Isı Bilimi ve Tekniği Dergisi, 37, 1, 35-44, 2017

J. of Thermal Science and Technology

©2017 TIBTD Printed in Turkey
ISSN 1300-3615

INTERNAL AND TRANSITIONAL BALLISTIC SOLUTION FOR SPHERICAL AND

PERFORATED PROPELLANTS AND VERIFICATION WITH EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Mehmet AKÇAY
Turkish Military Academy, Defense Sciences Institute, 06100, Ankara, Turkey, [email protected]

(Geliş Tarihi: 18.04.2016, Kabul Tarihi: 25.07.2016)

Abstract: The solutions of internal ballistics in addition with the transitional ballistic equations are very important for gun
design. During the design phase of a gun, some of the main parameters decided on are the selection of the propellant chemical
structure and the grain geometry which may be spherical, tubular or multi perforated tubular. In this study, the Résal equation,
which is one of the basic internal ballistic equations, is solved by means of Runge Kutta method for spherical and perforated
propellants. The propellant chemical structure, propellant geometry, projectile mass properties and barrel geometry are the
main inputs for a typical gun design. The pressure distribution and the linear and tangential velocity of the projectile in the
barrel are predicted depending on time along the barrel length. The friction force between barrel and projectile, resistance
force created by the rifling against the motion of projectile are taken into consideration. Thermodynamic and heat transfer
parameters required in order to solve heat transfer problems of barrel such as cook-off problem are also obtained. The
calculation of erosion at the inner surface of barrel is another problem solved for the life prediction of the barrel. To design a
gun, solving internal ballistics is not enough, transitional ballistic of the barrel after the shot ejection has to be also solved.
The computer code of “Internal Ballistic AKÇAY” is generated for the solution of universal gun design problems.
Experiments are carried out with test barrel of 7.62x51 mm M80 ammunition at MKE ballistic test facilities. The theoretical
results are compared with the experimental results. The agreements between them are quite satisfactory.
Keywords: Gun barrels, interior ballistics, propellants, thermodynamics.

KÜRESEL VE ÇOK DELİKLİ BARUTLAR İÇİN İÇ BALİSTİK VE GEÇİŞ BALİSTİĞİ

PROBLEMLERİNİN ÇÖZÜMÜ VE DENEYSEL SONUÇLAR İLE KARŞILAŞTIRILMASI
Özet: Silah tasarımında iç balistik problem çözümünün yanında geçiş balistiği probleminin de çözümü gerekmektedir. Silahın
tasarım safhasında öncelikle seçilerek karar verilmesi gereken parametreler barutun kimyasal yapısı ve dane geometrisidir.
Barutun dane geometrisi, genel olarak; küresel, silindirik veya çok delikli silindirik olabilmektedir. Bu çalışmada, temel iç
balistik denklemi oluşturan Résal eşitliği küresel ve tek delikli barut dane geometrisi için Runge Kutta metodu kullanılarak
çözülmüştür. Tipik bir silahın tasarımında temel girdiler; barut kimyasal yapısı, barut dane geometrisi, mermi kütlesel değerleri
ve namlu geometrisinden oluşmaktadır. Namlu boyunca, namlu içinde basınç dağılımı, merminin lineer ve teğetsel hız değişimi
zamana bağlı olarak hesaplanmaktadır. Bu hesaplamalarda, mermi ve namlu arasındaki sürtünme kuvveti ile namlu içinde
merminin haraketine karşı yiv ve setlerin yarattığı direnç kuvveti de göz önüne alınmaktadır. Hesaplamalar sonucunda, namluda
ısı transferi ve barutun kendi kendine tutuşması gibi problemlerin çözümü için gerekli termodinamik ve ısı transferi parametreleri
de elde edilmektedir. Namluların ömür probleminin çözümü için atış sırasında namlu iç yüzeyinde meydana gelen aşınmanın da
hesabı gerekmektedir. Oluşturulan modelde namlu aşınması hesaplanabilmektedir. Namlunun tasarımının yapılabilmesi için iç
balistik problemin çözülmesi yeterli olmamakta, mermi namluyu terk ettikten sonra oluşan geçiş balistiği problemininde çözümü
gerekmektedir. Universal silah tasarım problemlerinin çözümü için “AKÇAY İç Balistik” bilgisayar kodu geliştirilmiştir. Elde
edilen teorik sonuçlar, MKE Atış Poligonunda 7.62x51 mm M80 fişekleri ile yapılan test sonuçları ve literatürde mevcut test
sonuçları ile karşılaştırılmıştır. Teorik ve deneysel sonuçlar arasındaki uyum gayet tatminkârdır.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Silah namluları, iç balistik, barutlar, termodinamik

NOMENCLATURE mM projectile mass

mB propellant mass
A Inner cross sectional of the barrel m* effective projectile mass
AP surface area of a grain m Bx mass of the burned propellant
APo initial surface area of a grain n burning rate pressure index of the propellant
a perforation diameter nz number of rifling grooves
bz width of the rifling grooves N number of perforation of a grain
Ba burning coefficient P pressure in the barrel
D caliber of the barrel Pa atmospheric pressure
LB length of a tubular grain R radius of a tubular propellant grain
 universal gas constant z fraction of burned propellant mass to initial propellant mass
RG gas constant V volume behind the projectile
QB specific heat of propellant VB combustion chamber volume
QK heat loss Greek symbols
t time  web thickness
tz depth of the rifling grooves  ratio of specific heats
T temperature ’ measured ratio of specific heat
T0 initial temperature  (z) form function of the propellant
U projectile velocity  covolume of the combustion gases
W(x) unit energy lost due to friction  propellant density
Wd energy used for the rotation of the projectile piezo piezometric efficiency
x location of the projectile in the barrel
b ballistic efficiency

INTRODUCTION ballistic period. The transitional ballistics covers the events

between the internal ballistic period and the external ballistic
The gun design has been the main interest for defence people period. It starts at the time when the projectile leaves the
since the gun powder had been discovered centuries ago. So muzzle of the barrel and is over when the pressure in the barrel
any of the development on this matter still has a great becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure. The transitional
importance. The main point in this study is to find out ballistics has been extensively studied in order to reduce the
relationships among the interior ballistic parameters and to muzzle flush, blast effect and to predict its effects on the initial
optimise a new gun barrel for the new weapon systems under velocity of the projectile (Moore, 1974). It is found that the
development. Interior ballistics is a science to be studied on increase in the projectile velocity during intermediate ballistic
to the development of a gun which throws a useful material period is in the order of per thousand of the muzzle velocity that
from one point to another one. In classical weapons, chemical might be neglected in comparison with the velocity changes
energy of the propellants is converted to the kinetic energy in occurred due to the other projectile constructive tolerances
order to overcome the resistance forces against the movement (Trebinski et al., 2015). Any of the above studies mentions the
of the projectile in the barrel and to accelerate the projectile importance of transitional ballistics for gun design.
up to desired level of velocity at the muzzle of the barrel. The
main goals for the solution of internal ballistic problems are The computational efforts and developments of numerical
to obtain the desired muzzle velocity without damaging the simulation methods have been increased during the last two
weapon from excess internal barrel pressure and to deliver the decades and the more complex solutions in internal ballistics
same type of projectiles to a definite target with the successive are performed such as the two phase flow problems in gun
propellant charges for heavy weapons or with the cartridge barrels which are modeled with the ready to use fluid
case for light weapons with high accuracy and dispersion. dynamics programs (Bougamra et al., 2014). Some
Some of the studies on internal ballistics are focused on theoretical and experimental studies have been carried out on
chemical and mechanical structure of the propellants which internal ballistics. They ignored some of the parameters like
are the main parameters for internal ballistics; most of the co-volume of the propellant and friction force between the
other studies have been carried out for the solution of the barrel and projectile and they could not discriminate the
internal ballistic equations (Résal 1864, Corner 1950, AMCP combustion chamber pressure and the base pressure at the
1964). Practical internal ballistic applications such as the projectile moving along the barrel. They compared their
method of Vallier-Heydenreich have also been well studied results with the semiempirical methods which require the
during the last fifty years (Öztürk 1981, Akçay 1992). Some maximum gas pressure and muzzle velocity in advance
of the basic approaches like Lagrange Gradient method and (Cronemberger et al., 2015). In fact, the main goals of the
the general considerations in internal ballistics are internal ballistic solution are the correct prediction of
summarized in the literature (Carlucci et al., 2007). The role complete internal ballistic parameters including base pressure
of exothermic gas phase reactions behind the projectile, the and velocity of the projectile along the barrel depending on
complications of the combustion processes of the time without neglecting any of the input parameters of the
nitrocellulose and nitramine based propellants, ignition barrel, projectile, igniter and propellant. The interior ballistic
problems of the solid propellants are examined in detail parameters like combustion gas temperature and pressure
(Summerfeld et al., 1986). The internal ballistics is mainly have been used to perform barrel stress analysis (Şenturk A.
based on both thermodynamics and fluid dynamics and some et al., 2016). The mathematical modeling of internal ballistics
models based on thermodynamics are developed in order to is still very important due to the high costs, long durations and
predict pressure time history in the combustion chamber and technical difficulties in new gun and ammunition prototype
velocity of projectile in the barrel for small caliber weapons constructions and experimental setups for their testings.
(Celens, 1986). The similar model was also developed for the
prediction of pressure and velocity in the barrel for small and In this paper, the Code of Internal Ballistic AKÇAY being
large caliber weapons (Akçay, 1981). generated since 1977 has been enlarged to cover the
intermediate ballistic period which has been necessary to be
The design of a gun and its barrel require the time dependent investigated not only to see its effects on muzzle flush, blast
pressure and temperature history in the barrel not only during effect and muzzle velocity but also the contribution to the
the internal ballistic period but also during the transitional recoil force to design recoil cylinders and recuperator for large

36
caliber weapons and motion mechanism for small caliber Combustion equation
weapons. Our interest in transitional ballistics in this study is n
P 
 Ba z 
the prediction of the thermodynamic properties like pressure, dz
 (2)
density and temperature versus time along the barrel during dt  Pa 
the intermediate ballistic period. This interest is rather
different from the information given above literature about Energy equation
transitional ballistics. Here the theoretical solutions that have 2
1 *  dx 
 QK  W x dx  Wd
PV x
been carried out for spherical and multi tubular propellant
grain geometries have given pressure time history, projectile
mBx QB  m  
2  dt    1 0  (3)

positon and velocity along the barrel length. Complete

thermodynamic parameters in the barrel for internal and where m *  m  1 m , m* is the effective projectile mass,
M B
2
transitional ballistic periods such as density, pressure,
temperature, specific heat coefficients, convective heat m M is the projectile mass, m B is the propellant mass (it is
transfer coefficient of the combustion gases are also predicted assumed that half of the propellant mass is converted to gas
(Akçay 2014, White 2003). The dimensions and angle of molecules moving with the projectile along the barrel),
D 2
rifling of the barrel and connection force between cartridge A  n b t is the inner cross sectional area of barrel
z z z
case and projectile, engraving force, the friction force 4
between barrel and projectile are considered in these including the geometrical effects of grooving, x is the location
calculations. In this way, calculation of the rotational motion of the projectile in the barrel, z is the fraction of burned
of the projectile in the barrel becomes possible also. propellant mass to initial propellant mass, P is the pressure in
the barrel, Pa is the atmospheric pressure, Ba is the burning
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM AND coefficient, (z) is the form function of the propellant, n is the
GOVERNING EQUATIONS burning rate pressure index of the propellant, mBx is the mass
of the burned propellant at time t, QB is the specific heat of
The theoretical principles of the internal ballistic problem propellant,  is the ratio of specific heats, QK is the heat loss
based on energy balance were first established by Résal through barrel and projectile, W(x) is the unit energy lost due
in 1864. During the interior ballistic cycle in a barrel, the to friction along the barrel and Wd is the energy used for the
amount of heat generated by the combustion of the rotation of the projectile and the recoil of the gun. The
propellant was consumed as follows; percentage of the total energy used for the rotation of the
projectile and the recoil is in the order of 1% so that it can be
a. Energy of linear motion of the projectile, neglected. Energy loss due to friction may be considered
b. Energy of rotational motion of the projectile, within the heat loss. Total energy loss through heat transfer to
c. Energy of recoiling parts of the weapon, the barrel, cartridge and projectile during firing is taken into
d. Energy of driving automatic weapons, account by considering polytrophic expansion of the
e. Energy of the flow of the burned propellant gases, combustion gases in the barrel. For this reason, the measured
f. Internal energy of the burned propellant gases, ratio of specific heat   value is used instead of theoretical
g. Heating the barrel, projectile and cartridge case, value of  and QK the heat loss parameter can be neglected
h. Energy to overcome friction resistance forces,
i. Work done against the extractor resistance for cartridge, (Corner, 1950). Energy Eq. (3) expressing the energy balance
j. Work done in engraving the rotating band for spin during interior ballistic cycle proposed by Résal is rearranged;
stabilized projectiles. 2
1  dx  PV
mBx QB  m*    (4)
The energies mentioned above how to be taken into 2  dt     1
consideration during theoretical predictions are explained below.
At a certain time t , during firing, percentage z of the
propellant converted from solid phase to the gas phase and
released energy is equal to the internal energy of combustion
gases and the kinetic energy of the effective projectile mass.

mBx  mB z (5)

Figure 1. The geometrical interpretation of a small caliber gun barrel. V is the volume behind the projectile in which the
combustion of the propellant occurs at time t;
Governing equations
1  z mB
The balance equations for mass, momentum, energy, V  VB  Ax  mB z  (6)

propellant burning and flow of combustion gases in the
barrel are given as follows; where VB is the initial volume used for propellant storage,
x is the location of the projectile in the barrel at time t,  is
Equation of motion
the covolume of the combustion gases and  is the
d 2x
m* 2  PA (1) propellant density. When equation (1) inserted into
dt

37
equation (2), the new combustion equation is obtained as a If Eq.7, Eq.11 and Eq.12 are rearranged, the linear burning
function of projectile acceleration. rate for multi perforated propellant grains is obtained as;

 
n n
 m * x  d R 2  Na 2 LB  m*  d 2 x  (13)
 Ba  z 
dz
 (7)  Ba   2 
dt  APa  dt 
2 R  Na LB  R  Na
2 2
 
 Pa A  dt 

Equation (1) and Equation (4) can be combined as; More comprehensive information about the form
function of multi perforated propellant grains and its use
d 2x A   1 in propellant burning has been given in Akçay (1992).

dt 2

VB  Ax  m B z 
1  z mB 

The pressure of the combustion gases at any point of the
(8) barrel can be calculated as
  
 m Q z 1  dx   2
A   1  1 *  dx   (14)
2
  B *B     P mB zQB  m   
 m 2  dt   
VB  Ax  mB z 
1  z mB   2  dt  
 
 
In order to obtain ballistic parameters of a specific gun,
equations (7) and (8) have to be solved simultaneously. For the The temperature of the combustion gases is given as follows;
solution of this set of equation, form function of propellant grain
(z) has to be known. Form function is expressed as follows;   1 z  
P VB  m B  z    Ax
     (15)
T 
 z  
AP (9) nmol mB z 
APo
and the density of the combustion gases is given as follows
here APo is the initial surface area of the propellant
grain; AP is the surface area of the grain at any time 
mB z
during combustion. Form function has a value of   1 z  
VB  mB  z    Ax
between one and zero. Propellant grains have wide      (16)
variety of geometrical shapes, like cubical, spherical,
strip, solid cylinder, tubular or multi perforated. The Transitional Ballistics
value of the form function for tubular propellant grains
is equal to one. The form functions of different grain When the projectile in the barrel, the parameters like gas
geometries and their effects on burning rate can be pressure, gas temperature and density of the gases have
found in the literature (Corner 1950, AMCP 1964, been examined in the context of internal ballistics. As
Akçay, 1992). Form factor is a very important soon as the projectile leaves the barrel, the combustion
parameter which effects the burning rate, burning gases inside the barrel starts to move towards
duration, combustion pressure and velocity of the atmosphere. The evacuation of gases takes rather
projectile in the barrel. A geometrical representation of longer time than the projectile movement duration in the
a multi perforated tubular propellant grain is shown in barrel. The evacuation of combustion gases from the
Fig.2. At any time t during burning there is a barrel is examined under the name of “transitional
relationship among the parameters of a grain; ballistics”. During the gas evacuation period, barrel
starts to function like a rocket motor and it moves the
3a  4  R (10) gun in the reverse direction. This occurs up to the time
when the value of the gas pressure in the barrel
decreases to the value of the atmospheric pressure. In
fact, transitional ballistics covers the events between the
internal ballistic period and the external ballistic period.

In this study, during the transitional ballistic period,

combustion chamber or cartridge case is considered like a gas
Figure 2. Geometry of multi perforated tubular propellant grain container as shown in Fig.3. The physical problem to be
(courtesy of Mr. Osman Başak). studied can be treated as the evacuation of a gas from a
container through a pipe. In this study the flow is considered
Considering N as the number of perforations and  as the as a kind of blowdown process (White, 2003). In this case;
web thickness, the mass fraction of the burned propellant is

z
 2( N  1)  ( N  1)L
3
B    (11)
 4( R  Na) 2  2 ( R  Na) LB  ( R 2  Na 2 ) 
( R 2  Na 2 ) LB

Here, the form function for the multi perforated

propellant grains is given as follows;
Figure 3. Evacuation of the combustion gases from
 z  
 3( N  1)  ( N  1)L 4(R  Na)  (R  Na)L
2
B  ( R  Na )
2 2
 (12) barrel to the atmosphere
(R  Na)L  (R  Na )
B
2 2
B

38
Continuity equation:  2
Po t   To t    1  1 B


  1A R GTo 02 t 

1  1
  1  (27)

Po 0  To 0  2V 
d
 oV   m (17)
dt
1   1 
 
The density of the combustion gases at any time t
d  Po   2  2   1  APo
1
 V    2   (18) during evacuation period can be given as follows
   1  R T 2
1
dt  RGTo 
G o
2
o t   1 B


  1A RG To 02 t 
1  1
Here,  1  (28)
o 0  2 V 
V  VB  AL (19)
Efficiency problem for internal ballistics
Energy equation:
The two types of efficiencies are described in internal
dQ dW d P  (20)
  0   o VCV To   m CPTo ballistics. One is the piezometric efficiency
dt dt dt  RGTo  piazo=Paverage/Pmax reflects the shape of the pressure curve
P(x). In our case the low piezometric efficiency means that
By combining Eq.17 and Eq.19 and defining: thinner barrel wall thickness, less recoil, lighter and more
Considering mobile weapon, low muzzle pressure, less flash and less
1   1 
dispersion. The second one is the ballistic efficiency
 
 2  2   1 
1
b=½mU2/mBQB which shows the ratio between the kinetic
B   2
 (21)
   1
energy of the projectile at muzzle of the barrel and the total
energy stored in the propellant.
The pressure change in the barrel becomes
NUMERICAL METHOD OF SOLUTION
dPo A RGTo (22)
 B dt
Po RGTo V In order to solve the set of the differential equations
P t through Eq.1 to Eq.8, forth order modified Runge Kutta
dPo A RGTo

Po
Po
 B
RGTo
V 0
dt (23) method (Kopchenova et al., 1975) is used in the computer
program written in visual Fortran. The original code was
developed in 1977 during the development of 155 mm
So that at any time t , the pressure in the barrel can be gun barrel, recoil cylinders and recuperator (Akçay,
given as follows; 1981). The total internal ballistic cycle is completed
A RG T0
around one mili second for the small caliber guns, so that
B
Pt   Poe V
t
(24) the time step is set to 0.00000001 second. Boundary
conditions are
The duration of gas evacuation period lasts until the pressure
in the barrel becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure. If For internal ballistics;
this time period considered as t , from Eq.23
Initial condition t = 0 x = 0, P = Pa
P Final condition t = t1 x = L, P = Pe
ln a
Po (25)
t  For transitional ballistics;
A
B RGTo
V
Initial condition t = t1, P = Pe
obtained. Here A is the cross sectional area of the barrel Final condition t = t2, P = Pa
and V is the total volume including the combustion
Here t1 is the calculated time, Pe is the calculated pressure
chamber volume or the cartridge case volume and the of combustion gases at the time that the projectile leaves
barrel volume given as in Eq.19. the barrel muzzle. These two values are the initial
conditions for transitional ballistic calculations. The
The temperature of the combustion gases at any time t calculations are over when the gas pressure in the barrel
during evacuation period becomes becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure Pa.
2
  EXPERIMENTS
To t      1A RG t 
1 1B (26)

T 02 2 V
1

 o  The interior and the transitional ballistic tests have been
carried out for 7.6251 mm M80 and 919 mm Parabellum
The relationship between the pressure and the cartridges by using the test barrels at MKE internal ballistic
temperature during the evacuation period is test facilities. Length of the barrel in which projectile moves
along is 508.8 mm. According to NATO standard,

39
ammunitions to be used for internal ballistic tests have to be
conditioned at 21°C for two hours for normal conditioning.
All the ammunitions are conditioned at the specified
temperature and duration before the tests. The pressure
inside the barrel is measured at two points on the barrel, first
one just at the head of cartridge case, second one at 32.7 cm
ahead of this point. Piezoelectric probes are used for the
measurements of the pressure. The timing and the velocity
of projectiles are measured at 23.7 m ahead of the barrel
muzzle. The air temperature was around 20°C and air
pressure was 0.898 Bars during all tests. At least twenty
ammunitions have to be used to statistical evaluation of
velocity and pressure test results. Not only the mean values
of velocity and pressure are considered during test
evaluation, standard deviation, that means homogeneity of
the samples tested is also important parameter for internal Figure 4a. Pressure time history during internal ballistic phase in MKE
tests.
ballistic tests. With the technical information given about
7.62x51 mm M80 cartridge by Cronemberger et al., the
internal ballistic equations are resolved with the current
method in order to compare the experimental results given
in Cronemberger’s study and the results obtained by this
method. Although MKE cartridges have spherical
propellant grains, the cartridges used in Cronemberger’s
study has single perforated tubular propellant grains.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In this section, the results obtained from theoretical

calculations and experimental results are presented and
compared with the experimental results for both internal and
transitional ballistics. During the tests performed at MKE
facilities, M80 cartridges including 0.275 g double base
propellants having spherical geometrical grain are used. The Figure 4b. Pressure time history during internal ballistic phase
results of these tests are given in Figs.4-11. There is a time in Crononmberger’s tests.
lag between the values of measured and calculated time
depending on the position of the projectile along the barrel. The percentage of the burned propellant for spherical and
This correction is applied to the measured time values. The tubular grain geometries is shown in Fig.5. These are the
motion of projectile up to the muzzle of the barrel took 1.112 calculated values from MKE and Cronemberg’s tests. At
milliseconds. The maximum projectile base pressure the end of internal ballistic cycle 79% of the propellant
reached a value of 3478 Bars at 0.229 milliseconds and the was burned during MKE tests and 87% of the propellant
exit pressure was 550 Bars at 1.057 milliseconds. The results was burned during Cronemberg’s tests. The spherical
of the prediction showed that the maximum pressure was propellant grains are consumed faster than the tubular
calculated as 3526 Bars at 0.29 milliseconds and the exit propellant grains up to the time of 0.8 milliseconds and
pressure was 551 Bars at 1.109 milliseconds. Theoretical gives higher maximum pressure value.
maximum pressure occurred at 1.79 cm ahead of the
cartridge case which was in very good agreement with the
experimental result shown in Fig.4a. The general
agreement with the theoretical and experimental results of
the base pressure values along the barrel length is quite
good. The second experimental results are given by
Cronemberg et.al is also evaluated in this study for the
confirmation of the current theoretical approach. M80
cartridge case with 2.6762 g tubular grains is used in their
tests. The maximum pressure obtained during their tests
was 3260 Bars at 0.250 milliseconds, their experimentally
correlated exit pressure was not obtained but the pressure
around 700 Bars at 0.9 milliseconds as shown in Fig.4b.
The theoretical internal ballistic cycle for Cronemberg test
was around 1.213 milliseconds. The results of the
prediction show that the maximum pressure was calculated Figure 5. The percentage of the burned propellant by the time
3197 Bars at 0.24 milliseconds and the exit pressure was during internal ballistic phase.
598 Bars at 1.19 milliseconds.

40
 barrel in the discharging gases from barrel muzzle during
intermediate ballistic phase is shown in Fig.7.

Figure 7. The motion of a 7,62 mm M80 bullet during

intermediate ballistic phase (courtesy of Mr. Osman Başak).

Another two important parameters for internal and

transitional ballistic periods are the combustion gas
temperature and the combustion gas density. The results
of the theoretical predictions for both of these parameters
during the internal ballistic period are seen in Fig.8a. Up
Figure 6a. Pressure time history during internal and transitional to the 0.3 milliseconds, the gas temperature and the gas
ballistic phases in MKE tests. density for propellant having spherical grain geometry is
higher than that of the propellant having tubular grain
geometry. At the time greater than 0.3 milliseconds, these
two parameters mentioned above have smaller values for
spherical grains than that of the tubular grains.

Figure 6b. Pressure time history during internal and transitional

ballistic phases in Cronmberger’s tests.

One of the most important parameters for gun design is the Figure 8a. Gas temperature and gas density time history during
pressure time function for a considered barrel during the internal ballistic phases.
evacuation of combustion gases after the projectile leaves the
barrel. It is necessary to be known for design of recoil and
requperator mechanisms. The gas evacuation goes on until the
gas pressure in the barrel becomes equal to the atmospheric
pressure where the test is carried out. Here, the pressure
measurement of the gases was carried out depending on time
at MKE facilities. The calculated time during the intermediate
ballistic starts at 1.109 milliseconds and lasts up to 14.27278
milliseconds. The duration of intermediate ballistic phase is
thirteen times greater than the internal ballistic phase. The
experimental measurements cover the pressure values up to
3.22 milliseconds. At this point, the pressure inside the barrel
drops from 551 Bars to 69 Bars. The agreement between the
theoretically obtained values and the experimental values are
quite good for both internal and transitional ballistic phases as
shown in Fig.6a. The results of the theoretical and the Figure 8b. Gas temperature and gas density time history
experimental values of the gas pressure versus time history for during internal and transitional ballistic phases.
Cronemberger’s case are shown in Fig.6b.
The gas temperature drops from the maximum value of 2822
In Cronemberg test’s the intermediate ballistic cycle was not K to 2050 K and the gas density drops from a maximum value
examined so that no comparison was possible. The calculated of 392kg/m³ to 85kg/m³ at the time when the projectile leaves
time during the intermediate ballistics for Cronemberger’s the muzzle. The change of the gas temperature and the gas
case starts at 1.213 milliseconds and lasts to 14.40304 density with the time during transitional ballistic period are
milliseconds. The motion of a flying projectile in front of the shown in Fig.8b. The gas temperature in the gun barrel drops

41
from 2050 K to 477 K, the gas density drops from 85kg/m³ to
0.66kg/m³ during transitional ballistic period.

During the design period of a gun, the pressure distribution

and the velocity of the projectile along the barrel length have
to be known to calculate the barrel thickness and barrel
vibration parameters which are of vital importance for
accuracy and dispersion of the projectile at the target.
Theoretical and experimental pressure distribution and
velocity of projectile in the barrel are shown in Fig.9a. The
position at which the maximum pressure occurs is very
important for the prediction of the barrel thickness in terms of
strength of the barrel. The maximum pressure is measured as
3478 Bars and calculated as 3526 Bars at 1.79 cm ahead of
the cartridge case for MKE tests although measured as 3260
Bars and calculated as 3197 Bars at 2.20 cm ahead of the
cartridge case for Cronemberg’s tests. This means that the Figure 9b. Gas temperature and density distributions along the
barrel root must be 0.46 cm longer for the guns in which the barrel.
tubular grain propellant used. Experimental exit pressure at
The propellant burning process for both spherical and
the barrel muzzle is 550 Bars, theoretical muzzle pressure is
tubular propellant grains is shown in Fig.10. The
551 Bars for MKE tests, and calculated exit pressure value is
combustion of the propellant grains is steadily
598 Bars and no available measured value for Cronemberg’s
increasing along the barrel length and the consumption
test results. There is a very good agreement between the
of the tubular propellant grain is 8.2% higher than the
predicted and measured pressure values for both MKE and
consumption of spherical propellant grain. Tests are
Cronemberg’s tests. The velocity of projectile in the barrel
conducted at MKE facilities to measure the unburned
increases very rapidly up to 20 cm ahead of cartridge case and
propellants of 9x19 mm Parabellum cartridges at three
starts steadily increasing for the rest of the length of the barrel.
different propellant temperatures as shown in Table 1.
The calculated muzzle velocities are 833.7 m/s for MKE tests
To measure the unburned propellant, 60 shots for 21°C,
and 839.4 m/s for Cronemberg’ test. The velocities of the
105 shots for 52°C and 105 shots for -54°C are fired.
projectiles are measured at 23.7 m ahead of the muzzle and
The theoretical predictions were carried out with the
obtained as 828 m/s for MKE test and 834 m/s at 7 m ahead of
Code of Internal Ballistics AKÇAY which is capable of
the muzzle for Cronemberg’s tests. The data reduction applied
considering the propellant temperature effects during
to the measured velocity data for the two cases was applied with
the burning process. The experimental unburned
the External Ballistic Code AKÇAY and the experimental
propellant mass values are less than the predicted
muzzle velocities are corrected as 835 m/s and 839 m/s.
values, the mass difference between these values is due
to the combustion process going on in the barrel and
The change of the gas temperature and the gas density
outside the barrel during the transitional period and seen
along the barrel length are seen in Fig.9b. The maximum
as muzzle flashes. The theoretical predictions show that
gas temperature of 2822 K occurs at the head of the
unburned propellant mass is greater for spherical grains
cartridge case and drops to 2050 K, the maximum gas
than the tubular grains. No experimental results have
density of 393 kg/m³ occurs at 0.0205 m ahead of the
grooving drops to 83.6 kg/m³ at the muzzle of the barrel. been available yet for 7.6251 mm cartridges.

The internal ballistic efficiencies of 7.62x51 mm M80

cartridges with two different grain geometries with test
barrel are seen in Table 2. The theoretical and
experimental ballistic efficiencies were about 30% and
agree well with each other with a difference of 0.5-0.7%
difference. The evaluated mean values of experimental
base pressure are used to make a prediction for
experimental piezometric efficiency. The theoretical
and experimental piezometric efficiencies were around
37% for MKE tests and 40.5% for Cronemberger’s
tests. This means that the piezometric efficiency of
tubular propellant is 3% higher than that of the
spherical propellant. The comparison between the
theoretical and experimental results of the projectile
Figure 9a. Theoretical and experimental pressure velocity positon in the barrel shown in Fig.11 shows that there
distribution along the barrel. is a discrepancy between these two values in the
Cronemberger’s studies.

42
Figure 10. The percentage of the burned propellant along the barrel Figure 11. The projectile position by the time along the barrel length.
length.
Table 1 Unburned propellants for 7.6251 mm M80 and 919 mm Parabellum Cartridges.
INITIAL TEMPERATURE NUMBER UNBURNED PROPELLANT
CARTRIDGE GRAIN PROPELLANT C OF SHOT THEORY EXPERIMENT
GEOMETRY MASS MASS % MASS %
g g g
7.62x51 mm M80 SPHERICAL 0.275 +21 1 0.057 20.88 - -
TUBULAR 0.268 +21 1 0.034 12.64 - -
9x19 mm +21 60 4.98 19.30 3.6 14
PARABELLUM SPHERICAL 0.43 +52 105 8.80 19.50 2.9 6.4
-54 105 8.49 18.80 5.8 12.8

Table 2 Piezometric and ballistic efficiencies of 7.6251 mm Cartridges with experimental barrel.
PMAX (bar) PMEAN (bar) VO (m/s)  piezo  bal
REFERENCE
TEORI EXP. TEORI EXP. TEORI EXP. TEORI EXP. TEORI EXP.
MKE-AKÇAY 3526 3487 1326 1322 833.7 835 %36 %37.9 %29 %29.5
CRONEMBERGER 3197 3240 1338 1325 839.4 839 %40 %40.9 %31 %30.3

CONCLUSION REFERENCES

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT Corporation.
Thanks to MKE Gazi Fişek Factory for their valuable supports.

43
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Térmica (Thermal Engineering), Vol.13, No.2, p20-27. in projectile velocity in the intermediate ballistic period, Central
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Mehmet AKÇAY graduated from Faculty of Mechanical Engineering at İstanbul Technical

University in 1973. He received M.Sc. degree in kinetics area and Ph.D. degree in aeronautics
at the same faculty, in 1975 and 1986, respectively. He worked on rocket aerodynamics at
von Karman Institute for Fluid Mechanics, in 1978 as a post graduate student, and in the wind
tunnels of Canadian Aerospace Agency in 1982, as a researcher. He was also a special student
in Mathematics Department of Ottowa University, in 1982. He received Associate Professor
degree in Aeronautics in 1992.
He worked in several positions in the Turkish Army between 1973-2004 years. He was a
panel member of NATO AGARD FDP and NATO RTO AVT for 25 years. He has given
several courses in Military Academy, Atatürk University, Başkent University, ODTÜ and
Atılım University since 1975. He is currently teaching in Turkish Military Academy Defense
Sciences Institute. His main research areas are defense industry, aerodynamics, fluid mechanics, and
internal/external ballistics.

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