?
•

110
 Contd……….??
• Almost all human behavior is learned. Imagine if
you suddenly lost all you had ever learned. You
would be unable to read, write, or speak. You
couldn’t feed yourself, find your way home, and
drive a car, play a game, or “party.”

•What could you do?

 2.1. Meaning of Learning
 Learning is a relatively enduring or permanent, change
of behavior as a result of:
 Experience or

 Practice.

 There are three important elements in it:

 It involves change of behavior

 It’s a change due to practice/ experience
 The change is relatively permanent – it must
“universal and distinctive. characteristics of human
beings is their capacity to learn”

N.B. The learning is not directly observable

but manifests in the activities of the
individual.

113
Changes in Behavior that are not Considered as
Learning
♦ Reflex action: sneezing or eye blinking

♦ Changes due to maturation and growth

♦ Temporary behavioral changes such as:

- Changes due to fatigue,

- Disease and Drug states

♦ Permanent changes due to:

- Brain damage
 2.2. Characteristics of learning
continuous modification of behavior throughout life
pervasive, it reaches into all aspects of human life.
involves the whole person, socially, emotionally &
intellectually.
often a change in the organization of experiences.
responsive to incentives
an active process
It is purposeful
depends on maturation, motivation and practice.
multifaceted
115
 Cont…

♦ Learning is the product of environment: environment plays

an important role in learning
♦ Learning affects the conduct of the learners:

- It could be positively affecting OR Negative

change
- Negatively affecting peoples behavior.
 3.3. Principles of learning

 Individuals learn best when they are:

- Physically,
- Mentally, and
- Emotionally ready to learn

 Students learn best and retain information longer when

they have---Meaningful practice and exercise
 Cont…

 Learning is strengthened when accompanied by:

- A pleasant or
- Satisfying feeling, and
- Is weakened when associated with an
unpleasant feeling.

 Things learned first creates a strong impression in the

mind and thus difficult to erase
 Cont…
 Things most recently learned are best remembered
 The principle of intensity implies that:

- students learn more from the real thing than from a

substitute.
 Individuals must have some abilities and skills that may
help them to learn
 Things freely learned are best learned - the greater the
freedom enjoyed, the higher the intellectual and moral
advancement
 2.4. Factors Influencing Learning
 Motivation:

- Motivation affects the effectiveness of learning.

- The stronger and clearer the motives for learning, the
greater are the effort to learn
- When the motives of learning are high, learning
becomes enthusiastic.
 Intelligence:
- The more the individual is intelligent,
the better she/he learns.
 Cont …

 Maturation:
- Neuro-muscular coordination is important for learning a given
task.
Example: The child has to be mature before she/he is able to learn.

 Physical condition of the learner:

- The learner should be in a good health
status to learn
Example: Sensory defects, malnutrition,
toxic conditions of the body, loss of sleep and fatigue
hinder effective learning.
 Cont …
 Good working conditions :
- Absence or presence of fresh air, light,
comfortable surroundings, Moderate temperature,

- Presence of distractions like noise and learning aids

affect learning effectiveness.
 Psychological wellbeing of the learner:
- Individual’s psychological states like worries, fears,
feelings of loneliness and inferiority hinders learning –

- Whereas self-respect, self-reliance, and self-confidence are

necessary for effective learning.
 Cont …
 Background experiences:
- Factors such as:
- Family background
- Educational background
 Length of the working period:
- Learning periods should neither be too short
nor too long
I.e Long learning time sets:
- Fatigue and
 Cont …

 Massed and distributed learning

Learning that spreads across time with reasonable time

gaps brings better results compared with crammed
learning that occurs at once or within short span of time.
 2.5.Theories of
Learning
• Theories of learning attempt to explain the mechanism
of behavior involved in the learning process. Generally,
learning theories can be categorized as:

I. Behavioral Learning Theories

II. Cognitive Learning Theories
III. Social Learning Theory

125
 I. Behavioral Learning Theories
Assumption
 learning as the product of the association between stimulus
conditions (S) and the responses (R).
 The learner has to do some thing (respond to a stimulus) for
learning to occur.
 Repetition of the stimulus-response ( S-R) connection promotes
learning
 Behavioral theories emphasize observable behaviors, seek laws to
govern all organisms, and provide explanations which focus on
consequences.
 The consequences that follow the response of the learner to a
stimulus can hinder (punishment) or encourage learning
(Reinforcement)
 Learning is verified through observation 126
 Contd…..

The two major types behavioral theories:

1. Classical conditioning
2. Operant conditioning
1. Classical Conditioning Theory of Learning
 founded by a Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov((1849-
1936).).
 He studied the process of salivary secretion in dog.
 learning of involuntary emotional or physiological
responses
 stimulus conditions and the associations formed in the
learning process.

128
Definition
 Classical conditioning refers a learning situation in
which a neutral/ conditioned stimulus gradually
gain the ability to elicit a response because of its
former paring with a natural/ unconditioned
stimulus.

 In the experiment, Pavlov identified three steps in

the process of salivary conditioning which can be
summarized as follows.

129
130
Cont…

131
 Example
Before Conditioning
Offensive odor unwanted feeling by a visitor

During Conditioning

Visiting hospitals
+
Offensive odors unwanted feeling

After Conditioning

Visiting Hospital unwanted feeling

132
 Temporal arrangement of CS & UCS (Schedules of CC)

Before Conditioning
Offensive odor in the hospital unwanted feeling by a visitor

During Conditioning

Several pairings of hospitals

+
Offensive odors in hospitals unwanted feeling

After Conditioning
Hospital unwanted feeling
133
 Cont…

Basics of classical conditioning

Neutral Stimulus (NS) —Bell
A stimulus that does not normally
elicit a response by itself.
I.e. before conditioning
Example: bell ringing
 Cont…
o Unconditioned stimulus /UCS/:
- A stimulus that reflexively and reliably elicit a response
Example: The meat
o Conditioned stimulus (CS):

- Any stimuli that elicit conditioned response as a

result of being paired with unconditioned stimulus.
Example: Bell
o Unconditioned response (UCR):
- Inborn response as a result of unconditioned stimulus.
Example: Saliva
o Conditioned response /CR/:
- which is elicited by the conditioned stimulus
Example: Salivation
 Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning

1. Acquisition: is a process in which a conditioned stimulus

gradually acquires the capacity to elicit a conditioned
response as the result of repeated pairing with an
unconditioned stimulus. It also refers to initial learning of
the CS gain power over the UCS to produce conditioning.

2. Principle of Association/Contiguity: states that a stimulus

and response become connected if they occur close together
in time and space.

136
3. Extinction: refers to the decline of CR in absence of UCS.
It is actually inhibition of the CR rather than elimination
of it.
4. Spontaneous Recovery: refers to the reappearance of
CR after a rest pause.
5. Stimulus Generalization: refers to the tendency to react
or respond to stimuli that are different from but some
what similar to a conditioned stimulus.
6. Stimulus Discrimination: refers to the learning ability to
distinguish between CS and other similar but irrelevant
stimuli that do not signal conditioned stimulus. It is
responding to CS but not to other similar stimuli.

137
 Cont…

Reading assignment????
Applications of classical conditioning in:
 Educational setting:
 Counseling
 Advertisement:
 Medicine
 Other settings
2. Operant Conditioning Theory of Learning
 developed by an American psychologist, B. F.
Skinner.
Assumptions
• learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened
or weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable
consequences
• Environmental consequences is at the heart of Operant
Conditioning (also called Instrumental Conditioning)
• Operation or actions which an organism has to carry out
• Behavior can be explained by external causes of an action
and the action‘s consequences.
139
- Operant conditioning theory of learning is concerned with
voluntary and higher learning rather than reflexive or
involuntary behavior.
- The term operant conditioning refers to the fact that the
learner must operate, or perform a certain behavior, before
receiving a reward or punishment.
- Thus, by definition, operant conditioning is a type of
learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed
by reinforcement, or diminished if followed by
punishment. 140
 Examples
• Example - 1. Working industriously can bring about a raise
in salary or bonus.

• Example - 2. Studying hard in college results in good

academic grades.

• Example - 3. A patient moans and groans as he attempts

to get up and walk for the first time after an operation.
Praise and encouragement for his/her efforts will improve
the chances that he/she will continue struggling toward
independence.
141
 Skinner’s Experiment

-Skinner designed the Skinner box (Operant Chamber). An operant chamber is a

simple box with a devise at one end that can be worked by the animal (rat,
pigeon) in the box. According to the experiment, for the rats the devise is a
lever. The lever is a switch that activates, when positive reinforcement is being
used, a food delivery or water delivery mechanism. Thus, positive
reinforcement is contingent(dependent) upon pressing a lever. Since this
142
response is positively reinforced, it increases the frequency of pressing the
 Basic steps followed by Skinner in operant
conditioning
1. A hungry animal (a cat, a rat, a pigeon) is placed in a
laboratory setting (example - Skinner box)
2. The animal will wander in the box, exploring its
environment in a random way.
3. The animal will press a lever by chance, which enables it to
receive food from the food container.
4. The first time the response occurred, the animal will not
learn the connection between lever pressing and the
stimulus (food)
5. As the frequency of lever pressing increases, the animal
learns that gaining of food is dependent on lever pressing
behavior. 143
 In Skinner‘s Analysis,
• A response (operant) can lead to three types of
consequences: such as
A. A neutral consequence
B. A reinforcement or
C. Punishment

144
 Cont…

A. Neutral Consequence – does not change the response

B. Reinforcement – strengthens or makes the response

more likely to occur
 Primary-Vs- secondary reinforcement

Primary reinforcers:
- Food, water, air…
i. e. those that satisfy our biological needs
- Have the ability to reinforce with out prior learning
 Cont…

 Secondary reinforcers:

- Reinforce due to their prior association with

primary reinforcers
Eg. Money, good grade, praise, awards etc.
 Cont…

 Positive – Vs-Negative Reinforcement

- Positive reinforcement: strengthens a

response by presenting a satisfying
event like getting freedom.

E.g. if a good grade follows your hard work, your efforts to

study are likely to continue or increase.
 Cont…

• Negative reinforcement (Avoidance & escape): involves the

removal of sth. Unpleasant (involves taking away or removing
an undesirable stimulus following a desired behavior)

E.g. If sbd. is nagging you to study, she stops

when you study---called escape learning.
- Avoidance Learning: which refers to learning to

avoid a painful, noxious stimulus prior to

exposure.
Example: Paying water and electric bills
 Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous schedule of reinforcement
- When a response is first acquired, learning is usually most
rapid if the response is reinforced each time it occurs.
Intermittent (partial) schedule of reinforcement
- which involves reinforcing only some responses, not all of
them.
- response has become reliable, it will be more resistant to
extinction if it is rewarded partially
- There are four types of intermittent schedules.
1. Fixed-ratio schedules
2. Variable-Ratio Schedule
3. Fixed Interval Schedule
4. Variable Interval Schedule 149
 Ratio Schedules
Fixed-Ratio Schedules Variable-Ratio Schedule
• occurs after a fixed number • occurs after some average
of responses & variable number of
• produce high rate of responses
responding • produces extremely high
• performance sometimes steady rates of responding
drops off just after • responses are more
reinforcement resistant to extinction
• It is effective for motivating
a great amount of work
150
 Interval Schedule
Fixed Interval Schedule Variable Interval Schedule
• reinforcement occurs • reinforcement occurs
only if a fixed amount of only if a variable
time has passed since amount of time has
the previous reinforcer. passed since the
previous reinforcer.

151
 Examples

FR: Employers are rewarded after a fixed number of

productivity—rewarding always after carrying 5 kilos of
sugar
VR: Employers may be rewarded after producing 3, 4
or 5 cartoons of biscuits
FI: Payment of salary on 1st of every month.
VI: Payment of salary on 21st, 25th or 27th of every
month. 152
 Punishment
• is a stimulus that weakens the response or makes it less
likely to recur.
• Punishers can be any aversive (unpleasant) stimuli that
weaken responses or make them unlikely to recur.
• Like reinforces, punishers can also be
• Primary punishers (Pain and extreme heat or cold
are inherently punishing
• Secondary punishers (criticism, demerits, scolding,
fines, and bad grades)

153
154
 Cont…

Principles of punishment
• Immediacy: It should immediately follow the behavior
to be punished -
• Consistency: It should be consistent whenever the
wrong behavior occurs
• Intensity: punishment has to be up to the level of the
mistake made
 Cont…

Punishment works when:

 Targeted only on the unwanted behavior but not the
person
 Do not mix punishment with rewards for a given
behavior
 Inform the individual which behaviour you are
punishing
 Cont…

 Punishment fails when:

Inappropriately administered
The recipient responds with anxiety, fear and rage
Punishment is temporal/ not permanent
It conveys little message
It does not teach or show acceptable b/r
May foster hostility, aggression and passivity
 Shaping
- is an operant conditioning procedure in which
successive approximations of a desired response
are reinforced.
- In shaping you start by reinforcing a tendency in
the right direction. Then you gradually require
responses that are more and more similar to the
final desired response.
- The responses that you reinforce on the way to
the final one are called successive
approximations.
158
 Cont…

Reading assignment????
Applications of operant conditioning in:
 Educational setting:
 Counseling
 Work setting (factory, organizations, etc):
 Medicine
 Other settings
 II. Social Learning Theory (Observational
Learning Theory)
• Developed by Albert Bandura
• Which is learning by watching the behavior of another
person, or model.
• Learning rely on a social phenomenon—it is often referred
to as a social cognitive approach to learning
• Reciprocal determinism: Emphasis on interaction of
behavior, environment, and person (cognitive) factors as
determinants of learning
• Three forms of reinforcement that can encourage
observational learning
– direct reinforcement
– vicarious reinforcement 160
 Cont…
Direct Reinforcement
• When the observer may reproduce the behaviors of the model and
receive direct reinforcement.
Vicarious Reinforcement
• When the observer may reproduce the behaviors of the model but
the reinforcement need not be direct - it may be vicarious
reinforcement as well.
• the observer may simply see others reinforced for a particular
behavior and then increase his or her production of that behavior.
Self-Reinforcement
- Or controlling your reinforcers.
- Important for improve, value and enjoy their growing competence.

161
 Four Conditions
Attention
- the person must first pay attention to the model.
Retention
- the observer must be able to remember the behavior that
has been observed (rehearsal).
Motor reproduction
- the ability to replicate the behavior that the model has
just demonstrated.
Motivation
- learners must want to demonstrate what they have
learned.
162
 III. Cognitive Learning Theory
• Cognitive processes are thus the mental processes involved
in knowing about the world:- these are perception, attention,
thinking, problem solving, and memory.

• Cognitive learning may take two forms:

• Latent learning
• Insight learning (gestalt learning or perceptual
learning)
163
 Latent Learning

• Latent‘ means hidden

• Is learning that occurs but is not evident in
behavior until later, when conditions for its
appearance are favorable.
• It occur without reinforcement of particular
responses and seems to involve changes in the way
information is processed.
• learning that is not immediately expressed.
• A great deal of human learning also remains latent
until circumstances allow or require it to be
expressed. 164
 Insight Learning (aha learning)
• It is a cognitive process whereby we reorganize our
perception of a problem.
• In a typical insight situation where a problem is
posed, a period follows during which no apparent
progress is made, and then the solution comes
suddenly.
• Human beings who solve a problem insightfully
usually experience a good feeling called an 'aha'
experience.
• Sometimes, for example, people even wake up from
sleep with a solution to a problem that they had not
been able to solve during the day. 165
See you next week…
CHAPTER FOUR

MEMORY
AND
FORGETTING

167
 Brain storming Question
• What is the meaning of memory?
• What is the function of memory?
• What are the stages of memory model
proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin.
• Why do we call STM as a working memory?
• What is forgetting?
• How forgetting occur or what causes
forgetting?
168
 Meaning of Memory
 Memory: is the ability to retain information
over time.
- It’s the capacity to encode, store and
retrieve information

-
• It is the ability to remember past events or previously learned
information or skill.
• It is the way in which we record the past for later use in the
present.
• Memory is a blanket label for a large number of processes that
form the bridges between our past and the present.
General Processes of Memory.

170
 Cont…

o Semantic Memory: refers to general world

knowledge or facts, such as:
- Three systems of memory: H2O, NaCl, H2SO4
o Episodic Memory: consists of memories of
particular episodes or events from personal
experience.
 Processes of Memory…………contd.
• This involves three basic processes or steps:
a) Encoding
b) Storage
c) Retrieval
a) Encoding
- Refers to the form (i.e. the code) in which an item of information is
to be placed in memory.

- It is transforming a sensory input into a form or a memory code

that can be further processed.

- It is the mental activities we perform to put information into

memory, to keep it there, and to make use of it later.

- It is the process by which information is initially recorded in a form

usable to memory. 172
 Cont…

b) Storage
• To be remembered the encoded experience must leave some
record in the nervous system (the memory trace); it must be
stored and held in some more or less enduring form for later use.
• Storage is the persistence of information in memory.

c) Retrieval
- Trying to remember to dredge up (or search) a particular
memory trace among all the others we have stored.
- In retrieval, material in memory storage is located, brought into
awareness and used.

Memory is the process by which information is encoded (phase 1),

stored (phase 2) and later retrieved (phase 3).
173
 Stages/Structure of Memory
• an select items for attention.

174
 Stages/Structure of Memory………contd.
According to Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), memory has three
structures:
1. Sensory Memory/Sensory Register
2. Short-Term Memory
3. Long Term Memory
1) Sensory Memory/Sensory Register
• It is the entry way to memory (first information storage area).
• It acts as a holding bin, retaining information until we can select
items for attention.
• It gives us a brief time to decide whether information is
extraneous or important.
• It can hold virtually all the information reaching our senses for a
brief time.
175
 Cont…
• For instance,
– Visual images (Iconic memory) remain in the visual system for
a maximum of one second.
– Auditory images (Echoic memory) remain in the auditory
system for a slightly longer time, by most estimates up to two
second or so.
N.B.
• There are 5 types of sensory memory-visual (Iconic), auditory
(echoic), tactile (touch), olfactory (smell) & gustatory (smell)----
scientists knows less on the latter 3 memories.

• Information is in SR are accurate representation of the

environmental information but still unprocessed.

• However, some of the information that has got attention and

recognition transfer to short-term memory for further processing.
176
 2) Short-Term Memory
• Name: also called working memory, immediate memory, active memory,
and primary memory.
• Contents:
- It holds the contents of our attention.
- It consists of memories of the by-products or end results of
perceptual analysis.
- The form or type can be auditory/verbal, visual, spatial.

• Capacity: Limited capacity- the magic number seven plus or minus

two (7 + 2 = 5 or 9)
• It has four characteristics:
– It is active (workspace to process new information ). There is
consciously processing, examining, or manipulating of
information
– Rapid accessibility: Information is readily available for use
– Preserves the temporal sequence of information: maintain177the
 Cont…
Duration: STM memory holds information
received from SM for about 30 seconds (some
say less than 20 seconds, some say less than 1
minutes).

Controlling information in STM

1. Loci method- attaching information to be

remembered with focal objects or locations.

178
 Controlling Informatn in STM

2.Rehearsal: repeating informatn again and again –

maintenance rehearsal
- Elaborative rehearsal is important in
transferring informatn to LTM (involves
creating meaning, associating & interpreting concepts.

3. Chunking: a process of breaking down large Informatn

in to its smaller parts
Which is easier to remember?
 4 8 3 7 9 2 5 1 6
 483 792 516
 Chunking………..contd

- grouping or packing of information into higher

order units that can be remembered as single units.
- It expands working memory by making large
amounts of information more manageable.

- N.B. The real capacity of short-term memory,

therefore, is not a few bits of information but a few
chunks.

180
 contd
4. Mnemonics (e.g. using acronyms)

E.g. Mnemonics for chemistry students 181

 3) Long Term Memory
Duration:
• It is a memory system used for the relatively permanent
storage of meaningful information.
• LTM stores information for indefinite periods. It may last
for days, months, years, or even a lifetime.

Capacity:
• The capacity of LTM seems to have no practical limits.
• The vast amount of information stored in LTM enables us
to learn, get around in the environment, and build a sense
of identity and personal history. 182
 Sub Systems of LTM (Types of LTM)
a) Declarative/ explicit memory- the conscious recollection of
information such as specific facts or events that can be verbally
communicated. Divided into two:
– Semantic memory- factual knowledge like the meaning of words,
concepts and our ability to do math. They are internal
representations of the world, independent of any particular
context.
– Episodic memory- memories for events and situations from
personal experience. They are internal representations of
personally experienced events.
b) Non-declarative/ implicit memory- behavior is affected by prior
experience without that experience being consciously recollected. One
of the most important kinds of implicit memory is procedural memory.
It is the how to knowledge of procedures or skills: Knowing how to
comb your hair, use a pencil, or swim.
183
 Sub Systems of LTM (Types of LTM)
a) Declarative/ explicit memory- the conscious recollection of
information such as specific facts or events that can be verbally
communicated. Divided into two:
– Semantic memory- factual knowledge like the meaning of words,
concepts and our ability to do math. They are internal
representations of the world, independent of any particular
context.
– Episodic memory- memories for events and situations from
personal experience. They are internal representations of
personally experienced events.
b) Non-declarative/ implicit memory- behavior is affected by prior
experience without that experience being consciously recollected. One
of the most important kinds of implicit memory is procedural memory.
It is the how to knowledge of procedures or skills: Knowing how to
comb your hair, use a pencil, or swim.
184
 The serial position effect

 H. Ebbinghaus studied memory by using non-sense

syllables. Such as:
(VEM, BOZ, FUW etc.)
 He found that items in the middle are difficult to remember than
those at the beginning and end – called serial position effect
- Better memory of items at the
beginning of a list is called
the primacy effect.

- And, better memory for items at the end of a list is called the
recency effect.
 Contd.
- Ability to retain: good memory traces left in the brain by past
experiences.
- Good health: good health can retain the learnt material better
- Age of the learner: Youngsters can remember better than the aged.
- Maturity: Very young children cannot retain and remember
complex material.
- Will to remember: Willingness to remember helps for better retention
- Intelligence: More intelligent person will have better memory
- Interest: will learn and retain better.
- Over learning: over learning will lead to better memory.
- Speed of learning: Quicker learning leads to better retention,

186
 Factors Affecting Memory

•Ability to retain: depends upon good memory traces left

in the brain by past experiences
•Good health: A person with good health can retain the
learnt material better than a person with poor health
•Age of the learner: Youngsters can remember better
than the aged.
•Maturity: Very young children cannot retain and
remember complex material
•Will to remember: Willingness to remember
 Cont …
• Interest: If a person has more interest, he will learn and
retain better
• Over learning: Experiments have proved it will lead to
better memory - repetition
• Speed of learning: Quicker learning leads to better
retention – considering the pace of learners
• Meaningfulness of the material: Meaningful materials
are better retained than for nonsense material
• Sleep or rest: Sleep or rest helps for clear memory and
makes good connections in the brain
 ????????? …

How is the memory stored in

our brain?
 Answer
Since the early neurological work of Karl Lashley and Wilder Penfield in
the 1950s and 1960s, it has become clear that:
• Long-term memories are not stored in just one part of the brain, but
are widely distributed throughout the cortex.
• After consolidation, long-term memories are stored throughout the
brain as groups of neurons that are primed to fire together in the
same pattern that created the original experience.
• Therefore, contrary to the popular notion, memories are not stored in
our brains like books on library shelves, but must be actively
reconstructed from elements scattered throughout various areas of
the brain by the encoding process. Memory storage is therefore an
ongoing process of reclassification resulting from continuous
changes in our neural pathways, and parallel processing of
information in our brains.
• Different parts of brain store different memories. Groups of neurons
present in visual cortex region store the memory related to sight,
 Forgetting

• Hermann Ebbinghaus, German psychologist,

(1885/1913) was a person who first attempts to study
forgetting.

• Definition: The apparent loss of information already

encoded and stored in the long-term memory.
N.B.
• There is almost always a strong initial decline in
memory, followed by a more gradual drop over time.
• Furthermore, relearning of previously mastered material
is almost always faster than starting from a scratch 191
 Theories of Forgetting
• Psychologists have proposed five mechanisms to
account for forgetting:

1) The Decay Theory

2) Replacement (Displacement) of old memories by
new ones
3) Interference (Proactive & Retroactive)
4) Motivated forgetting
5) Cue dependent forgetting

192
 Cont…
The Decay Theory
• memory traces or engram fade with time if they are not
accessed now and then.
• In decay, the trace simply fades away with nothing left
behind, because of the passage of time.
Interference Theory
• It occurs because similar items of information interfere
with one another in either storage or retrieval.
• There are two kinds of interference :
– In Proactive Interference, information learned earlier interferes
with recall of newer material.
– If new information interferes with the ability to remember old
information the interference is called Retroactive Interference.
193
 Cont…
Examples
Proactive Interference– names of old students
teachers knew may interfere in their remembering of
names of students recently joining the school.
Dagnew (old student) Kagnew (new student)

Retroactive Interference- names of students recently

joining the school may make teachers unable to
remember names of old students.

Dagnew (old student) Kagnew (new student)

194
 Cont…
Replacement of New Memory for Old/ Displacement Theory
- This theory holds that new information entering memory can
wipe out old information, just as recording on an audio or
videotape will obliterate/wipe out the original material.
Motivated Forgetting
- Sigmund Freud maintained that people forget because they
block from consciousness those memories that are too
threatening or painful to live with, and he called this self-
protective process Repression.
Cue Dependent Forgetting
• When we lack retrieval cues, we may feel as if we have lost
the call number for an entry in the mind‘s library.
• In long-term memory, this type of memory failure may be the
most common type of all. 195
 Improving Memory
• Pay Attention: It seems obvious, but often we fail to remember
because we never encoded the information in the first place.
• Encode information in more than one way: The more elaborate
the encoding of information, the more memorable it will be
• Add meaning: The more meaningful the material, the more likely it
is to link up with information already in long-term memory.
• Take your time: If possible, minimize interference by using study
breaks for rest or recreation. Sleep is the ultimate way to reduce
interference.
• Over learn: Studying information even after you think you already
know it- is one of the best ways to ensure that you‘ll remember it.
• Monitor your learning: By testing yourself frequently, rehearsing
thoroughly, and reviewing periodically, you will have a better idea
of how you are doing.
196
See you next week…
Chapter Five
Motivation
And
Emotion

198
 Brainstorming
 Why do some people run after money and some refuse
even the most attractive job offers?
 Why do some people leave their country for earning
money and some are contented and happy with
whatever is available to them at home?
 Why people become doctors, accountants, engineers,
social workers, pilots, army men etc?
199
 Definition & concept
• The word itself comes from the Latin word ‘Mover‘,
which means -to move.
• Motivation is what -moves people to do the things
they do.
• It is defined as need or desire that energizes and
directs behavior.
• It is the moving force that energizes behavior.

• It is a factor by which activities are started, directed and

continued so that physical or psychological needs or
wants are met.
 Contd.
Related concepts
• Motives cannot be directly observed but- inferred
from behavior.
• Two components:
--what people want to do---direction
-- how strongly they want to do it---magnitude
 Approaches to Motivation
• The sources of motivation are different according to
the different theories of motivation.
• Psychologists have been studying the causes of
behaviours and have developed various theories that
explain the why of these behaviours
• Some of these theories are
• Instinct approaches
• Drive-reduction approaches
• Arousal approaches
• Incentive approaches
• Cognitive approaches
• Humanistic approaches 202
 1. Instinct Approaches to Motivation
• This theory states that motivation is the result of an
inborn, biologically determined pattern of behavior.
• According to this approach, people and animals are born
with programmed sets of behavior essential to their
survival.
• Motivation is evolutionarily programmed through inborn
instinctual behavior patterns.

Thus,
• According to this instinct theory, in humans, the instinct to
reproduce is responsible for sexual behavior, and the
instinct for territorial protection may be related to
aggressive behavior. 203
2. Drive Reduction Theory of Motivation
• Need - a requirement of some material (such
as food or water) that is essential for survival
of the organism.
• Drive - a psychological tension and physical
arousal arising when there is a need that
motivates the organism to act in order to
fulfill the need and reduce the tension.
• Drive-reduction theory - it assumes that
behavior arises from physiological needs
that cause internal drives to push the
organism to satisfy the need and reduce
tension and arousal.

• Distinction: Drive-a psychological state &

need involves a physiological state.
 Drive Reduction ………..contd.
Types of Drives

• Primary drives - those drives that involve needs of

the body such as hunger and thirst.

• Acquired (secondary) drives - those drives that are

learned through experience or conditioning, such
as the need for money or social approval.
• Homeostasis - the tendency of the body to
maintain a steady state.
 Need Drive Drive-
reducing
(food, (hung behavior
water er, s (eating,
) thirst) drinking)

DRIVE -REDUCTION THEORY

• Drive-reduction theory assumptions
– We have physiological needs.
– Unmet needs creates a drive.
– That drive pushed one to reduce the need.
 Cont…
- Behavior is motivated by desires to reduce internal
tension caused by unmet biological needs, such as
hunger or thirst.
- Internal drives “push” us to behave in certain ways.

- Robert Woodworth & Clark Hull: Drives are

triggered by internal mechanisms of homeostasis
Internal state of balance.
- Limitations: All behaviors are not always motivated
purely by physiological needs.
207
 3. Arousal Approach to Motivation
• Stimulus motive - a motive that appears to be unlearned
but causes an increase in stimulation, such as curiosity.

• Arousal theory - people are motivated to maintain an

optimal level of arousal that they seek to maintain by
increasing or decreasing stimulation.
• People take certain actions to either decrease or increase
levels of arousal.--- the goal is to maintain or increase
excitement.

Menu
 Arousal Approaches………contd
N.B.
• As with the drive-reduction model, this approach suggests
that if our stimulation and activity levels become too high,
we try to reduce them.

• But, in contrast to the drive-reduction perspective, this

approach also suggests that if levels of stimulation and
activity are too low, we will try to increase them by seeking
stimulation.

209
 Arousal Approaches………contd
Examples

 A person may want to go out and meet people more than

ever before after months of lockdowns.
 A person prefers to rest and relax after a big night in the
town.
 If our arousal levels drop too low, we might seek
stimulation by going out to a nightclub with friends.
 If our arousal levels become too elevated or become
overstimulated, we might go for a walk or taking a nap.
Sensation seeker - someone who needs more arousal than
the average person
210
 contd.
Level of arousal and performance in tasks

• Yerkes-Dodson law - law stating performance is

related to arousal; moderate levels of arousal lead
to better performance than do levels of arousal that
are too low or too high.
– This effect varies with the difficulty of the task: easy
tasks require a high-moderate level while more difficult
tasks require a low-moderate level.

Menu
LO 9.5 Arousal approaches to motivation

Menu
 4. Incentive Theory/approach

• Incentives- a positive or negative environmental

stimulus that motivates behavior.
E.g.
--Money-positive incentive
--External intruder-negative incentive to buy
security camera

• Distinction: Incentives & drive

For example your thirst would push you to drink, but
incentives determine what you choose to drink: water, soft
 5. Cognitive Theory/approach

a) Goal-setting theory-
 goals as a motivational construct
 Goal--a desired outcomes established through social
learning –e.g. finding a mate, or getting good grades.

b) Expectancy-value theories
 motivation as a joint function of the value people attach
to an outcome and the extent to which they believe they
can attain it.
goals that are either impossibly difficult or easy have
less attraction than moderately challenging goals.
 6. Humanistic approaches to motivation
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.
• Maslow suggested that human behavior is influenced by a
hierarchy, or ranking, of five classes of needs, or motives.
• People have strong cognitive reasons to perform various
actions.
• He said that needs at the lowest level of the hierarchy must be
at least partially satisfied before people can be motivated by the
ones at higher levels.
• Maslow‘s five Hierarchies of needs for motives from the
215
216
. Maslow’s A Hierarchy of
Needs

Maslow
• Viewed human motives as pyramid
• At the base are basic physiological
needs; at the peak are the highest
human needs.
 Types of Motives
a) Need for Relatedness-belongingness
 Attachment motivation--physical and psychological
proximity ---feeling of comfort and positive emotion
experienced.
 Needs for intimacy--closeness characterized by self-
disclosure, warmth, and mutual caring.
 Need for affiliation--interaction with friends or
acquaintances.
N.B.
– Feelings of love activate brain reward and safety systems
– Social isolation increases risk for mental decline and poor
 Contd.
b) Need for power
 A tendency to:
- seek impact, control, or influence over others
- be seen as a powerful individual.

 People with a strong need for power:

- belong to organizations
- seek office
--involved in profession-business and teaching.
--seek to display the trappings for power.
 N.B
 Contd.
c) Need for achievement
 Desire for mastery, excellence, and accomplishment.

 Maslow’s hierarchy—it’s need for esteem.

People with high achievement motive

--work more persistently than others,
--take in their accomplishments when they succeed,
--delay gratification in the pursuit of long-term goals,
-- choose moderately difficult tasks than easy & difficult
 Types of Motivation

Types of motivation.
– Intrinsic motivation is a type of motivation in
which a person acts because the act itself is
rewarding or satisfying in some internal
manner.
– Extrinsic motivation is a type of motivation in
which individuals act because the action leads
to an outcome that is external to a person.

221
 Conflict of Motives and Frustration
• Based on the sources of motivation and the importance of the
decision, people usually face difficulty choosing among the
motives.

• When the decision is more important, the number and

strength of motivational pushes and pulls are often greater,
creating far more internal conflict and indecision.

There are four basic types of motivational conflicts.

• Approach-approach conflicts
• Avoidance-avoidance conflicts
• Approach-avoidance conflicts
• Multiple approach-avoidance conflicts
222
 Contd.
a) Approach-approach conflicts
• Two desirable activities that cannot be pursued
simultaneously.
E.g. Goings to a presti­gious law school—Vs-- accepting a lu­
crative job

b) Avoidance-avoidance conflicts
• A person faces two unattractive situa­tions, and avoidance
of one ex­poses to the other.
E.g. Unwanted pregnancy: neither having the baby nor
terminating the pregnancy is desirable
(aborting the baby—Vs—facing social discrimination)
 Contd
c) Approach-avoidance conflicts
• One event or activity has both desirable and undesirable
consequences.
• Acting to attain the desirable features requires exposure to the
undesirable ones as well.

E.g.
- Cheating exam will bring guilt and reduced self-esteem, but also a
good grade.
- Drinking beer: enjoying & facing hangover the day after.
- Corruption: taking lots of money & facing imprisonment.
 Contd.
d) Multiple Approach-avoidance conflicts
• One event or activity has more than one desirable and
undesirable consequences.

• E.g. Suppose you must choose be­tween two jobs.

One offers a high salary with a prestigious organization but re­
quires long working hours and moving to a miserable climate.
The other boasts plenty of opportunity for advancement and
good fringe benefits, in a better climate, but offers lousy pay
and an unpredictable work schedule.
226
 .

Emotions
228
LO 9.13 Three elements of emotion
 Emotions
Definition of Emotion
- Latin ”Emovere"  “To excite, stir up or agitate.”
- It refers to a strong feeling about something.
- the ‘feeling’ aspect of consciousness, characterized by
certain physical arousal, certain behavior that reveals the
feeling to the outside world, and an inner awareness of
feelings.
- Emotions are feelings such as happiness, despair, and
sorrow that generally have both physiological and
cognitive elements influencing behavior.

N.B. While motives are internally caused, emotions are

responses to an external stimulus.
230
 Elements of Emotion
• Emotion - the “feeling”
aspect of consciousness,
characterized by a certain
physical arousal, a certain
behavior that reveals the
emotion to the outside
world, and an inner
awareness of feelings.

• Display rules - learned ways

of controlling displays of
emotion in social settings.
 Three Elements or Components of Emotion
a) The physiology of emotion

- Bodily arousal: Increased heart rate, blood pressure, outward

blood flow, activity of the stomach and gastro intestinal system,
hormonal increase, increase in respiration, etc.

- ANS (autonomic nervous system): Consists of two parts:

o Sympathetic Nervous System: Activated in response to external
threats and arouses the body for action.
o Parasympathetic Nervous System: Supports activities that
maintain the body to restore energy.
• It calms down the body to maintain energy by slowing heart rate,
lowering blood pressure, and so on.
232
 Cont…
b) The behavior of emotion
- Characteristic overt expressions of emotions.
- These are facial expressions, tone of voice, touching, posture,
Body gestures, body movements, and actions that indicate to
others how a person feels.

c) Subjective experience or labeling emotion

- it involves interpreting the subjective feeling by giving it a

label: anger, fear, disgust, happiness, sadness, shame, interest,
surprise and so on.
- Subjective conscious experience and interpretation of emotions.
N.B. The thoughts, beliefs & expectations determine the type and
intensity of the emotional response.
233
 Theories of Emotions
- Major theories of emotion are grouped into
three:
oPhysiological: Bodily responses are
responsible for emotions.
oNeurological: Brain activity leads to
emotional responses.
oCognitive: Mental processes play an
essential role in formation of emotions.

234
 Theories of Emotion
a) James- Lang Theory of Emotion
- This theory of emotion is based on the work of
William James & Carl Lang (1885).
- In this theory, a stimulus of some sort (e.g, the large
snarling dog) produces a physiological reaction. This
reaction, which is the arousal of the -fight-or-flight
sympathetic nervous system (wanting to run),
produces bodily sensations such as increased heart
rate, dry mouth, and rapid breathing.

- James and Lang believed that physical arousal led to

the labeling of the emotion (fear).
235
 James-Lange Theory of Emotion
• James-Lange theory of emotion - theory in
which a physiological reaction leads to the
labeling of an emotion.

Menu
LO 9.14 James-Lange theory of emotion

Menu
 b) Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
• Developed by Physiologists Walter Cannon and
(1927) and Philip Bard (1934).
• Cannon-Bard theory of emotion - theory in which
the physiological reaction and the emotion are
assumed to occur more or less at the same time.
LO 9.15 Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
 c) Schachter-Singer and Cognitive Arousal Theory
According to them, motions are a result of two factors:

a) Physical processes in the body (such as activation of the

sympathetic nervous system), called “physiological arousal.”
These changes can include things like having your heart start
beating faster, sweating, or trembling.

b) Cognitive appraisal: a cognitive process, in which people try to

interpret this physiological response by looking at their surrounding
environment to see what could be causing them to feel this way.

• For example, if you notice your heart beating faster, you might look
around your environment to see what is causing it. If you’re at a
party with friends, you’d be more likely to interpret this feeling as
happiness—but if you were just insulted by someone, you’d be
more likely to interpret this feeling as anger. 240
 Cont…

• They proposed that two things have to happen before emotion

occurs: the physical arousal and labeling of the arousal based
on cues from the surrounding environment.
• These two things (i.e. physical arousal and labeling of the
arousal) happen at the same time, resulting in the labeling of
the emotion.

241
LO 9.16 Cognitive arousal theory of emotion
See you next week…
 CHAPTER SIX

PERSONALITY

245
246
 Meaning of Personality

• Derived from Latin word “PERSONA”, theatrical

masks worn by Greek actors.
• The unique pattern of enduring thoughts, feelings, and
actions that characterize a person.
• Terms:
» Character (moral or ethical behavior)
» Temperament (enduring characteristics)
248
 Theories of Personality
Three major theories of personality
The psychoanalytic theory of personality

The trait theory of personality

Humanistic theory of personality

- Each of these perspectives on personality attempts to

describe different patterns in personality, including how these
patterns form and how people differ on an individual level.
249
Psychoanalytic Theory (Sigmund Freud)

• Founder of the psychoanalytic

movement in psychology.
• Europe during the Victorian age.
– Men were understood to be unable to
control their “animal” desires at times,
and a good Victorian husband would
father several children with his wife
and then turn to a mistress for sexual
comfort, leaving his virtuous wife
untouched.
– Women, especially those of the upper
classes, were not supposed to have
sexual urges.
– Backdrop for this theory.
Menu
 …………contd.
Assumption
– personality is formed within ourselves, arising from
basic inborn needs, drives, and characteristics.
– He argued that people are in constant conflict between
their biological urges (drives) and the need to tame
them.
– focuses on the unconscious intra-psychic dynamics
– focuses in the importance and primacy of the first five
years of life (early childhood influences).
– a result of conflict between different personality
systems or structures
– an interaction between nature (innate instincts) and251
 Personality Structures
 Id
 Ego
 Superego
Assumption
• Which serves a different function
• They develop at different times
• Interaction: one another determines the personality of an
individual.
• Any actions we take or problems we have results from the
• interactions among these systems or
• degree of balance among these systems.
252
 Ego: The Executive
Id: If It Feels Good, Do It Director
• most primitive and 1st part • 2nd part of personality
(infant/at birth)
• Unconscious amoral part of the
• Mostly conscious and is
personality far more rational, logical
• Libido: instinctual energy and cunning than the id
• Guided by pleasure principle • Guided by reality
(immediate satisfaction of needs). principles (balance
• Containing all of the basic
biological drives; hunger, thirst,
between libido & reality)
sex, aggression • Serves as a referee or
• It is oblivious to rules and mediator
regulations
• Ego for Latin word “I”,
• The Id is a Latin word that means
“it” 253
 Superego: The Moral Watchdog
•
The 3rd and final part of the personality
•Latin word, meaning “over the self”.

•Guided by moral principles

•Includes all the moral codes (rules, customs, and expectations) of society
•It aspires for and expects the individual to be perfect.

I has two components

• Ego-ideal is a kind of measuring device (correct and acceptable
behavior)--contains the standards for moral behavior.
• Conscience -that makes people pride/satisfaction/mental peace
when they do the right thing and guilt/shame/self-blame, or moral
anxiety when they do the wrong thing.

N.B. The conscience prevents us from doing morally bad things, while the ego
ideal motivates us to do what is morally proper
 Levels of the mind (Divisions of
Consciousness)
• Preconscious mind - level of the mind in which
information is available but not currently
conscious.
• Conscious mind - level of the mind that is aware
of immediate surroundings and perceptions.
• Unconscious mind - level of the mind in which
thoughts, feelings, memories, and other
information are kept that are not easily or
voluntarily brought into consciousness.
– Can be revealed in dreams and Freudian slips of the
tongue.
Menu
257
258
 Stages of Personality Development
(the 5 Psychosexual stages)

• Fixation - disorder in which the person does not

fully resolve the conflict in a particular
psychosexual stage, resulting in personality traits
and behavior associated with that earlier stage.

• Psychosexual stages - five stages of personality

development proposed by Freud and tied to the
sexual development of the child.
 …….Contd.

a) Oral stage - first stage occurring in the first

year of life in which the mouth is the
erogenous zone and weaning is the primary
conflict. Id dominated.
 Contd….

b) Anal stage - second stage occurring

from about 1 to 3 years of age, in which
the anus is the erogenous zone and toilet
training is the source of conflict. Ego
develops.
– Anal expulsive personality - a person
fixated in the anal stage who is messy,
destructive, and hostile.
– Anal retentive personality - a person
fixated in the anal stage who is neat, fussy,
stingy, and stubborn.

Menu
 …contd.
c) Phallic stage - third stage occurring from about 3 to 6 years
of age, in which the child discovers sexual feelings. Superego
develops.

– Oedipus complex (Electra complex)- situation occurring

in the phallic stage in which a child develops a sexual
attraction to the opposite-sex parent and jealousy of
the same-sex parent.
– Identification - defense mechanism in which a person
tries to become like someone else to deal with anxiety.
 ……Contd

d) Latency - fourth stage occurring during the

school years, in which the sexual feelings of
the child are repressed while the child
develops in other ways.

e) Genital – sexual feelings reawaken with

appropriate targets.

Menu
 Defense Mechanisms
• For Freud, our personality is the outcome of the continual
battle for dominance among the id, the ego, and the superego.
• This constant conflict between them is managed by
psychological defense mechanisms.
– unconscious tactics that either prevent threatening material
from surfacing or disguise it when it does.
– refer to methods used by the ego to prevent anxiety or
threatening thoughts .
– Are useful to reduce anxiety and make us feel normal again.
– They only become harmful if or when they are used
excessively.
– In order to justify one’s action which is wrong in the eyes of
the superego, the ego has to deny, distort or twist the reality.
265
 ……..Contd
 Repression
 Banishing anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and
memories from consciousness.
 E.g. Someone has an unacceptable sexual impulse
and behavior becomes unaware of it

 Regression
Retreating to a more infantile psychosexual stage
or play childish role.
 E.g. an adult who has just gone through a divorce
or lost a job may move in with his or her parents.
 ……..Contd
Denial
 The refusal to believe information that provokes anxiety
(“This can’t be happening”) is denial.

 For example:
- someone with an alcohol problem may insist, “I’m not
an alcoholic. I can take it or leave it.”
- A patient who is told that he or she has a fatal illness may
refuse to accept the diagnosis.

N.B. Repression is the motivated forgetting of information,

denial is an assertion that the information is incorrect.
 ……..Contd
 Reaction Formation
 the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable
impulses into their opposites
 people may express feelings that are the opposite of
their anxiety-arousing unconscious feelings.
 E.g.
- Someone with unacceptable aggressive tendencies
might join a group dedicated to preventing violence.
 ……..Contd
 Projection
 people disguise their own threatening impulses by
attributing them to others.
For example,
 someone who secretly enjoys pornography might accuse other
people of enjoying it.
 Rationalization
 self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more
threatening, unconscious reasons for one’s actions.
For example
 a student who wants to go to the movies says, “More studying
won’t do me any good anyway.” Someone who misses a
deadline to apply for a job says, “I didn’t really want that job.”
 ……..Contd
 Displacement
 Shifting sexual or aggressive impulses towards
less threatening object or person.
 involves expressing feelings toward a person
who is less threatening than the person who is
the true target of those feelings.
For example
 if you are angry with your employer, you
might yell at someone else.
 ……..Contd
Sublimation:
 The transformation of sexual or aggressive energies into
culturally acceptable, even admirable, behaviors is
sublimation.
For example
 someone may sublimate aggressive impulses by
becoming a surgeon.
Compensation
 An attempt to disguise weak or undesirable trait or
behavior by emphasizing on a desirable one.
 E.g. Unattractive person becomes an interesting
conversationalist—so people forget about his look.
 Trait Theories of Personality
• Trait theories - theories that endeavor to describe
the characteristics that make up human personality
in an effort to predict future behavior.
– Traits: are constructs that provide a helpful means to
typify behavior patterns, with clusters of traits often
providing ‘typologies’; for example, an extroverted ‘type’
of person will generally exhibit sociable, adventurous
and impulsive traits.
• Allport first developed a list of about 200 traits and
believed that these traits were part of the nervous
system.
• Cattell reduced the number of traits to between 16
and 23 with a computer method called factor Menu
analysis.
LO 12.10 Trait perspective

Menu
 Three Main Assumptions of Trait Theory

1. Stability: Personality traits are relatively stable, and

therefore predictable, over time.
– So a gentle person tends to stay the same way across time.
2. Consistency: Personality traits are relatively stable
across situations, and they can explain why people act
in predictable ways in many different situations.
– A person who is competitive at work will probably also be
competitive on the tennis court or at a party.
3. Distinctiveness/Individual differences: People differ
in how much of a particular personality trait they
possess; no two people are exactly alike on all traits.
– The result is an endless variety of unique personalities. 274
 …..contd.
Distinction b/n surface & source traits

• Surface traits - aspects of personality that can

easily be seen by other people in the outward
actions of a person.
• Source traits - the more basic traits that underlie
the surface traits, forming the core of personality.
– Example: Introversion - dimension of personality in
which people tend to withdraw from excessive
stimulation.
 The Big five Theory
Robert McCrae and Paul Costa
is also known as the five factor model
is known as OCEAN for short

Five-factor model (Big Five) - model of

personality traits that describes five basic trait
dimensions.

276
 Cont…
Openness
– a person‘s willingness to try new things and be open to new
experiences.
– curiosity , flexibility and imaginative tendency
Conscientiousness
– a person‘s organization and motivation
– are careful about being in places on time and careful with
belongings as well.
– dependability and responsibility of the individual
Extraversion
– all people could be divided into two personality types:
extraverts and introverts (Carl Jung).
– Extraverts are outgoing , sociable, fun-loving, whereas
introverts are more solitary and dislike being the center of
attention. 277
 Cont…
Agreeableness
– refers to the basic emotional style of a person, who may
be easygoing, friendly, helpful, cooperative and
pleasant (at the high end of the scale) or grumpy, crabby,
hostile, self centered and hard to get along with (at the
low end).
Neuroticism
– refers to emotional instability or stability.
– People who are excessively worried, overanxious and
moody would score high on this dimension, whereas
those who are more even-tempered and calm could score
low.
278
279
 Humanistic Theories of Personality
(Maslow & Rogers)
• Humanistic perspective - the “third force” in psychology
that focuses on those aspects of personality that make
people uniquely human, such as subjective feelings and
freedom of choice.

• Assume people have conscious, self-motivated ability to

change and improve, along with people‘s unique creative
impulses

• Developed as a reaction against the negativity of

psychoanalysis and the deterministic nature of
behaviorism.
 Roger’s Theory of Personality
• Self-actualizing tendency – the striving to
fulfill one’s innate capacities and capabilities.
• Self-concept - the image of oneself that
develops from interactions with important,
significant people in one’s life.
• Self - archetype that works with the ego to
manage other archetypes and balance the
personality.
• Real self - one’s perception of actual
characteristics, traits, and abilities.
• Ideal self - one’s perception of whom one
should be or would like to be.
LO 12.9 Roger’s view of self
 Roger’s Theory ……..contd
• Positive regard – warmth, affection, love, and respect
that come from significant others in one’s life.-----as
warmth, affection, love, and respect that comes from the
significant others in people‘s experience.
• Unconditional positive regard - positive regard
that is given without conditions or strings
attached.
• Conditional positive regard- positive regard that
is given only when the person is doing what the
providers of positive regard wish.
• Fully functioning person – a person who is in
touch with and trusting of the deepest,
innermost urges and feelings.
See you next week…
 CHAPTER SEVEN
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
AND TREATMENT
TECHNIQUES

.
 7.1. Nature of Psychological Disorders
Definition
According to psychologists and psychiatrists,
psychological disorders:
– Are marked by a clinically significant disturbance in an
individual’s cognition, emotional regulation, or
behavior (APA, 2013).

– Are maladaptive patterns of behavior and thought that

cause the persons experiencing them considerable
distress.
Nature of Psychological Disorders……..contd.

N.B.
• Because normal behavior and abnormal behavior lie on a
continuum, and there is no simple way of distinguishing
one from the other.

• So, most psychologists agree, there are three main

criteria to determine whether a person has psychological
disorders:
a) Abnormality,
b) Maladaptiveness, and
c) Personal distress
Nature of Psychological Disorders……..contd.
a) Abnormal behavior is a behavior that deviates
from the behavior of the ‘typical’ person; the
norm.

• When someone behaves in:

• culturally unacceptable ways, and
• violates the norm, standards, rules and
regulations of the society.
Nature of Psychological Disorders……..contd.
b) Maladaptive behavior in one way or another
creates a social, personal and occupational
problem on those who exhibit the behaviors.
– These behaviors seriously disrupt the day-to-day
activities.

b) Personal distress – having subjective feelings of

anxiety, stress, tension and other unpleasant
emotions.
– These negative emotional states arise either by the
problem itself or by events that happen on us.
 7.2. Causes of Psychological Disorders
1. The Biological Perspective
Biological factors contribute to psychological disorders:
E.g.
– abnormalities in brain structure
– imbalances in neurotransmitters or hormones
– disordered genes

E.g. schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and severe major depression

are highly heritable.

2. Psychological Perspectives-
a) Psychoanalytic perspective
b) Learning perspective, and
a. Psychoanalytic perspective

• Sigmund Freud believed that the human mind consists

of three interacting forces (Id, Ego & Superego):

• Abnormal behavior is caused by the ego’s inability to

manage the conflict between the opposing demands of
the id and the superego.

So,
• the individuals‘ failure to manage the conflicting of id’s
sexual impulses during childhood, and society’s sexual
morality to resolve the earlier childhood emotional
conflicts determine how to behave and think later.
b) Learning perspective:
 Faulty Learning
 Most mental and emotional disorders arise from
inadequate or inappropriate learning.

c) Cognitive perspective

• The quality of our internal dialogue either builds ourselves

up or tear ourselves down and has profound effect on our
mental health.

• Self-defeating thoughts lead to the development of

negative emotions & self-destructive behaviors.

• Ways thinking about events in life determines emotional &

behavioral patterns.
 7.3. Types of Psychological Disorders
Though there are many types of psychological
disorders, only the three types of disorders are
discussed here:
a) mood disorder
b) anxiety disorder
c) personality disorder.
 a) Mood Disorders-
Mood Disorders-
 A serious change in mood from depressed
to elevated feelings causing disruption to life
activities.
– Depressive disorder is characterized by overall
feelings of desperation and inactivity.
– Elevated moods are characterized by mania or
hypomania.
– The cycling between both depressed and manic
moods is characteristic of bipolar mood
disorders (Depression--------------Mania)
 Types of Mood Disorder
Types of mood disorders include:
1. Major Depression
2. Dysthymic Disorder
3. Bipolar Disorder
4. Cyclothymia
 Types of Mood Disorder
1. Major Depression- is characterized by:
– depressed mood,
– diminished interest in activities previously enjoyable,
– weight disturbance,
– sleep disturbance,
– loss of energy,
– difficulty concentrating, and
– often includes feelings of hopelessness and thoughts of
suicide.
 Types of Mood Disorder … cont’d
2. Dysthymia is often considered a lesser, but more persistent
form of depression.
– Many of the symptoms are similar to depression except to a lesser
degree.
– Also, dysthymia, as opposed to Major Depression is steadier rather
than periods of normal feelings and extreme lows.
3. Bipolar Disorder (previously known as Manic-Depression) is
characterized by periods of :
– extreme highs (called mania) and
– extreme lows as in Major Depression.
– Bipolar Disorder is subtyped either:
• a) (extreme or hypermanic episodes) or
• B) (moderate or hypomanic episodes).
4. Cyclothymia: Like Dysthymia and Major Depression, it is
 Symptoms of hypomanic or manic
• Feeling extremely energized or elated
• Rapid speech or movement
• Agitation, restlessness, or irritability
• Risk-taking behavior, such as spending too much
money or driving recklessly
• Unusual increase in activity or trying to do too
many things at once
• Racing thoughts
• Insomnia or trouble sleeping
• Feeling jumpy or on edge for no apparent reason
 b) Anxiety Disorders
N.B. Anxiety is a normal reaction to stress and can be
beneficial in some situations.
– It can alert us to dangers and help us prepare and pay
attention.
• Anxiety disorders differ from normal feelings of
nervousness or anxiousness, and involve:
- excessive fear or anxiety.
- Increased arousal accompanied by generalized
feelings of fear or apprehension
N.B.
• It is the most common of mental disorders and affect
nearly 30 percent of adults at some point in their lives.
• However, they are treatable.
 Anxiety Disorders … cont’d
• Anxiety disorders can cause people into trying to
avoid situations that trigger or worsen their
symptoms.

• Job performance, school work and personal

relationships can be affected.

• Labeling: In general, for a person to be diagnosed

with an anxiety disorder, the fear or anxiety must:
– Be out of proportion to the situation or age
inappropriate
– Hinder your ability to function normally
 Anxiety Disorders … cont’d
The disorders in this category include
A. Panic Disorder,
B. Agoraphobia,
C. Specific Phobias, Social Phobia,
D. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD),
E. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), and
F. Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD).
A. Panic Disorder
 is characterized by a series of panic attacks.
 A panic attack is an inappropriate intense feeling of fear or
discomfort including many of the following symptoms:
- heart palpitations
- trembling
- shortness of breath
- chest pain
- dizziness.

B. Agoraphobia
 literally means fear of the marketplace.
 It refers to a series of symptoms where the person fears, and
often avoids, situations where escape or help might not be
available, such as shopping centers, grocery stores, or other
public place.
C. Specific or Simple Phobia and Social Phobia
 It represent an intense fear and often an avoidance of a
specific situation, person, place, or thing.
 Types of phobia???
a) social phobias: fear of a wide range of social settings and
interactions—parties, eating in public, giving speeches, using
public rest rooms.
b) Claustrophobia: fears of enclosed or confined spaces, and
may panic when inside a space such as a lift, airplane or
crowded room.
c) Acrophobia-individual experiences an intense fear of
heights.

??? Read other types of phobias

D. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
(OCD) is characterized by obsessions (thoughts which seem
uncontrollable) and compulsions (behaviors which act to
reduce the obsession).
E. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
 occurs only after a person is exposed to a
traumatic event where his/her life or someone
else's life is threatened.

The most common examples are war, natural

disasters, major accidents, and severe child abuse.

the disorder develops into an intense fear of

related situations, avoidance of these situations,
reoccurring nightmares, flashbacks, and
heightened anxiety to the point that it
significantly disrupts their everyday life.
F. Generalized Anxiety Disorder

a person has extreme anxiety in nearly every part

of their life.
It is not associated with just open places (as in
agoraphobia), specific situations (as in specific
phobia), or a traumatic event (as in PTSD).
 3) Personality Disorders
Personality disorder
A type of mental disorder characterized by a rigid
and unhealthy pattern of thinking, functioning and
behaving.

• trouble perceiving and relating to situations and

people.

• an enduring pattern of thinking, feeling, and

behaving which is significantly different from the
person's culture and results in negative
consequences.
9 types of personality disorders
1. Paranoid- distrust and suspiciousness.
2. Schizoid- detachment from social norms & a restriction of emotions.
3. Schizotypal- discomfort in close relationships & eccentric thoughts
and behaviors.
4. Antisocial- disregard for the rights of others, including violation of
these rights & the failure to feel empathy.
5. Borderline- instability in personal relationships, including frequent
bouts of clinginess and affection----&----anger and resentment, often
cycling between these two extremes rapidly.
6. Histrionic- excessive emotional behavior and attention seeking.
7. Narcissistic- grandiosity, exaggerated self-worth, and need for
admiration.
8. Avoidant- feelings of social inadequacies, low self-esteem, and
hypersensitivity to criticism.
9. Obsessive-Compulsive- obsessive cleanliness, perfection, and control.
 Clusters of Personality Disorder (PD)
A. The odd or eccentric cluster include:
1. Paranoid - suspicious of others.
2. Schizoid - inadequate social relationships
3. Schizotypal - odd thinking patterns
B. The dramatic or emotional, or erratic cluster include:
4. Histrionic - tend to overreact
5. Narcissistic - unrealistic sense of self-importance
6. Borderline - emotionally unstable
7. Antisocial - guiltless, law-breaking, self-indulgent,
irresponsible, & intrusive
C. The anxious or fearful cluster includes:
8. Avoidant - inhibited, but desire relationships
9. Dependent - lack self-confidence
10. Obsessive-compulsive - obsessed with rules
Clusters of Personality Disorder (PD)

A. The odd or eccentric cluster

 1. Paranoid Personality Disorder
• Pervasive distrust & suspicion of others and their motives
• Unjustified belief that others are trying to harm or deceive
you
• Unjustified suspicion of the loyalty or trustworthiness of
others
• Hesitancy to confide in others due to unreasonable fear that
others will use the information against you
• Perception of innocent remarks or nonthreatening
situations as personal insults or attacks
• Angry or hostile reaction to perceived slights or insults
• Tendency to hold grudges
• Unjustified, recurrent suspicion that spouse or sexual
partner is unfaithful.
 Schizoid Personality Disorder
• Lack of interest in social or personal
relationships, preferring to be alone
• Limited range of emotional expression
• Inability to take pleasure in most activities
• Inability to pick up normal social cues
• Appearance of being cold or indifferent to others
• Little or no interest in having sex with another
person
 Schizotypal Personality Disorder
• Peculiar dress, thinking, beliefs, speech or behavior
• Odd perceptual experiences, such as hearing a voice
whisper your name
• Flat emotions or inappropriate emotional responses
• Social anxiety and a lack of or discomfort with close
relationships
• Indifferent, inappropriate or suspicious response to
others
• "Magical thinking" — believing you can influence people
and events with your thoughts
• Belief that certain casual incidents or events have hidden
messages meant only for you
Clusters of Personality Disorder (PD)

B. The dramatic or emotional, or

erratic cluster
 Histrionic Personality Disorder
• Constantly seeking attention
• Excessively emotional, dramatic or sexually
provocative to gain attention
• Speaks dramatically with strong opinions, but
few facts or details to back them up
• Easily influenced by others
• Shallow, rapidly changing emotions
• Excessive concern with physical appearance
• Thinks relationships with others are closer than
they really are
 Narcissistic Personality Disorder
• Belief that you're special and more important
than others
• Fantasies about power, success and attractiveness
• Failure to recognize others' needs and feelings
• Exaggeration of achievements or talents
• Expectation of constant praise and admiration
• Arrogance
• Unreasonable expectations of favors and
advantages, often taking advantage of others
• Envy of others or belief that others envy you
 Borderline Personality Disorder
• Impulsive and risky behavior, such as having unsafe
sex, gambling or binge eating
• Unstable or fragile self-image
• Unstable and intense relationships
• Up and down moods, often as a reaction to
interpersonal stress
• Suicidal behavior or threats of self-injury
• Intense fear of being alone or abandoned
• Ongoing feelings of emptiness
• Frequent, intense displays of anger
• Stress-related paranoia that comes and goes
 Antisocial Personality Disorder
• Disregard for others' needs or feelings
• Persistent lying, stealing, using aliases, conning
others
• Recurring problems with the law
• Repeated violation of the rights of others
• Aggressive, often violent behavior
• Disregard for the safety of self or others
• Impulsive behavior
• Consistently irresponsible
• Lack of remorse for behavior
Clusters of Personality Disorder (PD)

C. The anxious or fearful cluster

 Avoidant Personality Disorder
• Too sensitive to criticism or rejection
• Feeling inadequate, inferior or unattractive
• Avoidance of work activities that require
interpersonal contact
• Socially inhibited, timid and isolated, avoiding
new activities or meeting strangers
• Extreme shyness in social situations and personal
relationships
• Fear of disapproval, embarrassment or ridicule
 Dependent Personality Disorder
• Excessive dependence on others and feeling the need to be
taken care of.
• Submissive or clingy behavior toward others
• Fear of having to provide self-care or fend for yourself if left
alone
• Lack of self-confidence, requiring excessive advice and
reassurance from others to make even small decisions
• Difficulty starting or doing projects on your own due to lack of
self-confidence
• Difficulty disagreeing with others, fearing disapproval
• Tolerance of poor or abusive treatment, even when other
options are available
• Urgent need to start a new relationship when a close one has
ended
Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder
• Preoccupation with details, orderliness and rules
• Extreme perfectionism, resulting in dysfunction and
distress when perfection is not achieved, such as feeling
unable to finish a project because you don't meet your
own strict standards
• Desire to be in control of people, tasks and situations, and
inability to delegate tasks
• Neglect of friends and enjoyable activities because of
excessive commitment to work or a project
• Inability to discard broken or worthless objects
• Rigid and stubborn
• Inflexible about morality, ethics or values
 7.4 Treatment of Psychological disorders
Treatment approaches
• Cognitive Therapists- consider that dysfunctions
and difficulties arise from irrational or faulty
thinking, i.e., wrong perception.
• Behavioral models- look at problems as arising
from our behaviors which we have learned to
perform over years of reinforcement, i.e., faulty
learning.
• Psychodynamic Therapists- look more at issues
beginning in early childhood which then motivate
us as adults at an unconscious level.
Note
Cognitive approaches appear to work better with
most types of depression.

behavioral treatments tend to work better with

phobias.

Most mental health professionals nowadays are

more using eclectic approach, i.e., treating people
using different approaches. These professionals
are sometimes referred to as integrationists.
 Treatment Techniques
Many different types of treatments are available, but
the core components of psychotherapy consists of
the following:
1. A positive, healthy relationship between a client
or patient and a trained psychotherapist
2. Recognizable mental health issues, whether
diagnosable or not.
3. Agreement on the basic goals of treatment
4. Working together as a team to achieve these
goals
Note
When providing psychotherapy, do the following.

First: giving empathy-understanding client's

feelings, thoughts, and behaviors.
Second: being non-judgmental
 Treatment Modalities
• Therapy can be a one-on-one relationship
between a client or patient and a therapist.
• Therapy can also take in group.
• Therapy can also take place in smaller groups
consisting of a couple or a family.
THE END!!!