October 2004

The aerospace industry and manufacturers' unrelenting

passion to enhance the performance of commercial and
military aircraft is constantly driving the development
of improved high performance structural materials.
Composite materials are one such class of materials that
play a significant role in current and future aerospace
components. Composite materials are particularly
attractive to aviation and aerospace applications
because of their exceptional strength- and stiffness-to-
density ratios and superior physical properties.

Fibrous composites
A composite material typically consists of relatively strong, stiff fibres
in a tough resin matrix. Wood and bone are natural composite
materials: wood consists of cellulose fibres in a lignin matrix and bone
consists of hydroxyapatite particles in a collagen matrix. Better known
man-made composite materials, used in the aerospace and other
industries, are carbon- and glass-fibre-reinforced plastic (CFRP and
GFRP respectively) that consist of carbon and glass fibres, both of
which are stiff and strong (for their density), but brittle, in a polymer
0matrix, which is tough but neither particularly stiff nor strong. Very
simplistically, by combining materials with complementary properties
in this way, a composite material with most or all of the benefits (high
strength, stiffness, toughness and low density) is obtained with few or
none of the weaknesses of the individual component materials.

Particulate composites
CFRP and GFRP are fibrous composite materials; another category of
composite materials is particulate composites. Metal matrix
composites (MMC) that are currently being developed for the aviation
and aerospace industry are examples of particulate composites and
consist, usually, of non-metallic particles in a metallic matrix; for
instance silicon carbide particles combined with aluminium alloy.

Differences between fibrous and particulate composites

Probably the single most important difference between fibrous and
particulate composites, and indeed between fibrous composites and
conventional metallic materials, relates to directionality of properties.
Particulate composites and conventional metallic materials are
isotropic, i.e. their properties (strength, stiffness, etc.) are the same in
all directions; fibrous composites are anisotropic, i.e. their properties
vary depending on the direction of the load with respect to the
orientation of the fibres. Imagine a small sheet of balsa wood: it is
much easier to bend (and break) it along a line parallel to the fibres
than perpendicular to the fibres. This anisotropy is overcome by
stacking layers, each often only fractions of a millimeter thick, on top
of one another with the fibres oriented at different angles to form a
laminate. Except in very special cases, the laminate will still be
anisotropic, but the variation in properties with respect to direction
will be less extreme. In most aerospace applications, this approach is
taken a stage further and the differently oriented layers (anything
from a few to several hundred in number) are stacked in a specific
sequence to tailor the properties of the laminate to withstand best the
loads to which it will be subjected. This way, material, and therefore
weight, can be saved, which is a factor of prime importance in the
aviation and aerospace industry.

Composites on Aircraft

The following are some of the military and commercial aircraft that
use significant amounts of composites in the airframe.

Figher aircraft

 U.S. ' AV-8B, F16, F14, F18, YF23, F22, JSF, UCAV
 Europe ' Harrier GR7, Gripen JAS39, Mirage 2000, Rafael,
Eurofighter, Lavi, EADS Mako
 Russia ' MIG 29, Su series

Bomber ' B2
Transport

 U.S. ' KC135, C17, 777, 767, MD11

 Europe ' A320, A340, A380, Tu204, ATR42, Falcon 900,
A300-600

General Aviation ' Piaggio, Starship,

Premier 1, Cirrus SR 20 & SR 22
Rotary Aircraft ' V22, Eurocopter, Comanche, RAH66, BA609, EH101,
Super Lynx 300, S92
Complex shapes
Another advantage of composite materials is that, generally speaking,
they can be formed into more complex shapes than their metallic
counterparts. This not only reduces the number of parts making up a
given component, but also reduces the need for fasteners and joints,
the advantages of which are twofold: fasteners and joints may be the
weak points of a component ' a bolt needs a hole which is a stress
concentration and therefore a potential crack-initiation site, and fewer
fasteners and joints can mean a shorter assembly time.

Fabrication time
Shorter assembly times, however, need to be offset against the greater
time likely to be needed to fabricate the component in the first place.
To produce a composite component, the individual layers, which are
often pre-impregnated ('pre-preg') with the resin matrix, are cut to
their required shapes, which are all likely to be different to a greater or
lesser extent, and then stacked in the specified sequence over a former
(the former is a solid or framed structure used to keep the uncured
layers in the required shape prior to, and during, the curing process).
This assembly is then subjected to a sequence of temperatures and
pressures to 'cure' the material. The product is then checked
thoroughly to ensure both that dimensional tolerances are met and
that the curing process has been successful (bubbles or voids in the
laminate might have been formed as a result of contamination of the
raw materials, for example).

Composite advantages
In addition to the main benefit of reduced weight and formability,
composite materials offer better resistance to some forms of corrosion
than metal alloys and good resistance to fatigue ' a crack in the brittle
fibre is halted, temporarily at least, when it meets the tougher resin
matrix.

Disadvantages
The few disadvantages of composite materials are the raw materials
expenses compared to most metal alloys, the higher cost of fabricating
composite components in many cases and their susceptibility to
moisture ingress in some cases.

Use of composites in aircraft design

Among the first uses of modern composite materials was about 30
years ago when boron-reinforced epoxy composite was used for the
skins of the empennages of the U.S. F14 and F15 fighters. Initially,
composite materials were used only in secondary structures, but as
knowledge and development of the materials has improved, their use
in primary structures such as wings and fuselages has increased. The
sidebar on page 15 lists some aircraft in which significant amounts of
composite materials are used in the airframe.

Initially, the percentage by structural weight of composites used in

manufacturing was very small, at around 2 percent in the F15, for
example. However, the percentage has grown considerably, through
19 percent in the F18 up to 24 percent in the F22. The AV-8B Harrier
GR7 has composite wing sections and the GR7A features a composite
rear fuselage.

Composite materials are used extensively in the Eurofighter: the wing

skins, forward fuselage, flaperons and rudder all make use of
composites. Toughened epoxy skins constitute about 75 percent of the
exterior area. In total, about 40 percent of the structural weight of the
Eurofighter is carbon-fibre-reinforced composite material. Other
European fighters typically feature between about 20 and 25 percent
composites by weight: 26 percent for Dassault's Rafael and 20 to 25
percent for the Saab Gripen and the EADS Mako.

Research Data
The ESDU' Composites Series provides a collection of 'Data Items' and
programs for use in the design of fibre-reinforced laminated
composite materials. The information is provided primarily for use in
the aerospace industry, but has wide application to other areas of
engineering where composite materials offer similar design benefits.
It contains solutions to many strength analysis problems met in the
design of fibre-reinforced laminated composite structures. These
applications include failure criteria, plate vibration and buckling,
analysis of bonded joints, and stress concentrations, in addition to the
calculation of basic stiffnesses and stresses, and built-in thermal
stresses. Laminated composites can be specified in many forms and
assembled in a multitude of lay-up arrangements. Because of this
complexity the only practical form in which many of the solutions can
be delivered is as computer programs, and Fortran programs are
provided for many of the analysis methods. In addition to the
flexibility to change the overall geometry, a designer in composites can
arrange the material strength and/or stiffness to meet the local
loading. This complicates the design process and it is often difficult to
select a route to the best combination of geometry and material. The
ESDU Composites Series includes guidance on the factors influencing
the design and suggests methods of achieving the desired solution.
The ESDU Composite Series, which consists of 40 'Data Items'
accompanied by 26 Fortran programs, encompasses the areas

summarized below:

 Laminated composites ' stress analysis, stiffnesses, lay-ups for

special orthotropy, circular hole stress raiser, through-the-
thickness shear stiffness, laminate design
 Buckling of balanced laminated composites ' rectangular plates
(flat/curved), panel with orthotropic stiffeners
 Buckling of unbalanced laminated rectangular plates
 Sandwich panels with composite face plates ' wrinkling of
beams, columns, panels
 Bonded joints ' single- and multi-step lap, guide to design
 Plates under pressure
 Failure criteria ' failure modes and analysis, criteria, edge
delamination
 Damping and response to acoustic loading ' damping and rms
(root mean square) strain in panels, fatigue life of elements
 Natural modes of vibration ' rectangular flat/curved plates (also
with in-plane loading), sandwich panels with laminated face
plates.

The B2 stealth bomber is an interesting case. The requirement for

stealth means that radar-absorbing material must be added to the
exterior of the aircraft with a concomitant weight penalty. Composite
materials are therefore used in the primary structure to offset this
penalty.
Transport aircraft
The use of composite materials in commercial transport aircraft is
attractive because reduced airframe weight enables better fuel
economy and therefore lowers operating costs. The first significant use
of composite material in a commercial aircraft was by Airbus in 1983
in the rudder of the A300 and A310, and then in 1985 in the vertical
tail fin. In the latter case, the 2,000 parts (excluding fasteners) of the
metal fin was cut to fewer than 100 for the composite fin, reducing its
weight and production cost. Later, a honeycomb core with CFRP
faceplates was used for the elevator of the A310. Following these
successes, composite materials were used for the entire tail structure
of the A320, which also featured composite fuselage belly skins,
fin/fuselage fairings, fixed leading- and trailing-edge bottom access
panels and deflectors, trailing-edge flaps and flap-track fairings,
spoilers, ailerons, wheel doors, main gear leg fairing doors, and
nacelles. In addition, the floor panels were made of GFRP. In total,
composites constitute 28 percent of the weight of the A320 airframe.

The A340-500 and 600 feature additional composite structures,

including the rear pressure bulkhead, the keel beam, and some of the
fixed leading edge of the wing. The last is particularly significant, as it
constitutes the first large-scale use of a thermoplastic matrix
composite component on a commercial transport aircraft. Composites
enabled a 20 percent saving in weight along with a lower production
time and improved damage tolerance.

The A380 is about 20 to 22 percent composites by weight and also

makes extensive use of GLARE (glass-fibre-reinforced aluminium
alloy), which features in the front fairing, upper fuselage shells, crown
and side panels, and the upper sections of the forward and aft upper
fuselage. GLARE laminates are made up of four or more 0.38 mm
(0.015 inch) thick sheets of aluminium alloy and glass fibre resin bond
film. GLARE offers weight savings of between 15 and 30 percent over
aluminium alloy along with very good fatigue resistance. The top and
bottom skin panels of the A380 and the front, centre and rear spars
contain CFRP, which is also used for the rear pressure bulkhead, the
upper deck floor beams, and for the ailerons, spoilers, and outer flaps.
The belly fairing consists of about 100 composite honeycomb panels.

The Boeing 777, whose maiden flight was 10 years ago, is around 20
percent composites by weight, with composite materials being used
for the wing's fixed leading edge, the trailing-edge panels, the flaps
and flaperons, the spoilers, and the outboard aileron. They are also
used for the floor beams, the wing-to-body fairing, and the landing-
gear doors. Using composite materials for the empennage saves
approximately 1,500 pounds in weight.

The Boeing 7E7 will leverage extensive use of composite materials

(estimates are as high as 50 percent) in the quest for very high
efficiency and performance with reduced weight.

Helicopters
The excellent strength-to-weight ratio of composites is also used in
helicopters to maximize payloads and performance in general. Boeing
Vertol used composites for rotorcraft fairings in the 1950s and made
the first composite rotor blades in the 1970s. Composites are used in
major structural elements of many modern helicopters, including the
V22 tilt-rotor aircraft, which is approximately 50 percent composites
by weight. The formability of composites has been used to particular
advantage in helicopter manufacture to reduce the numbers of
component parts and therefore cost.

So-called 'conventional' metallic materials and their derivatives

continue to be developed and improved to offer ever-increasing
performance, and there is no doubt that they have a fundamental role
in aerospace structures and the myriad applications in which they are
employed. At the same time, there is little doubt that the considerable
benefits offered by composites have yet to fully exploited and as
knowledge and understanding grow, composite materials will play an
increasingly significant role. This role will expand not only as a result
of improved material performance, but also as human ingenuity finds
more and diverse areas where composite materials can be beneficially
employed and leveraged.

Additional ReSource
ESDU International
www.esdu.com

Adam Quilter is head of the strength analysis group, ESDU

International (an IHS company) ESDU International provides
validated engineering design data, methods and software for the
engineer. These are presented in over 1340 design guides with
supporting software and are the result of more than 60 years
experience of providing engineers with information, data and
techniques for fundamental design and analysis. ESDU data and
software form an important part of the design operation of
companies large and small throughout the world