CHAPTER

1
Euclidean Space

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
Understand the meaning of a vector.
Define basic operations on vectors.
Kuow fundamental properties of vector addition and scalar muliplication.
Understand the meaning of linear combinations of vectors.
Define the dot product of two vectors in R
Know the basicproperties of dot product of vectors in R".
Know that the Cauchy-Schwarz Inequaliy and the Triangle Inequaliy hold for vectors
in R"
Define the angle between two vectors in R
Define projection vector of one vector onto qnother vector in R
Express any yector in R" as the sum of two component vectors such that one(if non-zero)
is parallel o a given vector x, and the
other is orthogonal to x.
Calculate the work done by a véctor force acting on an object
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO VECTORS
in this section, we introduce vectors and define two fundamental
and scalar multiplication. We use the notation
operations on vectors: addition
R to denote the set of all real numbers.

DEFINITION Real n-Vector

If nis a positive integer, then a
real n-vector is detined as an ordered seauence of n real
numbers (also referred to as ordered n-tuples of real numbers)
The of all n-vectors is denoted by R"
set
and is referred to as the Eucliden n-space. For example
R is the set of all 2-vectors (ordered
all 3-vectors (ordered 3-tuples ordered
2-uples ordered pairs) of real numbers. R is the set of
=

triples) of real numbers.

We use boldface lowercase letters, such as
x, y, z, to represent n-vectors.
context, each n-vector x in R" is expressed as a row vector
Depending on the
 1.3
1.2 Lincar Algehra Euclhdean Space
or as a column vector DEFINITION Subtraction of Vectors
+ (-y). In otber
Let and y be two vectors in R". Then by
x
r y, we mcan the vcctor x
-

cach of y from the comesponding entry of A.

words, to find x y, we subtract
-
entry
and [2, -3, I, 0, then
For example, if * =-1,3;-7, 5), y=

where each x, is reai number. The numbers

a
X. X. called components, entries, or
are
*-y =[-1 -2,3-(-3),-7-1,5 - 0] =(-3,6, -8, 5]
coordinates of.r. More specifically. x, is the ith
X ,o f real
component of x. In general, any ordered n-tuple DEFINITION ScalarMultiplication
numbers Is an element of R" and is referred to as
a vector in R". For
) be a vectorin R, and let c be any'scalar (real númber). Then the
example, [1, 0, 2, -3] e R. Letx= by multiplying each entry of
scalar multiple of x by g denoted by cx, is the vector obtained
Note Often when speaking about R" and its vectors, real numbers are r by c. Thus, cx =[ex, Caz Cr
referred to as
scalars For example, i f x = [2, -3, -1, 4] andc = 4, then cx = 4[2, -3, -1, 4] = [8, -12, -4, 16].

DEFINITION Zero n-Vector

The zero n-vector is an n-vector whose entries are all 0. Properties of Addition and Scalar Multiplication
For example, [0, 0] is a zero 2-vector in Ri. Similarly, [0, 0, 0] is a zero 3-vector in R The following theorem lists the basic properties ofaddition and scalar multiplication of vectors.
DEFINITION Equality of Two Vectors THEOREM1.1 Ler =b J and2=p be any vectors
Two vectors x=l, and y .1.in Rare said to be equal, written in R and letr and d be any real numbers(scalars). Let 0 denote thezero vectorin R Then
r=y, if all corresponding entries are equal, ie., if x, = Y 1. y=ytx Commutative Law of Addition
Fundamental Operations On Vectors 2. x++ ) = (rty) *2 Associative Law of Addition
3. 0+x =x=* + 0 Existence of Additive ldentit
DEFINITION Addition of Vectors
4 X ( ) =0 =(-r) +¥ Evistence of Additive Inverse
Letx , X2X and y D, l'2
=

] be vectors in R". Then the sum

of r and y.
denoted byx y IS. deiined as 5.c(x +y)=cx +Cy Distributive Law of Scalar Muliplication over Addition
6 d rd Disirbutive LwofScalarMdtiplication.overAdition
Thus, the sum of two n-vectorsx and y is obtained
by
For example, if x = [2, -1, 3] and y =[-5,3,-2]. then
adding coTesponding entries ofx and y. cdedy ssociativty ofScalar Multiplicadon
8 Tdentity Propertyjor Scalar Multiplication
We will prove property (2) arid property (5).
ty =2-5, -1 3,3 -2] =
[-3, 2, 1] The remaining proofs are similar and will be left to
the readers:
Note Notice that we can add twO vectors
only if they have the same numbers of coordinates.
Proof of property (2):
DEFINITION Negative of aVector
r is anyn-vector, the negative ofr, denoted by r, is the n-vector obtained by replacing
each entty of by its negative
Forexample, if x = [2,-3, -1, 4]. then -x= (-2.3, 1, -4].
(definition of vector addition)

We can now define subtraction of vectors in a natural way

(definition of vector addition)

(associative law of addition in R)

Many books distinguish between vectors, such as [1, 5], and column vectors, such as
row

book, we express vectors as row or column vectors as the situation demands.

However, in this
 1.5
Linear Algebra
Euclidean Space
DEFINITION Length ofa Vector vector x
=
{x, I n R" is
magnitude) of a
.,

(definition of vector addition) the norm or

The length (also known as

defined to be
(definition of vector addition) lx| = Vaf +x t .+

=(* +y) +

EXAMPLE1 Compute the length ofthefollowing vectors

Proof of property (5): (6) [2, 3, -1, 1]
(a)-1,2,3]
cr+y)=c(1, ¥2 -x)*D»}» , ) )
(definition of vectors addition) sOLUTION (a) I[-1, 2, 3]|
=
-1+22+32 vI+4+9 =14 =

[cr y), ce }), .C, y,)]

* * +
+12 J4+9+1+1= V1S
=

(definition of scalar multiplication) I[2,3, -1, 1]|| =y2+3 +(-1? =

(6)
Then |cx|=ldlxl ]
any vectorin R
(distributive law ofscalar multiplication over addition in R)
THEOREM 1.3 Letcbeanyrealumber, andlet xbe
= (c, CX CX)+ [cy,, cy2 cy,] (definition of vectors addition) Proof Let x =
, I ., n. Then
lex|| = I[cx, CX2 . CX,
=c, 2 .,
,+cb,)Y ) (definition of scalar multiplication)
cx + cy V(c) +(cz2)+(cr,)
THEOREM12 Letr be a vector in Rand letcbe ascalar (real) Ifc
0 then either
CE0 or0
Proof Let r=, k ., p.THen, by the definition of scalar multiplication,
is positive and in the
Cx = [cx. CX CX,) direction as x when c
cx is in the same

0. Now,
In R<we know that the vector to define "direction" in higher-dimensional
0 and show that is negative. This motivates us
=
x
let us assume that c *
direction opposite to x when c
To prove the result,
each i
cx
=
0 = cx,= 0 for coordinate systems.
0 for each i (: c 0)
[0, 0, 0] =
0. DEFINITION Direction of Vectors in R
x
=
.,

said to be in the same direction if and only if

Two non-zero vectors and yin R are
.

vectors r and y are said to

that y c Ivo non-zero
dhere is a positive realnumber c such jCa
LENGTH OF A VECTOR there is a negative tealnumber such thatthe same
c
1.2 be any vector in R. be in opposite direction if and only if
vector in R. Let x= r,x] eitherin
for the length of a and only if they are
parallelif
Let us first recall the formula
of the point (,
from the origin (see Fig. 1.1).
y,) wo nonzero veotors are saidto be
is defined to be the distance direction orin theopposite direction
Then the length ofx +. This formula motivates us and [6, -3, 12] are in the same direction, because
distance equals vectors (2, -1, 4]
Theroem tells us that this For example,
The Pythagorean
vector in " as follows:
6,-3, 12] =3[2, -1, 4] or,
because [2.-I, 4)- ;6.-3, 12]
to define the lenyth of any
in opposite directions. because
[-2, 5, 1,0] and [4, -10, -2, 0]
are
Similarly, vectors

4,-10,-2, 0 =-2-2, 5, 1, 0]
DEFINITION Unit Vector
is called a unit vector.
A vector eR" such that |x|| =
|

FIGURE 1.1

*~** nIPpru wunouI 1OSS OJ conlinu

 Euclidean Space 1.7
1.6 Linear Algcbra
unit vector in the same direction as the given
2. In each of the following, find a vector

Forexample,thevector 0 is a unit vector in R, because +0+I +0 =1. (a) [6, 3, -5] (b) [1, 0,-2,4 t
Similarly. in R" the vectors ?
e [ 1 . 0. 0 . . 0). e = [0. 1, 0, . 0), e , = [0, 0, 0, . 1]
3. Which of the following pairs of vectors are parallel
(a) [8, -12], (6, -9] (6) -1, 4, 2). (-2, 3, 1] (c) [1, -2, 0, 2. 3]. [O, -3, 2, -1, -
are unit vectors. called the standard unit vectors.
4. Ifx (-1,4, 2] y - [2, 3, 1], and z = [2, 5, -3], find the following.
Given any non-zero vector x in R", we can always find a unit vector in the same direction as r,
given by (a) 2x (6) 3y ()x+y
(d) y-z () 3y-4x 2x+3y- 4:
5. State, giving reasons, whether the following statements are True or False.

Such a process of obtaining a unit vector in the same direction is called normalizing the vector. (a) The length of x , XziXg, *,) is f + + * +*
(6) For any vectors ax, y, zin R", (r+ y) tz =tt (y+).
EXAMPLE 2 Find a unit vector in the same direction as the
vectorx =
[-1, 2, -3.
(c) [2,-1, 0] is a linear combination of [1, 0, 0] and [0, 1, 0.
SOLUTION First we need to compute the nom
ofx: (d) The vectors [2, 4, 1] and [4, -8, 3] are parallel.
(e) Let x e R", and let c be a scalar, If cx = 0, and c * 0, then x =0.
ila|= -1) +2+ (-3} =14 ) If two non-zero vectors in R" are.parallel, then they are in the same direction.
Therefore, a unit vector x in the same direction as r is

3 ANSWERS
j-12-3= 1. (a) 5
(6) 30 c)3
DEFINITION Linear Combination of Vectors 2.
Let , be vectors in R. We say thatthevectorvis alincar combination of
if there are scalars c, C2 C5uch that 21
3. (a) Parallel (b) Not Parallel
and
EXAMPLE 3 The vector y =[-6, -7] is a
linear combination of the vectors v,(3, -2] (c) Not Parallel

24.1}, because
4.
(a)-2, 8, 4) (6) -6, -9, -3] (c) [I, 7, 3]
(d) [0,-2, 4 () [10, -7, -5] O4-3, 19]
The zero vector is also a linear combination of v and v2, since 0
=
0 v +0 v. In fact, the zero 5. (a) F (6) T T () F
vectorin R is always a linear combination ofany collection of vectors , n R Also, (e) T ()F
every vector .x Xgs ,in
=
can beexpressed linearcombination of
.,
as a the standard unit 1.3 DOT PRODUCT
vectors e=[I,0,.0), e, =[0, 1, 0, . 0, = [0, 0, 0 , 1), since in this section we shall discuSs an
important algebraie operation on . called the dot prodiuct ol
two vectors. The dot
product acts like multiplication in a lot of ways and enjoys many ot e
x[1, 0, ., 0] +z,[0, 1, 0, .., 0] +...
+,[0, 0, ..,0, 1] familiar algebraic properties of real numbers.
DEFINITION Dot Produet
EXERCISE 1.1 Letr 1nd D i be tiwo vectors in R'The dotor inne
product of and y, denoted byx is dcfined as
of the following vectors:
1. Compute the length of each
(c) [-1, -1, 2, -3, 4]
() -4, 3) (b)-5, 1, 2
 Linear Algebra Euchidean Space
Note thai the dot product ot fwo vectors in R" is a scalar, not a vector.

ENAMPLE 4 Ifx =-1,4,2.0] and r =

[2. 1. -4, -

1]. then
( - ) ( 2 ) + (4x) - (2-4) (0M-1) = -6
(Cx)y (C7)); * - (C
Recall that the norm of a vector x =

[r. ]
i. e
R is defined as
=

[cr, CX C r}
(cx)

Note Notice that we can interpret the square ot the nom of the vector as a dot product, since Simlarly, c(x ) = r (cy)
5. (a)

Because of this connection berween nomm and dot product, we can often reduce computations
invoving nomm to simpler computations involving dot products

= (r ) + r )
Properties of Dot Product
The following theorem contains some useful properties of dot product. (b) Left as an exercise for the reader.
Note The above properties help us in simplifying expressions involving dot p:roducts just as in
THEOREM14 Properties of Dot Produet
elementary algebra.
Letx V ] be any vectors in R, and let c
and 2 EXAMPLE5 Simplifythe expression : (2r-5y) (-4x+ 3y).
be any scalar Then the following properties of dot product on R hold.
: Conniutatinvin of Dot Product SOLUTION We have
1.
(2-5y) - 4 r - 3r) = [ ( 2 - 5 - (-4r)] - { r -S y ) r )
Relationship beineen Do:Prounet and Norm
2.
(20)(- (-iy)- (-] - (2)-1n--5) (r)
0 =-S(x ) 20(r ) +6(
3. x * =
0 if and only if r =

)- ISr y
4. c(r ) =(cx) y =r (cy) Relationship benween Scalar Muliplication and Dot Product -S 26(r ) -1
The following example shows thatthe Cancellation Law of Algebra does not hold for the dot
5. () (+)=xy+* : Distribuiive Lays of Dot Product,.0ver
Addition product
6)(r+)=r EXAMPLE 6 Show that the Cancellation Law of Algebra does not hold for the dot product, that
Proof 1. By definition, is, show that there exist vectorsx, J, t in R', with = 0 such thatx : =y:: but x*y.
SOLUTION Consider a = [1, 0]. y = [0. 1), and: =[1,. 1] Then

*[1, 0] [1 1]=(1)(1)+(0)(1) = 1
y:= [0. 1] [1, 1]= (0)(1)+ ()() = 1
*=y': but.r *y.

3.
THEOREM 15iCuchy Schwarz Incgualiy
Let andy be vectors in R Thenvl
= 0
IDelhi Uni. GE-2, 2016)
. . X, = 0
 1.
1.10
Linear Algebra Euclidean Space

0 0, then both sides of the desired inequality cqual 0. Thus we can

Proof If either x =
or y
=

assume that both x and y are non-zero vectors. We need to prove that
x+y

-1si
FIGURE 1.2

THEOREM 1.6 Triangle Inequality

Note that andare both unit vectors. Thus it is enough to prove that Let x andy be vectors in R Thenlr +ls |kl+ yl.
Delhi Univ. GE-2, 2016
-1 sa-bs1 for any unit vectors and b
a

To prove this, let us consider Proof We have

lx + = (r+y) (x+y)
(a-b) (a -b) lja - bIË 20 =

) + (r y) +0 x) +F y)
(a )-(a b) - (b a)+ (b b) 2 0
-2a b)+ ||bË (: a b=b a) (x x)+2(x y) +(y 3)
l 20
l+2x y)+ ly*
2(a b)+120 (:ll Ilb|| =
1)
a bl ..(1)
Further, lt us consider s l+2|1|ly|+| by the Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality)
(a b ) (a + b) = la + bf20
i.e.,
a a) + (a b) + (b a) + (b b) 20

l |2ab) +|b||2 20 Taking square roots of both sides of the above inequality gives the desired
(: 1la|l = 1 b|| = 1)
inequality.
1+2(a b)+1 20
Corollary 17 Let aand ybe vectors in RiThen for any scálars c de R lcr+dy|S m(lrl|
a b2-1 .(2) D where m maxlebd}
Combining (1) and (2), have -1 -b<1.This
we sa completes the proof. Proof By the Triangle
and
Inequality, we have
EXAMPLE 7 Verify the Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality for the vectors x =
[4, 2, 0,-3, -1] lcx +
dyl s lcx| + |ldy|l = lel||x|| +
1d|lF|l e
m|x| +
m|lyl S m(l*| +
yl
y=[1, 4, -1, 0, 2] in RS
THEOREM 1:8 Reverse TriangleInequality
sOLUTION We have
xy =4- 8 +0+0-2 =-6 **yl6 ..(1)
Letx and yare vectons an R Then 111 1
Proof Consider
Also, llxV16+4+0+9+1 =V30
Ill i+16+1+0+4 = V22 by the Triangle Inequality)

30/22 2165 25.7 .2)

lixlll =
=

From (1) and (2), it follows that lr yls a| |Isl. Similarly, it can be seen that

The next result, called the Triangle Inequality (or Minkowski's Inequality), has the geometric
each side of a triangle is less than the sum of the lengths of the
interpretation that the length of i.e.
other two sides. .2)
 Euclidean Space 1.13
Linear Algebra
1.12 Proof We have
From (1)
and (2), it followsthat ||1-»l| s |x+v|l lx+ l = (* t y) (x *y)

X *tx y +y Xty:y
THFOREM 1.9 Let andy be non-zero vectors in R Ifxiy2 0, then + l > l»l
I x | + 2(x y) + | | y =y:X)
x is a non-zero vector, we have x + = |a|2+ 2x y) +lyl
Proof Since i.e.
Similarly, it can be shown that
l+2(x y) 0 >
*y20)
lx- = lx|P - 2(r y)+ lIy
lr+2xy) +|>|*> I»F x +plP |lx -vP (x|
-
= + 2(x y)+ l>) -(x|- 2(x y) + |lvl) 4(x y)
=

(r r ) r (r +y)> r | xy- y f-ix -yP).

(r)xJ)>y
Angle Between Two Vectors
(Taking square root; each side is non-negative) To motivate the definition of the angle between two vectors in R1, let us first find the angle
x +l> lyll
between two non-zero vectors r and y in Ri, since a lot is known about plane geometry. The law
of its geometric interpretation:
is called the Parallelogram ldentity because of cosines for oblique triangle says that given a triangle with sides a,
b and c, and angle Gbetween
The next result
the sum of the squares of the lengths of
the diagonals equals the sum of Sides a and b, we have
In every parallelogram, = a 2 + b2 - 2abcos6
the squares
the lengths of
of four sides.
the

x+y
X FIGURE 1.4
Now, consider two non-zero vectors x and y in R< and place them in the plane, so that their initial
FIGURE 1.3 points are same. Let 6 (0 s0s r) be the angle between these vectors. Consider the vector x - y
that has its tail at the terminal point of y and head at the terminal point of x(see Fig. 1.5).
THEOREM110Parallelogram.Identity
E 21
add arc vectors in R, thenrty
Proof We have
(x +y)+(r-y) (-v)
-plk (* +y) lplP -(r y) -(
r)
=

lx++ lx +
x P + I p R + (* y)+( )
+|la|
2(| |P+y)
norms of vectors.
as desired. using the
can be defined
The next result shows that
dot product in R"

THEOREM 1:11 PolarizationIdentity Now we can use the law of cosines to see that
FIGURE 1.5

Rlhen
Lerand ybe vector$ in Delhi Univ.
GE-2, 2017
 1.15
Euclhdean Space
Linear Algebra between vectorsX
=
12, 0, -S, 4, -1] and y =|-4,, -1La
-1.0, 1,2)
EXAMPLE8 Find the angle 0
1.14
(1)
lx -Fl= x| l -

2|*| ll cose SOLUTION We have

2(-4)+0-1)+(-3%0)+4(1) +(-1)X2)
But Xy
x- =(*-y) (r -y) cos0 l 2o (-+4' +(-) V-4-1o.?
(
)-2(r )+( ) -6 6
= -0.234
30 22 2165
From (1) and (2). it follows that
cos(-0.234).

lxy - 2xi plcos8 x- 2 r ) +lyT immediately from the last

definition.
The following theorem follows
-2ia|lIlorlcose -2x )
ly| cos8 =r r
THEOREM1.12 Lefr andy be non-zero vectors and let 0 be the
in R angle betweenr anhd
.3) y. Then
Or,
0if and only if0 s0 <n/2.
with
We now want to define the
vectors in R"so that it is
angle between two non-zero
look at the
consistent
2. a 0 ifandonlyif 6 /2.
berween 1 and 1. If we
3 . y 0 ifandonly if7/2< 0sT
is a lies
number that
always
-

formula (3). Notice that cos -1l and 1, there is a unique

that for any real number a benwcen
graph ofcos 9 (Fig. 1.6). we find
real number 0 between 0 and n
radians such that cosê =a. DEFINITION OrthogonalVectors
Two vectors x and y in R" are said to be orthogönal (or perpendicular) if y=0.
******-*******************************

We'll writex l yif the vectors x and y are orthogonal.

Note In the definition above, the order ofthe vectors does not matter, becausc x y =0 ifand only
ify x= 0. Instead of saying that x andy are orthogonal, sometimes we say that x is orthogonal to y.
The following result is an immediate consequence of the last definition.
- *=***** *****
-1**
The zero vector 0 is orthogonal to every vector in R°.
FIGURE 1:6 The zero vector is the only vector in R that is orthogonal to itself.
Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality,
two non-zero vectors x andy in R", then by the
Ifwe consider any EXAMPLE9 The vectors x = [2, 4,-2] and y = [5,-3,-1) are orthogonal in R, because
it follows that
xy =(2)(5) + (4)(-3) + (-2)(-1)= 10 - 12 +2 0
But the vectors u = (2, 1, 1] and v = - 1 , 3, -2] are not orthogonal, because

radians such that

u (2-1) +()3)+(1)(-2) = -2+3-2= -1 0
between 0 and n
Thus, there exists a unique 6
EXAMPLE 10 In R", the standard unit vectors e [1, 0, 0, 0), e, [0, 1,0.0.
=
..,
=

cose x between two vectors to R" in a consistent

e[0,0, 0,.., 1] fornma mutually orthogonal set of vectors, that is, the dot product of any pair
of these vectors equals zero.
we can extend our usual notion of the angle
Hence,
manner. EXAMPLE 11 Given x, y, z in R", with x orthogonal to both y and z. prove that x is orthogonal
to c y t C2 Z, where c, C2 E R.
DEFINITION AngleBetween Two Vectors in
R"

Rn2 27Then the-angle between and y

js
Let x andy betwo non zero vectorsin SOLUTION Since x is orthogonal to þoth y and z, therefore
that satisties cos y =0 and x z 0
defined to.be the unique angle 0.between 0 and n radiahs
 inu gebru

COnsideCr

(Distributiv ity of dot product) ,

c(0) +
c,(0) =
0

0
x(c yt c2 z)
=

i.e. 1.4 PROJECTION VECTORS

x i s orthogonal to cy+ C2 have
In thi sectioi we discuss
li0 ioprojCCi i *oiront" J ject:on velors

Theorem in R< states that in a right triangle, the square

of the hypoteneuse
The classical Pythagorean many applicatons, cspecially n piysies. engincei ing n 0iti uii phrs
theorem, we generalize
of the other two sides. In the following
is equal to the sum of the squares Suppose and y
x are non-zero R (or in R), drawn st ine same iniia! pont. Let 0 denote
vectors in

Theorem to R. the angle between x and y. We wish to find the projection vector of r ontu . To do this we drop
Pythagorean
to the straigh! line i containing the vector
aperpendicular line segment from the terminal point of y
THEOREM 1.13 Pythagorean Theorem *as sihown in Figure 1.8 Suppose this dropped perpendicuiar
line segnie:i meeis the line I at C.
itand only if 0 .
Given twovectors r andy in Ri wehave +y B
Delhi Uni. GE-2, 20171

Proof We have
lx+ = ( r +y) (* +y) PA

( x)+ (r y) + 0:) + ( y)
ix|+2(r y) + Iwk
a)
l»F
l +yl= lx+2r )
+
FIGURE 1.8
i.e.
it follows that oty onto xis then defined to be the vecton i o 2tp1s in the same
From the last equation, The projection vector p
x=0.
l +l= lx+ lyP ifand only
tirectu, r : i b u s e (see Fig.
direction as .xif Gis acute (see Fig. 1.8(a) and in the oppos1ue
are perpendicular, then the
shows that if the diagonals ofa parallelogram 1.8(6).
The following example denote the unt vecha ia the direction of
let
parallelogram is a
rhombus (See Fig. 1.7). To derive a formula for the projection vector fp, we
see that when 8 is acute
the vector x. Then u =
From trigonomelry, we

u.
and is un the same drectior! as the unit vector
i.e., O s8< U2), the vector p has length ly|cost
Thus, in this case

+y p ilylcos8) i = (lylcost) |x

and is in the direction

<8S t), the vector p has length -Iyicost
Also, when 0 is obtuse (i.e., t/2
we have
FIGURE 1.7 opposite io -u, Thus, in this case also,
are vectors in R'
+y) r-y)=0, then ||x||= |lyl, where.x andy p l y l c o s0)(- u) = Ilylcos®
EXAMPLE 12 Prove that if(r
cases as
We are given Hence, we can express p in all
SOLUTION
+y) (r-) =0
(*-y) =0
x(r-y) +y
i.e.
 1.18 Linear Algebru Euclidean Space 19

P = lylcosbx
0 ift
proj,y =
0 iff iff x y
=

0,iff y x
=0 iff =

projx =0.

But we know that cos .rland hence p =2 An Orthogonal Decomposition

The next result shows that every vector in R" can be decomposed into the sum oftwo component
The projection vector p of vector y onto x is denoted by proj, y. We have thus derived the vectors such that one (if non-zero) is parallel to a given vector x and, the other is orthogonal to x
followingformula: (see Fig 1.9).

proj,y .1) J-proj.y

EXAMPLE 13 Ifx = [2, 1, 5] and y =[1, 4, -3), calculate proj,y.

proj.y
SOLUTION We have xy = (2)(1) + (1)04) +(5)(=3) =2+4- 15 =-9
FIGURE 1.9
and x|2 = 22+ 12+52 = 4 + 1 +25 = 30
THEOREM 1.14 Let xbe a non-zero vector in RI, and lety be aDy vector in R". Then y can
be decomposed as
proj,y projy*-proj)
Formula (1) motivates us to define algebraically projection vectors in R"
where proj,y f non-zero) is parallel to and proi,y) is orthogonal to x.
x

Proof We have
DEFINITION Projection Vector y proj,y+(0-proj,y)
Let x andy be vectors in Ri, with x # 0. Then the projection vector of y onto x, denoted
byproi, , is defined as where proy, is the
projection vector of y onto x. If proj,y * 0, then obviously it is

parallel to x, because it is a scalar multiple of x. Also y -

proj,y is orthogonal to x because

EXAMPLE 14 Calculate proj,y, if x = [1,0,-1, 2] and y = [3, -1, 0, -1].

-proj,y) x =y x -(proj,y) x = X*y-

SOLUTION We have
(1)O) + (0)(-1) + (-)0)
= + (2)(-1) =
1
*y
llx|2=12+02 + (-1)2+22 =6
Xy-Xy=0
proj,y
This completes the proof.
EXAMPLE 16 Letx= [4, 0, -3] and y= [3, 1, -7] be two vectors in R'.
Let and y be non-zero vectors in R". Prove that proj,y =
0 if and only if Decompose the vector
EXAMPLE 15 x y in two
component vectors into directions parallel and orthogonal to the vector r.
proj,x = 0.

SOLUTION The decomposition of the vector y into two component vectors is given by
and y non-zero, we have
SOLUTION Since the vectors x are
y proj,y +-
proj,y),
 I20
Linear Algehra
Lilerl Sit

where proj,ixË s the compoinent of y in the direction of the vector x,

and y -proj,y /50atvity ot real numbers)

.(1Cx
is the component of y in the direction othogonal to x. Now ( y X)

Conversely, suppose that x

y
=
x 3y corollary .19 can be expressed as a scalar multiple
of x plus a vector w orthogonal to x. in fact,
3)+0itf ...(1)
pro, 4 +0 3
where c= and iwI x. Now, if we show that c is positive and w
=

0, we are done. First,

note that

and y-projy 31-7|- - -2 y assumption

It can be easily checked that y -proj,y is orthogonal to x:

0

-proi)-x =|4)W0)+- )-- 0 i.e.

Corollary115 Letrand ybe vectors in R with x 0. Then y cxforsomescalar e have

We next show that w =0. We
and some vector.wsuch thatw is orhogonalto
vectors
Proof By Theorem 1.14 we can expresS y as sum of two component ( w = y - cr)
-
cx) ( -cr)
y proj, *0-proj) y y-2c(r y)+ clx )

is orthogonal to x. If we let c
=
and
lyl- 2alx|lyl +
c*|x| (*y=
ixl
where proj,y= and y -proj,y

be expressed as
Hy-proj,y, then y can
= 0

theorem.
Hw=0 =0.
where w is orthogonal to x, completing
the proof of the i.e.
ify
in R. Then x |rlly|ifand only THEOREM117 Letx andy be non-zero vectors in R. Then tr+yi= lxi +ifandonly
THEOREM 1:16 Letr and y be non-zero
vectors
yar for some c >0.
is apositive scalarmulipleofx Delhi Univ. GE-2,2016] Delhi U'niv. GE-2, 2017

Proof We first assume that

for some c >0. Then
First. suppose that y cr
=
Proof »|l
x+yl
=
|la| +

Squaring both sides, we get

 Linear Aleehra

( a unit vector in the direction of | , . 0)

-s 2-10 2-1.0
Therefore, the work done by the force is
>
0 (by Theorem...)
= Cx for some c
Conversely, suppose that y
=
cx for some c> 0. Then W=F.d= 2 )2-1.0 4)292 Joules

EXERCISE 1.2
(by Theorem.)
1. In each of the following cases, verify the Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality
(a)x [2,-1, 4), y = [-3, 0, 2]
..
(b) x = |2, 3, -1, 1). y= [1, 2,-1, 3]
( Each side is non-ncgative)
(c) *=[,-2. 0, 2, 3). y= [0,-3, 2. -1. -1
This completes the proof.
2. In each of the following cases, verify the Triangle Inequality.

Work: An Application of the Dot Product (a) x =[2, 3, 1], y=[-1,4,2]

Suppose that a vector force F exerted on an object causes the object to undergo a vector (6) x =[H, 3, 4, 1). y = [3, 0, 2, -1]
displacement d(see Figure 1.10). Then the component of F in the direction of d is ||F||cos,
(c)x= -1, 4, 2,0, -3], Jy= [2, 1,4, -I. 0]
where 6 is the angle between Fand d. The work done by the force is defined to be product of this
3. Find the angle 0 between the following given vectors x and y:
force component times the length |d| of the displacement. Thus, the work done by. the force

vector F is given by (a) [2, 0,-3), [-4, 1, -7]

H=
( Fllcos 6) ( d||) (6) [-10, 1,-6), (4,2,7]
ite. 4 Magrut defd
In other words, the work done by a force is the dot product of the force and displacement vectors.
() 1,3,9, 2, 5]. [2,-6, -18,-4,-10]
4. Calculate proj,y in each case,
and verity that y- proj is orthogonal to x.

The unit of work is Newton meter (Nm), since force is measured in Newtons () and displacement (a) x = (4, 0, -3], y= [3, 1, -7]
S measured in meters (m). Most commonly, work is written in units of Joules (U), an SI unit. (6) x = [1, 5, 2], y = [4, -3, 1]

is exerted on an object in (c)*=[1, 0,-1,3]. y = [0, -1, 2, 1)

EXAMPLE 17 How much work must be done when a force of8N
direction of the vector [, -2, 1) and causes the object to undergo a displacement of Sm in the
the
5. (a) Let x[2, -3, 4] and y [-6, 2, 7). Decompese the vector y into two
= =

direction of the vector [2, -1, 0]? component

vectors in dircctions parallel and orthogonal to the vector x.

SOLUTION We have (6) Let x [-1,2, 1] and y =[3, -2, 6]. Decompose
= -

the vector y into two component

F =force vector vectors in directions parallel and orthogonal to the vector x.

8 (a unit vector in the direction of[|, 6. For any two

-2, 1)
vectors x and y in R", prove that |*-|»| S|*-p
0 7. Let x and y be vectors in R". Then for any sealars c, d, e R, show that

2 - F lcos0
FIGURE 1.10 8. Give
lcx-dy| S m(llx +
direet proof
pl).
where

that, if x
m= max{lel.ld|}
vectors in R", then
a
and y are
||3x +
5y|l s S(|.x| *
|Ily'l).
 24 Linear Higebra
9. Caii a: tin iai or vned by a force f {3, 2. -i jiNewton) on an object which

10. Caicul he t t w r f r e i ifa fo1ce of 26 Newton iS exerted on an ctject in the

direc:ion of the i tor i-2, . t i d tha: the object traveis 1Om in the direction of the vector

1,2, 2
ANSWERS
(a; Cos 12
0
3. (a Vi3vo6 )90 (c) 180
99
4. (a) proj,y =

05(h)projproj,y 10
(c) proy*

20 30 40 94 88 l65
5. (a) Parallel orthogonal
29 29 29 29 29 29
(h) Parallel:
orthogonal6 36.
9. 12 Joules. 10. 258.4 Joules.