LEARNING PACKET 5 | General Chemistry 1

UNIT 5

Gases

5.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

a. Describe the kinetic molecular theory of gases and the units of measurement used for gases.
b. Use the ideal gas law equation to solve for P, V, T, or n of a gas when given three of the four
values in the ideal gas law equation.
c. Use the combined gas law to calculate the final pressure, volume, or temperature of a gas when
changes in two of these properties are given and the amount of gas is constant.

5.1 Introduction

The kinetic molecular theory informed us the atomic and molecular arrangement of
solids, liquids and gases. The arrangement is also affected by several factors like kinetic energy,
bonding, and intermolecular forces causing matter to take different states. The physical state of
matter thus depends on a balance between the kinetic energy of particles, which tends to keep
them apart, and the intermolecular attractive forces between them, which tend to bring them
together. For example, ionic compounds would always be in a solid state because of electrostatic
attraction. The effect of these factors on the physical state of matter will be the focus of this unit,
in particular, gases.

5.2 Gas Pressure and Measurement

In mechanics, pressure is defined as the force exerted by per unit area of its contact.

The unit of pressure will depend on the units of force and area, and on the physical state of
matter. In the illustration above where matter is in the solid state, the unit of pressure would be
newton/meter square (or pascal).

1 pascal (Pa) = 1 N/m2

For gases, pressure is most commonly measured in millimeters of mercury (mm Hg).
Pressure is also measured in torr, a unit named in honor of the Italian physicist and
mathematician Evangelista Torricelli (1608–1647), who invented the barometer. At sea level, the
average pressure of the atmosphere is 760 mm Hg. We use this number to define still another
unit of pressure, the atmosphere (atm). The SI unit is the pascal, and meteorologists report
pressure in inches of mercury and bars. For gas pressure, we focus mainly on mm Hg and atm.

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1 atm = 760 mm Hg = 760 torr

On the Earth, we live under a blanket of air that presses down on us and on everything
else around us. The force per unit area exerted by a column of air against a surface by the weight
of the air above that surface is called atmospheric pressure.

In the given diagram above, the atmospheric pressure at point "X" increases as the weight
of the air above it increases. The same can be said about decreasing pressure, where the pressure
at point "X" decreases if the weight of the air above it also decreases.

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As we know from weather reports, the

pressure of the atmosphere varies from day to
day. A gas consists of molecules in rapid,
random motion. The pressure a gas exerts on a
surface, such as the walls of a container, results
from the continual bombardment on the walls
of the container by the rapidly moving gas
molecules. We use an instrument called a
barometer to measure atmospheric pressure.

Assessment Task 5.1: Using a graph, show the relationship between atmospheric pressure
and weight of the air column.

One type of barometer is made up of a long glass tube that is completely filled with
mercury and then inverted into a pool of mercury in a dish. Because there is no air at the top of
the mercury column inside the tube (there is no way air could get in), no gas pressure is exerted
on the mercury column. The entire atmosphere, however, exerts its pressure on the mercury in
the open dish. The difference in the heights (h) of the two mercury levels is a measure of the
atmospheric pressure.

A barometer is adequate for measuring atmospheric pressure, but to measure the

pressure of a gas in a container, we use a simpler instrument called a manometer. One type of
manometer consists of a U-shaped tube containing mercury. It measures the difference in
pressure between P1 (pressure at one end) and P2 (pressure at the other end).

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One end of the tube is connected to the gas sample and the other end is open to the
atmosphere. The difference between the two mercury levels gives the pressure of the gas
directly in mm Hg depending on the pressure of the gas.

If the pressure of the gas is less than atmospheric pressure, then

Pgas = Patm – h

otherwise,
Pgas = Patm + h

Assessment Question 5.1: If the pressure exerted by the gas is equal to atmospheric pressure,
show the two mercury levels inside the barometer.

5.3 Behavior of Gases

In this section we will study the most important behavior of ideal gases that relates
pressure, temperature, volume and number of moles.

5.3.1 Boyle’s Law

Boyle’s law states that for a fixed mass of an ideal gas at a constant temperature, the
volume of the gas is inversely proportional to the applied pressure: P  1/V (equation 1). In
mathematics, we can remove the proportionality sign but we have to introduce a mathematical
constant of proportionality (equation 2).

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How do we interpret equation 2? Let us say, we have a confined gas with initial pressure
(P1) and volume (V1). Then we change the pressure or volume – P2 and V2, and change again
pressure or volume – P3 and V3. Every time we change the pressure, automatically the volume
will change or vice versa.

Suppose we multiply the values of P1 and V1 and the product is “9.2”. Then, the result
when P2 and V2 will also be “9.2”, the same is true with P3 and V3. The value of the constant “k”
is “9.2”.

P1V1 = 9.2 P2V2 = 9.2 P3V3 = 9.2

Combining: P1V2 = P2V2 = P3V3 = 9.2 (constant) or PV = k (constant)

Since a change can only occur one at time, we can say: P1V1 = P2V2 or P1V1 = P3V3 or P2V2 =
P3V3 or PinitialVinitial = Pfinal Vfinal. Where,

PinitialVinitial = PfinalVfinal is similar to P1V1 = P2V2.

Presented below, an actual data in one of Boyle’s experiment using ammonia gas. Notice
that when pressure and volume are multiplied, an almost constant value is obtained, 1.40 x 10 2.

Sample Exercise 5.1: Sulfur dioxide (SO2), a gas that plays a central role in the formation of
acid rain, is found in the exhaust of automobiles and power plants. Consider a 1.53-L
sample of gaseous SO2 at a pressure of 5.6 3 103 Pa. If the pressure is changed to 1.5 3
104 Pa at a constant temperature, what will be the new volume of the gas?

Given:

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Required: final volume or V2

Solution: From Boyle’s law

Substituting values,

Under normal resting conditions, we breathe about 12 times per minute, each time
inhaling and exhaling about 500 mL of air. When we inhale, we lower the diaphragm or raise
the rib cage, either of which increases the volume of the chest cavity. In accord with Boyle’s law,
as the volume of the chest cavity increases, the pressure within it decreases and becomes lower
than the outside pressure. As a result, air flows from the higher-pressure area outside the body
into the lungs.

While the difference in these two pressures is only about 3 mm Hg, it is enough to cause
air to flow into the lungs. In exhaling, we reverse the process: We raise the diaphragm or lower
the rib cage. The resulting decrease in volume increases the pressure inside the chest cavity,
causing air to flow out of the lungs. In certain diseases, the chest becomes paralyzed and the
affected person cannot move either the diaphragm or the rib cage. In such a case, a respirator is

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LEARNING PACKET 5 | General Chemistry 1

used to help the person breathe. The respirator first pushes down on the chest cavity and forces
air out of the lungs. The pressure of the respirator is then lowered below atmospheric pressure,
causing the rib cage to expand and draw air into the lungs.

Assessment Task 5.1: In an underground natural gas reserve, a bubble of methane gas, CH4,
has a volume of 45.0 mL at 1.60 atm. What volume, in milliliters, will the gas bubble
occupy when it reaches the surface where the atmospheric pressure is 744 mmHg, if
there is no change in the temperature or amount of gas?

5.3.2 Charles’s Law

Charles’s law states that the volume of a fixed mass of an ideal gas at a constant pressure
is directly proportional to the temperature in kelvins (K). In other words, as long as the pressure
on a gas remains constant, increasing the temperature of the gas causes an increase in the volume
occupied by the gas.

Charles’s law can be stated mathematically this way:

This relationship between volume and temperature is the basis of the hot-air balloon
operation. Because the balloon can stretch, the pressure inside it remains constant. When the air
in the balloon is heated, its volume increases, expanding the balloon. As the air in the balloon
expands, it becomes less dense than the surrounding air, providing the lift for the balloon.
(Charles was one of the first balloonists.)

All temperatures used in gas law calculations must be converted to their corresponding
Kelvin (K) temperatures. To convert ‘centigrade’ to ‘Kelvin’ just add the constant “273”.

Sample Exercise 5.2: A sample of gas at 15oC and 1 atm has a volume of 2.58 L. What volume
will this gas occupy at 38oC and 1 atm?

Given:

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Required: final volume or V2

Solution: From Charles’s law

Substituting values,

Assessment Task 5.3: A mountain climber with a body temperature of 37 °C inhales 486 mL
of air at a temperature of -8 °C. What volume, in milliliters, will the air occupy in the
lungs, if the pressure and amount of gas do not change?

5.3.3 Gay-Lussac’s Law

Gay-Lussac’s law states that, for a fixed mass of a gas at constant volume, the pressure is
directly proportional to the temperature in kelvins (K):

As the temperature of the gas increases, the pressure increases proportionately. Consider,
for example, what happens inside an autoclave (an equipment used to sterilize medical
equipment). Steam generated inside an autoclave at 1 atm pressure has a temperature of 100°C.
As the steam is heated further, the pressure within the autoclave increases. A valve controls the
pressure inside the autoclave; if the pressure exceeds the designated maximum, the valve opens,
releasing the steam. At maximum pressure, the temperature may reach 120°C to 150°C. All
microorganisms in the autoclave are destroyed at such high temperatures.

Sample Exercise 5.3: In an autoclave, steam at 100°C is generated at 1.00 atm. After the
autoclave is closed, the steam is heated at constant volume until the pressure gauge
indicates 1.13 atm. What is the final temperature in the autoclave?

Given:
T1 = 100oC, P1 = 1.00 atm, V1 = constant T2 = ?, P2 = 1.13 atm

Required: T2 or final temperature

Solution:

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Substituting values,

The final temperature, T2 = 421 K – 273 = 148oC.

Sample Exercise 5.4: Home oxygen tanks, which provide an oxygen-rich environment, can be
dangerous if they are heated, because they can explode. Suppose an oxygen tank has a
pressure of 120 atm at a room temperature of 25 °C. If a fire in the room causes the
temperature of the gas inside the oxygen tank to reach 402 °C, what will be its pressure
in atmospheres? The oxygen tank may rupture if the pressure inside exceeds 180 atm.
Would you expect it to rupture?
Given:
P1 = 120 atm, T1 = 25oC T2 = 402oC
Gas tank will explode if the inside pressure exceeds 180 atm.

Required: final pressure or P2, and will the tank explode?

Solution: From Gay-Lussac’s law

Substituting values,

The calculated pressure of 270 atm exceeds the 180 atm rupturing limit of the oxygen tank. So,
the tank will explode.

Assessment Task 5.4: In a storage area of a hospital where the temperature has reached 55 °C,
the pressure of oxygen gas in a 15.0-L steel cylinder is 965 Torr. To what temperature, in
degrees Celsius, would the gas have to be cooled to reduce the pressure to 850. Torr
when the volume and amount of the gas do not change?

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5.4 Combined Gas Law

We have considered four gas laws which describe the behavior of gases as revealed by
experimental observations.

Boyle’s law, Charles’s law, and Gay-Lussac’s law can be combined and expressed by a
mathematical equation called the combined gas law.

The combined gas laws assumes that there is no change in the number of moles of the
gas.

Sample Exercise 5.5: A 25.0-mL bubble is released from a diver’s air tank at a pressure of 4.00
atm and a temperature of 11°C. What is the volume, in milliliters, of the bubble when it
reaches the ocean surface, where the pressure is 1.00 atm and the temperature is 18°C?
(Assume the amount of gas in the bubble does not change.)

Given:
V1 = 25.0 mL, P1 = 4.00 atm, T1 = 11oC V2 = ?, P2 = 1.00 atm, T2 = 18oC

Required: V2 or final volume

Solution:

Substituting values,

Assessment Task 5.5: A gas is expanded from an initial volume of 20.5 L at 0.92 atm at room
temperature (23.0°C) to a final volume of 340.6 L. During the expansion, the gas cools to
12.0°C. What is the new pressure?

5.5 Avogadro’s Law

In 1811 the Italian chemist Avogadro postulated that equal volumes of gases at the same
temperature and pressure contain the same number of “particles” regardless of the size of the
molecules. This observation is called Avogadro’s law.

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For example, all the balloons below each hold 1.0 L of gas at 258 oC (same volume and
pressure). Each balloon contains 0.041 mole of gas, or 2.5 x 1022 molecules.

Stated mathematically, Avogadro’s law is:

where “V” is the volume of the gas, “n” is the number of moles of gas particles, and “d” is a
proportionality constant.

This equation states that for a gas at constant temperature and pressure, the volume is
directly proportional to the number of moles of gas.

Assessment Question 5.2: What is anomalous about Avogadro’s law? (This question is
intended to measure your critical thinking ability in understanding the discussion.)

In chemical reactions involving gases, it means that the numbers of moles are equivalent
to the volumes of the reacting substances at constant temperature and pressure.

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Sample Exercise 5.6: Suppose we have a 12.2-L sample containing 0.50 mole of oxygen gas
(O2) at a pressure of 1 atm and a temperature of 258 oC. If all this O2 were converted to
ozone (O3) at the same temperature and pressure, what would be the volume of the
ozone?

Given:
V1 = 12.2 L, n1 = 0.50 mole, P = 1 atm, T = 258oC

Required: V2 (or final volume) and n2 (final number of moles)

Solution:
The total number of moles can be obtained from the equation when oxygen gas is
converted into ozone.
3 O2 → 2 O3

Then,

Substituting values,

*Note that the volume decreases, as it should, since fewer moles of gas molecules will be
present after O2 is converted to O3.

5.5.1 Standard Condition or Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP)

By standard condition, the temperature is 0 oC and pressure equal to 1 atm, one mole of
any gas will occupy a volume of 22.4 liters regardless of the size of the molecules.

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Assessment Task 5.6: Calculate the volume (in liters) occupied by 5.58 g of NH 3 at STP?

5.6 The Ideal Gas Law

In another way, we can also combine Boyle’s law, Charles’s law and Avogadro’s into
another law about the behavior of gases called ideal gas law.

The three (3) constant of proportionality is combined into a single constant, R, called the
‘universal gas constant’.

When the pressure is expressed in atmospheres and the volume in liters, R has the value:

The ideal gas law is an equation of state for a gas, where the state of the gas is its condition
at a given time. A particular state of a gas is described by its pressure, volume, temperature, and
number of moles. Knowledge of any three of these properties is enough to completely define the
state of a gas, since the fourth property can then be determined from the equation for the ideal
gas law.

It is important to recognize that the ideal gas law is an empirical equation—it is based on
experimental measurements of the properties of gases. A gas that obeys this equation is said to
behave ideally. The ideal gas equation is best regarded as a limiting law—it expresses behavior
that real gases approach at low pressures and high temperatures. Therefore, an ideal gas is a
hypothetical substance. However, most gases obey the ideal gas equation closely enough at
pressures below 1 atm that only minimal errors result from assuming ideal behavior. Unless you
are given information to the contrary, you should assume ideal gas behavior when solving
problems involving gases in this text.

The ideal gas law can be used to solve a variety of problems. The sample exercise below
demonstrates one type, where you are asked to find one property characterizing the state of a
gas, given the other three variables.

Sample Exercise 5.6: A sample of hydrogen gas (H2) has a volume of 8.56 L at a temperature
of 0oC and a pressure of 1.5 atm. Calculate the moles of H2 molecules present in this gas
sample.

Given:

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Required: moles of hydrogen gas present

Solution:
Substitute values into the ideal gas law and proper cancelation of units:

5.7 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure

In a mixture of gases, each molecule acts independently of all the others, provided that
the gases behave as ideal gases and do not interact with each other in any way. For this reason,
the ideal gas law works for mixtures of gases as well as for pure gases.

Dalton’s law of partial pressures states that the total pressure, PT, of a mixture of gases is
the sum of the partial pressures (P1, P2, P3 ..) of each individual gas:

PT = P1 + P2 + P3 …..

The pressure of one gas in a mixture of gases is called the partial pressure of that gas.

A corollary to Dalton’s law is that the partial pressure of a gas in a mixture is the pressure
that the gas would exert if it were alone in the container. The equation holds separately for each
gas in the mixture as well as for the mixture as a whole.

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Consider a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen illustrated above. At constant volume and
temperature, the total pressure of the mixture is equal to the pressure that the nitrogen alone
plus the oxygen alone would exert.

Assessment Task 5.7: To a tank containing N2 at 2.0 atm and O2 at 1.0 atm, we add an unknown
quantity of CO2 until the total pressure within the tank is 4.6 atm. What is the partial
pressure of the CO2?

5.8 Gas Stoichiometry

In previous modules, we used relationships between amounts (in moles) and masses (in
grams) of reactants and products to solve stoichiometry problems. When the reactants and/or
products are gases, we can also use the relationships between amounts moles (n) and volume
(V) to solve such problems.

Suppose we have 1 mole of an ideal gas at 08C (273 K) and 1 atm. From the ideal gas law,
the volume of the gas is given by

This volume of 22.42 L is the molar volume of an ideal gas (at 0oC and 1 atm). The measured
molar volumes of several gases are listed below.

Note that the molar volumes of some of the gases are very close to the ideal value, while others
deviate significantly.

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The conditions 0oC and 1 atm, called standard temperature and pressure (abbreviated STP), are
common reference conditions for the properties of gases. For example, the molar volume of an
ideal gas is 22.4 L at STP.

Assessment Task 5.3: What if STP was defined as normal room temperature (22°C) and 1 atm?
How would this affect the molar volume of an ideal gas? Include an explanation and a
number.

Sample Exercise 5.7: A sample of nitrogen gas has a volume of 1.75 L at STP. How many moles
of N2 are present?

Given:
volume of N2 gas at STP = 1.75 L

Required: moles of nitrogen gas present

Solution:

We could solve this problem by using the ideal gas equation, but we can take a shortcut by
using the molar volume of an ideal gas at STP. Since 1 mole of an ideal gas at STP has a volume
of 22.4, 1.75 L N2 at STP will contain less than 1 mole. We can find how many moles using the
ratio of 1.75 L to 22.4 L.

Many chemical reactions involve gases. By assuming ideal behavior for these gases, we
can carry out stoichiometric calculations if the pressure, volume, and temperature of the gases
are known.

Sample Exercise 5.8: Quicklime (CaO) is produced by the thermal decomposition of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3). Calculate the volume of CO2 at STP produced from the
decomposition of 152 g CaCO3 by the reaction.

CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)

Given:
mass of CaCO3 = 152 g
reaction at STP

Required: volume of CO2

Solution:

First thing you have to do is check if the equation is balance. If not, then you balance the
equation.

CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)

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After balancing the equation, convert first the mass of CaCO 3 into mole. In here, you need the
formula mass of CaCO3.

Formula mass CaCO3 = 40 amu + 12 amu + 3(16 amu) = 100 amu

From the balanced chemical equation, the amount of CO2 produced in mole is,

Using the molar volume at STP:

5.9 Assignment

1. What happens when a person lowers the diaphragm in his or her chest cavity?
2. In a sphygmomanometer one listens to the first tapping sound as the constrictive pressure of
the arm cuff is slowly released. What is the significance of this tapping sound?
3. If you fill a glass bottle with water, cap it, and cool to 2108C the bottle will crack. Explain.
4. A sample of methane gas having a volume of 2.80 L at 25oC and 1.65 atm was mixed with a
sample of oxygen gas having a volume of 35.0 L at 31oC and 1.25 atm. The mixture was then
ignited to form carbon dioxide and water. Calculate the volume of CO 2 formed at a pressure
of 2.50 atm and a temperature of 125oC.

5.10 References

Brown, T., LeMay, H., Bursten, B., Murphy, C., Woodward, P., and Stoltzfus, M. (2015).
Chemistry: The Central Science. 13th Edition. New York: Pearson
Zumdahl, S. and Zumdahl, S. (2014). Chemistry. 9th Edition. United States: Cengage Learning

5.11 Acknowledgement

All figures, diagrams, tables and other information contained in this module were taken
from the references enumerated above.

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