CompositeStructureDesignAndAnalysis PDF

Chapter 4
Composite Structure Design and Analysis
Zhen Shen, Xianxin Tong, Naibin Yang, Mingjiu Xie,

Ye Li and Puhui Chen
4.1 General
4.1.1 Overview
The term advanced composite materials is given to an innovative range of materials

that were developed toward the end of the 1960s. These material systems have since
found a wide range of applications and continue to be widely developed. Currently,
advanced composites, in particular, polymer matrix composites, are widely used in
aerospace structures. Such composites are considered one of the four aerospace
structural materials together with Al, Ti, and steel alloys.
Reducing structural weight is particularly important for modern aerospace
vehicles. Advanced composite materials offer many advantages, such as high
specific strength and specific modulus, tailorable performance, good resistance to
fatigue and corrosion, and the potential for integrated processing. These factors may
permit weight reductions of up to 25–30%, if composites are used to replace
conventional metal structures in aerospace applications. Furthermore, air-elastic
properties can be considerably improved, which is difficult or impossible to achieve
with the use of other materials. Some advanced composites may facilitate stealth
and intelligent flight structures in aerospace applications. Owing to their superior
performance, advanced composite materials are also widely applied in infrastruc-
tures such as bridges and pipelines, and other vehicles including automobiles and
Z. Shen (&) X. Tong M. Xie Y. Li

Aircraft Strength Research Institute of China, Xi’an, Shaanxi 710065, China
e-mail: [email protected]
N. Yang
Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
P. Chen
Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210016, China
© Chemical Industry Press, Beijing and Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018 353
X.-S. Yi et al. (eds.), Composite Materials Engineering, Volume 1,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5696-3_4
354 Z. Shen et al.
ships. Applications of composite began in aerospace structures. Hence, resources

for design and analysis of advanced composite materials have been adopted from
aerospace experiences to benefit other transportation industries in both military and
commercial sectors.
4.1.2 Applications of Advanced Composite Materials

in Aircraft Structures
In the USA and Europe, development of advanced composite materials began in the
1960s and was first applied in the early 1970s. Fighter jets in service in the 1980s
used advanced composite materials in their wing and tail structures, comprising 20–
30% of the total aircraft weight. The wing structures of the stealth B-2 developed in
the 1980s was made up of *60% composite materials.
Applications of advanced composite materials in civil aircraft proceeded more
cautiously because of safety and cost considerations. To promote confidence in
composite technologies for civil aerospace applications, many programs were
implemented in the USA in the 1970s. These include the Aircraft Energy Efficiency
(ACEE) and Advanced Composite Technology (ACT) programs, and the
Composite Affordability Initiative (CAI). In Europe, the Technology Application to
the Near-Term Business Goals and Objectives (TANGO) project was initiated with
the aim of producing composite wing and fuselage components at a competitive
cost. In the recently launched A380, A350, and Boeing 787, contributions of
advanced composite materials to the structural weight were 22, 52, and 50%,
respectively.
In helicopters, the use of composites has reached 50–60% of the total structure
weight in military helicopters. Advanced composite materials make up 41% of the
structural weight of the US RAH-66. The vertical landing and tilt rotor V22 Osprey
contains up to 51% composite materials by weight and is considered to be a
full-composite vehicle. To date, many small full-composite airplanes have been
launched. Among these, the well-known passenger-goods dual-purpose “ship star”
has passed the airworthiness certification. The world-famous “voyager” has set the
world record for a continuous flight around the world without refueling or landing.
These successes are an excellent showcase for the effectiveness of advanced
composite materials.
In China, research and development of advanced composite materials and their
applications in aircraft structures were initiated in the late 1960s. In the mid-1970s,
the first composite structural components were successfully used in the air duct wall
of aircraft fighter. In 1985, a jet fighter with a composite vertical tail made its first
flight. In 1995, a composite wing with an integrated fuel tank was successfully
developed. This advance marked a new milestone in composite material applica-
tions in aircraft structures in China. Almost all aircraft currently in service now use
composite parts to some extent. In 2000, the commercial airplane-Y7, with a
4 Composite Structure Design and Analysis 355
composite vertical tail, passed the airworthiness certification ushering in a new era
of composite material applications in civil aircraft. Many large-scale commercial
aircrafts currently being planned will feature large proportions of advanced com-
posite materials. Applications of composite materials in helicopters have also
considerably advanced. Imported manufacturing technologies have been replaced
by native design approaches to next generation helicopters in China.
4.1.3 Properties of Advanced Composite Materials
4.1.3.1 Structural Performance

(1) Specific strength and specific modulus
Carbon fiber/epoxy resin composites are most often used in aircraft structures. The
use of these materials can greatly reduce the structural weight because of their high
specific strength (rb/q) and specific modulus (E/q). In Table 4.1, the performance
of unidirectional composites and conventional metals is compared. The advanced
T800/modified epoxy resin can, respectively, provide specific strength and specific
modulus 10 and 4 times as high as that of aluminum alloys [1, 2].
(2) Anisotropy and tailorable performance
Currently, laminated structures, prepared by unidirectional prepreg laying-up and
curing, are the main materials used in aircraft structures. Unidirectional prepreg
tapes are strongly orthotropic, i.e., performance in the fiber direction is different to
that vertical to fibers. To satisfy the performances requirements in specific direc-
tions in a structural plane, it is necessary to place unidirectional tape in different
directions at certain ratios. The designed laminates may be either isotropic or
anisotropic and may be either symmetrically balanced or asymmetrically balanced.
This unique feature offers considerable flexibility to designers. The use of
low-density advanced composite materials requires new structural design methods
to be applied at an early stage to fully take advantage of the properties of composite
materials. Composite forward-swept aircraft wing and the zero thermal expansion
coefficient structures are typical applications of laminating anisotropy, which offers
tailorable performance. However, anisotropy also presents some challenges for
structural design, analysis, and manufacture of composite structures.
Another characteristic of composite laminate anisotropy is that interlaminar
performance is typically much lower than that in-plane. There are also large dif-
ferences in the performance of different constituents, i.e., the mechanical properties
of the fiber and matrix. These factors typically contribute to failure mechanisms of
laminated composite structures, which are to very different from those of metal
structures. Impact damage and delamination are key design considerations.
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Table 4.1 Comparison between composite and metal materials

Materials T. strength/MPa T. modulus/GPa Specific strength/MPag−1cm3 Specific modulus/GPag−1cm3 Density/gcm−3
Al alloy 420 72.0 151.1 25.9 2.78
Steel (structure) 1200 206.0 152.9 26.3 7.85
Ti alloy 1000 116.7 221.2 25.8 4.52
H.S.C/epoxy 1471 137.3 1014 94.7 1.45
H.M.C/epoxy 1049 235.0 656.0 146.9 1.60
Kevlar/epoxy 1373 78.4 981.0 56.0 1.40
Z. Shen et al.
(3) Damage, fracture, and fatigue behavior

Features of advanced composite materials often include anisotropy, brittleness, and
inhomogeneity. These features, and the inferior interlaminar properties compared
with those in-plane, cause the failure mechanisms of laminate composites are very
different from those of metals. Their damage, fracture, and fatigue performances are
also very different. Although the laying-up and autoclave processing used for
composite components is simple, impacts by foreign objects during machining and
delivery are more likely to damage or induce defects in composite parts than
equivalent metal parts. Table 4.2 summarizes the fatigue and damage tolerance of
metal and composite structures.
① Main defect/damage types: Cracks are the main damage mode of metal
structures. For composite structures, the critical defect/damage modes
include interlaminar debonding, delamination, and low-energy
(low-speed) impact damage. Impact damage can cause critical damage
to composites by significantly decreasing their actual compression
load-bearing ability. While no visible damage may be apparent from
inspection of the outer surface, impacts may induce cracking of the
internal matrix or delamination. Visible checks are only reliable once the
compression strength has decreased to 40% of its original value after an
impact. Delamination is a unique damage mode of laminated compos-
ites. Impacts from tools, and foreign bodies such as runway chippings,
hail stones, and birds, together with the local interlaminar stress con-
centration and over-loading, may all contribute to internal delamination.
The occurrence and growth of this type of damage greatly reduce the
strength and stiffness of laminate components.
Table 4.2 Comparison of factors affecting fatigue and damage tolerance

Content Metal Composites
Main damage cause Fatigue, corrosion and Foreign impact,
stress corrosion processing defects
Critical damage Crack Impact damage/
delamination
Danger loads Tensile Compression
Stress–strain behavior Show yielding Linear until final failure
Notch Static Insensitive Very sensitive
sensitivity strength
Fatigue Very sensitive Insensitive
Damage check before failure Possible for visible Impossible for visible
check check
Damage growth Along main crack Multi-damage propagation
with regularity without regularity
Dispersion for static and fatigue Small Large
strength
358 Z. Shen et al.
② Notch sensitivity: Generally, metals possess a yielding stage; however,

composites typically show a linear stress–strain curve up until final
failure occurs. Hence, composites have much higher static strength notch
sensitivity than metals. Conversely, composites show much lower fati-
gue notch sensitivity than that of metals. The fatigue notch coefficient
(i.e., the ratio of the fatigue strength between a non-notched and notched
specimen under a certain number of fatigue cycles) is much smaller than
the static stress coefficient and close to 1 over the long term.
③ Fatigue performance: Metals are often sensitive to fatigue. For notched
structures, in particular, the fatigue strength will quickly decrease under
a tensile–tensile fatigue load; composites can offer much better fatigue
resistance. Fiber-dominated multi-direction laminates can pass 106
cycles in a tensile–tensile fatigue test under a maximum stress equal to
80% of the ultimate tensile load. Under tensile–compression, or com-
pression–compression fatigue, the fatigue strength decreases slightly;
however, after 106 cycles the fatigue strength remains at approximately
50% of the static strength value. For notched specimens subjected to
compression–compression fatigue tests, the fatigue strength corre-
sponding to 106 cycles will be greater than 60% of the static strength.
Although impact damage and delaminated composites do not usually
show crack growth under high fatigue loads, such damage may occur at
later stages of the component life. It remains challenging to determine
the probability of crack propagation in composite materials.
④ Stiffness reduction: For metal structures, the stiffness changes caused by
fatigue load are usually not accounted for; however, this factor must be
considered for composite structures bearing high-cycled fatigue, in
particular, helicopter components such as rotor blades.
⑤ Dispersion: The dispersions in static strength and fatigue strength for
composite materials are more than for metals. So, not only the life
dispersion coefficient, but also the load enlarging coefficient should be
considered in composite structure fatigue certification.
(4) Environmental effects
Besides extreme high temperatures, the effects of hot/wet environments on metals
are generally not considered. For composites, the combination of environmental
effects must be carefully considered. Composite matrices are made of polymer
materials, which can be affected by heat and moisture. The glass transition tem-
perature (Tg) of a composite may be decreased on environmental exposure resulting
in a considerable decrease in matrix-dominated mechanical properties, such as
compression and shear. Although corrosion is a serious problem for metals, com-
posites typically show good corrosion resistance.
(5) Electrical Conductivity

Compared with metals, composites have very low electrical conductivity. Special
lighting-proof measures must be considered in composite component design and
special attention should be given to the oil tank design and to avoid static electrical
shocks to compartments containing electrical instruments and devices.
4.1.3.2 Structure Design and Processing
Metal airplane structures usually consist of parts such as the skin, beams, stringers,
rib, and frame. These parts are mechanically assembled with a large quantity of
fastening components. Metal parts can be processed by machining, rolling, forging,
casting, and welding.
For composites, the material and structure can be manufactured simultaneously.
Structural elements can be connected simultaneously with material processing
through co-curing, knitting, braiding, and Z-pin technologies. Thus a large and
integrated structure can be designed and manufactured in one time. The number of
elements and fastening parts as well as the machining and assembling work can be
greatly reduced. Hence, the structure weight and production costs can be consid-
erably reduced. Owing to the above features, integration of design and processing is
a serious concern for composite structures.
4.1.4 Overview of Composite Structure Design

and Certification
4.1.4.1 Design Essentials
According to specifications for composites in military or civil airplanes applica-

tions, the design and certification of composite aircraft structures involve the fol-
lowing working phases: structural materials selection, determination of design
allowables, structural type selection, quality assurance, and building block approach
(BBA) certification. The composite structure design workflow includes the fol-
lowing steps [1, 2].
(1) Material selection
In addition to a material’s fundamental properties, processing ability, and cost, for
composite part design, the toughness, i.e., compression strength after impact (CAI),
and the maximum service temperature and environmental effects should also be
considered.
360 Z. Shen et al.
(2) Determination of design allowables

A typical laminating code and skin thickness are used for testing and determination
of the design allowables. Critical issues include the structural properties of laminate
specimens with typical stacking, such as compression failure strain, open hole
tensile/compression, filled hole compression failure strain, and assembly allow-
ables. Furthermore, the effects of heat and moisture should be included, as well as
fatigue properties. Defects are unavoidable in composites, and initial defects (in
particular impact damage) can greatly affect the strength of the component. Thus,
the effect of initial defects should be considered even if the design allowables only
consider the static strength certification.
(3) Structure type selection
On the basis of the structure design requirements and an outline of the external load
conditions, proper structure types are selected. If necessary, selection tests should
be performed to determine the optimized structure type. For the critical damage
tolerance locations, the structures should be designed with the ability to resist
impact damage. In the detailed design, special attention should be paid to
out-of-plane loads that could be applied to the structures. Care should also be taken
for open hole strengthening design. Honeycomb structures and thin skin structures,
are susceptible to impact damage and should receive special attention.
(4) Certification of typical structures and assembles with key structural
features
BBA certification tests, from simple to complex in different phases, can verify that a
selected structure type can meet the design requirements in key areas. The
durability/damage tolerance of the composite components should be verified in this
phase particularly for blended metal/composite structures.
(5) Full-size part certification
To verify that a part meets its structural integrity requirements, full-size part static
strength verification is typically performed. The durability and damage tolerance of
metal structures in blended metal/composite structures are assessed.
4.1.4.2 Affordability of Composite Structures in Low-Cost Design

and Manufacture
Although composites can satisfy the high-performance requirements of aircraft

structures and effectively reduce the structural weight, processing of this material is
expensive. In large-scale aerospace applications, lowering the cost of design and
manufacture are key goals of composite research. Currently, areas for cost-saving in
composite technologies include lowering the cost of materials and molding.
Automatic fiber placement technologies have also been developed, including
automated tape-lying (ATL), automated tow placement (ATP), and liquid
composite molding (LCM), such as resin transfer molding (RTM), resin film
infusion (RFI), and vacuum assisted RTM (VARTM). More affordable ACM
structures have received considerable attention for integrated structure design and
manufacture.
4.2 Requirements of Structure Design
4.2.1 General Requirements of Structure Design
The following requirements should be satisfied in composite structure design, in

addition to the general requirements for metal structure design.
① Co-curing, knitting, or adhering should be used as much as possible to
reduce the number of components and eliminate stress concentration
sources. Structure integration should be considered as much as possible
to take full advantage of composites. For large parts, it is also necessary
to consider delivery and repair.
② Out-of-plane loading should be avoided as much as possible in com-
posite structures. Special attention should be paid to the out-of-plane
load caused by off-axis or structural deformation.
③ It is necessary to consider the detectability of damage in manufacture
and service. If reliable inspection methods are not available, the potential
for large defects or damage should be considered in the design.
④ Environmental effects on materials should be considered, including heat,
moisture, and the largest potential impact damage that may be encoun-
tered in service.
⑤ If all the possible failure modes have been considered, buckling or
twisting may be allowed in thin laminated composites; however, buck-
ling in thick laminates should be avoided.
⑥ Owing to the lower conductivity of composites than that of metals
anti-static electrical, lightning proofing, and electromagnetic compati-
bility design and certification should be performed for certain parts of the
airplane to satisfy the safety requirements.
⑦ The cost of the design should be considered at all phases of the structure
design.
4.2.2 Requirements of Military Aircraft Structure Design
4.2.2.1 Static Strength
The static strength design requirements of metal structures can also be applied to
composite structures. Additional special requirements for composite structures
include: the combined effects of operation temperature and moisture absorption to
362 Z. Shen et al.
determine the allowables for the composite structures. The uncertainty coefficient
used in this case (the original safety coefficient) will remain as 15. The strength of
composite structures is related to the laminating code, geometrical shape, and
applied load. Hence, these factors should be also considered in the determination of
B-allowables. Large numbers of complex structural tests are used to determine
which of the B-allowables of composite structures are not applicable. It is
acceptable to use a specimen that can replicate the structure laminating code,
geometrical shape, and load to determine the B-allowables.
4.2.2.2 Durability
(1) General requirements

The durability design requirements of metal structures can be generally be applied
for composite structures. The key consideration for composite durability design is
to control the matrix strain level. Unlike metal structures, the fatigue life and
corrosion are not major factors to consider in the design of composite structure
durability; however, for the impact damage resistance, the following requirements
should be satisfied:
① The design should allow for checking and repair of damage caused by
low-energy impacts such as tool dropping.
② Special attention should be paid to the organic polymer matrix com-
posites, taking into account damage induced during services such as
low-energy impacts, and the potential for damage during production,
delivery, and maintenance. The repair of damage, maintenance, and
function of the component should be carefully investigated.
③ It should be confirmed that no invisible surface defects exist, which may
contribute to performance degradation of a part, requiring repair.
④ It should be confirmed that any impact will not result in damage to
structures that may become critical over two designed life cycles under
typical environmental conditions.
(2) Requirements for impact damage resistance
① Tool impact: On the basis of the probability of tool impact occurring,
composite structures can be divided into two categories. The different
structural requirements in durability design of these two structural zones
are listed in Table 4.3.
② Hail stones and runway chippings: There are two possible impact
sources that could bring about serious effects to structures; hail stone
impacts during parking time, and stone impacts during aircraft move-
ment on a runway. The selection of hail sizes will depend on the aircraft
capacity and should cover a range greater than 90% of possible hail
Table 4.3 Low-energy impact damage and durability testing requirements (tool impact)
Zone Damage Damage level Requirement
source
Zone 1 Impactor Impact energy less than 8.1 No functional problems, no need
Easily diameter, in J, or visible damage for structure repair, and no water
impacted 12.7 mm low (energy not below 5.5 J) leakage over two designed life
speed cycles
Vertical to No visible damage caused by a
surface single impact of 5.5 J
Zone 2 Same as zone Impact energy less than No functional problem over two
Not 1 8.1 J, or visible damage designed life cycles, no visible
easily damage, no water leakage after site
impacted repair
Table 4.4 Low-energy impact damage and its durability testing requirement (hail stones and
runway chippings)
Zone Damage source Damage level Requirement
All vertical Hail: Uniformly No functional problem over two
surfaces and Diameter: 20.3 mm distributed designed life cycles, no need for
upward Specific Central distance structure repair
horizontal weight = 0.9 between impact No visible damage
surfaces 27.4 m/s points 20 mm
Vertical to
horizontal surface
45° angle with
vertical surface
Possibly Runway: None No functional problem over two
impacted Diameter: 12.7 mm designed life cycles, no visible
structures Specific weight = 3 damage, no water leakage after
Equivalent to site repair
aircraft speed
stone sizes. The majority of stones that will likely be encountered by

aircraft moving on a runway will be small and the speed of their impact
will depend on the aircraft performance. In Table 4.4 the requirements of
durability design for these two impact sources are given.
③ Load from operation and stampede: Apart from the impact load, it is
necessary to consider the resistance on the operation and pedal loads
encountered in manufacturing processes or in a service environment.
The requirement on loads should be considered as follows:
a. Operation load:
Very difficult to reach, i.e., finger touching.
Easy to reach from top, i.e., one-hand catching and hanging.
b. Pedal load:
Very difficult to reach, i.e., difficult to stand on structure with one
foot.
364 Z. Shen et al.
Easy to reach from top, i.e., two feet can be placed on the structure.
Note: It is necessary to define the contact zone, position, and weight
related to each of the conditions above.
(3) Honeycomb sandwich structure control
This type of structure should be used in design elements requiring very light
weight, and in parts that can be easily replaced or be accessible for repair. These
structures are not permitted for use in environments exposed to water or for parts
that require immediate replacement. The impact energy level acceptable for this
kind of structure could be appropriately decreased, for example, to the level where
no visible damage 2.5 mm in depth or penetration could be produced by an impact
of 0.5–0.7 J.
(4) Damage sensitive zone and details
Special care should be paid to some damage sensitive zones of the airplane,
including the lower fuselage and the radome, inside the flap lower surface, and
cabin doors. These zones need to be strengthened with thicker structures, possibly
using glass-fiber to replace carbon fiber. Furthermore, the potential for a tire burst
necessitates special attention to be paid to the damage sensitivity of the tire zone.
Similar structures include components near the jet thrust reverser, which are sen-
sitive to damage from ice and debris on the runway.
① Minimum-weight structure: Components such as the radome structure
may not operate if the weight is designed to be too small. Another
example is sandwich structures with low core density. The surface plates
should have the minimum required thickness built into the design to
prevent water invading the core. Surface coatings should not be con-
sidered as the only water resistance measure. Coatings may become
corroded or abraded exposing the component to water.
② Joints of thin skin honeycomb sandwich structures are easily damaged
during assembly and disassembly. Thus, it is necessary to use solid
laminated structures in appropriate joining areas.
③ The rear edge of control surfaces is very sensitive to damage, the area
located 102 mm from the back may be easily damaged by ground
impact, loading and unloading impact, or by lightning strikes. These
components are difficult to repair because of the need to strengthen the
skin and the rear edge. It is acceptable in the design to add a load-bearing
element to resist the load ahead of the rear edge. The rear edge itself or
its surface should be reinforced with a material that is easily repaired,
which will not endanger the functional parts when damaged.
Considering the possibility of cracking leading to sealing problems,
sealing agents should not be used at the ends of components.
④ The edge of laminates should not be directly exposed to an air stream to
avoid delamination.
Possible measures include:
(a) Use of corrosion-resistant edge protection, such as co-cured metal edge

element.
(b) Use of an easily replaced sacrificial material to wrap the edge.
(c) The pre-cruise edge of wall plates should be placed in a lower position than the
after-air edge of adjacent preceding wall plates.
4.2.2.3 Damage Tolerance
Damage tolerance design principals of metal structures can generally be adopted for
composite aircraft structures. The major source of damage to composite structures is
impact damage. The feature of impact damage is that damage may not be visible on
the component’s surface, but underlying delamination can considerably decrease
the compression strength of the component. Composite structures are defined as
undetectable structures in design. In this section, some particular requirements of
composite structures are outlined [1–3].
(1) Assumption of defect dimensions
The damage tolerance of a component containing a defect should be sufficient that
the component has enough residual strength over the specified operation period.
Here defect refers to both initial and service defects. Defects caused by foreign
low-speed impacts can occur at any time during service, including directly after
being put into service. It is very difficult to detect such defects visibly over the
service time, and thus, this type of defects is defined as an initial defect for the
purposes of damage tolerance analysis and certification.
① Initial defect size assumption: Initial defects may be divided into three
types: impact damage, delamination, and scratches.
a. Impact damage: Considering the features of composite impact
damage, composite structures are defined as undetectable structures
to ensure structure safety. The initial defect size can be determined by
the basic concept defined as barely visible identification (BVID). The
following standards can be used in general cases:
(a) The BVID dent caused by a half-sphere impactor with
25.4-mm diameter (depth less than 2.5 mm).
(b) The damage caused by a half-sphere impactor, with
25.4 mm diameter, at the maximum energy possibly
encountered in service (typically less than 136 J).
The required energy for a BVID dent is related to the structure thick-
ness. The former of the conditions mentioned above is used for medium
thickness structures (less than 6 mm), while the latter is used for thicker
structures (greater than 6 mm). For general cases, the smaller value is
selected from the above two conditions.
366 Z. Shen et al.
When structures are not exposed to external impact or under threat of

damage or the parts can be checked carefully before the structure is
closed a lower impact damage requirement can be adopted. To pass
certification under such decreased impact energy criterion, the pro-
posed impact energy should be approved by the users; the impact
damage, including damage which expanded to critical dimensions
over a two-life-cycle spectrum load, can be detected by NDI tech-
niques that have been verified for manufacture acceptance.
b. Delamination and scratches: The initial defect/damage size assump-
tions can be selected from Table 4.5.
② Service damage size assumption: Service damage refers to visibly
detectable damage caused by high-energy impacts with foreign objects
such as bird impacts or lighting strikes. The size assumption for this kind
of damage should be determined and analyzed supported by testing.
(2) Residual strength requirements
The structural residual strength should meet the following requirements:
① Initial defect-contained structures: The requirement for residual strength
of composite structures containing initial defects is specified in the
section above and is the same as those for metal structures, i.e., the
ability to stand a maximum load occurring over 20 life cycles. If the load
is smaller than the limit load, the residual strength should meet the
requirements of the retaining load. If this load is larger than the limit
load, it will not be restricted by 1.2 times the maximum load occurring
over the structure life. This requirement is different from that of metal
structures.
② Service defect-contained structures: The requirements are the same as
those of metal structures.
(3) Damage propagation requirements
Usually, composite structures are considered as slow-growing “crack” structures.
No damage propagation models are currently used. In general, the absence of
damage propagation should be verified by analysis supported by testing. Fatigue
tests of small parts, elements, or substructural components may be used. Cycle
numbers of zero damage propagation should consider the dispersion of the com-
posite fatigue data and environmental effects. If structures designed with no con-
sideration of damage propagation show obvious defects or damage at inspection
intervals, the component should be re-designed.
Table 4.5 Initial defect assumption

Defect/damage Defect/damage dimensions
Scratch Surface scratch of 100 mm in length, 0.50 mm in depth
Delamination Delaminated area equal to a circle 50 mm in diameter
4.2.3 Requirements for Civil Aircraft Structure Design
The requirements for military aircraft structure design are generally suitable for
civil aircraft with the following differences.
4.2.3.1 Advisory Circular AC 20-107A “Composite Structure”
Some items involved in AC 20-107A “Composite Structure” are given below. (The
following has been simplified, the reader can refer to the original.)
5.d Impact damage is generally accommodated by limiting the design strain
level.
6.g It should be shown that impact damage that can be realistically expected
from manufacturing and service (but not more than the established threshold of
detectability) for the selected inspection procedure will not reduce the structural
strength below ultimate load capability.
7. Verification of structure fatigue/damage tolerance: The evaluation of composite
structure should be based on the applicable requirements of FAR 23.571, 23.572,
25.571, 27.571, and 29.571. The following considerations are unique to the use of
composite material systems and should be observed for the method of substantiation
selected by the applicant. When selecting the damage tolerance or safe life approach,
attention should be given to geometry, inspectability, good design practice, and the
type of damage/degradation of the structure under consideration.
(1) Damage tolerance (fail-safe) evaluation.
① Structural details, elements, and subcomponents of critical structural
areas should be tested under repeated loads to define the sensitivity
of the structure to damage growth.
② The extent of initially detectable damage should be established and
be consistent with the inspection techniques employed during
manufacture and in service. Flaw/damage growth data should be
obtained by repeated load cycling of intrinsic flaws or mechanically
introduced damage.
③ The extent of damage for residual strength assessments should be
established. Residual strength evaluation by component or sub-
component testing or by analysis supported by test evidence should
be performed considering that damage.
④ An inspection program should be developed consisting of frequency,
extent, and methods of inspection for inclusion in the maintenance
plan.
⑤ The structure should be able to withstand static loads (considered as
ultimate loads) which are reasonably expected during a completion
of the flight on which damage resulting from obvious discrete
sources occurs (i.e., uncontained engine failures).
368 Z. Shen et al.
⑥ The effects of temperature, humidity, and other environmental fac-

tors which may result in material property degradation should be
addressed in the damage tolerance evaluation.
(2) Fatigue (safe-life) evaluation fatigue substantiation should be accomplished by
component fatigue tests or by analysis supported by test evidence, accounting
for the effects of the appropriate environment. The test articles should be
fabricated and assembled in accordance with production specifications and
processes so that the test articles are representative of production structure.
Sufficient component, subcomponent, element, or coupon tests should be per-
formed to establish the fatigue scatter and the environmental effects.
4.2.3.2 Differences from Military Aircraft Requirement
(1) Residual strength level

For civil aircraft structures with defects and damage that have not been detected
during manufacture and in service, the structure should be able to withstand the
ultimate load in its expected life, without any effects on its operation function. For
military aircraft structures, the requirement is lower; the load to be withstood will be
the maximum internal element load occurring once in 20 life cycles of undetectable
structures [1–5].
(2) Initial defect dimension assumptions
For military aircraft, the impact damage dimension is clearly specified, either as the
maximum impact energy (136 J for thicker panels), or by the defined dent depth
detectability (deep dent in 1.5 mm for thin panels). For civil aircraft, there is no
such specification, and it is defined only by the impact damage that can be real-
istically expected from manufacturing and service (but not more than the estab-
lished threshold of detectability). Although a visual check is not specified for
inspection, it is commonly used, and lighting should be considered. Some civil
aircraft composite structures (such as the horizontal stabilizer box in the Boeing
7J7) have used the military aircraft initial defect dimension assumption. This is
currently based on a statistical analysis, and a smaller initial defect size assumption
has been adopted, i.e., 0.3–0.5 mm. A smaller impact energy cutoff value (36 J) has
also been certified by the FAA.
(3) Particular conditions for adhesive joint damage tolerance (with reference
to military aircraft)
If currently available manufacture technologies cannot ensure each adhesive joint
can meet its designed strength, and NDI cannot detect debonding and weak
adhering defects, one or two of the methods described below should be used to
verify the adherence of any joint regarded as a key safety flight element and any
joints that have a load-bearing ability not lower than their design limit load:
① Use analysis, testing or both to determine the maximum acceptable
debonding area of each joint under the load in the most serious case. The
detailed design should avoid the possibility of debonding over a greater
area.
② Proof testing should be performed for each end product, i.e., the largest
potential load should be applied to each key adhered joint.
4.2.3.3 AC20-107A Conformity Requirements
(1) Static strength [1–6]

① The impact damage possibly occurring during manufacture and in ser-
vice should be considered as inherent damage of the structure to be
assessed. It is necessary to consider locations where a tool box or repair
tool may drop and impact.
② Evaluation of the static strength should include the expected critical
failure areas, the corresponding failure mode, and the strain level. If the
failure modes under the expected deferent environmental conditions
(such as R.M. Dried and hot/wet) have the same probability of occurring,
these two ambient conditions are both needed for verification, or one
case should be eliminated from the design, without implementing
verification.
③ Special attention should be paid to out-of-plane loads caused by design
elements such as local thickening, which could induce early damage.
Figure 4.1 shows a flowchart of composite structure static strength verification,
in which the items in brackets are cited from AC 29-107A.
(2) Damage tolerance
In establishing structure verification plans, the damage tolerance requirements of
FAR AC25.471 and Item 7(a) in AC20-107A should be considered. Figure 4.2 is a
flowchart for composite aircraft structure damage tolerance evaluation, in which the
items in brackets are cited from AC 29-107A.
For example, the following aspects should be verified:
① Accidental damage (Failure-Safety) evaluation: Serious accidental
damage (Failure-Safety) evaluation should be performed. The primary
structural components or part of primary structure components should be
cut off to verify that the other structures can withstand design load limits.
② Check intervals: By following the intervals defined by 7.a(4) in
AC20-107A, the possibility of a missed inspection should be considered
in the regular damage inspection.
370 Z. Shen et al.
Fig. 4.1 Flowchart of composite structure static strength verification
Fig. 4.2 Flowchart of composite structure damage tolerance verification

③ The load spectrum and load removal method as well as all other aspects
related to damage tolerance evaluation should be written into testing
programs, and submitted for FAA certification.
④ The B-allowable repeated load verification on flight safety redundant
structures as well as the single-load transferring route structures should
have Failure-Safety capacity. Here, the Failure-Safety capacity refers to
the capacity to withstanding the designed limit load after a major part of
a single-load transferring route structure is damaged.
⑤ Ice hail impact should be included in damage analysis items.
4.3 Material Selection in Structure Design and Structural

Processing
4.3.1 Principles of Structural Material Selection
4.3.1.1 General Principles
① We should prefer materials with adequately characterized performance,

service experience, and reliable supply sources as much as possible. If a
new material that has been used in structures, is selected, it should pass
“building block approach” verification including element, typical com-
ponent, and structural assemble tests, according to the structure pro-
duction [2].
② Similar to metal materials, we should select cheap materials when pos-
sible if structural integrity can be satisfied. The cost assessment should
cover the following aspects: material cost, processing cost (consider
processing feasibility, processing temperature and pressure, as well as
the requirement for auxiliary materials) and maintenance costs.
③ Materials should have good processing ability. Consider processes such
as curing, machining, and repair. Processing and curing performances
include: resin viscosity, tack and drape, curing method, temperature and
pressure, pressure applying window, shelf life, and flow ability.
④ Materials should meet the requirements of the service environment and
mechanical properties of structures, including:
(a) The service temperature should be higher than the maximum
operation temperature of the structure. Under most ambient
operation environments (hot/wet), the mechanical perfor-
mance cannot obviously decrease, and should remain stable
in long-term service.
(b) Can resist impacts, including impact damage resistance, as
well as the residual strength after defect/damage.
372 Z. Shen et al.
(c) Open-hole tensile and compression strength, and joining

bearing strength.
(d) Fuel resistance, anti-medium, aging resistance, sand abrasion,
and rain corrosion proof.
⑤ Materials should meet some special requirement in certain structures.
(a) Requirements for electromagnetic performances such as
electromagnetic shielding, overlap resistance.
(b) Requirements as fire retardants, smoke and toxic release
behaviors.
(c) Good compatibility with related materials.
(d) Low input to ensure environment protection.
In general, it is necessary to select resins and fibers of different types and grades
to meet the requirements of different applications and structures, even at different
locations within the same structure. This allows materials to be utilized to their full
potential to reduce costs. Avoid over estimation of the temperature and toughness,
which may increase the material and production costs.
4.3.1.2 Property Data Sources
Data sources for mechanical properties of composite materials system and sandwich
composite should be authorized and approved for design purposes. The adopted
data should meet the following requirements:
① Performance characterization based on statistics should be used to
establish design data.
② All factors affecting the required strength, stiffness, and reliability should
be adequately considered in performance characterization, especially the
combined action of moisture and high temperature, as well as the effect
of defects/damage possibly occurring during manufacture or in service
(mainly open hole and low-speed impact).
4.3.1.3 Evaluation of Replacement Materials

① Before using replacement materials in production, an evaluation of the
equivalence of the replacement and original materials should be per-
formed in accordance with related standards, to ensure no harmful effects
on structural performance.
② Changes in the original material constituents, material formula, elimi-
nation of a processing step, use of alternate processing equipment, or
other procedure change should be considered as a major modification,
and properties of the new material should be re-evaluated. The necessary
evaluation of the effects of changes should be performed in accordance
with related standards, to ensure no harmful effects on the structural
performance.
Fig. 4.3 Material selection (a)

criterion after considering the
effect of hot/wet ambient
conditions. a Temperature/
wetness effect on the
matrix-dominated failure;
b Material selection criterion
(b)
4.3.2 Environmental Effects of Material Performances
The properties of composite materials are resin matrix-dominated and sensitive to

ambient conditions. To reduce environmental problems in a verification program as
much as possible, it is necessary to consider environmental effects in the material
selection phase of structure design. The materials selection should be performed
based on the relationship between the aircraft hot/wet envelope and the material’s
maximum operation temperature or material operation limit (MOL). The material’s
maximum operation temperature can be defined as shown in Fig. 4.3. The gray area
indicates the material operation envelope, in which the aircraft operates.
The envelope helps guide the selection of materials that can be used under typical
normal conditions, and environment issues in the verification program to be reduced.
The difference K between the glass transition temperature Tg under the maximum
moisture absorption conditions and MOL is defined as the basis for the determination
of the maximum operation temperature. The determination of a K is related to design
considerations. For an epoxy resin matrix, the K value will be no less than 30 °C.
4.3.3 Selection and Use of Matrices and Fibers
Resin matrices have an important influence on mechanical properties of composites.

The transverse performance, compression, and shear properties are all resin
374 Z. Shen et al.
Table 4.6 Comparison of commonly used resin matrices and their performance
Performance Resin
Epoxy Phenolic BMI Polyimide High
performance
thermoplastics
Processing ability Excellent Good Good Bad Good
Mechanical Excellent Medium Excellent Good Excellent
property
Heat resistance (°C) Below 130 Below 177 Below 230 Above 288 Above 120
Toughness Good Bad Good Bad Excellent
Dimension stability Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent
Cost Low Low Medium High High
dependent. Toughened resin can improve the damage resistance of a composite, and
absorb energy simultaneously.
Composite performances such as heat resistance, aging resistance, fire retardant,
hot/wet behavior, anti-corrosion, and electromagnet performance are mainly
determined by the resin matrix.
Composite processing abilities such as rheological properties, tack and drape, gel
time, prepreg shelf stability, processing temperature, pressure, and time are also
directly dominated by the resin matrix. Common requirements of advanced com-
posite resin matrices are: high strength, good toughness, medium-proofing, low
processing temperature and pressure, long prepreg shelf life, a wide applied pres-
sure window, low cured shrinkage, low toxicity, and suitability for prepreg solution
or melting preparations. The performances of commonly available resin matrices
are given in Table 4.6.
Reinforcing fibers offer composites with high strength and moduli and can also
greatly increase damage resistance. Fiber selection should be optimized through a
combined evaluation of performance and cost. Table 4.7 lists some aspects to
consider for fiber selection. Table 4.8 includes data on environmental effects on the
materials.
4.3.4 Structural Processing Ability
Structural processing ability includes the ability to use cure processing and
assembling processing methods. Different processing methods have different
requirements and different structural processing capabilities. Critical issues in
considering structural processing capability will vary depending on the structure, so
it is important to select a proper curing processing method during design. The
curing process of a composite structure can be simultaneously completed with the
Table 4.7 Evaluation of different fibers

Criterion Powering Nominated value for different fiber powering
Powering factor range factor 1–3 Carbon fiber Kevlar E-glass-fiber
Tensile strength 3 9 9 9
Compression strength 2 6 0 4
Modulus 3 9 6 3
Long-term performance 3 9 6 3
Fatigue properties 2 6 4 2
Density 2 4 6 2
Alkali proof 2 6 4 0
Price 3 6 6 9
Total 55 41 32
Table 4.8 Ambient powering factor of materials

Performance Materials
Steel Kevlar fiber Carbon fiber Glass-fiber
composite composite composite
Relaxation and creep 3 1 3 2
Wet resistance 2 2 3 1
Alkali proof 3 2 3 1
Thermal stability 2 2 3 1
Salt water resistance 1 2 3 2
Fatigue behavior 1 3 3 2
Total 13 12 18 8
Note power factor (3, very good; 2, good; 1, meets requirements; 0, cannot meet requirements)
material processing. Hence, the design of the structure and its processing are linked.
Structure design should consider the feasibility of processing methods, particularly
for integrated part processing.
4.3.4.1 Principles of Processing Method Selection
The feasibility of processing methods should be considered in the structure design

phase, to determine the structure processing capability. Principles for processing
method selection include the following:
① The selected processing method should be able to ensure the structure
performance can satisfy design standards and that the fitting accuracy
meets the assembly requirements.
② Equipment requirements should be satisfied, including currently used
and new added equipment. Autoclave size, in particular, should be
considered.
376 Z. Shen et al.
③ The cost over the lifetime of the component should be considered,

including the production continuity, end product rate, and maintenance.
④ Processing methods with the greatest level of operation experience
should be prioritized.
4.3.4.2 Typical Structure Processing Methods

① Autoclave processing is mainly selected for panel structures but liquid
resin molding (LCM) processes, such as RTM and RFI, are also widely
applied.
② Sandwich structures mainly use vacuum bag and pressure bag methods.
③ Cylinder structures use filament winding (FW).
④ Co-curing, secondary curing or secondary adhering is suitable for inte-
grated part manufacturing.
4.4 Structure Design—Determination of Design

Allowables
4.4.1 Allowables and Design Allowables
Allowables are mainly used to characterize material performance and are defined as
characteristic values of material performance, with a certain confidence and relia-
bility, determined by statistical analysis of coupon testing data under certain loads
and environmental conditions. Design allowables are mainly used in structural
design. These are defined as the design limits determined on the basis of material
allowables and the testing results of typical coupons, elements, and structures.
These allowable may be determined for project requirements and structure integrity,
and also based on previous design and operation experiences. Designers should
follow requirements for structural integrity, such as static strength, stiffness,
durability, and damage tolerance to specify design allowables. The design allow-
ables of a composite system are commonly expressed as strain values. The com-
ponents are subject to the testing verification performed on subcomponents and
full-size scale parts, to guarantee that structures designed by following the design
allowables can meet these requirements [1, 2].
Material allowables are characteristic mechanical properties of material systems,
and mainly used for material selection, acceptance, and equivalence evaluation.
These values are usually not directly used in design except for the modulus, which
needs detailed analysis of open hole, delamination, and impact damage in analytical
models. When performing structural strength verification, design allowables should
be used rather than material allowables.
4.4.2 General Principles for Design Allowables

Determination
To determine design allowables, the following principles should be followed:

① The tensile design allowables of skin structures should mainly derive
from test results on hole-contained specimens with typical structural
laminating code. The compression design allowables of skin structures
should mainly derive from the testing results of impact damage con-
taining and filled hole-containing specimens with typical structural
laminating code.
② For thin skin or surface honeycomb sandwich structures, the determi-
nation of design allowables should account for buckling effects. If the
design allowables mainly depend on buckling effects, the additional
coefficient (less than 1) of impact damage effect should be taken into
account.
③ The mechanical fastener bearing design allowables should derive from
the bearing strength allowables of single pin specimens and should
consider the effects of the degree of importance, structural features, load
type, durability, and operation environment.
④ The design allowables of important joints, and details should derive from
test results of corresponding typical structures, or from practically ver-
ified past experiences.
⑤ Combinations of extreme environmental conditions should be consid-
ered for design allowables of composite structures.
4.4.3 Current Status
On the basis of documents available from aircraft companies, for current carbon
fiber resin matrix composites, the allowable strain values under the designed ulti-
mate loads are as follows:
Compression [ec] = 4000 le; tensile [et] = 5500 le; Shear [c] = 7600 le。
Table 4.9 indicates some design allowables of current aircraft structures for
reference.
4.4.4 Approach to Increasing Design Allowables
Currently used design allowables have been lowered, to further reduce weight and
fully utilize the high specific strength and specific stiffness of composite materials [7].
In aircraft primary structures, it is necessary to increase the structural design
allowables, especially the compression design allowables. This approach can be
summarized as:
378 Z. Shen et al.
Table 4.9 Part of design allowables of current aircraft structures

Co. Structure component Material T. design C. design
Uni. Fabric Uni. Fabric
Lockheed L-1011 vertical T300/5208 4500 3900 4000 4000
stabilizer
Boeing B727 horizontal T300/5208 4000
stabilizer
Boeing B1 horizontal stabilizer AS/3501 3600
M.D. F18A/B wing AS4/3501-6 4000 4000
M.D. AV-8B wing AS4/3501-6 4000 4000
BAe Stabilizer XAS/914C 4500 3530 3900 2830
MBB A310 vertical stabilizer T300/913C 2800 2800
MBB A320 vertical stabilizer T300/913C 3200 3200
DA TORNADO main cabin T800/5245 5500 4200
door
(1) Increase the damage tolerance of the composite system

The design allowables of composite structures mainly depend on the properties of
the composite that can meet requirements for structural damage tolerance. Attention
should be paid to the ability of composites to resist impact damage (damage
resistance), which is different to the physical damage tolerance of composites.
Damage resistance refers to the ability of a component to resist an impact event,
while damage tolerance refers to the effect of a certain damage state on the per-
formance of the structure. In the past, the compression strength of standard spec-
imen impacted by 6.7 J/mm (denoted as CAI) was used to evaluate composite
damage tolerance. Some studies have shown that this method can give conflicting
results. Hence, in recent years, the compression strength after impact by several
energy levels is evaluated. Alternatively the compression strength of a standard
specimen can be evaluated after impact and induction of a 1-mm dent. The relevant
evaluation methods for composite impact resistance can be seen in Sect. 4.9 of this
chapter.
(2) Increase the damage tolerance of the structure through design
This approach includes the application of soften and harden bands, soft skin and
stiffened plates with mechanical fasteners.
(3) Modify the damage tolerance requirements
Currently used damage tolerance requirements have strict specifications for initial
defect dimensions, especially for military aircraft structures. If these specifications
can be guaranteed, i.e., supported by extensive studies on manufacture and oper-
ation in an ambient environment, or by taking effective measures, the specifications
can be decreased, and the design allowables can be increased. For civil aircraft, the
design allowables could be increased based on statistical data of processing com-

posite structures and the use of a lower impact energy threshold, such as 35 J.
4.5 Building Block Approach for Composite Structure

Design Verification
4.5.1 Introduction and Philosophy
Owing to the lack of effective analysis and extensive design and use the experience
of composite structures the structural integrity needs to be ensured in some way
[1–3]. The BBA consists of multiple level testing and certification, at the level of
coupons, structural elements, subcomponents, components, and finally a complete
full-scale product. This approach is used to solve (and certify) challenging issues
such as environmental effects and damage. This approach can also reduce the
complexity of full-size tests, qualify the safety of cost reduction measures, and
ensure a pass on full-size verification.
For widely used composite/metal structures, the BBA verification approach can
also be applied for testing below the substructure component level, and used to
complement verification of composite durability and damage tolerance.
For the static strength verification tests of full-size parts, it is difficult to simulate
a full range of combined ambient effects, thus the verification may not be fully
comprehensive. However, the overall integration can be guaranteed for composite
structure static verification, if a BBA verification test program is properly
organized.
On the basis of the maturity of materials and design, and the accumulation of
experience, the testing content and coupon numbers may be reduced to decrease
development costs.
The application of the BBA has not yet been standardized. Relationships
between numbers of specimens and material bases values are well defined for
specimen tests at the lowest level (see part 15), the numbers of specimens required
at higher levels of complexity are somewhat arbitrary and largely based on his-
torical experience, structural criticality, engineering judgment, and economic con-
siderations. Thus, there is currently no standardized methodology for statistically
validating each level of the process, although some attempts have been made to
develop models that relate specimen quantities to overall reliability.
The sensitivity to out-of-plane loads, failure mode multiplicity, sensitivity to
ambient operation conditions, and the absence of mature and reliable analysis for
comparing composite and metal structures, motivate the use BBA for structural
certification of composite structures [1–3].
The multiplicity of potential failure modes is perhaps the main reason that the
BBA is essential for the development of composite structural substantiation. The
380 Z. Shen et al.
many failure modes in composite structures are mainly caused by defects, envi-
ronmental effects, and out-of-plane sensitivities of the materials.
4.5.2 General Procedures for BBA Implementation
Figure 4.4 shows the building block integration. BBA analysis/testing verification
is generally divided into five steps described as follows [3]:
① Coupon: Small dimension test specimens used for the evaluation of
laminar and laminate performances, as well as general structural char-
acteristics. Test specimens including commonly used laminate strips,
and adhered or mechanically joined strip joints, may be used to gain
material allowables. This approach is also used for evaluation of material
notch sensitivity, ambient effects, and specimen failure modes. At this
level, the number of specimens is usually large, sometimes on the order
of thousands.
② Element: Includes elements and typical structures, i.e., typical
load-bearing units in complex configuration structures, such as skin,
Fig. 4.4 Pyramid of tests

spars, shear panels, laminate and varied joints. Elements also include
weaker components in complex configuration structures such as spe-
cially designed complex configuration joints, mechanical fasteners,
stranger ends, and large inspection ports. The purpose is to verify the
load-bearing ability, failure modes, environmental effects, and analysis
methods for a variety of elements. Design allowables will be generated
at this testing level on the basis of the material allowables, with a large
number of specimens on the order of hundreds.
③ Subcomponent: Large 3-dimensional structures that feature all the
properties of an integral structure section, such as a box segment, frame
segment, wing panel, fuselage panel, wing rib, cabin sector, or frame.
These features all represent a typical section of an integral structure and
their load-bearing ability, environmental effects, damage tolerance,
durability, and analytical methods can be verified. The determination of
design allowables is also generated at this testing level. Fewer specimens
are used at this level, usually of the order of tens, but occasional
hundreds.
④ Component: Refers to the main structural section of a wing, fuselage,
vertical tail, and horizontal stabilizer, which can be used as an integral
aircraft body structure in verification tests. A small number of specimens
will be used at this level, usually one or more. Considering current
application status, verification of structural integrity can be performed at
this level.
⑤ Full-size scale: At this level, full-size scale aircraft structures are used for
analysis and verification and full-size scale static and fatigue tests should
be performed to verify structural integrity and the internal load distri-
bution, deflection, and entire structure failure modes predicted by finite
element analysis (FEA). The requirements for full-size tests should be
proposed by the customer, verification agency, or by the airworthiness
certification body, based on safety and durability requirements. The
numbers of specimens at this level is usually one or two. For
metal/composite combined structures, the main purpose of verification at
this level is to verify the metal structure. Full-size tests can also include
testing content at the component level, which may overlap with lower
levels.
The BBA has been accepted by all composite designers and manufacturers
globally; however, different individuals may use different procedures. On the basis
of the different tasks, verification levels, and test items, the numbers of specimens
may change. Furthermore, the testing sequence may change or overlap. For
example, testing and analysis at the element or subcomponent levels should be
performed in advance, to gain knowledge of potential risks as soon as possible. In
this sense, the current BBA/verification approaches are not yet fully standardized or
documented and certain flexibility is allowed in practical use.
382 Z. Shen et al.
4.5.3 Boeing 777 Aircraft Composite Primary Structure

Building Block Approach
In Boeing 777, 9.9 t composites have been used to make up 11% of the total
structural weight [3]. The horizontal and vertical stabilizers of Boeing 777 are all
made of carbon fiber-reinforced composites. The horizontal tail is a main torque
box main torque box structure consisting of two spar and multi-rib construction.
The BBA for Boeing airplane primary structures (Fig. 4.5) include the following
tests.
(1) Specimens and elements;
(2) Subcomponents(Table 4.10);
(3) Components;
(4) 777 Pre-production horizontal stabilizer test (Table 4.11);
(5) Stabilizer root attachment test;
(6) 777 Horizontal stabilizer tests;
(7) 777 Vertical stabilizer test.
Fig. 4.5 Building block approach for commercial aircraft primary structure
Table 4.10 Summary of subcomponent tests for 777 empennage

Test type Number of tests
Bolted joints (major splices) 110
Rib details 90
Spar chord crippling 50
Skin/stringer compression panels 26
Skin/stringer tension panels 4
Skin/stringer shear/compression 6
Skin/stringer repair panels 6
Skin splice panels 2
Stringer runouts 4
Spar shear beams 6
Total 305
Table 4.11 Pre-production test box load and damage sequence

Test Damage types and test loadings
sequence
1 Perform all small (BVID) damages
2 Design limit load static strain survey
3 One lifetime fatigue spectrum, 50,000 flights, including 1.15 LEF (Load
Enhancement Factor)
5 One lifetime fatigue spectrum, 50,000 flights, including 1.15 LEF
7 Design ultimate (select cases) load static strain survey
8 Two (C) check fatigue spectrum (8000 flights) with small and visible damages,
including 1.15 LEF
9 “Fail-safe” test; 100% design limit load static strain survey with small and
visible damage
10 “Continued safe flight ± loads test”: 70% design limit load static strain survey
with small, visible, and element damages
11 Visible and element damages repaired. Design ultimate load static strain survey
12 Destruction test. Strain survey up to destruction
4.6 Structural Design and Strength and Stiffness Analysis
4.6.1 Composite Structure Design Concepts
To reduce structural weight and to meet load-bearing requirements, most aircraft

bodies are designed as a thin-wall construction consisting of several curved planar
thin-wall structures. Traditional metal aircraft frames have a thin-wall construction
384 Z. Shen et al.
consisting of a large number of thin-wall components such as skin, beam, stringer,

and rib (frame) joined by a large number of mechanical fasteners.
Fiber composites are a kind of artificial structural material. The main advantage
of this material is its very high specific strength and stiffness along the fiber
direction, which offers great potential for structural weight reduction. Composites
also have very different processing techniques from metal materials. Most thin
plane structures must withstand in-plane loads, and composites are typically used as
laminates or laminated structures in aircraft structures. Laminated composites can
offer advantages such as high specific strength and specific stiffness, tailorable
properties, and easy processing. On the other hand, composites also have some
drawbacks such as low interlaminar strength, stress concentration at open holes, and
the occurrence of electrochemical corrosion at composite/aluminum joints. The
design concepts used for composite structures are different from those of traditional
metal structures. Composite materials are better suited to innovative design
concepts.
4.6.2 Laminate Design and Analysis
4.6.2.1 Ply Design Guidelines
After the determination of laminate total thickness and its local variation based on
the application requirements, ply laminate design should be performed [2, 3, 11,
13]. This step will mainly involve:
① Selection of proper ply angles;
② Determination of the ply ratio at different angles;
③ Provision of proper laminating stacking sequence (LSS).
In addition, ply design also includes local ply alternation, such as the ply design
in connecting zones and at the edges of open hole, as well as the ply transitions for
sudden changes in the thickness of the structure. It may be said that ply design is
one of main factors influencing the characteristics of composite materials. Rational
design will directly affect the composite structural strength, stiffness, stability, and
other important properties such as delamination, damage, failure, and dimensional
stability, as well as processing performance. These factors have direct implications
for load-carrying capacity and operation functions. The critical issues of laminate
ply design are as follows:
(1) A LSS is said to be homogeneous if the ply angles are evenly distributed
throughout the laminate thickness. Homogeneous LSS is recommended for
strength controlled designs.
(2) A laminate is considered to be symmetric if the plies and property parameters
are symmetrical to the mid-plane. A balanced laminate is defined as having
equal numbers of +h and −h plies, where h is measured from the primary
load direction. A laminate having both balanced and symmetrical plies is

referred to as balanced and symmetric. If possible, laminates should be
balanced and symmetric about the mid-plane to avoid warpage caused by
couplings. If this is not possible due to other requirements, locate the
asymmetry or imbalance as near to the laminate mid-plane as possible.
(3) A LSS should have at least four distinct ply angles (e.g., 0°, 90°, ±45°) with
a minimum of 10% of the plies oriented at each angle.
(4) Minimize groupings of plies with the same orientation. For tape plies, stack no
more than four plies of the same orientation together (i.e., limit stacked ply
group thicknesses 0.03 in. (0.8 mm). In addition, stacked ply group thicknesses
with orientations perpendicular to a free edge should be limited to 0.015 in.
(0.38 mm) to avoid delamination, matrix cracking, and shear-out failure in
bolted joints.
(5) The ply orientation should be consistent with the primary load direction. That
is, 0° ply should be preferentially used for laminates that are primarily
subjected to tensile or compressive loads. For the laminates primarily under
shear load, ply with ±45° is preferred. In addition, the plies for primary load
transmission should not be placed on outer surfaces.
(6) For ply design in joint zones, the ratio of the ply in ±45° against the pin load
direction should not be less than 40%. The ply ratio in the direction consistent
with the pin load should be greater than 25%, to ensure enough shear strength
and bearing strength in the joint zone, and reduce stress concentration.
(7) For the laminates subject to buckling as a critical condition, the outer surface
should be a feature ±45° plies. To enhance impact resistance, hybrid com-
posite layers should be used such as aromatic or glass-fiber plies.
(8) The ±h plies should be placed as close to each other as possible to reduce
bending/twisting coupling and avoid the negative effects on the effective
stiffness and stability. However, separation of ±h plies can offer the benefits
in terms of reducing interlaminar stress.
(9) Attention should be paid to avoid the high interlaminar stress (rz) that may
occur at the free edges of laminates. The stacking sequence should be properly
selected to reduce the delaminating stress and strain levels at free edges.
(10) Mismatch of the Poisson’s ratio between two laminates co-cured or adhered
together should be reduced as much as possible. Otherwise, delamination
and/or debonding can easily take place. The following equation is recom-
mended for assessing this risk:

mxy ðlaminate 1Þ mxy ðlaminate 2Þ\0:1
(11) Usually, ply decreasing is used to realize laminate thickness alternation. The
step length of each ply transition zone should not be less than 2.5 mm, or be
followed by l/t > 10 to realize a ply decrease, as illustrated in Fig. 4.6. In
general, there should be no more than two ply numbers simultaneously
decreasing and no ply decreasing is allowed on the width direction of a raised
386 Z. Shen et al.
Fig. 4.6 Requirements for

ply decreases
flange of a beam, frame, or rib of skin. It is specified that certain continuous

plies should be used on laminate surfaces to avoid ply tear-off.
Ply splicing is allowed in the direction parallel to the applied load but not
permitted in the load vertical direction. The splicing gap should be less than 2 mm,
with no overlap. The spliced plies should be separated by four other layers, if less
than four layers are applied the intersplicing width should be at least 15 mm, to
reduce weak laminating.
The above-mentioned guidelines for ply design cannot always be completely
achieved and are sometimes even conflict with the principal needs of satisfying the
primary load-bearing and operation functions requirements.
4.6.2.2 Laminate Stiffness Analysis
Laminate stiffness is not only dependent on its thickness, but also related to its
constituent lamina and their stacking sequence. The stiffness of laminate can be
calculated by classical laminate theory [8–10, 12].
(1) Lamina on-axis and off-axis stiffness
Lamina on-axis stiffness (also known as on-axis modulus) refers to the lamina
stiffness along the fiber direction (1). The matrix for laminar on-axis stress–strain is
given as:
8 9 2 1 38 9
< e1 = E1 Ev22 0 < r1 =
6 7
e2 ¼ 4 Ev11 1
0 5 r2 ð4:1Þ
: ; E2
1 : ;
c12 0 0 G
s12
12
where e1, e2, c12 are on-axis strains; r1, r2, s12 are on-axis stresses; E1, E2, m1, G12
are the four independent stiffness coefficients;
v1 v2
¼
E1 E2
From the lamina on-axis stiffness matrix expression, then:

8 9 2 38 9
< r1 = Q11 Q12 0 < e1 =
r2 ¼ 4 Q21 Q22 0 5 e2 ð4:2Þ
: ; : ;
s12 0 0 Q66 c12
where Q11, Q22, Q12, Q21, and Q66 are the lamina on-axis stiffness coefficients:
Q11 ¼ mE1
Q22 ¼ mE2
Q12 ¼ Q21 ¼ mvE1 ¼ mv1 E2 ; v1 =v2 ¼ E1 =E2
M ¼ 1=ð1 v1 v2 Þ
Q66 ¼ G12
Q16 ¼ Q26 ¼ Q61 ¼ Q62 ¼ 0
Lamina off-axis stiffness (also known as the off-axis modulus) refers to the
laminar stiffness along the direction forming an angle h with the fiber direction. The
off-axis stiffness of a laminar at angle h can be expressed by the matrix:
2 3
11
Q 12
Q 16
Q
4
½Q ¼ Q21 22
Q 26 5
Q ð4:3Þ
61
Q 62
Q 66
Q
11 ; Q
where Q 12 ; Q
22 ; Q
16 ; Q
26 and Q
66 are lamina off-axis stiffness coefficients.
is a symmetrical matrix, so that the off-axis stiffness coefficient Q
½Q 12 ¼ Q
21 ;
16 ¼ Q
Q 61 ; Q
26 ¼ Q
62 .
The conversion between the off-axis stiffness coefficient and the on-axis stiffness
coefficient can be expressed by trigonometric functions of the off-axis angle as
given in the table:
Q11 Q22 Q12 Q66

11
Q m 4
n4
2m n 2 2
4m2n2
22
Q n4
m 4
2m n 2 2
4m2n2
12
Q mn 2 2
mn 2 2
m +n4 4
−4m2n2
66
Q mn 2 2
mn 2 2
−2m n 2 2
(m2 − n2)2
16
Q mn 3
−mn 3
mn − m n3 3
2(mn3 − m3n)
26
Q mn3 −m3n m3n − mn3 2(m3n − mn3)
where m = cosh, n = sinh.

Note:
11
① Q and 22
Q have an intermirror relationship, i.e.,

Q11 ðh þ 90 Þ ¼ Q22 ðhÞ:
16
Q and 26
Q have an intermirror relationship, i.e.,

Q16 ðh þ 90 Þ ¼ Q 26 ðhÞ:
388 Z. Shen et al.
11 , Q
② Q 22 , Q
12 , and Q 66 are even functions and thus independent of the
polarity of the angle h, Q 16 and Q
26 are odd functions, and thus
dependent on the polarity of the angle h.
11
③ @@h
Q
¼ 4Q 16 ; @ Q 22 ¼ 4Q
26 :
@h
Hence, only four of the six off-axis stiffness coefficients are independent.
Off-axis stiffness coefficients can also be expressed as a combination of the
on-axis stiffness coefficients as listed in the table:
1 U2 U3
11
Q U1 cos2h cos4h
22
Q U1 −cos2h cos4h
12
Q U4 −cos4h

Q66 U5 −cos4h
16
Q 1 sin4h
2 sin 2h
26
Q 1 −sin4h
2 sin 2h
The combination of on-axis stiffness coefficients in the table:
1
U1 ¼ ð3Q11 þ 3Q22 þ 2Q12 þ 4Q66 Þ
8
1
U2 ¼ ðQ11 Q22 Þ
2
1
U3 ¼ ðQ11 þ Q22 2Q12 4Q66 Þ
8
1
U4 ¼ ðQ11 þ Q22 þ 6Q12 4Q66 Þ
8
1 1
U5 ¼ ðQ11 þ Q22 2Q12 þ 4Q66 Þ ¼ ðU1 U4 Þ
8 2
From the lamina stiffness expression, it can be seen that the off-axis stiffness
coefficient Q ij is a function of the off-axis angle h. Thus, the off-axis angle h can
determine the lamina off-axis stiffness. In general, i.e., when h 6¼ 0° or 90°, the
lamina off-axis coupling stiffness coefficients Q 16 and Q
26 will not be zero. This
means that tensile–shear coupling or compression–shear coupling will exist, as
shown in Fig. 4.7.
The off-axis angle also refers to the ply laminating angle. The design the lamina
off-axis stiffness based on the laminating angle is the main approach to tailoring
laminate properties.
Fig. 4.7 Schematic of

unidirectional laminate
off-axis tensile deformation
16 6¼ 0Þ
ðQ
Fig. 4.8 Laminate stiffness

analysis model
Fig. 4.9 Resultant force on

laminate
Fig. 4.10 Resultant moment

on laminate
(2) Laminate stiffness analysis

In the laminate stiffness analysis model, the mid-plane resultant force {N}, and
mid-plane resultant moment {M} scheme are given in Figs. 4.8, 4.9 and 4.10.
In the analysis, the lamina is assumed to be a homogeneous material, and their
properties can be determined from unidirectional composite testing.
On the basis of classical laminate theory, the physical equation of laminate can
be expressed as:
0
N A B e
¼ ð4:4Þ
M B D k
390 Z. Shen et al.
where
{N} laminate mid-plane resultant force array;
{M} laminate mid-plane resultant moment array;
{e0} laminate mid-plane strain array;
{k} laminate mid-plane curvature array;
[A] laminate tensile stiffness matrix (33 matrix), where each tensile stiffness
coefficient can be calculated from the equation:
X
N X
N
Aij ¼ ij Þ ðZk Zk1 Þ ¼
ðQ ij Þ hk l
ðQ ð4:5Þ
k k
1 1
where ðQ ij Þ is the off-axis stiffness coefficient of layer k and hkl is the area of layer k.
k
[B]—laminate coupling stiffness matrix (33 matrix), wherein each coupling
stiffness coefficient can be calculated by the equation:
1XN
ij Z 2 Z 2
XN
ij Zk hk l
Bij ¼ Q k k k1 ¼ Q k
ð4:6Þ
2 1 1
where Zk hk l is the static moment from layer k to the mid-plane.

[D]—laminate bending stiffness matrix (33 matrix), wherein each bending
stiffness coefficient can be calculated by the equation:

1XN

3 XN

h3k

Dij ¼ Qij k Zk Zk1 ¼
3
Qij k þ Zk h k l ð4:7Þ
2 1 1
12

þ Zk hk l is the inertia moment from the layer k to mid-plane.
h3k
where 12
The strain on laminate cross section {e}Z is expressed as:
t t
fegZ ¼ e0 þ Z fkg Z ð4:8Þ
2 2
Clearly, the strain on cross section changes continuously and linearly.

The strain on layer k is:

fe gk ¼ e 0 þ Z fk g ðZk¼1 Z Zk Þ ð4:9Þ
The stress of each lamina depends on the lamina strain and stiffness. The stress
in layer k frgk can be expressed as:
fe g ¼ ½ Q
frgk ¼ ½Q fe0 g þ ½Q
Zfkg ðZk1 Z Zk Þ ð4:10Þ
k k k k
It can be seen that the stress in cross section is not constant and may be sum-
marized based on the analysis of stiffness matrices [A], [B], and [D]:
① The expected laminate stiffness and strength can be derived from the
proper selection of each lamina laying-up angles, ply percentages and
stacking sequences, similar to cloth tailoring, and so-called tailoring
design.
② Coupling is a unique feature possessed by laminates, and it is the basis of
aeroelastic tailoring design of aircraft wing surfaces.
Laminate stiffness design analysis generally begins from the matrix [A] and goes
through parameter adjustment (ply sequence, laying-up angle and axis moving) to
generate matrices [D] and [B].
With the use of symmetrical laminating sequences, where each lamina is of the
same material and has the same thickness, then [B] = 0; however, in-plane tensile–
shear coupling (A16 6¼ 0, A26 6¼ 0) and bending–twisting coupling (D16 6¼ 0,
D26 6¼ 0) will exist.
If an asymmetrical laminating sequence is used, when each lamina has the same
material and thickness, then [B] 6¼ 0. Thus, in-plane tensile–shear and out-of-plane
bending–twisting coupling will take place in the laminates.
If a symmetrical and balanced stacking sequence is used, such as [+a/−a], or
[±a]ns, [0/90/±a]s, where each lamina is composed of the same material and has
the same thickness, symmetrical laminating will make [B] = 0. Simultaneously,
balanced laminating will make A16 = A26 = 0. The values of D16 and D26 will
depend on the number of plies (i.e., the more the plies, the smaller the coupling
effect). When the ply number is equal to or greater than 12, D16 and D26 0. In
this type of laminate, there will be no in-plane tensile–shear coupling, and no
out-of-plane bending–twisting coupling. It is also possible to obtain larger in-plane
shear stiffness and out-of-plane twisting stiffness. Hence in structural design,
symmetrical and balanced laminating is usually preferred.
Symmetrical laminating or symmetrical unbalanced laminating may be used to
give unique composite coupling deformation features, and gives great freedom to
composite structural designs, for example, to meet the aerodynamic tailoring
requirements.
(3) Typical laminate stiffness
Typical laminate stiffness is an example of how to describe the designed ability of
laminate stiffness. Common laminates are listed below to illustrate the concept of
laminate stiffness.
① Stiffness of quasi-isotropic laminates: For example, laminates with a ply
sequence of [0/±45/90], [0/±60] are quasi-isotropic laminates. The
stiffness coefficients A11, A22, A12, and A66 in the in-plane stiffness matrix
will correlate as:
392 Z. Shen et al.
A11 ¼ A22 ¼ U1 t; A12 ¼ U4 t
1 1
A66 ¼ U5 t ¼ ðU1 U2 Þt ¼ ðA11 A12 Þ
2 2
where, U1, U2, U4, and U5—material on-axis stiffness coefficient

combination,
t—laminate thickness.
This equation indicates that only two of the four stiffness coefficients
A11, A22, A12, A66 are independent. This is similar to the case of isotropic
materials, where only two of four properties E, G, m, and G ¼ 2ð1Eþ vÞ are
independent. Thus laminates [0/±45/90], [0/±60] are referred to as
quasi-isotropic laminates.
The stiffness coefficients in the matrix [A] are independent of the lami-
nating sequence when it is symmetric and balanced; however, in matrix
[B] and [D], the stiffness coefficients are dependent on the laminating
sequences. Quasi-isotropic laminating has the stiffness matrix:
2 3
A11 A12 0
6 A12 A11 0 ½B 7
6 7
4 0 0 1
ðA11 A12 Þ
5
2
½B ½D
② Stiffness of symmetrical orthotropic laminates: Symmetrical laminates

consisting of 0° and 90° plies are referred to as symmetrical orthotropic
laminates, for example [0/90]s, [02/90]s.
In this type of laminates, each lamina (in 0° or 90°) will not have tensile–
shear coupling in their off-axis stiffness, namely ðQ 16 Þ ¼ ðQ 26 Þ ¼ 0:
k k
Accordingly, the in-plane stiffness cross term A16 = A26 = 0 and bend-
ing–twisting stiffness cross term D16 = D26 = 0 can be derived. Again,
for symmetrical laminated plies, [B] = 0.
The deformation of symmetrical orthotropic laminates is shown as in
Fig. 4.11(I). Because of the absence of cross-plies, symmetrical ortho-
tropic laminates have very small in-plane shear stiffness and out-of-plane
twisting stiffness. These systems are only suitable for withstanding
in-plane biaxial loads.
The stiffness matrix of symmetrical orthotropic laminates is given as:
2 3
A11 A12 0
6 A12 A22 0 0 7
6 7
6 0 0 A66 7
6 7
6 D11 D12 0 7
6 7
4 0 D12 D22 0 5
0 0 D66
Fig. 4.11 Schematic

illustration of typical laminate
deformations
③ Stiffness of symmetrical and balance laminates: Laminates consisting of

[±a]s ply combinations are referred to as symmetrical and balanced
laminates.
For lamina with +a and lamina with −a, Q 16 ðaÞ ¼ Q
16 ðaÞ;

Q26 ðaÞ ¼ Q26 ðaÞ. If the number of lamina with +a is equal to that
with −a, then A16 = A26 = 0, laminates will show in-plane orthotropic
behaviors.
For symmetrical laminating, then [B] = 0 and each stiffness coefficient
Dij is independent of the stacking sequence. Generally, D16 6¼ 0,
D26 6¼ 0. Only in laminates with a sufficient number of plies (12 or more
plies), can D16 and D26 be reduced and ignored.
The deformation of symmetrical and balanced laminates is shown as in
Fig. 4.11(II). Balanced laminates with [±a]s are referred to as cross-ply
laminates, with large in-plane shear stiffness and out-of-plane twisting
stiffness. If 0° and 90° plies are arranged, laminates will be enhanced
with improved positive stress bearing ability. This arrangement can be
used to meet the design requirements of complex load- bearing condi-
tions. The difference between symmetrical and balanced laminates and
quasi-isotropic laminates is that the former is not limited by A11 = A12
and A66 = (A11 − A12)/2, which allows greater design freedom.
However, owing to their low degree of processing deformation and the
ease of quality control, symmetrical and balance laminates are most
commonly used in composite structures.
394 Z. Shen et al.
The stiffness matrix of symmetrical and balanced laminates is given by:

2 3
A11 A12 0
6 A12 A22 0 0 7
6 7
60 0 A66 7
6 7
6 D11 D12 D16 7
6 7
4 0 D12 D22 D26 5
D16 D26 D66
④ Stiffness of symmetrical laminates: Symmetrical laminates, such as [0/

+45]s, [−45/0/90]s, are usually referred to as symmetrical and unbal-
anced laminates. Owing to symmetry, [B] = 0, because of the tensile–
shear coupling, hence in matrix [A], A16 6¼ 0, A26 6¼ 0. Furthermore,
owing to bending-twisting coupling, in matrix [A] D16 6¼ 0, D26 6¼ 0.
The deformation of symmetrical laminates is shown as in Fig. 4.11(III).
Symmetrical and unbalanced laminates are used in aircraft with
forward-swept wing design. The stiffness matrix is given as:
2 3
A11 A12 A16
6 A12 A22 A26 0 7
6 7
6 A16 A26 A66 7
6 7
6 D11 D12 D16 7
6 7
4 0 D12 D22 D26 5
D16 D26 D66
⑤ Stiffness of anti-symmetric laminates: Laminates consisting of alterna-

tive plies with ply angle ±a and an even number of total plies, such as
[+a/−a], [+a/−a/+a/−a], [0/60/−60/0] are referred to as anti-symmetric
laminates.
In matrix [A], following the same analysis as that used for symmetrical
and balanced laminates, A16 = A26 = 0, and in-plane orthotropic
behaviors are shown.
In matrix [D], Q 16 ðaÞ ¼ Q
16 ðaÞ; Q
26 ðaÞ ¼ Q
26 ðaÞ and the height
from a layer with +a to the mid-plane is equal to that from a layer with
−a to mid-plane, such that D16 = D26 = 0.
In matrix [B], owing to anti-symmetrical ply stacking, it can be proven
that B11 = B22 = B12 = B66 = 0, B16 6¼ 0, B26 6¼ 0. Thus, only in-plane
tensile–shear coupling and out-of-plane bending–twisting coupling exist.
The deformation of anti-symmetrical laminates is shown as in Fig. 4.11
(IV). Anti-symmetrical laminates are typically used in helicopter rotor
blade design. The stiffness matrix is given as:
2 3
A11 A12 0 0 0 B16
6 A12 A22 0 0 0 B26 7
6 7
60 0 A66 B16 B26 0 7
6 7
60 0 B16 D11 D12 0 7
6 7
40 0 B26 D12 D22 0 5
B16 B26 0 0 0 D66
⑥ Stiffness of unsymmetrical orthotropic laminates: Laminates containing

alternative arrangement of 0° and 90° plies, and with an even total ply
number, such as [0/90/0/90], are referred to as unsymmetrical ortho-
tropic laminates.
The analysis of matrix [A] and [D] is the same as that used for sym-
metrical orthotropic laminates. It can be proven that B11 = −B22,
B12 = B66 = B16 = B26 = 0 in matrix [B]. As ply number increases, the
coupling stiffness coefficient B11 = −B22 tends to zero when the ply
number is less than eight such that B11 = −B22 = 0. Unsymmetrical
orthotropic laminates have a stiffness matrix given by:
2 3
A11 A12 0 B11 0 0
6 A12 A22 0 0 B11 0 7
6 7
60 0 A66 0 0 0 7
6 7
6 B11 0 0 D11 D12 0 7
6 7
40 B11 0 D12 D22 0 5
0 0 0 0 0 D66
⑦ Stiffness of general laminates: General laminates, referred to as asym-

metrical and unbalance laminates, feature a stiffness matrix containing
all the coupling terms. The deformation of these laminates is illustrated
in Fig. 4.11(V), and the stiffness matrix is given by:
2 3
A11 A12 A16 B11 B12 B16
6 A12 A22 A26 B12 B22 B26 7
6 7
6 A16 A26 A66 B16 B26 B66 7
6 7
6 B11 B12 B16 D11 D12 D16 7
6 7
4 B12 B22 B26 D12 D22 D26 5
B16 B26 B66 D16 D26 D66
396 Z. Shen et al.
4.6.2.3 Laminate Strength and Failure Analysis

(1) Ply strength criterion
The strength criterion provides an analytical relationship (mathematical model)
of the strength under a combination of stresses. The aim of establishing strength
criterion (failure criterion) is to create a material failure envelope under com-
bined stresses based on a simple load-bearing strength index [8–10, 12, 13].
(1) Maximum (on-axis) stress criterion and maximum (on-axis) strain criterion
① Maximum (on-axis) stress criterion: All on-axis stresses in a ply
should be low, or equal to zero. The corresponding material
strength and failure are determined by the ply. Expressions of
maximum stress criterion are given by:
r1 Xt jr1 j Xc
r2 Yt jr2 j Yc ð4:11Þ
js12 j S
If one of these inequalities cannot be satisfied, a corresponding

failure will occur in the ply.
② Maximum (on-axis) stress criterion: All the on-axis strain in a
ply should be less than the correspond material ultimate strain,
otherwise failure will take place in the ply. The expression for
maximum strain criterion is given by:
e1 Xte ¼ Xt =E1 je1 j Xce ¼ Xc =E1

e2 Yte ¼ Yt =E2 je2 j Yce ¼ Yc =E2 ð4:12Þ
jc12 j Se ¼ S=G
If one of the inequalities cannot be satisfied, then corresponding

failure will occur in the ply.
③ Discussion: Each component with maximum (on-axis) stress
criterion and maximum (on-axis) strain criterion should have
independent criterion. Each criterion has five subcriteria, such
that the failure envelope described by the criterion shows a
tipping point. The difference between these criteria is that
Poisson’s effect is involved in the strain criterion.
(2) Tsai–Hill criterion: The Tsai–Hill criterion follows the expression:
r 2 r 2 r r s 2
1 2 1 2 12
þ 2 þ ¼1 ð4:13Þ
X Y X S
The Tsai−Hill criterion can give a smooth and continuous failure envelope,
with small differences between the theoretical values and testing results.
The main problem is that the interaction terms r1 and r2 are only related to
X and have no first power terms (without considering X 6¼ X′, Y 6¼ Y′).

Under the reduced conditions, Y = Z and S12 = S13 = S are used in
derivation, such that this expression cannot be used for biaxial woven
reinforcement. More details are given is Tsai’s published work.
(3) Tsai−Wu criterion: In stress space, unidirectional composite failure can be
expressed by the quadratic tensor of the failure envelope:
Fij ri rj þ Fi ri ¼ 1; ð4:14Þ
referred to as the quadratic interaction criterion.

For plane stress conditions, the expression can be simplified as:
F11 r21 þ 2F12 r1 r2 þ F22 r22 þ F66 r26 þ F1 r1 þ F2 r2 ¼ 1 ð4:15Þ
In the equation, there are four quadratic strength parameters and two linear
strength parameters. Of these six material strength parameters, five can be
determined by simple tensile, compression, and shear tests.
1 1 1
F11 ¼ F1 ¼
XX 0 X X0
1 1 1
F22 ¼ F2 ¼
YY 0 Y Y0
1
F66 ¼
S2
It is more complex to determine F12, because and interaction of r1 and r2 is

involved. Tsai recommended the use of:
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
F11 F12
F12 ¼
2
Compared with the Tsai–Hill criterion, the Tsai–Wu criterion can give
more information about strength standards, such as the inequality between
tensile and compression strength and how the interaction terms r1 and r2
depend on X, X′, Y, and Y′ values.
Tsai–Wu criterion can also be expressed in terms of strain parameters (refer
to Tsai’s publication for details).
(4) Strength ratio: Strength criterion gives the material failure criterion under
operation stress. To describe the safety margin of materials under propor-
tional loading conditions, the concept of the strength ratio is introduced.
The strength ratio is defined as the ratio between allowable and operation
stress:
398 Z. Shen et al.
ri ðaÞ
R¼
ri
When the strength ratio is used to describe the safety margin under pro-
portional loads, it is assumed that the deformation of a composite is linear
until its final failure.
If R = 1, ri = ri(a), failure occurs.
When R > 1, ri < ri(a), R denotes an operation stress ri smaller than the
allowable stress ri(a). Hence the factor of proportional load increases,
within the safety margin. When R = 2, the operation stress doubles and
failure occurs. Hence, if a load is proportionally applied and doubled
material failure will occur.
When R < 1, rI > ri(a) material failure occurs, or the situation is not
physically possible.
The strength ratio can be also used in strain space. The Tsai–Wu criterion
in strain space can be expressed as:
G11 e21 þ 2G12 e1 e2 þ G22 e22 þ G66 e26 þ G1 e1 þ G2 e2 ¼ 1 ð4:16Þ
where
G11 ¼ F11 Q211 þ 2F12 Q11 Q12 þ F22 Q212 G22

¼ F11 Q211 þ 2F12 Q12 Q22 þ F22 Q212
G12 ¼ F11 Q11 Q12 þ F12 ðQ11 Q12 þ Q212 Þ þ F22 Q12 G22
G66 ¼ F66 Q266
G1 ¼ F1 Q11 þ F2 Q12
G2 ¼ F1 Q12 þ F2 Q22
When using the strength ratio, then
ðG11 e21 þ 2G12 e1 e2 þ G22 e22 þ G66 e26 ÞR2

ð4:17Þ
þ ðG1 e1 þ G2 e2 ÞR ¼ 1
This expression can also be used to obtain R, to determine if failure occurs

in a ply.
(2) Strength estimation of laminates
(1) Strength failure features of laminates: Laminate strength is based on that of
individual ply. Under loading, laminate failure will begin first at a single
ply, and will then take place at other ply successively, until total failure
occurs, as shown in Fig. 4.12. The failure process proceeds from single ply
failure to total failure. In estimating the laminate strength, it is necessary to

determine the first ply failure (FPF) load and the final failure ultimate load.
The estimation of laminate strength involves the following aspects:
① Select the ply failure criterion,
② Determine the FPF load,
③ Laminate stiffness modification,
④ Calculate ultimate load.
(2) Determination of FPF load: When a laminate is under loading (including
additional temperature loading), the load causing a FPF (R = !) is defined
as the FPF load.
(3) Modification of laminate stiffness: After FPF, the following models can be
used for laminate stiffness modification:
① Ply-deeply model: Set the stiffness of failure ply (R = 1) in the

laminate to zero, i.e., ½Q kðR¼1Þ ¼ 0:
② Fiber successive load-bearing model: Longitudinal cracks usu-
ally occur during failure ply (R = 1). The ply will separate into
fiber bundles, which can only withstand loads in the fiber axial
direction, as shown in Fig. 4.13. Hence the stiffness matrix
becomes Q 11 6¼ 0 and all other terms zero:
2 3
11
Q 0 0

½Q kðR¼1Þ ¼4 0 0 05
0 0 0
③ Shear failure model: When shear failure occurs in a ply of

laminate (R = 1), let the shear stiffness Q66 and the tensile–shear
coupling stiffness Q16 and Q26 be zero, such that:
2 3
11
Q 12
Q 0

½Q 4
¼ Q 12 22
Q 05
kðR¼1Þ
0 0 0
Fig. 4.12 Load versus

displacement curve of
laminate
400 Z. Shen et al.
Fig. 4.13 Fiber successive

load-bearing model
(4) Determination of laminate ultimate load: Fig. 4.14 shows a frame chart of
the process from ply successive failure to total damage. This is an iterative
calculation process.
Note:
① Ply failure criterion is considered suitable for other laminate
plies.
② Assume that Kirchhoff hypothesis can be always applicable in
laminate successive ply failure.
③ Decide and select stiffness modification models based on the ply
failure modes.
Fig. 4.14 Analytical chart of

laminate ultimate load
4.6.2.4 Examples of Laminate Structure Design

(1) Symmetrical and unbalance composite skin design
Figure 4.15 shows the canard wing of a jet plane. Symmetrical and unbalanced skin
is used in the composite to achieve bending–twisting effects, which allow the
canard wing to meet many requirements in terms of strength, stiffness, aerody-
namics, and weight reduction [2].
The design steps of symmetrical and unbalanced skin are as follows:
① On the basis of static strength requirements, determine the coordinate
system (in the 0° ply direction) and perform preliminary ply design. The
0° ply direction in a symmetric and balanced skin is usually consistent
with the structural primary load direction, as shown if Fig. 4.16a.
Fig. 4.15 Schematic of rudder canard wing with symmetrical and unbalanced full-height
honeycomb
Fig. 4.16 Conversion of coordinate system during symmetrical and balance skin design
402 Z. Shen et al.
② Rotate the symmetrical and balance coordinate system to an angle h, as

shown in Fig. 4.16b, and adjust the ply numbers to fully meet the
requirements of strength, stiffness, and aerodynamics. The obtained skin
laminating is still symmetric and balanced.
③ Individually rotate 0° plies to angle a, as shown in Fig. 4.16c (or ±45°
plies), and optimized the design to minimize the weight. The obtained
skin laminating will be symmetrical and balanced.
(2) Aeroelastic tailoring design of a composite forward-swept wing [13]
Because isotropic metal materials encounter insurmountable forces in
forward-swept wing designs caused by twisting divergence, great attention should
be given to aluminum forward-swept wings in terms of structural weight
(Fig. 4.17).
Controlling forward-swept wing wash-in, and changing it into wash-out is the
fundamental approach to increasing divergence speed. Wing surface cross-coupling
stiffness and the coupling stiffness between bending curvature and twisting cur-
vature play a key role in the control of wing wash-in and wash-out.
When the bending–twisting coupling stiffness coefficients D16 and D26 in the
composite laminated wing skin bending–twisting stiffness matrix have different
values, different bending–twisting coupling deformations will take place. These
effects can produce wash-in or wash-out effects, as shown in Fig. 4.18.
When D16 = D26 = 0, there will be no bending–twisting coupling in wing skin
laminates (Fig. 4.18a).
When D16 and D26 take negative values, and up-forward bending occurs in the
wing skin, twisting will cause the front edge to deform down and forward such that
a wash-out effect will take place (Fig. 4.18b).
When D16 and D26 take positive values, and up and forward bending occurs the
in wing skin. Twisting will cause the front edge to deform in this manner giving rise
to wash-in effects (Fig. 4.18c)
The basis of forward-swept wing aerodynamic tailoring design is to engineer
bending–twisting coupling stiffness coefficients D16 and D26 with negative values.
Symmetrical and unbalanced ply design can be used to make D16 and D26 with a
negative value. This is the main approach in composite forward-swept wing
aerodynamic design. Symmetrical plies can make [B] = 0, in which no deformation
exists coupling between the in-plane and out-of-plane loads. This is useful for cure
Fig. 4.17 Correlation

between wing weight and
sweep angle
Fig. 4.18 Correlation

between positive/negative
values of bending–twisting
coupling stiffness and wing
skin wash-in/wash-out
deformation control. Unbalanced ply design can be realized with unequal numbers
of plies with ply angles +h and −h, or by changing the ply angle in balanced
laminates. These choices will depend on the requirements of the design program.
In the above discussion on forward-swept wing design, the focus is on a tech-
nical approach to increase the divergence speed. In fact, aeroelastic tailoring is the
height of a combined design approach, giving many benefits in aeroelastic per-
formances, besides increasing divergence speed. For forward-swept wings, this
approach can also increase buffet speed, improve operational safety, reduce motor
load, and improve the lift-to-drag ratio in aerodynamic quality curves. These per-
formances are closely related to aeroelastic deformation control, reflecting wash-in,
washout, and chord wise deflection, simultaneously. There is often conflict between
these technical approaches, for example, the contradiction between divergence and
buffet speed. In general, wing washout is useful for divergence prevention, while
wash-in is useful to increase buffet speed. Hence aero elastic tailoring should try to
reach a combined optimized design.
404 Z. Shen et al.
(3) Hollow step grid structure [15]

This design includes skin and hollow step grids. Grids are mounted on a skin as
shown in Fig. 4.19. The grid width and thickness can be changed based on the
application requirements. It can be manufactured as an integrated component
without additional fasteners, and weight reduction can be realized, with guaranteed
strength and stiffness. In Fig. 4.20, the design concept of a cabin door design is
shown.
4.6.3 Sandwich Structure Design and Analysis
4.6.3.1 Basic Design Concept of Sandwich Structure

(1) Load-bearing and failure modes of sandwich structures
Owing to their light weight and high bending stiffness, sandwich structures are
widely used in aircraft structures, as shown in Fig. 4.21. Sandwich structures
consist of a pair of thin surface panels and a honeycomb core. Core materials
Fig. 4.19 Step grid design

concept
Fig. 4.20 Hollow step grid

cabin door design
Fig. 4.21 Honeycomb sandwich construction
may be classed as longitudinal (L) and transverse (W), and have very low
stiffness in the LW plane, i.e., GLW, EL, EW = 0, and give a definite value to ET
and GLT and GWT. The load-bearing conditions are shown in Fig. 4.22, surface
panels will withstand tensile, compression, and shear loads in the xy plane,
where the xy axes are in the same plane as LW. Core materials provide support
to the surface panels and can only withstand transverse shear load and loads
vertical to the xy plane [2].
The failure modes of sandwich structures include: total buckling, surface panel
wrinkling and buckling, surface bending failure, transverse shear failure, local
crash, and impact damage failure. Several failures can occur at the same time
during practical applications, and hence strength corrections should be per-
formed for several failure modes.
406 Z. Shen et al.
Fig. 4.22 Load-bearing of

sandwich structure
component
(2) Sandwich structure preliminary design—engineering beam approach

Sandwich structures have similar load-bearing features to I-cross-section
beams. Thus, in preliminary design, the simple engineering beam approach can
be used to determine the preliminary dimensions of sandwich structures. The
dimensional definition of sandwich structures is shown as in Fig. 4.23.
① Mechanical properties of sandwich panels: First use laminate theory
to determine the mechanical properties of the surface panels: Ex, Ey
and mxy, myx. The mechanical properties of the core materials include:
longitudinal shear modulus GTL, transverse shear modulus GTW,
longitudinal shear strength [sTL], transverse shear strength [sTW],
compression modulus Ec, tensile modulus ET (usually replaced by
Ec), compression strength [rc], tensile strength [rtc] (usually replaced
by [rc]), and normal tensile modulus. Subscripts L, W, and T rep-
resent the longitudinal, transverse, and normal directions, as shown
in Fig. 4.23.
In some references, several equations are provided for the calcu-
lating the mechanical properties of sandwich structures, but in
engineering, test results should be used in the structure design.
Fig. 4.23 Dimensional

definition of sandwich
structures
The followings should be taken into account in the application of the

above properties:
(a) [sTL] and [sTW] are related to core thickness and highly reliable
test results should be used, or, thickness modification should be
engineered in. A value of 0.7 is recommended as a conservative
correction factor.
(b) The normal tensile modulus is usually replaced by the com-
pression modulus.
(c) The property data of core materials should be based on material
specifications.
② Sandwich panel stiffness
(a) The bending stiffness of sandwich panels: The bending stiffness
per unit width of a panel in the i direction (i = x, y) (units
N-mm) can be calculated by:
Ei1 t1 Ei2 t2 h2 1
Di ¼ þ ðEi1 t13 þ Ei2 t23 Þ ð4:18Þ
ðEi1 t1 þ Ei2 t2 Þk 12k
where k = (1 − mxymyx),
mxy, myx are the panel Poisson’s ratio, and subscripts 1 and 2
denote the top and bottom surface panels. When the panel is
very thin, the second term in the equation can be ignored.
(b) The shear stiffness of sandwich panels: The transverse shear
stiffness of a unit width of panel (N/mm) can be calculated by
the following equation:
408 Z. Shen et al.
U ¼ h2 Gc =tc ð4:19Þ
where Gc is the core shear modulus. In some special cases (Gc = GTL
or GTW)
U ¼ h2 GTL =tc ð4:20Þ
U ¼ h2 GTW =tc
③ Core material density: Core density is an important index reflecting

the core mechanical properties and weight. Core density is the same
concept as volumetric weight, a dimensional unit. A regular hexagon
honeycomb cell has a core density (kg/m3) given by:
8
q ¼ pffiffiffi qm ðtm =bÞ ð4:21aÞ
3 3
A square honeycomb cell has a core density given by:
2tm
qc ¼ q ð4:21bÞ
b m
where
qm —core cell wall material density, kg/m3;
tm —core cell wall material thickness, mm;
b —cell side length, mm.
In general, the above equations underestimate the actual core

density.
④ Sandwich beam design and analysis: When sandwich panels have an
aspect ratio (length versus width) greater than or equal to 3:1, the
system can be simplified as a sandwich beam for design purposes.
The shorter side can be considered to be the beam width.
Following the external load, material selection and preliminary
design can be performed to determine the sandwich beam dimen-
sions. Following the local pressure (or absorbing force), core density
can be determined from the following equation:
½rc =rc ¼ 3
Preliminary design of sandwich beams can be performed by fol-

lowing the engineering beam equations:
(a) Bending stress on a surface panel given by:
rfi ¼ M=ðtfi hbÞ ð4:22Þ
(b) Shear stress on core cell is given by:
sc ¼ V=ðhbÞ ð4:23Þ
(c) Deflection is given by:
2kb PL3 k kb PL
D¼ þ ð4:24aÞ
E f t f h2 b hGc b
or
kb PL3 kb PL
D¼ þ ð4:24bÞ
D hGc b
(d) The wrinkle stress on a surface panel is given by:
2Ef tf 2
rcr ¼ ð4:25Þ
S S
(e) The buckling stress on a surface panel is given by:

12
Ec tf
rcr ¼ 0:82Ef ð4:26Þ
Ef tc
where M, V, Kb, and Ks are given in Table 4.12.

M maximum bending moment;
V maximum shear force;
kb bending deflection constant;
D bending stiffness;
P total load;
rfi surface panel stress;
tf surface panel thickness;
sc core shear stress;
D deflection;
Ef surface panel modulus, taking the values in beam axial direction;
rcr surface critical stress;
k 1 − mxymyx;
S core cell dimensions (core cell inscribed circle diameter);
Ec core compression modulus;
tc core thickness.
Others variables are shown in Fig. 4.23.

410 Z. Shen et al.
Table 4.12 Calculation of V, M, Kb, and Ks of beams

Beam type Max. shear Max. Bending Shear
force V bending deflection deflection
moment M constant constant
Kb Ks
0.5P 0.125PL 0.01302 0.125
(P = qL)
Simple support
Uniform force
5P 0.08333PL 0.002604 0.125
(P = qL)
Two-point
Fixed-support
Uniform force
0.5P 0.25PL 0.02083 0.25
Simple support
Concentrated force
0.5P 0.125PL 0.00521 0.25
Two-point
Fixed-support
Concentrated force
P 0.5PL 0.125 0.5
(P = qL)
Suspend beam
Uniform force
P PL 0.3333 1
Suspend beam
Concentrated force
P 0.3333PL 0.06666 0.3333
(P = 0.5qL)
Suspend beam
Triangle distribution
0.625P 0.125PL 0.005403 0.07042
(P = qL)
One end fixed, one end uniform

force
4.6.3.2 Sandwich Stress Analysis and Strength Correction
Composite panels and honeycomb cores feature anisotropic properties, complex

structure configurations, and a wide range of changing parameters. Hence, sim-
plified engineering beam design approaches cannot meet the requirements for
sandwich structure design and analysis. Currently, the finite element method
(FEM) is used for stress and stability analysis in structural design. An example is
the MSC/NASTRAN program analysis.
(1) FEM for sandwich structures
In applications of FEM to sandwich structures, the membrane stress unit is used
for the surface modeling, and a special volume unit is used to simulate the
honeycomb core.
① Special volume unit: Taking the axis L, W, and T of the core
material as the coordinate system, the unit stress–strain relationship
can be given as:
8 9 2 3
>
> rL >
> G11
>
> >
> 6 G21 G22 7
>
> r >
>
= 6 7
W
< 6 G31 G32 G33 7
rT
¼6
6
7
7
> sLW >
> > 6 G41 G42 G43 G44 7
>
> >
>
>
> s > 4 G51 G52 G53 G54 G55 5
: WT >;
sTL G61 G62 G63 G64 G65 G66
88 9 8 9 9
>
> >
> eL > > >
> A1 >
> >
>
>
> >
> >
> >
> > >
> >
>
> >
> e W >> > A 2> >
<< = < = >
> > =
eT A3
DT ð4:27Þ
>
> >
> cLW >> >
> A4 >
> >
>
>
> >
> >
> >
> >
> >
>
>
> >
> c >
WT > > A > >
:: ; : ; >
> 5>
;
cTL A6
where
{Ai} is the thermal expansion coefficient,
ΔT is the temperature difference.
The subscripts 1–6 of the stiffness coefficient Gij are used for the
axes L, W, T, LW, WT, and TL of the core material, respectively. In
the case of a core special body unit, then: G33 = Ec, G55 = GWT,
G66 = GTL, Ec is the compression modulus, GWT and GTL are the
412 Z. Shen et al.
shear modulus in two directions, and Gij is zero. To avoid value

overflow in the calculation, G11, G22, G44 use 1% of the minimum
values of G33, G55, and G66.
G11 ¼ G22 ¼ G44 ¼ minðG33 ; G55 ; G66 Þ 0:001
For the coordinate system in arbitrary X, Y, Z axes the stiffness

coefficients in the stress–strain relationship should be calculated by
tensor algorithms, which are automatically processed by FEM
programs.
② Use of MSC/NASTRAN program
(a) Separation between a panel and core. The panel uses plate ele-
ments; the core uses a special body unit.
(b) The core special body unit can be divided into hexahedron
(CHEXH), pentahedral (CPENTA) or tetrahedron (CTETRA)
units. For a sandwich panel with a rectangular projection, either
QUAD4 or HEXA units can be used, based on the sandwich
structure construction.
(c) Use the MAT9 card to denote the core modulus Gi in the
coordinate system L, W, Tj.
(d) Define the material coordinate system.
When the volume unit orientation is in an arbitrary coordinate system,
the correlation between MAT9 and the arbitrary orientation should be
established through a CORDM domain in the PSOLID card. In such a
case, the output special body unit stress components will be the
components in the defined coordinate axes in CORDM domain.
③ Finite element mesh partition concept
(a) For full-height sandwich structures, external loads will be
mainly distributed asymmetrically. If the core material strength
is critical, the core special body unit should be analyzed as a
multiple-layer partition from top to bottom. If the core material
strength is not critical, a single-layer partition can be used.
(b) For in-plane load sandwich structures, the core can be analyzed
as a single-layer partition for total buckling analysis.
(c) In buckling analysis, the mesh partition should be of an
appropriate size to properly reflect the buckling behavior.
Attention should be paid to the rational modeling of boundary
conditions.
(2) Sandwich strength corrections
A design load is used for stress analysis, and the results can be used for strength
correction and structural design modifications.
① In-plane strength correction
(a) Operation strain allowable strain.

(b) Modification of operation stress under design load should be
performed with the modifying factor is fm.
Operation stress fm panel allowable strength.
For composite panels, fm = 1.06–1.15.
② Core material strength correction: The FEM results rz (stress at cell
center) should be modified by the factor fc.
rz fc ½rc
where
[rc]—core material allowable compression strength,
fc—modification factor, depending on the core partition layer
number as well as loading conditions usually fc = 1.0–2.0,
In the case of a core “single-layer” partition and a normally dis-
tributed load applied to a sandwich panel, then fc 2.0.
Core shear strength can be corrected by the following equation:
sLT ½sLT 0:7

sWT ½sWT 0:7
where ½sLT ½sWT —core allowable shear strength.
4.6.4 Composite Structure Anti-crash and Energy

Absorption Design
4.6.4.1 Aircraft Body Structure Crash Resistant Design Features
When an aircraft crashes, the body structure is subjected to a large instantaneous

deformation to absorb the impact energy. Theoretical analysis of large structural
impact deformation involves multiple complex fields of study, such as collision
mechanics and material high strain rate and impact damage mechanics. Hence,
body structure anti-crash and energy absorbing design should be performed by
combining digital stimulation analysis and testing verification. Testing plays a
particularly important role. The design should be started from the crash/absorption
of structural components [3].
The measures taken for structural crash absorption will increase structural
weight. This increase is considered to be a fixed additional weight, so low mass
composites with high energy absorption are important for structural
crash/absorption design. Many studies have indicated that energy absorption
components, such as agamid/epoxy composite sine-wave beams, offer better energy
414 Z. Shen et al.
absorption capacities than that of aluminum alloy components. Use of composite

components may also reduce the weight requirements of crash absorption designs.
4.6.4.2 Composite Crash Absorption Component Design
Composite body structures should be able to provide at least the same level of crash
safety as metal structures. The design of energy absorption components provides a
basis for materials selection and selection of configuration parameters in crash
absorption structure designs. Thus, composite crash/absorption component design
is an important part of the design process. Anti-crash and energy absorption
components can be classified as follows:
(1) Metal crash absorption components
Structural metal materials such as Al alloy are the tough materials, which can
produce large deformations to absorb crash impact energies. The toughness of
metals can be used to design crash/absorption body structures.
(2) Composite crash/absorption components
Fiber-reinforced composites show linear elastic behaviors at 0° tensile and com-
pression loads with a small failure strain. However, nonlinear ±45° off-axis tensile
and compression loads have a large failure strain and show tough material behavior.
Thus, in composite crash/absorption component design, a design scheme with tube
and wave beams with ±45 plies as the base, and 0° plies as supplements are
preferred, as shown in Fig. 4.24. Tube components may be easily manufactured at
low cost, and the test result analysis is straightforward.
Composite sine-wave web beams are a high stiffness and stability structural
component with both load-bearing and energy absorption abilities. The shapes of
sine waves and ply stacking can be designed to give good processing ability. An
energy absorption component made of a sandwiched web beam with a ladder core
is shown in Fig. 4.25. This structure is used in the helicopter NH90. It absorbing
ability is equivalent to that of a sine-wave web beam, but it can be processed more
easily.
Fig. 4.24 Composite

crash/absorption components
Fig. 4.25 Energy absorption

component made of sandwich
web beam with ladder cores
Material selection for crash absorption components and common structural

components requires materials with high toughness and energy absorption capacity,
which also have good mechanical properties and processing ability. Currently,
Kevlar/carbon hybrids or woven Kevlar are selected as reinforcing materials and an
epoxy or thermoplastic (such as PEEK) resin matrix is selected with high tough-
ness. For RTM processing, a special resin matrix is required. Test-based verification
is needed for all selected composite systems.
4.6.4.3 Structural Design of Composite Crash/Absorption Floor
Crash/absorption floor structures are an important part of aircraft crash resistance

design. In designing these structures, the first consideration is energy absorption
and the second is their load-bearing ability. With a selection of a proper structural
configuration, parameters, and materials a balance between the load-bearing and
crash absorption requirements can be realized.
(1) Structural design principle of crash/absorption composite floor
Crash/absorption composite floor structures consist of a fuselage structural floor
and energy absorbing structure as shown in Fig. 4.26. In an airplane crash, the
impact energy to the aircraft body will be mainly absorbed by an energy absorption
structure. The floor deformation will absorb part of the residual energy. The energy
absorption ability of the energy absorption structure is controlled through its
structural design.
(2) Structural design of sine-wave beam crash/absorption floor
As an energy absorbing component, sine-wave beams are commonly used in
crash/absorption floor design. The sine-wave beam crash/absorption floor con-
struction used in the front body of a “Tiger” helicopter is shown in Fig. 4.27. Crash
416 Z. Shen et al.
Fig. 4.26 Structural design principle of crash/absorption floor
Fig. 4.27 Crash/absorption floor in “Tiger” front helicopter body
absorption structures feature a longitudinal/transverse cross-beam construction,

which can be a single component in a single cross, double cross, or well-shape
configuration, as shown in Fig. 4.28. A recommended configuration is shown in
Fig. 4.29.
Fig. 4.28 Basic pattern of a sine-wave web assembly
Fig. 4.29 Recommended

optimized energy absorption
construction configuration
4.6.5 Analysis of Thick Cross-sectional Composite

(Thick Laminate)
Thick cross-section composites refer to thick laminates containing a large number

of plies.
Currently, thin composite laminates are most often used in aerospace engi-
neering. However, thick composite laminates are becoming more common. For
example, the panel thickness in the wing root of a large commercial airplane is 30–
45 mm.
In an A380, some panels of the central wing critical joints have thicknesses up to
160 mm and the number of plies is of the order of hundreds or thousands.
Compared with thin laminates, thick laminates can offer higher impact and
damage resistances. Their damage tolerance is a less serious concern and thick
laminates can also provide improved thermal resistance and hot/wet properties, and
418 Z. Shen et al.
operation performances. However, in terms of processing and property testing, the

analysis and design of thick laminates require special care to be taken.
4.6.5.1 Features of Thick Cross-section Composites
Owing to the dimensional increase in the thickness direction, the stress component
in this direction cannot be ignored. Hence, 3D stress analysis should be performed
on thick laminates. Even under a single in-plane load, thick laminates will also
show a 3D stress distribution. Any stress components reaching a critical state can
result in thick laminate failure. Therefore, the above-mentioned thin laminate 2D
stress analysis and the corresponding failure criteria are not appropriate for thick
laminates.
In addition, the 3D effects in thick laminate composite are more significant than
those in uniform isotropic materials. The strength along the thickness direction is
very low, and has a high sensitivity to matrix cracking and delamination. Thus, it is
necessary to perform 3D stress analysis to establish the failure criterion for thick
laminates. The failure modes governed by the fiber, matrix, and interface should all
be considered.
Many new problems will be encountered in thick composite processing, such as
decreasing residual stress, reducing void content, and ensuring full curing. To
minimize these effects, it is necessary to use special resin matrices, processing
techniques, modes, and curing conditions. Special attention should be given to two
main issues in thick composite processing: A low-level residual stress should be
achieved; the production efficiency should be high, i.e., the time required for full
curing should be as short as possible. Rapid heating and cooling can reduce the
curing time, but can also induce higher residual stress. Slow curing cycles will
result in a low production rate and high cost; however, a fully cured part can be
expected. Cure modeling is very important for thick composite manufacture and can
provide a good understanding of the cure kinetics and instant cure degree in the
cure cycle. This knowledge is useful for predicting the processing stress and is an
important approach to guaranteeing processing quality.
In thick composite laminate analysis and design, it is necessary to understand the
multi-axial strength and stiffness to fully take advantage of thick composites.
Currently, there is a lack of studies on thick composite design, analysis, and
materials testing.
In Fig. 4.30, a flowchart of thick composite analysis is given.
4.6.5.2 3D Stress Analysis of Thick Composites
As mentioned above, 3D stress analysis should be performed for thick composites.

The effects of interlaminar tensile stress and shear stress should be considered when
thick laminate is under out-plane loading conditions. Furthermore, 3D stress
Fig. 4.30 Flow chart of thick composite analysis
analysis is needed in unidirectional isotropic laminates. The stress–strain expression

is given as:
8 9 2 38 9
>
> e1 >> S11 S12 S13 0 0 0 > > r1 >>
>
> >
> 6 S12 > r2 >
>
>
> e >
> S22 S23 0 0 0 77>>
>
>
>
= 6
2
< 6 S13 7 < =
e3 S23 S33 0 0 0 7 r3
¼6
6 0 7 ð4:28Þ
>
> c23 >
> 0 0 S44 0 0 7> > s >
>
> >
>
6 > 23 >>
> c31 >
> >
4 0 0 0 0 S55 0 5> >
> s > >
: ; : 31 >;
c12 0 0 0 0 0 S66 s12
If engineering constants are used, then:

2 1 3
8 9 mE212 mE313 0 0 0 8 9
>
> e 1 >
>
E
6 m1 12 7>> r1 >>
>
> >
> 6 E1 1
mE323 0 0 0 7>> r2 >>
>
> e >
> 7>> >
>
= 6
2 E2
< 6 mE13 mE232 1
0 0 0 7< r3 =
e3
¼6
6
1 E3 7
7> s23 > ð4:29Þ
> c23 >
> > 6 0 0 0 1
0 0 7> >
>
> >
> 6 0
G23
7>> s31 >
>
> c31 >
> > 4 0 0 0 1
0 5>> >
>
: ; G13 : ;
m12 0 0 0 0 0 1 s12
G12
where
m12 m21 m13 m31 m23 m32
¼ ; ¼ ; ¼ ð4:30Þ
E1 E2 E1 E3 E2 E3
420 Z. Shen et al.
Nine independent elastic parameters are involved: E1, E2, E3, G12, G13, G23, m12,
m13, and m23.
If a difference exists between the tensile modulus and compression modulus, the
mean value of the two should be used for small differences; for large differences,
the applied external load should be used for the tensile and compression moduli.
Symmetrical and balanced laminates can be treated as orthotropic laminates, by
changing the subscripts 1, 2, 3 in the above equation to x, y, z coordinate axes to
derive the laminate stress–strain relationship. Hence, the laminate takes the nine
independent elastic parameters: Ex, Ey, Ez, Gxy, Gxz, Gyz, mxy, mxz, myz.
4.6.5.3 Determination of the Properties of Thick Composites
For design and establishing failure criterion of thick composites, it is necessary to

determine their properties and behavior. Determination of the 3D properties of thick
composites is more complex than that of thin 2D laminates. The use of testing
supported by theoretical calculations is the main approach to analyzing these
structures:
(1) Testing Methods
Problems may arise with the testing methods, specimens, equipment, and fix-
tures used for thick composite testing. In general, the following aspects should
be considered:
• Fixtures and clamping
• Specimen design and optimization
• Computer control interface
• Proper control of displacement in the central zone of the specimen
• The internal stress state of thick composites
• Multi-axial extensometers and other measuring devices
• Environmental considerations
• Data collection and processing
• Multi-axial yielding and failure criterion
• Dimensional effects and magnifications
• Static and dynamic testing, including fatigue and impact
• Sensitivity of stress concentration
• NDT evaluation
① Single-axis testing: Conventional 2D single-axis testing of unidi-
rectional laminates includes measurements of in-plane tensile mod-
uli (E1t, E2t), compression moduli (E1c, E2c), shear modulus (G12),
and tensile–compression strengths (TX, X−C, Y t , Y c ) and tensile–
compression failure strains (e1t, e1c, e2t, e2c). In 3D single-axis test-
ing, new characteristics for testing, include: the tensile modulus in
the thickness direction (E3t); compression modulus (E3c) and shear
moduli (G13, G23) related to thickness; and the tensile–compression

strengths (Tzu, Zc) and tensile–compression failure strain (e3t, e3c).
In compression testing of thick composites, special attention should
be paid to the design and bonding of the specimen end tabs as well
as the end supports. Any impact, end cracking or improper fixturing,
may negatively affect the material’s properties and give inconclusive
data. Tables 4.13 and 4.14 present typical room-temperature testing
data from medium modulus C-fiber/epoxy unidirectional laminates
and multi-directional laminates.
② Multi-axis testing: Multi-axis testing is needed to evaluate the
behavior of thick laminates under 3D loading conditions. Two- or
three-axis testing machines are needed. The load can be applied
along two intervertical or three intervertical axes. Figures 4.31 and
4.32 show two-axis and three-axis tensile–compression testing sys-
tems, respectively.
Specimens for multi-axis testing should be specially designed,
having a 3D construction, as shown in Fig. 4.33.
(2) Calculation Methods
When theoretical methods are used to calculate composite mechanical prop-
erties, the constituent mechanical properties and micromechanics should be
considered.
Table 4.13 Typical 3D test data of medium modulus C-fiber/epoxy unidirectional laminates
Item xt E1t e1t xc E1c e1c Yt E2t e2t
Property 1720 114 15,200 1170 114 10,300 55.2 9.65 5700
Item Yc E2c e2c S G12 r12 Zt E3t e3t
Property 207 9.65 21,500 103 6.0 17,000 55.2 9.65 5700
Item zc E3c e3c S13 G13 r13 S23 G23 c23
Property 207 9.65 21,500 82.7 6.0 4000 82.7 3.8 22,000
Note 1. Units: Strength in MPa, modulus in GPa, strain in le; 2. Laminate thickness: >6.35 mm; 3.
Assume transverse isotropy in 2–3 plane
Table 4.14 Typical 3D test data of medium modulus C-fiber/epoxy cross-ply laminates [03/90]n
Item rxt Ext ext rxc Exc exc ryt Eyt eyt
Property 965 103 9330 765 88.9 8600 241 39.0 12,900
Item ryc Eyc eyc Sxy Gxy cxy rzt Ezt ezx
Property 503 39.0 12,900 105 4.8 22,000 23.4 7.72 3040
Item rzc Ezc ezc Sxz Gxz cxz Syz Gyz cyz
Property 414 11.3 3600 28.0 3.7 7700 42.4 4.6 9300
Note 1. Units: same as above; 2. Laminate thickness: 15 mm; 3. Vf = 61.4%, void content 0.04%
422 Z. Shen et al.
Fig. 4.31 Two-axis tensile–compression testing (I)
Fig. 4.32 Three-axis tensile–compression testing (II)
A data processing method is introduced below.

① 3D properties of unidirectional laminates: As mentioned above,
unidirectional laminates have nine material properties, i.e., E1, E2,
E3, G12, G13, G23, m12, m13, m23. The values of E1, E2, G12 and m12 are
Fig. 4.33 Two-axis testing

specimen
Table 4.15 3D elastic constants of composite materials

Material Performance
E1/ E2/ E3/ G12/ G13/ G23/ m12 m13 m23
GPa GPa GPa GPa GPa GPa
AS4/3501-6 113.6 9.65 9.65 6.0 6.0 3.1 0.334 0.328 0.540
S2/3501-6 49.3 4.7 4.7 6.8 6.8 4.9 0.296 0.306 0.499
easily derived from conventional testing. For a calculation, assuming

that the 2–3 plane is transverse isotropic, then:
E2
E3 ¼ E2 ; G13 ¼ G12 ; n13 ¼ n12 ; G23 ¼ :
2ð1 þ m23 Þ
In this way, only the term m23 needs to be experimentally deter-

mined. The test values of m23 can be found in some sources.
Table 4.15 presents the 3D elastic constants of CF and GF S2
reinforced epoxy composites. The values of E1, E2, m12, m13, and m23
are derived from thick composite compression testing.
② 3D properties of multi-directional laminates (thick laminates):
As mentioned above, multi-directional laminates have nine material
properties The values of Ex, Ey, Gxy, mxy can be easily derived from
conventional testing or calculated by classical laminate theory;
however, determining the out-of-plane properties is complex by both
testing and theoretical approaches. Hence, there are fewer test data
available for multi-directional laminates. Several theoretical methods
are available; however, these approaches are based on unidirectional
in-plane properties. Owing to the lack of available 3D testing data, it
is difficult to verify theoretical calculations.
424 Z. Shen et al.
4.7 Analysis of Structural Stability
4.7.1 Stability Analysis of Laminates
The failure mode of thin panel structures of composite materials under compressive
or shear loads is an instability known as buckling. Therefore, stability analysis is
required to design these structures [2, 14].
For analysis the structure may be simplified as three components: ① rectangle
laminates; ② stiffened stringers; ③ stiffened laminates.
Rectangular flat plates are widely used in numerous aerospace structures in the
form of unstiffened panels and panels between the stiffened stringer of a stiffened
panel, elements of a stiffened stringer and the skin of the air foil. The bending of the
air foil skin is usually ignored in the analysis. The results of simulations with this
assumption are relatively safe, but not conservative. The bending of fuselage skin
cannot be ignored; however, in this section, only the air foil structure is discussed.
The stiffened stringer is an important component for enforcing the stability of the
air foil skin. Commonly used section configurations include angle-, T-, Z-, I-,
channel-, and hat-shaped stiffened stringers. It can be assumed that there is no shear
load on the stiffened stringer; hence, only the compressive stability needs to be
considered.
The skins of airfoils and the empennage are usually made of stiffened laminates.
Hence these are the most widely studied components in stability analysis. Although
global analysis is highly complex, programs based on the FEM are frequently used
for calculations performed by computer. The performance of a preliminary design
can be estimated by considering the rectangular plate and stiffened stringer
separately.
Next, the stability analysis of three typical components/elements will be
introduced.
4.7.1.1 Buckling Analysis of Rectangular Flat Plates
Stability analysis of rectangle plates, also known as buckling analysis, is mainly

concerned with the initial buckling load (or simply the buckling load).
Buckling load is related to the stiffness of the laminate, its dimensions (i.e.,
thickness, length, and width), and peripheral supporting conditions. Compared with
isotropic metal plates, the stiffness of anisotropic laminates made from composite
materials is complex. Stiffness not only depends on the thickness of laminates but
also on the stacking sequence. In the case of symmetrical and balanced laminated
plates, if h cross-layers are stacked adjacently there are many layers with rigidity
coefficients Bij = 0, D16 0, and D26 0. Commonly used laminated plates are
orthotropic and can be simply considered under ideal boundary conditions (i.e.,
simply supported, fixed, and free) and under an evenly distributed load for axial
pressure, and shear and transverse compression. With these assumptions, the
buckling load has a closed analytical solution. Therefore, the four edges of
orthotropic laminated plate in supported conditions can be properly simplified: The
ideal conditions are simply supported, fixed supported, and free boundary condi-
tions. Engineers can apply existing closed formulae to calculate the buckling loads.
The calculation of buckling load in unbalanced and asymmetrical laminates is
difficult. Calculations based on numerical methods are commonly used.
The next eight sections introduce calculations used to determine the buckling
load of orthogonal anisotropic laminates under different loads and boundary
conditions.
(1) Uniaxial load, rectangular flat plate with all sides simply supported
In the case of a rectangular flat plate with all sides simply supported and a com-
pressive pressure applied equally to the two edges of a rectangular flat plate
(Fig. 4.34), the formula of the buckling load is:
"
#
p2 b 2 2 a 2 D
22
Nxcr ¼ 2 D11 m þ 2ðD12 þ 2D66 Þ þ ð4:31Þ
b a b m2
In this formula:
Nxcr —axial compressive buckling load per unit length;
m —buckling half-wave number along the x-axis of plate;
a, b —length and width of the plate;
Dij (i, j = 1, 2, 6) —bending stiffness factor of plate.
The parameter m can take the values 1, 2, 3, … in the calculation, to determine a
corresponding set. The minimum value of the set is the buckling load of the
laminate, Nxcr.
(2) Uniaxial load, laminates with loaded edges simply supported and unloaded
edges fixed
The case of a uniaxially loaded plate with the loaded sides simply supported and
unloaded sides fixed is considered in Fig. 4.35. In this case, the calculation formula
of the buckling load is:
Fig. 4.34 Uniaxial load,

rectangular flat plate with all
sides simply supported
426 Z. Shen et al.

rectangular flat plate with
loaded edges simply
supported and unloaded edges
fixed
Fig. 4.36 Uniaxial load, long

plate with all sides simply
supported
8 9
> D b 2 m2 þ 2:67D12 þ >
p < 11 a
2 =
Nxcr ¼ 2 h i ð4:32Þ
b >: 5:33 D22 a 2 þ D66 12 >
;
b m
The parameter m can be 1, 2, 3, … in the calculation to determine a corre-

sponding set. The minimum value of the set is the buckling load of the laminate,
Nxcr.
(3) Uniaxial load of a long plate with all sides simply supported
To calculate the buckling load of a long plate with a length-to-width ratio of a/
b > 4 and all sides simply supported under a compressive pressure applied equally
to two edges (Fig. 4.36), the following formula is used:
2p2 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Nxcr ¼ 2
D11 D22 þ D12 þ 2D66 ð4:33Þ
b
This formula can also be applied under the conditions when the two compressive
pressured edges are fixed.
Supporting experiments have demonstrated that the error of this calculation is
within 10% for a long plate with a width-to-thickness ratio of b/t > 35; however, in
the case of a narrow plate with b/t < 35, the transverse shear effect must be con-
sidered and the calculation results should be revised.
(4) Uniaxial load, long plate with all sides fixed
In the case of a long plate with a length-to-width ratio a/b > 4 and all edges fixed,
when an even compressive pressure is applied to two edges (Fig. 4.37), the
buckling load can be calculated from the formula:
Fig. 4.37 Uniaxial load, long

plate with all sides fixed

rectangular plate with three
edges simply supported and
one unloaded edge free
p2 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Nxcr ¼ 2
4:6 D11 D22 þ 2:67D12 þ 5:33D66 ð4:34Þ
b
This formula can also be applied in the situation of two simply supported loading
edges.
In the case of a narrow flat plate with a width-to-thickness ratio of b/t < 35, it is
also necessary to consider the transverse shear effect and correct the calculation
result.
(5) Uniaxial load, long plate with three edges simply supported and one
unloaded edge free
When an equal compressive pressure is applied to two edges of a long plate with a
length-to-width ratio of a/b > 4 having three edges simply supported and one free
unloaded edge (Fig. 4.38), the calculation to determine the buckling load is:
12D66 p2 D11
Nxcr ¼ þ ð4:35Þ
b2 a2
For a narrow flat plate, with a width-to-thickness ratio b/t < 20, it is also nec-
essary to correct the calculation for the transverse shear effect.
(6) Biaxial load, rectangular flat plate with all edges simply supported
In the case of a rectangular flat plate with all edges simply supported and the short
edges under an equal longitudinal compressive pressure Nx and the long edges
under and equal transverse compressive pressure Ny (Fig. 4.39), the buckling load
can be calculated from the formula:
428 Z. Shen et al.
Fig. 4.39 Biaxial load,

edges simply supported
Nxcr ¼ pb2
2
ð4:36Þ
D11 ðbaÞ m4 þ 2ðD12 þ 2D66 ÞðbaÞ m2 n2 þ D22 n4
4 4
ðbaÞ m2 þ un2
2
Nycr ¼ uNxcr
In this formula: u—ratio of loading, i.e., the ratio of applied transverse to

longitudinal loading;
u ¼ Ny =Nx
m—longitudinal buckling half-wave number;

n—transverse buckling half-wave number.
For calculations, with m = 1, 2, 3… and n = 1, 2, 3…, then a corresponding set
of Nx can be determined and the minimum value of Nx is Nxcr. The calculation gives
good results with the use of n = 1 and m = 1.
(7) Shear load, flat laminate with all edges simply supported or fixed
In the case of all four edges of rectangular flat laminate under an equal shear
pressure (Fig. 4.40), the buckling load values of the four edges, in simply supported
or fixed cases, can be calculated from the following formula:
pffiffiffi
p2 4D11 D322
Nxycr ¼ Ks ð4:37Þ
b2
where Ks—shear buckling load factor.

The Ks values of the four edges simply supported or fixed are different, and can
be determined from the nine variables as the dimensionless parameters a and b as
illustrated in Figs. 4.41 and 4.42.
Fig. 4.40 Shear load,

edges simply supported or
fixed
Fig. 4.41 Shear buckling

coefficient of rectangular flat
plate with all edges simply
supported
π
xy
Fig. 4.42 Shear buckling

coefficient of rectangular flat
plate with all edges fixed
430 Z. Shen et al.
Fig. 4.43 Rectangular flat

plate with shear and
compressive complex load
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi b pffiffiffi
a¼ D11 D22 =D3 ; b ¼ 4D11 =D22 ; D3 ¼ D12 þ 2D66 :
a
(8) Flat laminate with complex shear and compression load

In the case of a load on an orthogonal anisotropic rectangular flat plate, where two
edges are under equal stress from complex shearing and compression Nx + Nxy and
an equal shear loading Nxy is applied to the side edge (Fig. 4.43), the buckling load
value can be estimated from:
Rx þ R2xy ¼ 1 ð4:38Þ
In this formula: Rx, Rxy—ratio of loading;
Rx ¼ Nx =Nxcr
0
; Rxy ¼ Nxy =Nxycr
0
0
Nxcr 0
, Nxycr —buckling load of a laminate with uniaxial and pure shearing buck-
ling load, respectively.
The safety margin of shearing and compression of laminates MS can be calcu-
lated from the method illustrated in Fig. 4.44.
ON
MS ¼ 1
OM
A flat laminate with all edges supported, which has already undergone buckling
may still have some load-bearing ability, which is known as post-buckling strength.
This parameter must be considered for supporting components/elements, and more
details on post-buckling strength will be discussed in Sects. 4.7.1.2 and 4.7.2.3 of
this chapter.
4.7.1.2 Analysis of Buckling and Crippling of Stiffened Stringer
Stiffened stringers used in construction are commonly composed of thin panel

components made of laminated laths. In the analysis of the design of this
Fig. 4.44 Diagram used to

identify buckling safety
margin of a rectangular flat
plate with shear and
compressive complex load
component, stiffened stringers can be decomposed or simplified into two kinds of

laths: first, one long lath with one edge free, i.e., one unloaded edge simply sup-
ported, while another unloaded edge (or flange) is free; second, a long lath with no
free edges, i.e., a web plate with two unloaded edges simply supported, as shown in
Fig. 4.45. Analysis of stiffened stringer buckling and crippling should integrate
estimated characteristics for all the constituent laths.
(1) Buckling analysis of stiffened stringer components
The buckling load values of two laths can be calculated with the formula presented
in Sect. 4.1.1 of this chapter.
The buckling load of a web plate of a long lath with no free edge is given by:
2p2 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Nxcr ¼ D11 D12 þ D12 þ 2D66 ð4:39Þ
b2
The buckling load of the flange of long lath with one free edge is given by:
12D66 p2 D11
Nxcr ¼ þ ð4:40Þ
b2 L2
In these formula, the length of the stiffened stringer L is used instead of the
length of the lath a, which appeared in the initial formula.
Equations (4.39) and (4.40) are only suitably for use with orthogonal anisotropic
laminates and do not consider the effects of bending and torsion rigidity of lami-
nates, i.e., D16 and D26. However, these two formulae are correct for most
Fig. 4.45 Separation of

stiffened stringer into long
lath with one free edge and
long lath with no free edges
432 Z. Shen et al.
symmetrical and balanced laminated plates. If the layering of laminates is slightly

asymmetrical, the following equation can be applied for asymmetrical laminates to
give results equivalent to those for orthogonal anisotropic laminates. Use the
ij in place of Dij in previous formula, calculated as:
equivalent bending rigidity D
¼ ½D ½B½A1 ½B

½D ð4:41Þ
In this formula: [A], [B], [D]—(tension) stiffness matrix, coupling stiffness

matrix, bending stiffness matrix of in-plane laminate, respectively;
½D—equivalent bending stiffness matrix of an equivalent orthotropic plate.
The partial buckling load of a stiffened stringer corresponds to the minimum
buckling value of the constitute laths and can be determined by the following
method:
It is assumed that the initial buckling stress rcri of the nth component of a
stiffened stringer, where k-plate buckling stress rcrk is minimum, is given by
rcri ¼ Nxcri =ti , rcrk ¼ Nxcrk =tk .
The partial buckling stress of a stiffened stringer rstcr is:

Nxcrk
rstcr ¼ st
Exc ð4:42Þ
tk Exck
where:
Nxcri buckling load of ith plate element;
Nxcrk buckling load of kth plate element;
rcri buckling stress of ith plate element;
rcrk buckling stress of kth plate element;
Exck equivalent compressive modulus along x-axial of kth plate element.

1 A212k
Exck ¼ A11k
tk A22k
st
Exc —equivalent compressive modulus along x-axial of stiffened stringer;
n
P
A2
A11i A12i
22i
bi
st
Exc ¼ i¼1 P
n
bi t i
i¼1
tk thickness of kth plate element;

ti thickness of ith plate element;
bi width of ith plate element;
A11k ; A12k ; A22k in-plane stiffness coefficient of kth plate element;
A11i ; A12i ; A22i in-plane stiffness coefficient of ith plate element.
(2) Crippling of stiffened stringer

After one layer of a stiffened stringer undergoes initial buckling, i.e., an externally
applied load reaches the partial buckling load, the stiffened stringer may continue to
bear some load. For a stiffened stringer in this post-buckling phase, further increases
in the externally applied load, i.e., the axial compressive load, may induce two
modes of deterioration. One mode is an overall buckling instability for long stiff-
ened stringers; another is deterioration through partial crippling for a short stiffened
stringer, also known as crippling.
Post-buckling analyses of the two kinds of laminated plates that are used in
stiffened stringers involve geometric nonlinearities. Furthermore, the stress–strain
curve of a laminate with a higher percentage of ±45° layers shows considerable
nonlinear behavior before initial buckling. Thus, specific programs based on non-
linear buckling theory are required to analyze the intensity of crippling.
At the beginning of the design, designers are reluctant to or unwilling to analyze
the complicated nonlinear characteristics of a large number of preselected lami-
nates, including the layering characteristics and width-to-thickness ratio of b/
t. Thus, to estimate the intensity of crippling, a better solution is to apply the results
of experiments and semiempirical relationships.
Here we introduce experiments used to determine the crippling intensity of a
stiffened stringer, and calculation methods used to estimate the crippling intensity
of a long stiffened stringer.
(1) Crippling intensity experiments of a stiffened stringer: Fig. 4.46 shows the
shape deformation of angle- and channel-shaped stiffened stringers undergoing
crippling. The in-plane cross section of a stiffened stringer becomes distorted
because part of the plate elements is buckled. However, the whole stiffened
stringer is not deflected and cross lines (i.e., crest lines) of all the plate elements
remain straight.
Fig. 4.46 Crippling deformation of angle- and channel-shaped stiffened stringers

434 Z. Shen et al.
Fig. 4.47 Loading–

displacement diagram of a
plate element with no free
edge
Fig. 4.48 Loading–

displacement diagram of a
plate element with one free
edge
An experiment, which is specific to two typical plate elements of the stiffened

stringers, may be performed. Figures 4.47 and 4.48 show loading displacement
diagrams for no free edge and one free edge test specimens, respectively, under
axial compression. After the phase of initial buckling (Pxcr), the rigidity of the
plate considerably decreased in the post-buckling phase. When the pressure
reached Pxcc, the test specimens were destroyed.
Figures 4.49 and 4.50 show experimental dimensionless crippling curves, rcc/
rcu * b/t, of laminates with no free edge and one free edge, respectively. In
these dimensionless curves the y-coordinate is the ratio of the crippling stress to
the compressive strength limit of the materials comprising the laminate. The x-
coordinate is the width-to-thickness ratio b/t of the laminate. However, in these
crippling curves, the compressive ability of the laminate is dimensionless and
the effects of bending rigidity of the laminates are not considered. Although the
compressive ability of materials may be similar, the buckling and crippling may
be different owing to different layering order, which gives different bending
rigidity.
For this reason, the curves in Figs. 4.49 and 4.50 have little practical value, and
further work is necessary to determine the effect of the layering order of
laminates on bending rigidity.
Fig. 4.49 Crippling curve of plate element with no free edge
Fig. 4.50 Crippling curve of plate element with one free edge
The crippling curves in Figs. 4.51 and 4.52 are corrected crippling curves of
two kinds of laminates with one free edge and no free edge, respectively.

The y-coordinate is the dimensionless crippling stress rrcucc EExc ; the x-coordinate

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
is the dimensionless ratio of width to thickness t Exc pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi , and
b E r cu
Exc Eyc

¼ 12D11 1 mxy myx
E ð4:43Þ
t 3
436 Z. Shen et al.
Fig. 4.51 Corrected

crippling curve of laminated
plate element with one free
edge
Fig. 4.52 Corrected

crippling curve of laminated
plate element with no free
edge
where
D11 —bending stiffness coefficient of laminate;
mxy, myx —Poisson’s ratio of the laminate;
Exc, Eyc —equivalent longitudinal and transverse compressive moduli of
laminate;
b —laminate width;
t —laminate thickness;
rcu —compressive strength (ultimate);
rcc —crippling strength (stress).
The values of Ex ðExc Þ, Ey ðEyc Þ, mxy and myx of a symmetric laminated plate can
be calculated from the following formulae.

1 A2
Ex ¼ A11 12
t A22
1 A212
Ey ¼ A22 ð4:44Þ
t A11
A12
mxy ¼
A22
A12
myx ¼
A11
(2) Identification of crippling rigidity of a stiffened stringer: According to curves

from previous experiments, the crippling rigidity of a stiffened stringer can be
identified by the following procedures:
① Break down the stiffened stringers into two plate element groups,
i.e., one-free-edge and no-free-edge groups.
② Certify the crippling stress of every plate element according to
Figs. 4.51 and 4.52; when applying the width-to-thickness ratio
determine rcc for every plate element, the values of Ex , Ey , mxy , myx ,
and E should be calculated from Eqs. 4.44 and 4.45 to determine the
value of rcu.
③ The limiting value of the crippling stress of a laminated plate rcu can be
determined experimentally or estimated from the following formula:
rcu ¼ Exc ec
where
Exc —equivalent longitudinal modulus of elasticity of laminate;
ec —compressive strain design allowable value of composite laminate.
④ Apply the following formula to determine the weighted contribution of
crippling stress of each plate element of the composite laminated plate.
The crippling stress of a stiffened stringer can be determined from:
P
N
rcci bi ti
i¼1
rstcc ¼ ð4:45Þ
PN
bi t i
i¼1
where
rcci —crippling stress of ith stringer;
bi —width of ith stringer;
ti —thickness of ith stringer;
N —number of stringer.
438 Z. Shen et al.
Note: if the value rcc of one plate element is higher than its rcu , the
whole calculation should use rcu instead.
(3) Some issues should be considered when calculating the crippling stress of a
stiffened stringer.
① The data in Figs. 4.51 and 4.52 are taken from experiments based on
a stiffened stringer with uniform thickness. If the thickness of a
single plate element in the stiffened stringer differs greatly, the
thicker plate elements will give greater resistance than the thinner
plate elements and enhance the buckling and crippling stress of the
thinner plate elements. However, the buckling and crippling stress of
the thicker plate elements will also be reduced. Therefore, the
crippling stress of the affected plate element should be modified. The
crippling stress of a stiffened stringer depends on the plate elements
that will undergo buckling or crippling first.
② Consideration of fillets: As shown in Fig. 4.53, a 0°-material is used
to fill the corners of stiffened stringers, and these materials can boost
the crippling rigidity of the stiffened stringer. The area of the fillets
under pressure is directly proportional to the square of the corner
radius. Thus, the larger the corner radius, the greater the enhance-
ment on the crippling rigidity. The following formula can be used to
estimate the enhanced crippling stress:
0 1
1 þ PfE fb t
EA
stcc ¼ @ Arst
i i i
r ð4:46Þ
1 þ P fb t
A cc
i i
where
rstcc crippling stress of stiffeners (without fillets);
stcc
r crippling stress of stiffeners (with fillets);
Af cross-sectional area of fillets;
Ef equivalent longitudinal modulus of elasticity of fillets.
Fig. 4.53 Sketch of corner

stuffing in a stiffened stringer
③ Modification of the slenderness ratio: A stiffened stringer may

become unstable as its length is increased, but it will not undergo
partial crippling. A modification engineering method is introduced to
adjust the crippling stress by considering the slenderness ratio.
The slenderness ratio L0 =q of a stiffened stringer can be considered
pffiffiffiffi
as a pressured column, where L0 ¼ L= C is a valid length of a
stiffened stringer, and C is the supporting coefficient of the end of
the stiffened stringer. The value of C can be in the range 1–4, but it is
generally assumed that C is 2.0. q is the gyration radius of the cross
section of the stiffened stringer. With the use of the formula:
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ðEIÞst
q¼ ð4:47Þ
ðEAÞst
where (EAÞst and ðEIÞst are the tensile or compression rigidity and the
bending rigidity, respectively. These two values may be calculated
from Eqs. (4.53) and (4.54), given in Sect. 4.7.2.3 of this chapter.
The critical stress of a stiffened stringer is:
" 0
2 #
rcc L
rcr ¼ rcc 1 2 ð4:48Þ
4p Exc q
If the value of L0 =q is greater than 12, this formula may require some
modifications.
④ In Fig. 4.54, the broken line represents the calculated initial buckling
stress compared with experimental results from plate elements with
one free edge and with no free edges. The solid lines show crippling
stress data from corresponding experiments. The calculated initial
buckling stress is smaller than the experimental values when b/t is
great, i.e., in the case of a thin plate. The value of the calculated
initial buckling stress is larger than the experimental value when b/
Fig. 4.54 Comparison of

calculated initial buckling and
crippling stresses with
experiment results for plate
elements with one free edge
and no free edge
440 Z. Shen et al.
t is small, i.e., in the case of a thick plate. Thin plates undergo

buckling at a lower stress; however, thin plates can undergo greater
loading in the post-buckling phase. Therefore, the estimate of the
loading of a thin plate from its initial buckling stress is conservative.
For the thick plate, the loading will recede because of the crosswise
shear effect and these calculations do not give reliable results.
In summary, it is necessary to consider partial buckling and crippling
intensity together when analyzing the stability of a stiffened stringer.
If the laminated plate elements are thin, the lower initial partial
buckling stress is a conservative estimate of the loading of a plate
element. If the laminated plate elements are thick, applying the
initial partial buckling stress without consideration of the crosswise
shear effect will overestimate the loading of the stiffened stringer.
4.7.1.3 Stability Analysis of Stiffened Stringer
Stiffened stringers are a typical component used in airfoil structures. The stability of
a stringer is enhanced when it is reinforced with a cover. Part of the stiffened
stringer between two wing ribs and two wing spars should be analyzed to consider
the stability of the whole design. For convenience, the structure can be simplified as
a set of parallel stringers and the dimensions and materials (i.e., layering) of a
section plane of the stringers are same, with equal spacing. The slight lateral cur-
vature of a stiffened stringer may be ignored, as shown in Fig. 4.55. This approach
is widely accepted by engineers.
The loading situations of stiffened stringers can be divided into three categories:
axial compression loading (along the length direction of the stiffened stringer),
shear loading, and combinations of shear and compression loadings.
Failure modes of instability can be divided into four categories: ① covers
between stringers or parts of the stringers buckling; ② general instabilities of the
stiffened stringer. A long stiffened stringer can be considered as a wide column with
the use of Euler instability under axial compression; ③ crippling damage that may
occur in a short stiffened stringer under axial pressure; ④ a combination of the
previously mentioned Modes ① and ②.
Fig. 4.55 Diagram of

laminated reinforced stringer
Medium long stiffened stringers, widely used in airfoils, typically undergo

failure through Mode ④. The covers between stringers become partially buckled
and enter into the post-buckling phase. Under greater loading, the partial flexural
wave of the cover gradually expands and passes through the stiffened stringers.
These stringers are subjected to strong bending and torsion, leading to instability.
Sometimes, the load on damaged stiffened stringers may be reduced by damage to
the cover or stringer before general instability occurs.
The stability analysis of stiffened stringers is complex and requires special
programs based on FEMs, including: MSC/NASTRAN, BAFLCP, CPANDA, and
COMPOSS. These programs have different merits and scopes of application. Most
of these programs are based on linear buckling theory and thus can only be applied
to calculate the partial buckling load of covers or stringers and the general buckling
load of a stiffened stringer. Only the COMPOSS program can be used to analyze the
loading of a stiffened stringer in the post-buckling phase and give the limiting
loading of a reinforced stringer.
In the initial design phase, the following simplified methods are used to estimate
the stability of a stiffened stringer:
(1) A dense stiffened stringer, which has a compact arrangement of stringers, can
be considered to be a smooth plate for estimates of its general buckling load.
The method for calculating the equivalent rigidity of a stiffened stringer is given
in Appendix A: Directory of structural stability analysis of composited
materials.
(2) In the case of widely spaced stiffened stringers, the partial initial buckling load
and crippling intensity of the covers between the stringers and that of the
reinforcing stringer can be estimated separately.
The partial initial buckling load of covers between stringers can be calculated
from the formula given in Sect. 4.7.1.1 of this chapter. Initially, the supporting
conditions of all sides of the covers should be regarded as ideal boundary
(supporting) conditions. The ideal boundary of a reinforced stringer or wing rib
is the supported boundary condition. The reinforced stringer or wing rib can be
regarded as a fixed supported boundary condition.
The subjacent end of a reinforced stringer connected with the cover can be
regarded as a no free edge plate element, with two edges simply supported,
when calculating the initial buckling load and crippling intensity of a stiffened
stringer.
(3) Some specific programs can be applied to the simplify the methods for esti-
mating the general stability of a whole stiffened stringer.
(4) Continuous loading analysis of covers or parts of reinforced stringers in the
post-buckling phase can only be estimated for the limiting loading of a rein-
forced stringer at a certain axial pressures. This topic will be introduced in
Sect. 4.7.2.3.
442 Z. Shen et al.
4.7.1.4 Influence of Layering Order on Stability
Structural stability depends on the rigidity of the structure and the rigidity of the
support conditions (i.e., the boundary supporting conditions). The structural sta-
bility of laminated plate is closely related to the layering order. Hence, it is nec-
essary to consider the influence of layering order on stability in the design phase.
(1) Influence of layering order on buckling of laminated plate
The buckling load of laminated plate is related to layering order, loading
environment, geometric dimensions, and boundary supporting conditions.
Thus, there are no general rules for setting the best layering order of a laminated
plate. Specific analyses are needed for specific loading situations, geometric
dimensions, and boundary conditions.
To enhance the buckling load of a laminated plate, the following observations
may help guide layering design:
(1) Symmetrical and balanced laminated layering are adopted in most cases,
except for situations with special requirements, such as requirements for
aeroelastic tailoring. To avoid plate deflection caused by coupling of
flexural tension and bending, let Bij ¼ 0, D16 0 and D26 0: This
deflection is equal to the amount of initial deflection of a laminated plate
and it will decrease the buckling load.
(2) For a rectangular laminated plate that is under pressure along its length, a
higher buckling load may be achieved when ±45° plies are layered on the
surface of the laminated plate.
(3) For a rectangular laminated plate that is under pressure along its width, a
higher buckling load may be achieved when 0° plies are layered on the
surface of the laminated plate.
(4) The maximum buckling load of a laminated plate under a given shear stress
is achieved when ±45° plies are layered on the surface of the laminated
plate. The buckling load value of a plate under positive shear stress is
lower, than that of a plate under negative shear stress, as shown in
Fig. 4.56. This effect is attributed to the D16 and D26 values of the plate.
The buckling loads of an orthotropic plate are the same no matter if the
plate is under positive or negative shear stress.
Fig. 4.56 Rules for shear plates under positive and negative shear stress
Fig. 4.57 Illustration of the 45°-surface fibers along the compression direction under combined
shear stress
For symmetrical laminated plates, where D16 6¼ 0 and D26 6¼ 0, the fibers
on the outer surfaces may allow for a higher buckling load when the plate is
under a combination of shear stress in the pressure direction, as illustrated
in Fig. 4.57.
(5) The behavior of a laminated plate under combined stress from pressure and
shear loading is an unusual situation because of the effects of D16 and D26.
In Sect. 4.1.1 of this chapter, a pressure and shear stress formula is pre-
sented for orthotropic laminated plates (D16 = 0, D26 = 0):
Rx þ R2xy ¼ 1
Thus, a parabola may be defined in this the coordinate plane, to describe the
pressure load-to-shear load ratio with Rx and Rxy as coordinates.
A related parabola for shear buckling of a symmetrical laminated plate under
pressure and shear stress loading can also be defined. When D16 6¼ 0 and
D26 6¼ 0, the parabola may be distorted becoming more prominent or concave
according to the different direction of the shear stress (i.e., positive or negative
shear stress). Figure 4.58 shows buckling curves of a symmetrical laminated
plate, with D16 > 0 and D26 > 0, undergoing combined pressure and shear
stress loading in the positive and negative directions. As shown in the figure:
① In the case of D16 > 0 and D26 > 0, a negative shear stress
makes the parabola more prominent, indicating an enhancement
of the buckling load under axial pressure. A positive shear stress
makes the parabola concave and reduces the buckling load under
axial pressure. Furthermore, higher values of D16 and D26 have a
more prominent effect on the concaving of the parabola.
② In the case of D16 < 0 and D26 < 0, the influences of negative or
positive shear stress on the buckling curves have the opposite
effect. Thus, negative shear stress makes the parabola concave
and decreases the buckling load under axial pressure; however, a
444 Z. Shen et al.
Fig. 4.58 Curves of pressure

and shear stress buckling of
symmetric laminated plate
under negative/positive shear
stress, with D16 > 0 and
D26 > 0
positive shear stress makes the parabola more prominent and

increases the buckling load under axial pressure.
According to results from experiments, the influence of this effect is related

to the length-to-thickness ratio, boundary conditions, and the ratio of the
lateral elasticity modulus to the transverse elasticity modulus (Ex/Ey). In the
case of a laminated plate with four fixed supported edges, the effects of the
shear stress direction (positive or negative) are stronger than the case of a
laminated plate with four edges simply supported. A higher value of Ex/Ey
indicates a stronger influence of the shear stress direction.
To increase the buckling load, the outer plies should have a fiber direction
45° to the compressive direction of the combined shear forces.
(2) Effects of layering order on partial buckling and crippling of stiffened
stringer
Experimental data indicate that a 0° ply layer near the surface layer of a
laminated plate element in a stiffened stringer will induce minimum values of
partial buckling and crippling load of the reinforced stringer.
However, in terms of bending rigidity, the influence of the dimensions of the
stiffened stringer is stronger than the influence of the layering order. For
example, the Euler buckling load of an I-shaped reinforced stringer section
depends on the cross-sectional dimensions of its flange and web plate. The
influence of layering order is considerably reduced as the height of a middle
I-shaped web plate is increased. Hence, the Euler buckling load has no rela-
tionship with layering order.
(3) The influence of layering order on stability of a stiffened stringer

The influence of layering order on the stability of a stiffened stringer is com-
plicated and related to the instability failure modes of the reinforced stringer as
well as the support conditions of the reinforced stringer with a cover.
(1) Partial buckling or crippling of a stiffened stringer are unrelated to the
layering order. However, the buckling load of a covered composite stiff-
ened stringer, as well as post-buckling of the cover are affected by the
layering order of the cover.
(2) For the case of a stiffened panel with stronger stiffeners under an axial
pressure, the buckling load of the axial pressure will decrease because the
transverse distortion of the cover is restricted. Namely, the transverse
distortion of the cover (free expansion) is restricted by the stiffened panel
and additional transverse pressure is introduced because of the Poisson
effect. Thus, the cover is under a two-way compression such that its
buckling load in the axial pressure direction decreases. The level of this
decrease is directly proportional to the Poisson ratio of the cover ðmyx Þ: The
value of myx can be calculated from the following formula:
myx ¼ A12 =A11
where A11 , A12 —in-plane stiffness coefficients of the skin.

In this situation, the design should aim to reduce the myx value of the
layering.
4.7.2 Overview of Post-buckling and Post-buckling Strength

Analysis
The classic theory of linear buckling has been used to analyze the stability of
structures in engineering. According to this theory, when a structure has achieved
the critical state of initial buckling, its normal deformation (deflection) suddenly
increases arbitrarily. This means that the structure loses its load-bearing capacity. In
practice, when the skin of a thin-walled stiffened structure of a plane features local
buckling, the structure generally maintains the ability to bear load, which is known
as post-buckling strength. For structures designed according to their initial local
buckling stress as the limiting allowable stress, the post-buckling strength of the
structure is not used. Thus, the potential load-bearing capability of a structure is not
fully accounted for [3, 16].
To explain the differences between the practical stabilities of structures and the
stability calculated based on the theory of linear buckling, nonlinear large deflection
buckling theory has been proposed. This theory is based on in-depth theoretical and
experimental studies of post-buckling behavior of structures.
446 Z. Shen et al.
The structural stability analysis involves complicated elastic–plastic and math-

ematical theory. Analysis of a simple rectangular symmetric laminated panel by
linear buckling theory requires the solution of high-order partial differential equa-
tions. However, nonlinear large deflection buckling theory requires even more
complex calculations. Thus, although the foundations of this theory were laid in at
the beginning of the twentieth century, it has not been widely applied in practice. In
the 1960s, the emergence and rapid development of the FEM and advances in
computing power provided the necessary tools to resolve the issues of a nonlinear
field and enable practical application of the theory. Over the past three decades,
post-buckling strength issues of structures have aroused considerable interest in the
engineering sector.
The development and application of advanced composite materials has to on
some extend depend on the discovery and use of this capability to determine the
load a material can withstand beyond its initial buckling.
The analysis and solution of the large deflection theory of nonlinear buckling are
complex and burdensome. The following sections introduce the basic concepts of
nonlinear large deflection buckling theory and present a few examples of its
application to analyzing post-buckling structural characteristics. The use of this
theory in projects is also discussed.
4.7.2.1 Characteristics of Post-buckling Analysis
In this section, nonlinear large deflection buckling theory and linear buckling theory
are compared in terms of analysis, processing, and the solutions derived. The basic
concepts and features of post-buckling issues are introduced.
(1) The post-buckling problem involves analysis of a structure from initial buckling
to damage and failure.
Linear buckling theory analysis indicates that when a structure has achieved the
critical state of initial buckling, its deformation (deflection) increases arbitrarily,
and the load-bearing capacity is suddenly lost. It necessary to determine the
load and buckling mode of the initial buckling of a structure.
Nonlinear post-buckling theory can be used to solve the deformation and forces
acting on a structure from the initial buckling to damage to the failure. This
approach involves both stability analysis and requires judgement of the failure
related to the intensity of the damage. Thus, analysis of post-buckling unifies
the analysis of the stability and the issue of strength. In the analysis, many
factors that affect the stability and strength of the structure should be consid-
ered, including: the impact of damage, initial defects, temperature and
humidity, and guidelines of material damage.
(2) In the analysis of post-buckling of a structure, the impact of a large deformation
needs to be considered to accurately describe the state and strength
characteristics.
Linear buckling theory analysis establishes the equilibrium equations for the
initial position and shape of the structure and, therefore, does not reflect the
impact of structural deformation on the equilibrium state.
In practice, a structure under a load undergoes some deformation. After the
initial post-buckling deformation, the structure will enter a buckled state.
Analysis by theory of nonlinear buckling considers the structure and processes
that might change the position and shape of the structure from their equilibrium
values. This analysis allows for a more accurate description of the structure and
the forces acting on it and can more truly reflect the characteristics of the
system.
(3) Post-buckling analysis of a structure is calculated from progressive data sets in
the moment after a load is applied to the structure. The structure’s stiffness after
deformation as well as changes in its position and shape are recalculated in
iterations. This analysis can determine whether a process will undermine the
strength of a structure but requires an understanding of the structure and the
acting forces.
(4) The use of FEMs for linear buckling analysis of a structure can be reduced to
solving a set of linear algebraic equations equal to zero for the determinant of a
coefficient matrix of the eigenvalue problem.
The FEM and nonlinear buckling analysis require the solution of the nonlinear
algebraic equations in repeated iterations. Accurate calculations and conver-
gence are not always achieved. Thus, nonlinear analysis calculations are a
specialized research field.
4.7.2.2 Reinforced Laminates and Post-buckling Laminate Properties
Recently, some practical post-buckling analysis procedures based on nonlinear

buckling theory of structures have been introduced. These include ABAQUS,
ADINA, ANSYS, ASKA, and MARC. For analysis of the buckling of composite
structures and destruction post-buckling, a dedicated software, COMPOSS, has
been developed in China.
Fig. 4.59 Axial load–

deflection curves for
laminated square plate simply
supported on four sides by
metal square plates
448 Z. Shen et al.
The following procedures may be followed for calculations of laminate com-

posite materials, reinforced laminates with COMPOSS based on post-buckling
analysis of a phase curve (path), to reveal the characteristics of subsequent
buckling.
Figure 4.59 shows the axial load–deflection curve (Nx/Nxcr−/t) for an isotropic
laminated composite simply supported on four sides with metal side plates. Nx is the
initial buckling load, wc is the normal displacement of center point (deflection), and
t is the thickness. For initial post-buckling as the deflection increased, the plates
continued to show considerable load-bearing capacity.
Figure 4.60 shows the Nxy-deflection curve (Nxyb2/Ext3 − wc/t) of a laminated
composite square plate simply supported on four sides with metal side panels, under
a pure shear load.
With b as the width and t as the thickness, along the x direction for the plate,
having a Young’s modulus wc. The positive and negative shear loads of the lam-
inates show different post-buckling performance.
Figure 4.61 shows axial damage path diagrams (Nx/Nxcr − wc/t) of clamped
laminated composite square plates in a post-buckling state. The solid lines in the
figure represent a calculation, which does not consider an internal damage path,
Fig. 4.60 Shear load–

deflection curves of,
laminated square plate simply
supported on four sides by
metal side panels
Fig. 4.61 Damage path in clamped laminated square plates composed of three layers with axis
15°, 45°, 30°
Fig. 4.62 Axial load–

deflection curves of
longitudinally reinforced
laminates
while the dashed line shows a calculation considering the path of an internal
damage. The laminate may undergo gradual failure indicated by the dashed line
showing a gradual downward trend or a more sudden failure indicated by a sharp
downward trend. Analysis of the former case suggests that failure occurred owing
to tension caused by destruction of fibers. The latter case reflects tension (pressure)
caused by the destruction of the matrix.
Figure 4.62 shows the load–deflection curve (Nx−wc) of a vertical reinforced
composite laminate material and skin layer, clamped at both ends under axial
compression with two simply supported edges (taken from a NASA report). The
focal points for deflection of the skin map, respectively, are given for a thin mesh
(solid line), a dense grid (dashed lines), and theoretical calculations and experi-
mental measurement points (triangles).
There is clearly a large difference between the theoretical values and the test
results. In the theoretical analysis and experimental measurements of the reinforced
laminates, the presence of geometric defects and internal damage, or improper
handling of boundary conditions will cause errors in the results of theoretical
calculations and experimental measurements.
4.7.2.3 Post-buckling Strength in a Project
Wing structures based on laminate composite materials and reinforced laminates

have been the focus of most post-buckling analysis. It is desirable to evaluate the
buckling load-bearing capacity to further reduce weight and increase efficiency.
FEMs are useful analytical procedures, but other factors that can affect the
results must also be considered, such as initial flaws in the geometry and materials.
Factors such as internal damage and the degree of damage require further evaluation
by the user. Minimizing the number of iterations necessary for convergence of an
analysis also requires the user to have sufficient professional knowledge and
problem-solving experience. Furthermore, finite element analysis features a number
450 Z. Shen et al.
of common problems, including element selection, model simplification, mesh

generation, and boundary condition treatment. These features bring considerable
difficulties when used in engineering. Thus, it is necessary to adopt a consistent
approach to experimental studies and projects as a whole.
Here, the subjects of axial compression of laminates and stiffened panel struc-
tures are discussed in terms of developing practical approaches to a project:
(1) For the skin, the post-buckling laminate load-bearing capacity can be estimated
by the effective width method;
(2) For reinforcement of the post-buckling load-bearing capacity, tests can be used
based on pressure loss curve estimates;
(3) For a stiffened plate, the post-buckling load-bearing capacity can be estimated
with the use of subtreatment and effective width methods.
Test data are lacking for complex shear and pressure loading behavior.
Therefore, the following considers a limited number of topics, including: axial load
on laminated boards, reinforced laminates, and post-buckling load-bearing capacity.
(1) Estimation of post-buckling laminate load-bearing capacity:
In the case of a reinforced laminate (skin) under uniform pressure at both ends
and with both edges supported, the initial post-buckling and the distribution of
compressive stress gradually become uneven. Before buckling occurs, as the
pressure increases the middle part of the plate will feature alleviated stress. Test
results show that the lateral distribution of stress takes the form shown in Fig. 4.63.
With reference to treatments of metal plates, an effective width, or reduced width
may be introduced. The width of the pressure effect may be reduced by multipli-
cation by Nx to estimate the change in stress distribution over the board and the
post-buckling load-bearing capacity. The effective width can be expressed as:
be ¼ ub ð4:49Þ
Fig. 4.63 Reinforced skin

between the local buckling
stress distribution
where be is the width and u is the effective width coefficient, determined from
experimental data.
A relationship for estimating the post-buckling load-bearing capacity of a stiff-
ened plate of a given width is presented in subsection (3).
(2) Estimation of reinforced post-buckling load-bearing capacity:
A reinforced Be in the buckling and pressure loss analysis may be divided into
two types of stiffened plates. FEMs and experimental studies of the two types of
plate elements have been used to study the buckling pressure loss after destruction
in pressure loss curves. The Be of components in a reinforced plate element under
pressure loss can be considered to be a stress-weighted sum of estimates of the
post-buckling load-bearing capacity.
(3) Estimation of stiffened panel post-buckling load-bearing capacity:
Here, two pilot projects based on this estimation method are introduced.
① The subsection approach used for metal plates can be applied to com-
posites subject to axial compression. A long board is divided into shorter
board panels based on the slenderness ratio (L′/q). Figure 4.64 illustrates
three regimes for division of boards.
pffiffiffiffi
In a stiffened panel L0 ¼ L= C for an effective column length C, where the end
of the stiffened plate support profile or q factor can take C = 1–4, although it is
generally assumed that C = 2.0. The value of q for a stiffened plate radius of
gyration can be determined by the following equation:
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ðEIÞ
q¼
ðEAÞ
where (EA) and (EI) are the stiffened plate tensile (compression) stiffness and
bending stiffness, respectively, according to Eqs. 4.53 and 4.54.
In the pilot study and mechanical analysis:
(a) In the D-E section the short-board features pressure damage, where 0 < L’/
q 20.
(b) In the B-A section a long board features damage leading to overall instability.
Fig. 4.64 Subprocessing

curves of axial load-bearing
capacity of longitudinally
reinforced laminates
452 Z. Shen et al.
(c) In the D-B section of medium and long boards, before damage to the rein-
forcement between the skins local buckling occurs first. Thus, it is necessary to
account for the post-buckling load-bearing capacity.
The D-E between each section, where L’/q = 20, can be defined separately for
the D-B sections and the B-A cutoff points between sections. For B the skin between
the reinforced parts determines the initial buckling stress.
The actual structures of a stiffened panel include medium and long boards and
stiffened plates. Thus, these are the focus of post-buckling load-bearing capacity
analysis. Test results show that in the D-B section of a stiffened plate, the
post-buckling load-bearing capacity and average failure stress can be fitted by a
parabola. The vertex of the parabola is D, the other point is B. This allows esti-
mation of the post-buckling load-bearing capacity of reinforced pressed plates from
the equation:

rcr rcr
co ¼ 1 1
r cc
r ð4:50Þ
cc rr
r
where
co stiffened panel average failure stress;
r
cc Type of short stiffened plate (0 < L’/q 20) average pressure loss of the
r
failure stress;
rcr reinforcement between the skin of the initial local buckling stress;
rr A factor to discount the skin or be reinforcement after the effects of local
buckling decreases the stiffness. In the calculation of the overall instability of
stiffened plate stress, for be reinforcement of more than 4, the system can be
considered a side support with the width determined by the Euler column
formula.
In preliminary design, the following simplified formula are used for preliminary
estimates
co ¼ r
r cc ð x Þ
rcc Þ2 ðL0 =qÞ2 =ð4p2 E ð4:51Þ
where
x stiffened plate x direction equivalent elastic modulus;
E
q stiffened plate section radius of gyration;
Fig. 4.65 Schematic diagram

of laminate reinforced vertical
plate element
L’ stiffened panel effective column length.

A stiffened plate can generally be divided into sections by symmetric laminates
m yen (also known as a skin plate element. A calculation model (Fig. 4.65) can
used based on the following equation A, (EA) and (EI).
X
m
A¼ bi t i ð4:52Þ
i¼1
Xm
A2
ðEAÞ ¼ A11i 12i bi ð4:53Þ
i¼1
A222i
Xm

A2 D2
ðEIÞ ¼ A11i 12i bi ðzi zc Þ2 þ D11i 12i bi ð4:54Þ
i¼1
A22i D22i
where
bi first plate element of width i;
ti thickness of the ith plate element;
A11i, A12i, A22i first plate element of the ith plane stiffness coefficient;
D11i, D12i, D22i first plate element i of the bending stiffness coefficient;
(zi−zc) first section i of a plate element on the neutral axis from the
center;
Zc stiffened plate section on the neutral axis position (from
calculation of the distance between the reference axis).
P
m
Exi bi ti zi
zc ¼ i¼1
Pm
Exi bi ti
i¼1
where
Exi first plate element i in x direction of the equivalent modulus of elasticity;
zi part i of a plate element calculation of the reference section of the center
distance from the axis;
In general, Eq. (4.54) is used, when the second part is negligible compared with
the first; see “Stability Analysis of Composite Structures Guide” in Appendix A.
② The effective width method for skin damage occurring prior to local
buckling of a stiffened panel, can be used to estimate the post-buckling
load-bearing capacity of the skin. For be reinforcement, the buckling
454 Z. Shen et al.
pressure loss or damage can be used to estimate the damage of the

stiffened plate load.
The stiffened panel features skin n1, n2 arranged in a geometric space, such that
the size and material properties of all reinforced features are the same for each
article. The buckling load-bearing capacity can be calculated as:
P ¼ ðn1 be tExs þ n2 FExst Þeb ð4:55Þ
where
P stiffened plate load damage;
Exs direction of the skin equivalent elastic modulus;
Exst reinforced
be equivalent
x direction modulus of elasticity,
A2
Exs ¼ 1t A11 A12
22
;
t thickness of skin;
F reinforced area profiles;
eb reinforcement of the buckling pressure loss or strain;
be effective width of skin.
A11, A12, A22 skin stiffness coefficient of the plane.
When the computation can be divided into m articles reinforcing a symmetric
laminated plate element, the following equations may be used:
m
1X A212i
Exst ¼ A11i bi
F i¼1 A22i
X
m
F¼ bi t i
i¼1
where
bi reinforcement be of the first plate element of width i;
ti reinforcement be of the first i of the thickness of a plate element;
A11i, A12i, A22i reinforced articles in the first i-plane of the plate element stiffness
coefficient.
The be reinforcement between the skin of the effective width can be determined
by the following equations:
be ¼ ub
u ¼ n þ ð1 nÞescr =eb
a4
n ¼ 1 2= 3 þ g ð4:56Þ
b
where
a, b be reinforcement between the length and width of skin;
u be reinforcement of a skin with the effective width coefficient;
escr local buckling of the strain skin;
eb reinforcement of the buckling strain;
η anisotropy degree of the skin, η = A22/A11.
In addition, the articles reinforcing the effective width between the skin can also
be determined from the following equation:

b rscr
be ¼ 1þ f ð4:57Þ
2 rcc
where
be reinforcement between the effective width of the skin;
b reinforcement between the width of the skin;
rscr local buckling stress of the skin;
rfcc pressure loss stress of skin attached to the end of the reinforced section.
If Eq. (4.57) is used, to estimate the damage to a stiffened plate, be can be
determined from eb of the load P, with Eq. (4.55) where the response of the
pressure loss is given by:
rb ¼ estcc ¼ rstcc =Exst ð4:58Þ
where rstcc is described in Sect. 4.7.1.2 of the method [Eq. (4.45)].
4.7.3 Buckling Analysis of Sandwich Structures

(1) Overall buckling analysis of sandwich structure
A large number of calculated and experimental results show that the FEM for
overall buckling analysis of sandwich structures is well suited to their complexities.
In buckling finite element analysis, note the following issues [2, 14]:
① Model grid segmentation: Grid partitions should maintain the principle
of the instability mode, and the core thickness direction should be
selected as a monolayer element. The rest of the other analysis is same as
that for stress analysis;
456 Z. Shen et al.
Fig. 4.66 Finite element

analysis grid
② For simulation of the supported edges, refer to Fig. 4.66.

In the case of all sides simply supported, the points of all sides AB, BC, CD, DA
wi = 0.
Corner points uA = vA = 0, vB = 0 (or uA = vA = 0, uD = 0).
All sides fixed: the points of all sides AB, BC, CD, DA, wi = 0, hxi = hyi = 0
uA ¼ vA ¼ 0; vB ¼ 0 ðor uD ¼ 0Þ:
Other supported boundary conditions can be used with this method. In the case
of a support for an elastic boundary, the corresponding w and hxi, hyi values are
given by the stiffness of the elastic support. For the sides of a fixed supported plate,
hxi or hyi is 0; for the sides of simply supported plate wi = 0 or replaced by the
stiffness of the elastic support.
③ Loading, as shown in Fig. 4.66. Put in-plane load Nx, Ny, Nxy to the
nodes of each side, with upper and lower points corresponding to the
same node. If the load changes along the edge, the load of each node can
be not same.
④ Critical buckling load: Nicr = kminNi
where kmin—minimum eigenvalue;
Ni—stress of analysis with design load.
(2) Local buckling analysis of laminate
In the local buckling analysis of laminates, the panel can be considered to be a
beam support for the core, or flexibility base. The flexibility base has the bending
stiffness and shear stiffness of the core.
Local buckling failure modes of laminates can be divided into three types:
damage to laminated panels, damage to the core, and damage to the interface.
Failure modes of laminated panels include: single-layer instability, folding of the
intergrid, laminated panel buckling.
Failure modes of the core: sandwich core crush, shear failure of sandwich core;
interface damage of the sandwich core and panel debonding from the core.
The calculation methods of various failure modes are introduced as follows:
① Single-layer instability

rjcr nj (2 nj ) nj \1
¼ j ¼ x; y; xy ð4:59Þ
Gz 1 nj [ 1
where
rjcr buckling stress of single-layer, j = x, y, xy, compressive buckling stress and
shear buckling stress along the x- and y-axis. respectively;
Gz interlaminar shear modulus;
pffiffiffiffiffiffi
nj DBj
stiffness parameter, nj ¼ Sj , j = x, y, xy;
Bj base stiffness, Bj ¼ LbEt0 , j = x, y, xy;
z
D bending stiffness, D ¼ pdf4 Ef b;

64Wf
0
Sj shear stiffness, Sj ¼ btLGj z , j = x, y, xy.
Carbon fiber material:

df fiber diameter, recommended value is 0.007 mm;
Wf fiber spacing, recommended value is 0.005842 mm;
Ef fiber modulus, recommended value is 255,162 MPa;
Ez normal tensile modulus of composite panel, recommended value is Ez = 0.5
(E22T + E22C);
Lj effective layup percent along loading direction j = x, y, xy, calculation formula
is:
E22C
Lx ¼ SPL0 þ SPL9 þ 0:5 SPL45
E11C

E22C
1 þ 2:5
E11C
E22C
Ly ¼ SPL9 þ SPL0 þ 0:5 SPL45
E11C

E22C
1 þ 2:5
E11C

E22C
Lxy ¼ SPL45 1 þ þ 0:25
E11C

E22C
ðSPL0 þ SPL9Þ 1 þ 2:5
E11C
where
458 Z. Shen et al.
SPL0 percent of fiber in 0° direction;

SPL9 percent of fiber in 90° direction;
SPL45 percent of fiber in 45° direction:
SPL45 ¼ 0:5 ð1 SPL0 SPL9Þ
② Panel buckling: Panel instability refers to local panel buckling when a

surface is under a compressive or shear load. The following formula
applies to local buckling analysis of the compressive surface of an
anti-symmetric sandwich structure (for example, a full-size wing).
The panel instability can be calculated by Eq. (4.59), the calculation of
parameters D, S, and B require the following changes:
Base stiffness B
2Ec
B¼ ð4:60Þ
tc
Bending stiffness of panel Dj , j = x, y, xy

Z 0:5tf
ðKÞ
Dij ¼ Qij z2 dz i; j ¼ 1; 2; 6 ð4:61Þ
0:5tf
Dx ¼ D11
Dy ¼ D22
Dxy ¼ 0:25 ðD11 þ D22 Þ þ 0:5 ðD12 þ 2D66 Þ
Shear stiffness Sj , j = x, y, xy
D211
Sx ¼
DEN1
D222
Sy ¼ ð4:62Þ
DEN2
D2xy
Sxy ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
DEN1 DEN2
where
X
N
DEN1 ¼ CAðiÞ tðiÞ=G13
1
X
N
DEN2 ¼ CBðiÞ tðiÞ=G13
1
X
i
CA(i) ¼ Q11 (k) AB2(k) t(k)
1
imax ¼ N; k ¼ 1; 2; . . .i
X
i
CB(i) ¼ Q22 (k) AB2(k) t(k)
1
imax ¼ N; k ¼ 1; 2; . . .i
X
k1
AB2(k) ¼ 0:5 h þ ðtf t(i) 0:5 t(k))
1
k ¼ 1; 2; . . .N
Q11 (k) ¼ m(k) EL (k)
Q22 (k) ¼ m(k) ET (k)
m(k) ¼ (1 tLT (k) tTL (k))1
② Folding of intergrid can be calculated as follows:
Ef0 tf 2
rcr ¼ 2 ð4:63Þ
k Sc
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
where Ef0 ¼ E1f E2f
k ¼ 1 t12 t21
E1f, E2f moduli of orthogonal axis of panel;

tf thickness of panel;
Sc dimensions of a core-wise sandwich structure (diameter of inscribed circle
for core-wise structure).
③ Shear failure of sandwich core

460 Z. Shen et al.
Vx
rxcr ¼ pffiffi ð4:64Þ
d0 B7 4B=D11
1þ hs13b
Vy
rycr ¼ p ð4:65Þ
4 ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
d0 B8 B/ D22
1þ hs23b
Vxy
rxycr ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð4:66Þ
d0 B7 B8 4 B/Dxy
1þ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
h s13b s23b
B7 ¼ DD211 =DDEN1
B8 ¼ DD222 =DDEN2
where DD11 and DD22 are equivalent conversion bending stiffness of the composite
panel, the equivalent conversion formula is:
½DD ¼ ½D ½B½ A1 ½B

Z 0:5tf
ðKÞ
Bij ¼ Qij zdz i,j ¼ 1, 2, 6
0:5tf
Z 00:5tf
ðKÞ
Aij ¼ Qij dz i,j ¼ 1, 2, 6
00:5tf
where
h
DDEN1 ¼ 2 DEN1 þ CA(N)2
GC13
h
DDEN2 ¼ 2 DEN2 þ CB(N)2
GC23
d0 initial wave range of panel;

s13b normal shear strength of sandwich core;
s23b normal shear strength of sandwich core;
Vx, Vy compression along x- and y-axis; (i.e., the lowest value of the following:
overall critical buckling stress of panel, critical buckling stress of layer,
critical core-wise buckling stress of panel);
Vxy — shear; (i.e., the lowest value of the following: overall critical buckling
stress of panel, critical buckling stress of layer, critical core-wise buckling
stress of panel);
④ Sandwich core crush
Vj
rjcr ¼ ; j ¼ x; y; xy ð4:67Þ
1 þ B rdcc0
where
rcc compressive strength of sandwich core;
d0, B, Vj, j = x, y, xy see definition above.
⑤ Interface failure of sandwich core and panel
Vj
rjcr ¼ ; j ¼ x; y; xy ð4:68Þ
1 þ B rdbt0
where
rbt bonding strength of sandwich structure panel;
d0, B, Vj, j = x, y, xy definition see above.
The local buckling analysis described above is compiled in the calculation
software BUCKLSCP.
4.8 Joint Design and Analysis
Advanced composites have an important advantage over metals in terms of struc-

tural integrity. However, technological limitations and the need for maintenance
require some separate components to be connected. Proper analytical techniques are
necessary to solve the problem of load transmission at joints. Thus, joint design is
an important aspect of composite structure design.
Joints represent one of the greatest challenges in the design of structures in
general, particularly for anisotropic composite structures. Joints represent potential
weak points in a structure; thus, the design of the overall structure tends to follow
from, and be limited by, the features of joints in the structure. Failure of the entire
structure often originates at the joints. The reason for this is that joints involve
interruptions of the geometry of the structure and discontinuities in materials, which
462 Z. Shen et al.
almost always produce local highly stressed areas. Stress concentration in com-
posites is not only more severe but also more complex than that in metals. Stress
concentration in metals depends only on geometry; however, composites are
affected by the layering pattern as well as geometric parameters. Well-established
joining technologies for metallic structures are not directly applicable to
composites.
Stress concentration in mechanically fastened joints is particularly severe
because the load transfer between the elements of the joint has to take place over a
fraction of the available area.
Composite joint strength is closely related to the layering pattern, load direction,
and environment. There are more failure modes of composite joints, and moreover,
strength prediction is more difficult. These complicating factors require careful
consideration.
This section deals with the joining of advanced fiber composites, mainly
focusing on mechanically fastened and adhesively bonded joints.
4.8.1 Characteristics of Composite Joints
There are two methods of advanced composite joining: adhesive bonded and
mechanical fastening [2, 13, 17, 18].
4.8.1.1 Characteristics of Adhesively Bonded Joints
Adhesively bonded joints have the following advantages:

(1) No stress concentration caused by drilled holes and strength of basic laminate
does not decrease;
(2) Lower number of parts, lightweight structure, and high joint efficiency;
(3) Anti-fatigue, sealing, shock absorption, and good insulation performance;
(4) Good damage tolerance and fail-safe performance;
(5) Smooth surface contours;
(6) No fretting problems created by dissimilar materials;
(7) Non-corrosive, i.e., no galvanic atmosphere created by the presence of dis-
similar materials.
Adhesive bonded joints have the following disadvantages:
(1) Difficultly of inspection of bond quality, poor reliability;
(2) Large dispersibility, low peel strength, difficultly of transferring large loads;
(3) Sensitive to hygrothermal and corrosive environments, aging problems;
(4) Requirements for high-quality surface preparation and strict processing, which
can result in residual stress;
(5) Strict fitting tolerance between adherends and difficultly of repair;
(6) Permanent joint formed which cannot be disassembled.
4.8.1.2 Characteristics of Mechanically Fastened Joints
Mechanically fastened joints have the following positive attributes:

(1) Ease of quality inspection, good reliability;
(2) Ease of disassembly and reassembly in manufacture, replacement, and
maintenance;
(3) No special surface preparation requirements;
(4) Residual stresses are generally not a problem;
(5) Environmentally insensitive;
Mechanically fastened joints have the following drawbacks:
(1) Require machining of holes in the members, thereby weakening the members;
(2) Require local reinforcement, resulting in increased weight and considerable
stress concentration;
(3) Cost can increase because of increased manufacture capacity;
(4) Galvanic corrosion may occur when metallic fasteners are in direct contact with
composite materials, thus fasteners should be composed of a material that has a
small potential difference with the composite.
4.8.1.3 Characteristics of Combined Bonded-and-Bolted (or Riveted)

Joints
Bonded-riveted (bolted) combined joints are used based on considerations of

fail-safety and the need for additional assurance of joint safety and integrity over a
bonded or bolted joint design alone.
Basic principles for use of combined bonded-and-bolted (or riveted) joints are as
follows:
1. Select a ductile adhesive;
2. Improve the fit precision of the pin in the hole.
The following points should be noted for use of combined joints:
(1) The use of fastener strengthening in a bonded structure is a complex question.
On the one hand, the addition of fasteners may arrest and relax damage pro-
gression and improve anti-impact, anti-fatigue, and anti-creep performances.
On the other hand, the fasteners may have an adverse effect on stress con-
centration and should be carefully considered in different situations;
(2) Deformation of mechanically fastened joints is generally greater than that of
adhesively bonded joints. Deformation behavior of combined bonds shows
more similarities to the deformation of mechanically fastened joints;
464 Z. Shen et al.
(3) The precision of the fastener fit with the hole is important. A poor fit will
increase the shear deformation of the joint, resulting in shear failure of the
bond-line, and induce shear failure of the fasters and bearing failure of holes.
Hence, there may be no net benefit to the use of fasteners and bonding.
4.8.1.4 Principles for Selecting Composite Joint Methods
The selection of the joining methods should seek to take advantage of the respective
features of joint types. In general, some basic principles should be followed:
(1) Bonded joints are generally suitable for thin structures with low running loads
(load per unit width, i.e., stress element thickness) or structures carrying
shear load. The main advantages of bonded joints are their lightweight nature
and high joint efficiency. Thus, bonded construction tends to be more prevalent
in small light aircraft and secondary aircraft structures. Well-designed, bonded
joints can also transmit large loads;
(2) Mechanically fastened joints are mainly used in structures where concentrated
loads occur or an emphasize on high reliability is required. Bolted joints can
transfer greater loads than riveted joints. Thus, bolted joints are mainly used in
primary aircraft structural components. The main disadvantage of mechanically
fastened joints is the decrease in the strength of the basic laminate owing to the
fastener holes;
(3) Combined joints are generally suitable for jointing places requiring greater
margins and for medium thickness laminates.
4.8.2 Adhesively Bonded Joints
Bonded joints have advantages in terms of their lightweight and high joint effi-
ciency; thus, their use in aircraft structural components has grown. For example, the
spar of the B-737 horizontal stabilizers; the root-stepped joins of the F-14
all-movable horizontal stabilizers; the joints of wing panel-to-root rib of the F-15
aircraft; Joints of fuselage panels to frame and joints of skin-to-skin for the Lear Fan
2100 all composite plane; joints of the skin of the pelvic fin of the clapboard for the
Y7-200B; the skin-stringer joint of the Y7-FC vertical stabilizer; joints of the
p-stringer to panels, and the p-stringer to web for the DC-10 vertical stabilizer wall.
Bonded step lap joints are used in the attachments for the F-14 and F-15 horizontal
stabilizers as well as the F-18 wing root fitting, and the majority of the airframe
components in the Lear Fan and the Beech Starship [2, 17–24].
4.8.2.1 Characteristics of Bonded Joint Design
The following points should be noted for bonded joint design:

(1) The difference in the thermal expansion coefficient of carbon fiber composites
and metals is relatively large. Elevated temperature bonding of composites to
metallic components will generate considerable internal stress and deformation.
Therefore, whenever possible, structural adhesive bonding of composites to
metallic components in design, particularly aluminum, should be avoided. If
necessary, titanium components with lower thermal expansion coefficients can
be used.
(2) Adhesive joints work best in shear and are poor in peel. Thus, the adhesive
layer should carry the load in the maximum strength direction. Whenever
possible, normal and peeling forces should be avoided. The interlaminar ten-
sion strength of carbon fiber-reinforced polymers is very low, and composites
are prone to interlaminar tension failure, whereas metals tend to show peeling
failure at bond-lines. Therefore, thick adherends are suitable for stepped and
tapered joints.
It is vital to avoid letting the adhesive layer be the weak link in the joint; this
means that, whenever possible, the joint should be designed to ensure that the
adherends fail before the bond layer.
4.8.2.2 Main Factors Affecting Adhesive Joints Strength
The main factors affecting adhesive joints strength include: material of the adher-
ends, stiffness ratio and thermal expansion coefficients of the adherends, joint
configuration and geometry, fiber orientation of the bond-line, temperature and
moisture, adhesive, and manufacturing procedure.
(1) Effects of unbalanced adherend stiffness: All types of joint geometry are
adversely affected by unequal adherend stiffness, where the stiffness is defined
as the axial or in-plane shear modulus multiplied by the adherend thickness.
As an example, for single-lap joints, if the stiffness of the adherends is bal-
anced, the bending moments at two ends of the joint will be the same and the
deformation of the adherends will be equal. If the stiffness of the adherends is
unequal, the bending moment at two ends of the joint will be different and a
higher deformation will generally occur at the loaded end of the more flexible
adherend.
Where possible, the stiffness of adherends should be kept approximately equal.
For example, for step lap and scarf joints between quasi-isotropic carbon/epoxy
and titanium (Young’s moduli: 55 and 110 GPa, respectively) ideally, the ratio
of the maximum thickness (the thickness just beyond the end of the joint) of the
composite adherend to that of the titanium should be 110/55 = 2.0.
466 Z. Shen et al.
(2) Thermal mismatch of adherends: Adherend thermal mismatch relates to dis-

similar thermal expansion coefficients, which can induce initial curvatures in
single-lap joints. These curvatures may influence the already eccentric load path
and thereby change the bending moments at the ends of the joint. This effect
can in turn change the adhesive shear and peel stress distribution. In general,
the joint load capacity is usually decreased because one end of the joint is more
critical than other.
(3) Effects of ductile adhesive response: Adhesive ductility is an important factor in
minimizing the adverse effects of shear and peel stress peaks in the bond layer.
Ductility has a pronounced influence on the mechanical response of bonded
joints. The elastic response may prevent applications in situations where a
considerable amount of additional structural capability is required.
(4) Temperature and humidity: Temperature and humidity have a pronounced
influence on the performance of composite components and these environment
variables must be considered. When a composite with a polymeric matrix is
placed in a wet environment, the matrix will absorb moisture, which may cause
material swelling. Particularly at higher temperatures, the material may soften
and weaken the matrix and matrix/fiber interface. Absorbed moisture lowers the
glass transition temperature and maximum operating temperature of the mate-
rial. If the adhesive can be used over a range of operating temperatures, the
influence of temperature is not important. However, combinations of temper-
ature and humidity conditions should be considered. At high temperatures, the
ability of moisture to absorb and diffuse in the material may increase, which
could severely degrade the strength of the material.
Long-term environmental effects will obviously decrease bonded joint strength.
In engineering design and analysis, these situations should be fully considered. To
avoid any adverse effects from temperature and humidity, consider the following
points:
① Bond-lines are sealed with an adhesive, which is effective against
moisture;
② The most severe potential environmental conditions should be precisely
determined;
③ The temperature and humidity range of the bonded joint should be
precisely defined;
④ The most effective adhesive should be selected considering the afore-
mentioned points;
(5) Effects of bond defects: Defects in adhesive joints, which are of concern
include: debonding, flaws, cracking, cure imperfections, surface preparation
deficiencies, voids and porosity, and thickness variations in the bond layer. Of
the various defects that are of interest, debonding, cracking, and surface
preparation deficiencies are likely of the greatest concern.
Any bond defects will result in load redistribution along the entire bond-line
and stress from discontinuity of the bond-line will increase. When the defect
size of debonding and cracks is small compared with the length of the
bond-line, any increase in stress will not be obvious. The stress will increase
markedly as the defect size increases. Thus, it is necessary to establish stan-
dards for bond quality.
4.8.2.3 Adhesives
(1) General requirements of adhesives
Adhesives should have the following features:
(1) Compatibility with the adherends and high bonded strength, such that
bond-interface failures will not occur;
(2) The curing temperature should be as low as possible;
(3) The thermal expansion coefficient of the adhesive should be nearly identical to
that of the adherends;
(4) Temperature effects should be minimal;
(5) Good mechanical properties;
(6) Simple processing;
(7) The durability of the bond should be greater than the anticipated life of the
structure.
(2) Types of adhesive and their selection
Adhesives can be broadly classified into two major groups on the basis of their
stress–strain curve, i.e., ductile and brittle adhesives (Fig. 4.67). The limit of shear
strain of a ductile adhesive is greater than 0.05, whereas that of brittle adhesive is
typically far less than 0.05.
Fig. 4.67 Ductile and brittle

adhesives
468 Z. Shen et al.
As shown in Fig. 4.67, the shear strength of a brittle adhesive is higher than that
of a ductile adhesive. However, peel stresses can be eliminated from consideration
by approaches such as adherend tapering. The static shear strength of the bonded
joint does not depend only on a single parameter and is determined by the strain
energy to failure of the adhesive under a shear load (i.e., the area under the curve).
Therefore, joints based on ductile adhesives have greater strength. From the
viewpoint of fatigue performance, a brittle adhesive will rupture near the inflexion
and its fatigue life is lower. The ultimate strain of a ductile adhesive is also greater.
Ductility in aerospace adhesives is beneficial in reducing stress peaks in the
adhesive, i.e., lowering the stress concentration. If higher fatigue stresses can be
withstood, the fatigue life will be longer. When the environment temperature does
not exceed 70 °C, ductile adhesives should be used as far as possible.
Near the engine or in ultrasonic airplanes, high operating temperatures neces-
sitate that the brittle adhesives are used despite the loss of strength.
It is necessary to consider the effects of temperature. If the temperature remains
below the glass transition temperature of the adhesive, the bond strength will not be
sensitive to temperature effects. However, the strength will be reduced at low
temperature.
Materials commonly used in structural adhesive bonding of composite structures
are thermosetting resins, which can be subdivided into four basic chemical classes:
epoxy, polyimide, phenolic, and silicone.
(1) Epoxy: The advantages of epoxy resins include its high strength and modulus,
low levels of volatiles, excellent adhesion, low shrinkage, low moisture
absorption, good adhesion, good chemical resistance, and ease of processing.
Therefore, epoxy resins are the most widely used structural adhesives. Forms
are packed with resin and curing agents, which are mixed and cured with heat.
The major disadvantages of epoxy resins include brittleness, generic hardness,
low thermal strength, and poor wear characteristics. The curing is usually
accomplished by the application of heat under pressure. For example, a cure
will typically be performed at 145 °C and 0.7 MPa and be complete within
20 min. Some cures will also be completed at room temperature.
(2) Epoxy–Phenolic: This class of adhesives are a modified epoxy, which can be
completed within 60 min at 250–350 °C. Its advantages include high strength
and good performance at low temperatures; its major disadvantages are the
need to heat during curing, porosity of the bond, and poor electrical
performance.
(3) Polyimides: This class of adhesives requires high temperature curing, usually
between 250−400 °C. A post-cure is also required to attain maximum strength.
The highest operating temperatures of these adhesives are in the range of 250–
400 °C. Advantages of this class of adhesives include their resistance to tem-
perature, moisture, fire, and corrosion as well as their low coefficient of thermal
expansion. Disadvantages of polyimides include their high cost, porosity, and
corrosiveness.
(4) Phenolic: Mixed resin adhesives are usually composed of a phenolic resin
mixed with another resin. The advantages of such mixtures include high
thermal strength, acid resistance, low cost, and good electric performance. Their
major disadvantages are the need for high curing temperatures, high shrinkage,
and corrosiveness. Common used resins include:
① Phenolic polyamide: Shear strength can be as high as 36 MPa and
maintains excellent strength at high temperature.
② Phenolic ethylene: Shear strength can be as high as 30 MPa and can
operate at very low temperatures. Performance is rapidly degraded
above 100 °C.
(5) Silicone has good resistance to heat, cold, radiation, and good isolation;
however, its strength is low. Therefore, joints requiring high stability and the
high mechanical strength may be achieved with the use of this resin in com-
bination with others. Epoxy–silicone can be used continuously at temperatures
as high as 340 °C and discontinuously at temperatures up to 510 °C.
(3) Adhesives suitable for bonding different materials
Adhesives for bonding different materials may be selected as outlined in
Table 4.16. Blank entries for material/adhesive combinations in the tables indicate
that it may be difficult to achieve bonding.
Adhesives suitable for aeronautic structures are listed in Table 4.17.
(4) Measurements of the mechanical properties of the bond-line
Stress–strain characterization of adhesive films and their mechanical performances
form the basis of static strength design for adhesive bonded joints. Because the
bond-line is very thin, the interface will have some influence and the specimens
used for testing must have the same configuration as that of the actual part.
Measurement results show that the actual stress–strain curve (Fig. 4.68) is
complicated and may be difficult to apply directly for joint analysis. Equivalent
elastic–plastic and bilinear stress–strain curves are commonly used simplified
models. The elastic–plastic curve is particularly useful and the simplification allows
closed form analytical solutions to be obtained. The principles of this simplification
are that any adhesive is defined by two straight lines having the same strain energy
and failure stress and strain. The peak allowable shear stress should be multiplied
by a factor of 0.8 to account for both bonding defects and the differences between
laboratory and production fabrication. The peel strength and other data needed for
design can be measured from related test standards.
470
Table 4.16 Adhesives suitable for the bonding different materials

Metal Polyamide Silicone Ceramics and glass Polyflon Polyurethane Phenolic Epoxy
Metal E/T E S
Polyamide E P – –
Silicone S – S – –
Ceramics and glass E – – – – –
Polyflon E/T – – – E/T – –
Polyurethane E – S – – E – –
Phenolic E – – E – – E –
Epoxy E – – – E/T – E/T E/T
Note E epoxy; P polyamides; S silicone; T polysulfide rubber
Z. Shen et al.
Table 4.17 Properties of commonly used adhesives in aeronautic structures
Item Trademarks of the adhesives
SY−24C SY−18 J−47A J−95 SY−14A J−99 J−116B①
(primer (primer (primer (primer (primer (primer (primer
SY−D9) SY−18) J−47B) J−96) SY−D8) J−100) J−117)
Test standard Q/6S928−93 Q/6S348−83 CB−SH−0037 Q/HSY022−92 Q/6S104−88 Q/HSY039−92 Q/HSY043−93
Q/6S927−93 (film) −85 Q/HSY023−92 Q/6S1234−95 Q/HSY026−92
Q/6S347−83
(flour)
Basic components Epoxy, Epoxy, Epoxy, Epoxy, Epoxy, Epoxy, Epoxy,
dicyandiamide nitrile rubber, nitrile rubber, nitrile rubber, polysulfone, polysulfone, elastomeric,
curing agent, amine, curing epoxy amine curing agent curing agent curing agent
accelerator agent nylon carrier
Shear strength 55 °C
33
33
28
28 24.5
4 Composite Structure Design and Analysis
MPa 25 °C
33
20
30
33
30
28 24.5
80 °C
21(70 °C)
12
21 (70 °C)
100 °C
18
15
150 °C
10 (130 °C)
20
15 13.3
175 °C
18
90° peel 55 °C
4.5②
4.5②
strength/(kN/m) 25 °C
6.0②
5.0
6.0②
5.9
7.0 7.5
150 ° C
3.9 4.0
Manufacturers BIAM BIAM HIP HIP BIAM HIP HIP
Overseas similar Metland Metland Redux 319A
trademarks 1113.06 1113.06 Redux 119
Metlbond Metlbond 6726
6726
Overseas corresponding DHS172−292 DHS172−292 DHS174−292
materials standard DHS186−211 DHS186−211 DHS186−231
471
Note ①. All data of J−116B adhesives are B−basis; ②. Bell peel strength
472 Z. Shen et al.
Fig. 4.68 Shear stress–strain

curves of adhesive layer
4.8.2.4 General Design Requirements for Adhesive Bonded Joints

(1) General principles for adhesive bonded joints
Effective bonded joints should be designed to ensure that the bonded strength is not
less than that of the adherends. Otherwise, the adhesives will become weak links,
resulting in the premature failure of the bonded structure.
From the standpoint of increasing strength and reducing costs, the basic prin-
ciples for bonded joint design are as follows:
(1) A rational joint configuration should be selected to ensure that the shear loads
are carried by the bond-line in the maximum strength direction. Whenever
possible, normal stress, cleavage, and peel forces should be avoided to prevent
peeling failure;
(2) Minimize joint eccentricities and stress concentration. Reduce peel stress.
Interlaminar peel failure of end laminates should be avoided;
(3) Balanced adherend stiffness is required to reduce peel stress;
(4) Use adherends with similar coefficients of thermal expansion. The coefficient
of thermal expansion of the adhesives should be close to that of the adherends
to reduce residual stress;
(5) Ductile adhesives are preferred over brittle ones;
(6) Film adhesives are preferred over paste adhesives for large area bonds;
(7) Ensure the bonded joint configuration can be visually inspected to improve
reliability and confidence. It is important to emphasize the process control;
(8) It should be recognized that slow cyclic loading is a major factor affecting the
durability of adhesive joints. Avoid the worst effects of this type of loading by
providing sufficient overlap to ensure that some of the adhesive is lightly
loaded. Ensure that creep cannot occur at that position under the most severe
potential humidity and temperature, to which the component will be exposed.
Fig. 4.69 Basic failure modes for bonded joints
Fig. 4.70 Basic

configurations of bonded
joints
The overall purpose of these principles is to ensure that the strength of the
bonded layer is higher than or close to that of the adherends. Therefore, it is
necessary to adopt measures to ensure that the configuration and geometric
parameter satisfy these requirements.
(2) Failure modes of bonded joints
Basic failure modes for adhesively bonded composite joints are as follows (shown
in Fig. 4.69):
(1) Tension (or tension-bending) failure of adherend;
(2) Shear failure of glue-line;
(3) Peel failure of bond-line and adherends.
Alongside these three basic failure modes, combined modes may also occur. The
failure modes of bonded joints will depend on the joint configuration, geometric
parameters, fiber direction near the glue-line, and loading properties. The adherend
thickness is the most important geometric parameter, as outlined for the following
cases:
(1) Tension (or tension-bending) failure of adherend will occur when adherends are
very thin, and joint strength is sufficient;
474 Z. Shen et al.
Fig. 4.71 Influence of

adherend thickness on
selection of joint
configuration
(2) Shear failure of the glue-line will occur when the adherends are thick and the
eccentric moment is small;
(3) Peel failure will occur under eccentric moments when the adherend thickness
reaches a certain value and the bond length is not long. The interlaminar tension
strength of CFRP is very low; thus, composites are prone to interlaminar ten-
sion failure. Peel failure will reduce the load capability greatly and should be
avoided.
(3) Selection of basic joint configuration for bonded joints
Figure 4.70 shows some basic joint configurations for panel components of aircraft.
The selection of a joint configuration is key for bonded joint design. Joints must
be designed to transfer their maximum load in the shear direction with smaller loads
in other directions. This will avoid the occurrence of large peel stress. Figure 4.71
illustrates the strengths of basic joint classifications as a function of the adherent
thickness. Each curve shown represents the best strength that can possibly be
obtained for each joint type.
(1) Single-lap joints may be used when adherends are thin ( 1.8 mm). Note that
additional bending moments, caused by eccentricity of the load path, will
result in very high peel stress at both ends of the bonded joint, which will
reduce the joint strength. Therefore, it is necessary to increase the
overlap-to-thickness ratio. Bending moments may be alleviated through the
use of a high ratio L/t = 50–100. When adherends feature an imbalance of
stiffness, eccentricity effects will be greater. The use of single-lap joints should
be avoided. However, in a single-lap joint supported against bending,
eccentricity effects may be alleviated and deformations restricted. Such joints
Fig. 4.72 Geometric

parameters of bonded joints
Fig. 4.73 Stress and strain distribution of balanced stiffness double-lap joint
may be treated as double-lap joints in analysis, by considering the single-lap

joint as half of a double-lap joint. Secondary adhesive bonding is used
extensively for thin, lightly loaded composite structures, to reduce the need for
mechanical fastening.
(2) Adherends of moderate thickness (L/t 30) are suitable for double-lap joints.
(3) Thick adherends are suitable for stepped and tapered joints, where stepped
joints are most commonly used. Stepped-lap joints share some characteristics of
both scarf and uniform lap joints. The pure shear state for every step can be
closely attained and as the number of steps is increased a higher joint efficiency
will result. As a rule, scarf joints are only used for repairs of thin structures.
(4) Selection of geometric parameters for bonded joints
As an example, the geometric parameters of single-lap joints under a tension load
are: adherend thickness t, bond layer thickness h, and overlap length L (Fig. 4.72).
The adherend thickness is determined by the required transfer load P.
The thickness of an adhesive layer has an effect on joint strength. For most
practical joints, adhesive layer thickness is maintained in the range 0.10–0.25 mm.
Stress concentration can be reduced and joint strength can be improved by
increasing the thickness of adhesive layer. However, thicker layers tend to have a
high void contend, and strength will be reduced. Furthermore, high-precision fitting
476 Z. Shen et al.
between adherends is required for thin adhesive layers such that a very thin
glue-line may not be possible.
The design of simple, bonded splices of uniform thickness for near
quasi-isotropic carbon/epoxy is simple. Use a 30t-overlap for double shear, 80t-
overlap for single-lap joints, and a 1-in-50 slope for scarf joints. Overlapping ends
should taper to 0.51 mm with a slope of 1/10.
Analysis and test results indicate that the shear stress distribution is not uniform
throughout the bonded area under an applied load. Most of the load is transferred
through two end zones which form a low stress elastic trough (Fig. 4.73).
Because of the presence of these elastic troughs, the load carrying capacity of the
bonded joint increases gradually in the beginning. However, the width and depth of
the elastic trough only increases continuously when the length of the overlap attains
a certain value. Increases in overlap length above this value do not add to the joint’s
load carrying capacity. From the viewpoint of static strength, there is no need to
increase the overlap length; however, service life and durability should also be
considered and longer overlaps are often used. For very short overlap and transfer
of large loads, the minimum shear stress and strain in the middle of the overlap area
are nearly equal to that at both ends. Thus, the entire bond is in a plastic state. When
the load is removed, the adhesive in the middle cannot recover, and the joint will
fail soon. Analysis results demonstrate that at a minimum stress equal to 10% of the
maximum stress the glue-line can recover its original state. For double-lap joints, an
elastic trough width of 6/k is sufficient to ensure a minimum adhesive shear stress
distribution, which is no greater than 10% of the maximum stress.
(5) Fiber orientation of the bond surface
The surface fiber direction of the laminate should be in the primary load direction or
45° to the load direction, but not perpendicular to the load direction, to prevent
adherend premature interlaminar tension (peel) failure.
(6) Surface preparation of adherends
The bonding of adhesive is a complicated activation process between the adherends
and adhesives. It is important to prepare a quality adherend surface for good quality
bonds in terms of static strength and durability. The bond should meet prescriptive
technical specifications. Strict quality control and inspection should be performed in
the bond processing. Nondestructive inspection should be performed for all
important parts. Surface preparation deficiencies are particularly troublesome
because there are currently no nondestructive evaluation techniques for detecting
low interfacial strength between the bond and adherends.
For bonds between carbon–epoxy composites, solvents may be used to clean the
surface together with mechanical abrasion of the surface. For bonds between
composites and metal, in addition to the surface preparation the metal will require a
surface treatment. Corrosion barriers (such as fiberglass and sealants) are placed at
the interfaces between the composites and aluminum or steel to prevent galvanic
corrosion.
Globally, surface treatment processes for metals include: stainless steel,

no-treatment; titanium, phosphoric acid anodization or no-treatment; aluminum,
chromic acid anodization.
Phosphoric acid anodization is a common surface treatment for aluminum in
China. To prevent galvanic corrosion, a fiberglass or Kevlar insulated layer should
be placed between the aluminum and composite.
4.8.2.5 Design of Thick Section Joints
Thin section joints can only transfer small loads; however, it is possible to transfer
larger loads through thick section joints. Failure will occur preferentially in the
adhesive for thick adherends in a simple joint configuration. Thick adherends
cannot perform effectively and joint efficiency will be low. To ensure the glue-line
is not a weak link in the joint and to make full use of the load-bearing capacity of
the adherends and avoid premature failure, the bond surfaces should be increased
and peel stress reduced. Complex stepped and tapped joints are typically used.
(1) Selection of stepped and scarf joints: Thick adherends under a large load are
suitable for stepped or tapped joints. The use of stepped or scarf joints is
effective for reducing peel stress. The advantages of stepped joints over scarf
joints are their ease of fit and high strength achievable by adjusting structural
parameters. Therefore, higher joint efficiency may be attained.
Composite-to-titanium stepped joints are used extensively throughout the
aerospace industry for high load transfer.
Stepped and scarf joints are appropriate for highly loaded thick plate bonded
joints. The use of scarf and stepped joints is effective for reducing peel stress.
Unlike scarf lap joints, stepped joints have simple processing and can achieve
high strength by adjusting structural parameters. Stepped-lap joints are com-
monly used for joining cover panels and titanium structures, see Fig. 4.74.
(2) Strain-level requirements: In the design of strain levels for thick adherend
structures, values should be properly lowered considering the need for future
repair. It is impractical to repair thick structures by bonding because of the taper
ratio requirement, i.e., 1:50. When there is no need for repairs such as one-shot
Fig. 4.74 Root-stepped joins of F-14 all-movable horizontal stabilizers

478 Z. Shen et al.
and throwaway structures, in missiles and unmanned aircraft, bonding permits

extremely high structural efficiencies to be obtained, even on thick structures.
(3) Geometric requirements of stepped-lap joints: Complex stepped joints are
required to obtain sufficient joint efficiency in thick structures. Many steps are
required to transfer load, and to ensure that the glue-line provides adherend
strength. The thickness at the end step should be a minimum of 0.76 mm and
the step length no longer than 9.5 mm, to prevent failure of the end
step. Tapered ends of bonded overlaps should taper to a thickness of 0.51 mm
with a 1-in-10 slope. This minimizes the induced peel stress that cause pre-
mature failure.
(4) Layering requirements of stepped-lap joints: If possible, ±45° plies should be
used on the first and last step of bonded step joints to reduce the peak inter-
laminar shear stress at end steps.
If possible, do not end with more than two 0° plies, which have a thickness less
than 0.36 mm, on any step surface. For 0° plies ending on the last step (longest
0° ply), serrated edges have been shown to reduce the stress concentration and
reduced stress concentration at the end of the joint. 90° plies should butt up
against the first step of a step joint.
(5) The differences in thermal expansion coefficient between the adherends need to
be minimized to reduce thermal stress for composite-to-metal joints. Bonding
composites to titanium is preferred; steel is acceptable; aluminum is not
recommended.
(6) Technological considerations. Co-cured joints are preferred over pro-cured
joints if there are fit-up problems. For pre-cured parts, machined scarfs are
preferred over layered scarfs for improving the fit.
4.8.2.6 Detailed Design of Composite Bonded Structure
Detail design of composite bonded structures should not only consider the static
strength of the bonded structure but also the durability, bonding technology, and
cost of the bonded structure. In addition to the aforementioned basic principles, the
following issues should be noted for detailed design of composite bonded
structures.
(1) Selection of bonded joint configuration: The configuration of a bonded joint is
a critical design aspect. The load-bearing capabilities of bonded joints work
best in the shear direction and have poor resistance to peeling. The maximum
load should be transferred in the shear direction and minimum loading should
be induced in other directions. The use of stepped-lap or scarf-lap joints is
effective for reducing peel stress and ensuring the joint strength is not lower
than that beyond the joint.
(2) Procedures for reducing stress concentration and peel stress for adhesive
joints: Whenever possible, the peel stress in the structure should be reduced by
induction of eccentricities in the load path and asymmetry. For example, the
use of a symmetric double-lap joint increases the bending stiffness of the outer
adherend, and tapering of the edges of the overlap in single joints. Three
procedures for decreasing stress concentration are illustrated in Fig. 4.75.
Fig. 4.75 Procedures for

decreasing stress
concentration
Fig. 4.76 Single-lap joint

with transverse support
Fig. 4.77 Joint of corner

reinforcement to skin
Fig. 4.78 Stress distribution

of T-type reinforcement
480 Z. Shen et al.
A high stress concentration at both ends of the joint occurs owing to eccen-
tricity in the load path for single joints. Thus, the peel stress can result in the
premature failure of the adherends. The load-bearing capacity will be
improved by supporting a joint with a transverse fully stiffened restraint
(Fig. 4.76).
(3) Skin (web) strengthening procedure: The use of T-type components rather
than angled components is recommended. Peeling at the corner of the angle
reinforcement can occur easily if there is a tension force. Premature peeling
may be prevented with the use of filler at the corner (Fig. 4.77). When a T-type
element is used, peeling can be prevented if there are tension forces. Peeling
will be improved by edge tapering of the profile element and balancing the
stiffness between the profile element and web. The stress distribution of T
strengthened elements is shown in Fig. 4.78.
(4) Thermal stress of bonded structures: In the bonding of carbon/epoxy,
boron/epoxy composites to metals, such as titanium and steel, Thermal
residual stress arises due to differences in thermal expansion coefficient of the
materials. In particular, the thermal stress is proportional to the difference
between the operating and cured temperature. Thermal stress can be reduced
through the use of laminate layering design.
(5) Avoidance of galvanic corrosion: In the bonding of composites to metal,
galvanic corrosion may occur owing to differences between the electrode
potentials of materials. Surface treatment of metal elements should be per-
formed. Whenever possible, direct bonding of carbon composites to aluminum
should be avoided and an isolating layer should be placed between the
materials.
Carbon fibers must be isolated from aluminum or steel through the use of an
adhesive layer and/or a thin glass-fiber ply at such interfaces. The galvanic
interaction between carbon and aluminum or steel will cause corrosion of the
metal.
(6) Prevention of moisture entering adhesive layer: Unlike metal adherends,
composite adherends are subject to the effects of moisture diffusion. As a
result, moisture is more likely to affect the whole component rather than be
confined near the exposed edges of the joint in the case of metal adherends.
The response of adhesives to moisture is an important issue for composite
joints.
(7) Tooling design and manufacture: The quality of bonded joints is influenced
greatly by tooling. Therefore, careful attention is required for the design and
processing of bonded joints to minimize thermal deformation and residual
stress. Tools should be applied under uniform pressure to the adherends.
(8) Quality control: Adhesive quality should be controlled based on allowable
values for defects prescribed for different positions.
4.8.2.7 Durability Design of Bonded Structures
Durability of composites relates to their fatigue performance under cyclic loading

and different environmental conditions. Like metals, it is difficult to reliably esti-
mate the life of composite structures. Durability of composite structures is mostly
assured by performing constant or variable amplitude cyclic loading tests.
Durability of bonded structures is based on adhesive performance, surface
preparation, loading and environmental conditions, structural characteristics, and
the detailed design.
The design of adhesive joints should be focused on joint durability rather than
static strength and should meet certain conditions. Three major considerations for
bonded joint durability, based on the design philosophy of Hart−Smith, are as
follows:
① Either the adherent thickness should be limited, or more sophisticated joint
configurations, such as scarf and step lap joints, should be used to ensure that
adherend failure takes precedence over bond failure; ② The design should mini-
mize peel stress, either by keeping the adherends sufficiently thin or by tapering the
adherends for intermediate adherend thicknesses (see discussion of effects of
adherend tapering; ③ It is essential that good surface treatment practices are
maintained to ensure that the bond between the adhesive and adherends does not
fail. When these conditions are met, reliable joint performance can be expected for
the most part, except in environmental extremes (hot–wet conditions). The Hart
−Smith approach focuses primarily on creep failure associated with slow cyclic
loading (i.e., one cycle over several minutes to an hour) under hot–wet conditions.
In fact, the distribution of shear stresses of bonded joints is non-uniform. The
maximum stress occurs at both ends of bonded joints and stress in the middle area is
basically zero. The Hart−Smith criterion for avoidance of creep failure is that the
minimum shear stress along the bond length should be no greater than one tenth the
yield stress of the adhesive.
In addition to creep failures under hot–wet conditions, the joint may fail due to
cracking in the bonding layer.
4.8.2.8 Summary of Bonded Joint Analysis
Stress analyses of adhesive joints range from very simplistic ‘P over A’ formula-
tions in which only the average shear stress in the bond layer are considered, to
extremely elegant elasticity approaches that consider fine details—for example,
calculation of stress singularities by applications of fracture mechanics concepts.
A compromise between these two extremes is desirable, because the adequacy of
structural joints does not usually depend on knowledge of their details at the
micromechanics level, but rather at the scale of the bond thickness. Practical
considerations require bonded joints to incorporate adherends, which are thin rel-
ative to their dimensions in the load direction; hence, the stress variation through
the thickness of the adherend and the adhesive layer tend to be moderate. Such
variations do tend to have a great effect on polymer matrix composite adherends
because of their relative softness with respect to transverse shear and thickness
482 Z. Shen et al.
normal stresses. However, design procedures have been developed by neglecting

the thickness-wise adherend stress variation. Such approaches involve the use of 1D
models in which only variations in the axial direction are accounted for.
FEMs are often used for investigating various features of bonded joint behavior.
However, there are serious pitfalls, which the analyst must be aware of to avoid
problems in such analyses. There is a tendency for the bond layer thinness to
unbalance the finite element model. To achieve adequate accuracy, it is especially
important to provide a high degree of mesh refinement around the ends of the overlap
and the mesh should transition to a coarser representation away from the ends of the
overlap to avoid unneeded computational costs. Without such approaches, the aspect
ratios of elements may be limited and will force either a crude representation of the
bond layer or an excessively over-refined mesh for the adherends.
Currently, the most useful analytic method is based on the simplified
one-dimensional approaches characterized in the work of Hart−Smith. This method
emphasizes principles, which have been determined from practical experiences in
joint design, and has been successful applied to aircraft components. Before
analyses, a stress–strain diagram of the glue-line and other characteristic parame-
ters, similar to those shown in Fig. 4.68, needs to be measured for the adherends
and adhesives. The analytic methods for single-lap, double-lap, stepped, and scarf
joints are presented in references [4–7]. It should be noted that design parameters
based on these methods consider only static strength. Other factors should be
considered separately—specifically, the influence of long-term loading in particular
environments. The ultimate design parameters should be determined by the nec-
essary tests.
4.8.3 Mechanically Fastened Joints
4.8.3.1 Design of Mechanically Fastened Joints
Characteristics of Mechanical Joint Design
The following points should be noted for mechanical joints [2, 13, 17]:
(1) Owing to the brittle nature of composite materials, multiple fastener joint load
distributions are non-uniform. The stress and strain of basic laminates will be
lower when joints fail;
(2) The bolted joint strength of laminates with a certain content of 0°-plies is less
than the unnotched laminate strength;
(3) The load-carrying capability of joints does not show a directly proportional
increase with the end distance;
(4) Bolted joints should be designed to carry a load such that the bolt is under a
shear force rather than tension. Bolt bending in composites is more common
than that in metals.
Main Factors Affecting Mechanical Joint Strength
There are many more factors that affect the mechanical joint strength of composites
than those affecting metals. It is important to understand and consider all factors in
design.
These factors can be classified into the following five types:
(1) Material type and form: unidirectional tape or woven fabric fibers, resin type,
fiber orientation of, fiber volume fraction, and laminate pattern;
(2) Processing methods: prepreg, RFI, RTM, curing, and consolidation processes
(vacuum bag molding and oven and autoclave curing);
(3) Configuration: joint types (single or double lap), geometry (pitch, space, edge
distance, side-end distance, thickness, hole diameter and tolerance, hole pat-
terns, and washer size);
(4) Fastener types (hexagonal head bolt, big foot bolt, blind fastener, protruding
and countersunk head fastener), clamp-up force;
(5) Load: static, dynamic, fatigue load, load direction, loading rate;
(6) Environment: temperature and humidity.
(1) Laminate pattern
Laminates used in aerospace structures are generally composed of layers in the
0°, ±45° and 90° directions with respect to the axes of the laminate. The percentage
of ±45° plies has an important effect on laminate bearing strength. Shear-out or
cleavage failure can occur more readily when the ±45°-ply content is less than that
of the 0° plies. Unlike metals, shear-out failure can only be prevented by increasing
the end distance of holes. It is more important that a proper percentage of ±45°
plies is maintained. Bearing strength increases with the percentage of ±45° plies.
The recommended layering ranges to achieve maximum strength in joint areas
are ±45 plies
40%, 0° plies
30%, 90° plies in the range 10–25%, with
variations of 5% allowed. Bearing strength will decrease as the percentage of
the ±45° layers is increased further.
Characteristics of ±45° layer content
50% are as follows:
(1) Joint strength is less sensitive to load direction;
(2) Initial failure strength may occur earlier;
(3) Shear load-bearing ability is stronger and tension load-bearing ability is lower.
Particular care should be given to the tension in multi-row fastener joint design.
(2) Ply stacking sequence
The stacking sequence is a special parameter effecting the mechanical nature of
composites. Laminates of the same ply numbers and proportions can have various
stacking sequences, which can change interlaminar stresses, and the mechanical
natures of laminates may be affected. Whenever possible, maintain a well-dispersed
stacking sequence and avoid grouping similar plies.
484 Z. Shen et al.
(3) Fastener torque

Bearing strength is sensitive to clamping forces, namely the force in the
through-thickness direction caused by tightening the bolt. Bolt clamp-up improves
the strength of composite joints. Test results have demonstrated that bearing
strength increases with torque moment until a certain value, after which the bearing
strength will not increase. Excessive bolt tightening could damage the laminate.
(4) Joint configuration
Joint configuration is one of the important factors affecting mechanical fastening
strength. In comparison with double shear lap joints, lap joint strength decreases
because of eccentricity in the load path. The magnitude of the single shear effect
depends on plate thickness and has little effect on thin laminates; however, it has a
clear effect on the initial bearing failure strength. Single shear effects will increase
gradually with plate thickness.
(5) Width-to-diameter ratio
The width-to-diameter ratio mainly effects the net-tension failure strength of
mechanical joints. Failure modes of joints will transform from tension to bearing
with increasing plate width, when the end edge distance is sufficient. Because
bearing failure is a local phenomenon, further increases in W/D do not affect the
joint strength. However, joint efficiency can be reduced. The W/D ratios of failure
mode transitions from net-tension to bearing are different for various laminates. It is
recommended that laminate patterns in joint areas should have a minimum bearing
failure of W/D = 5. For orthotropic (0° = 50%, 90° = 50%) and 100% ± 45°
layers laminates, larger W/D values are needed for bearing failure to occur.
(6) End edge distance-to-diameter ratio
The end edge distance-to-diameter ratio mainly affects the shear-out failure
strength. Failure modes of joints will change from shear to bearing with increasing
e/D when the plate width is sufficient. It is recommended that patterns in the joint
areas should have a minimum e/D not less than three. For laminates including a
lower proportion of ±45° layers, a larger e/D value is needed. The transition ratios
of e/D will differ among various laminates.
(7) Hole diameter-to-thickness ratio
When W/D, e/D, and D/t are constant, failure loads of mechanical joints will
increase with hole diameter, but bearing strength will decrease. The joint strength
will attain a maximum at approximately D/t = 1.0. The joint strength will decrease
as D/t is increased further. The bearing strength will decrease about 13% when
D/t = 3.
It is should be noted that fastener failure will generally occur if the fastener
diameter is smaller than the plate thickness. When the laminate capacity is calcu-
lated, the effective thickness te = d should be used:
te ¼ t for t d;
te ¼ d for t [ d:
(8) Load direction

The angle between the fastener load and 0°-ply direction can affect joint strength
owing to the anisotropic nature of the strength and stiffness of composite materials.
Test results have indicated that the bearing strength decreases as the angle between
the fastener load and 0°-ply direction increases. The more isotropic the layering, the
less sensitive the laminate will be to load direction.
(9) Countersink holes
Countersinks will clearly decrease laminate bearing strength. This effect will
decrease gradually with increasing plate thickness.
(10) Hygrothermal environment
Environmental conditions such as temperature, moisture, and corrosion have a
significant effect on laminate bearing strength. The extent of these effects is outlined
in Sect. 4.8.3.4 of this chapter.
Design Basic of Mechanical Joints
(1) General requirements of mechanical joints

The following basic principles should generally be followed in the design of
mechanical joints:
(1) Strength requirement should be satisfied in terms of the design of joint
geometry and laminates. Allowable bearing stress cannot be exceeded in
design loads;
(2) Future repair activities should be considered such that joints can accommodate
the next largest fastener size;
(3) Use double shear joint configurations;
(4) Fasteners should bear load in shear direction and avoid tension and bending;
(5) Requirements of galvanic corrosion resistance should be satisfied;
(6) Consider the environmental effects of operating conditions and special
requirements.
(2) Failure modes of mechanical joints
Composite mechanical joints mainly have the following failure modes:
Single failure modes: Bearing, tension, shear-out, and cleavage failure of lam-
inates (Fig. 4.79a).
486 Z. Shen et al.
Fig. 4.79 Single and

combined failure modes of
mechanical joints
Mixed failure modes: bearing-tension, bearing-shear-out, tension-shear-out,

bearing-tension- shear-out failure of laminates (Fig. 4.79b); Pull-through, fastener
shear rupture, tension and bending failure of fastener modes.
Mechanical joint failure modes mainly depended on the joint geometry and the
fiber pattern. Tension and shear-out failures occur when W/d and e/d are respec-
tively too small. Note that increasing the end distance will have no benefit if shear
and cleavage failure occur because the 0°-ply content is likely too high. Cleavage
and shear failures are two kinds of low strength failure modes, which should be
prevented. Bearing failures occur when both W/d and e/d are too large. Bearing
damage is localized and is usually not associated with catastrophic failure of a
composite structure. Fastener shear and bending failure may occur when the ratio of
plate thickness to the fastener diameter is large. For single-row fastener joints, from
the perspective of joint safety and efficiency, whenever possible, mixed modes
associated with bearing failure should be designed. Tension failure generally occurs
for multirow joints, because this failure mode is governed by bearing–bypass load
interactions. Special care should be taken in the design of these joints.
(3) Configuration and selection of mechanical joints
Composite fastening joints can be classified as single and double shear lap joints.
Each joint type has uniform and varying thickness conditions (Fig. 4.80).
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.80 Basic types of mechanical joints
The following principles are recommended for selection of composite fastening

joints:
(1) Joint design should be suitable for use in double shear lap joints. Whenever
possible, unsymmetrical single shear lap joints with low efficiency should be
avoided;
(2) Multiple rows are recommended for unsymmetrical joints such as single shear
lap joints. The back pitch should be as high as possible, to minimize bending
induced by eccentric loading. Local reinforcement of unsymmetrical joints by
arbitrarily increasing the laminate thickness should generally be avoided
because the increased resulting eccentricity might increase bending stress.
This effect will counteract or negate the increase in the material area;
(3) Carbon fiber/resin matrix composites do not generally feature plastic defor-
mation. This may result in a severe non-uniform load distribution in multirow
fastener joints. Therefore, joints with more than two rows of fasteners should
not be used, and hole patterns with parallel-row joints should be used
whenever possible;
(4) Tapered joints can improve the non-uniformity of load distribution in multi-
row fastener joints and increase the load-bearing capacity of joints. It is
important to select tapered splice plate thickness and fastener diameters in the
design.
(4) Ply-layering requirements in joint areas
To improve the strength and flexibility of mechanical joints, the following prin-
ciples of should be considered in addition to general ply-layering requirements:
488 Z. Shen et al.
(1) The percentage of ±45°, 0°, and 90° plies should not be less than 40%, 30%,
and 10%, respectively. This is particularly important for mechanical joint
design;
(2) Extremely thin laminates should be reinforced locally at the attachment area to
provide greater thickness. This reinforcement will avoid the reduced bearing
allowables that result from a D/t ratio greater than four. The general rules
D/t
1 should be followed to avoid failure of the fastener;
(3) In areas of load induction there should be equal numbers of +45° and −45°
plies on each side of the mid-plane;
(4) Butt-splined fibers should be avoided in join areas.
(5) Geometry requirements
To prevent low strength failure and ensure high strength of mechanical joints,
geometric parameters of jointed plates should be selected according to Table 4.18.
Definitions of the geometric parameters are shown in Fig. 4.81.
In addition, the geometric size of joints should consider future repair demands.
The next largest size fastener should be useable after the repair.
(6) Fastener requirements
To prevent galvanic corrosion, fasteners made from titanium, titanium alloy,
stainless steel, and Monel should be used because the electrode potentials of these
alloys are close to those of the composites.
(1) Principles for selecting fastener diameter: General guidance for selecting fas-
tener diameters are as follows:
① Sufficient bearing strength of jointed component should be ensured.
Table 4.18 Select of S/D p/D SW/D e/D D/t H/mm

geometric parameters of
mechanical joints
5
4
2.5
3 1 D/T 2 H 0.7t
Fig. 4.81 Definition of

geometric parameters of (a)
mechanical joints
(b) (c) (d)

The fastener diameter-to-thickness ratio should be properly considered to guarantee

sufficient fastener strength. The rated shear strength of fasteners does not usually
control the joint design. Bolt diameter is usually governed by the need to avoid
exceeding the allowable bearing stress of the laminate.
② Fasteners should have sufficient stiffness to prevent any reduction of the
laminate allowable bearing stress, owing to severe bending of the
fastener.
Primary determination of fastener diameter is based on the occurrence of fastener
shear failure and laminate bearing failure at same time, that is,
D=t ¼ 4½rbr =p½sb ð4:69Þ
where
D —fastener diameter, mm;
t —laminate thickness, mm;
rbr —allowable laminate bearing strength, MPa;
[sb] —allowable fastener shear strength, MPa.
(2) Selection principles for fastener type

① Bolts are used for structural joints transferring high load, which may
require reassembly. Rivets are used for structures that are not intended to
be disassembled. The laminate thickness range suitable for rivets is
generally 1–3 mm;
② Carbon fiber laminates in direct contact with aluminum (without a
coating), steel components with aluminum- or cadmium-plating should
be avoided to prevent galvanic corrosion. If it is necessary to use such
parts, insulating layers should be added. Measures to prevent galvanic
corrosion may be adopted for carbon fiber laminates in contact with
stainless steel. Titanium alloy and stainless steel fasteners are often
installed wet with sealant;
③ Tension head fasteners are preferred for most applications. Shear head
fasteners can lead to local hole bearing damage because of the size of
their smaller heads, which can roll. Shear head fasteners may be used in
special applications only where stress considerations allow;
④ In generic joints, it is recommend that the precision of the
fastener-to-hole size is not lower than H9/h9. Precise ream holes are used
for important joints. Interference fits should not currently be used
because interference fit assembly technology has not yet been fully
mastered.
(3) Requirements of bolt torque
490 Z. Shen et al.
Table 4.19 Bolt tightening torque /Nm

Screw diameter Nut type
Thick type Thin type All types
Countersunk head tension All types Countersunk head share
Hexagonal head
M5 3–5 2.3–3.2 2.3–2.9
M6 5–8 2.9–4.9 3.1–3.9
M8 10–15 6.4– 10.8 10.2–11.3
M10 18–25 12.3–19.1 10.8–11.9
M12 25–30
Proper tightening torque can increase bolt-joint strength. The torque moment
should be selected based on the relational standard for various material, diameter,
and the bolt type. If there are no special requirements, the tightened torque may be
selected according to Table 4.19.
(7) Requirements of galvanic corrosion resistance for mechanical joints
The three conditions which lead to galvanic corrosion should be excluded in the
design: potential differences between materials, presence of an electrolyte, and the
electric connections. The following measures of corrosion prevention should be
used:
① Material matching can prevent galvanic corrosion. Metals that have
electrode potentials that match those of carbon/epoxy composites
include: titanium alloy and stainless steel.
② Prevention of electrolyte accumulation should be considered in the
design; sealing of joints should be performed to prevent infiltration of
electrolyte and avoiding corrosion battery formation.
③ For materials unsuitable for direct contact, an insulating layer of
glass/epoxy or aramid/epoxy should be used. At important joint sites
which may be predisposed to corrosion, full sealing of the joints should
be used to prevent corrosion.
④ Joints can be installed wet with sealant, in addition to insulation. In
riveted joints, it is important to wet set with sealant, to prevent galvanic
corrosion but also compensate for any manufacturing damage.
⑤ Fiber laminates in direct contact with aluminum and aluminum and
cadmium plated steel components should be avoided to prevent galvanic
corrosion. Otherwise, an insulating layer should be added. Carbon fiber
in direct contact with stainless steel should adopt some measures to

prevent corrosion. Titanium may be used directly without any protection.
(8) Gap filling requirements
The gap between attached parts should not exceed 0.8 mm for non-structural shim.
Large gaps cause excessive bolt bending, non-uniform load-bearing stress, and an
eccentric load path. Any gap in excess of 0.13 mm should be shimmed to minimize
interlaminar stress due to clamp-up.
Design of Riveted Joints

(1) Design requirements for riveted joints
Selection of geometric parameters of riveted joints should follow the parameters
given in Table 4.18. Laminate design should follow the principle described in
section “4.Design Basic of Mechanical Joints”.
(2) Selection principles of rivets
Principles for selecting rivets are as follows:
(1) In addition to galvanic corrosion prevention and high strength, rivet materials
should have good plasticity to satisfy the requirements of riveting assembly
technologies. Titanium alloy, pure titanium and titanium–niobium alloy rivets
are preferred to avoid galvanic corrosion. Aluminum and low-alloy-steel rivets
are not suitable owing to the large difference between their electrode potential
and that of the composites. A286 and Monel are less applicable because of
their lower specific strength. Stainless steel fasteners in contact with carbon
should be permanent and wet set with sealant.
(2) Bimetallic and blind rivets should be preferred to avoid damage to the
laminate.
(3) The rivet diameter should generally not exceed 4 mm, to allow for easy for-
mation and avoid damage to the laminates. Flush fastener and round head
rivets should be used whenever possible where the structure requirements are
satisfied.
(4) To allow for disassembly and for non-stressed or secondary stressed inner
components, a low number of aluminum rivets may be used from the view
492 Z. Shen et al.
point of reducing weight and cost. However, these must be wet set and strict
measures taken to prevent galvanic corrosion prevention.
(5) Avoid buck rivets in composite structures. Squeeze rivets can be used if
washer is installed on the tail side.
(3) Measures to improve pull-out strength
For outer surface of structures, such as the rudder, a hole cap and countersink can
be used to strengthen the structure with titanium alloy or stainless steel to improve
the pull-out strength.
(4) Reliable measures for galvanic corrosion prevention
(5) Riveting processing requirements
(1) Riveting should follow technology specifications. Strict quality control and
inspection should be conducted during hole drilling, countersinking, and
riveting. Nondestructive evaluation should be conducted for important parts;
(2) Damage to the exit site of the drill should be prevented by coating the com-
posite with a layer of film adhesive, glass-cloth, or a pad plate;
(3) When composites come into direct contact with metallic components, under
structure permissive conditions, snap the head of the rivet at the metallic
surface whenever possible. If the snapped head of the rivet is on a composite
surface, a pure titanium, titanium alloy, or stainless steel washers must be
placed on the snap head;
(4) Whenever possible, squeeze rivets should be used for parts requiring common
solid rivets. Bull rivets may be considered where squeeze riveting cannot
conducted. Strong power rivets should be avoided.
Fatigue of Mechanical Joints
Mechanically fastened joints are the main joint type used in primary composite
structures. To meet structural integrality requirements, in addition to meeting
strength and stiffness requirements, fatigue, damage tolerance, and functional
requirements must also be satisfied. Stress concentration in mechanical joints can
create fatigue weak points in the primary composite structure. Fatigue strength is
determined mainly by testing now, because methods for pre-estimating the life time
of composite joints are not mature, and are complicated by environmental
conditions.
Three fatigue failure criteria should be considered in the rational design of
mechanical joints under wet-heat conditions and different load spectrums.
Tension, shear-out, and bearing failure of fasteners loaded hole; permanent
elongation deformation of fastener holes exceeding allowables; residual strength of
joints is lower than the design requirements. The joint life will fail when any one of
aforementioned items occurs. Generally, permanent elongate deformation of load-
ing holes is the first limiting value.
Limiting values of permanent elongation of fastener holes depend on the sub-

sequent damage to structure integrality. Control of the deformation value is based
on the critical degree of deformation of the specific joint structure. Permanent
deformation of a loading hole should not exceed 5% of the hole diameter.
Experimental investigations have shown that symmetric mechanical joints are
insensitive to tension–tension and compression–compression fatigue if K < 0.67 in
both flight and gust spectrum action. In high-speed aircraft, the hygrothermal
conditions spectrum, tension–compression fatigue with high K values, and
unsymmetrical joint design should be considered in fatigue problems. Residual
strength should not be lower than the inherent static strength. Fatigue is insensitive
to processing defects, delamination, and damage growth resistance. For
matrix-dominated laminates in a high loading cycle range and fiber-dominated
laminates, signs of macrodamage are not obvious before rapid failure; thus, it is
difficult to inspect damage in advance and prevent failure.
4.8.3.2 Design of Main Load Carrying Joints
Characteristics of Multirow Fastener Joint Design
One major difference in the mechanical behavior of composite materials and metals
is that composites are brittle and anisotropic; while metals are plastic. Metal has the
capability to redistribute load, thus allowing each of the fastener holes of a multirow
joint to uniformly carry the load distribution. However, for brittle composite
materials this is not the case [26–31].
Composite (fiber-dominated) laminates generally show linear behavior up until
failure. The material will not yield locally and redistribute stress. Effective joint
design should adopt measures to reduce the bolt bearing stress in the most critically
loaded locations. Even if at ultimate load non-uniformity of the fastener load dis-
tribution shows little improvement in comparison with the initial load for steel or
titanium fasteners. Effective joint design requires that the greatest load-bearing
fastener row should be reduced.
The strength of multirow bolted joints in composite structures is governed by
associated bearing–bypass load interactions under tensile or compressive loads. The
key to obtaining high operating strain in bolted joints in fibrous composite lami-
nates is to restrict the bolt bearing stress in the most critically loaded locations. By
tailoring the joint geometry, a bolt load distribution can be generated which
maintains low bearing high bypass conditions in the first or outermost row of
fasteners. With efficient joint design, cross-section strain in basic skin laminates can
reach 0.005 in room-temperature tests.
The laminate fiber pattern is a design variable and optimizing the joint for
maximum strain does not guarantee the highest strength or the most weight-efficient
design. The principle design parameter governing the design of composite joints is
the amount of load that must be transferred rather than the operating strain level of
the adjacent structure.
494 Z. Shen et al.
General Principles of Joint Area Design
Design principles for multirow fastener joints include:

(1) The joint area should be designed first and the basic structure filled later.
Optimization of the laminate fiber pattern should be performed considering
the amount of load that must be transferred rather than the operating strain
level of adjacent structures.
(2) The load distribution of multirow joints mainly depends on the relative
stiffness of jointed members. To obtain even load sharing, joined compo-
nents need to have similar stiffness. Fastener stiffness also has a slight effect.
(3) The geometry of joints should be optimized to improve the load-bearing
capacity of multirow joints. The bearing stress of load holes can be reduced
through the use of variable fastener diameters and thickness.
Skins of uniform thickness in combination with tapered splice plates should
be used for joints. The use of tapered splice plates can optimize fastener load
distribution and reduce the bearing of the most severely affected fastener
row. Both analysis and test results have shown these joint geometries are
more efficient than other joint geometries. Notably composite tapered splice
plates that have tapered washers should be used on spot faces milled at
locations that may not be able to accommodate fasteners and nuts, because
machining may induce small cracks on the surface.
(4) Total thickness of the top and bottom splice should be slightly greater than
that of the center cover even for the same material and fiber pattern. The
reason for this requirement is that stress in the splice plate should be lower
than that in the skin to prevent splice delamination. Otherwise, failure will
occur at the splice plates. This is because, regardless of whether the applied
loads are tensile or compressive, there is also a strong influence from the
presence or absence of the through-thickness clamp-up. External splice plates
have a relatively small amount of clamp-up provided by fastener bolts and
nuts compared with the clamp-up of the center plate sandwiched between
two splice members. Therefore, the bearing strength of the center cover is
larger than that of the external splice plates.
(5) Avoid skin reinforcement: As a basic philosophy, skin reinforcements should
be avoided wherever possible from the perspective of both cost and basic
skin reparability. A skin pad-up is a bolted splice area where the joint
operates to its maximum efficiency implying that repairs to bolted joints or
bolted repairs will occur in other regions. The pad-up cannot restore the
ultimate strength of structure. Thus, pad-ups are allowed if warranted by
other design considerations, but the joint itself must not be loaded to the
point that the surrounding maximum load on the structure would be
unrepairable.
(6) Joint strength is sensitive to the joint geometry as well as the type of fiber and
resin used. However, joint strength is insensitive to minor changes in the
fiber pattern for optimal layer compositions. For carbon–epoxy laminates, the
optimum w/d is likely to be in the range 4–5 for multirow joints.
(7) Adequate consideration of the bolt diameter-to-laminate thickness ratio (or
more appropriately, bolt bending stiffness-to-laminate thickness ratio) is
warranted in joint design to assure that fasteners are the weak link.
Fastener bending elastic deformation may decrease the clamp force and
allowable bearing stress and should thus be avoided. Therefore, selection of
fastener sizes should not be based only on the rated shear strength of the
fasteners but should also consider the fastener stiffness.
(8) Interference fit systems with a sleeve of fasteners having the same outer
diameter as the sleeve, generally do not feature increased strength (strength
may actually decrease slightly). This is because any potential benefits are
negated by recurrent bolt bending failures.
(9) Materials should be selected to take advantage of their strengths while
avoiding their weakness. Metals should be used in parts for which composite
materials are unsuitable.
Metal materials are selected for splice plate members for several reasons.
If protruding head fasteners are used in the subcomponent tension joints of
tapered composite splice plates, tapered members require either spot-facing
of the splice plate surface or the use of tapered washers under the fastener
heads and nuts. These features may cause premature failure owing to the high
peel stress and interlaminar forces. The use of tapered washers also increases
the cost and complexity of the assembly procedure. Thus, metallic splice
plates with spot-facing on tapered surfaces are used to accommodate the
fastener seating. The use of metallic splice plates is the simplest and most
cost-effective way of avoiding these potential failure modes.
Composite materials are not well-suited to applications where high out of
plane forces are present. The T-splice members are likely to encounter such
forces, and the magnitude of the forces is very difficult to predict analytically
or measure experimentally. The fabrication of the corner fittings based on
composite materials would be impractical for similar reasons and
cost-prohibitive compared with the use of aluminum parts.
The splice plates may be slightly heavier, owing to the use of metals;
however, any small extra weight in the splices (or fasteners) is compensated
by maximizing the efficiency of the large heavy skins. For a large airplane,
the weight of the splicing elements as a percentage of the total wing weight is
small, and splice efficiencies should be evaluated solely on the basis of the
minimum splice and fastener weight.
(10) Joint strength is typically greater under compression than under tension
loading. An example of the application of these principles is presented in
Fig. 4.82. An optimum splice structure is represented, including a cover of
uniform thickness, tapered splice plates and varying diameter fasteners. The
bolt diameter of the inner most row near the cover butt is largest, S/D = 3.
There are no bypass loads on the skin. The combination of maximum bearing
496 Z. Shen et al.
Fig. 4.82 Optimum proportions for multirow bolted composite joints
and bypass loads act on the splice plate of the innermost skin such that the
splice plate thickness must be properly increased. Research results indicated
that the optimum splice plate thickness is 1.5 times the basic plate thickness.
In the example, the basic plate thickness is 12.7 mm, and the total plate
thickness of the taped splice is 19.1 mm, including the thickness of both the
top and down taped splice (9.5 mm each). The diameter of the middle two
row bolts has an intermediate S/D value of 4. The diameter of the outermost
row of bolts is smallest with S/D = 5. A low thickness of the splice plate
outer end may result in shear failure of laminates under a large load, which
should be avoided.
4.8.3.3 Static Analysis of Mechanical Joints
Static analyses of mechanical joints generally include the following three aspects
[2, 17, 25–31]:
(1) Exterior forces acting on the mechanical joint are determined from overall
structural analysis of the whole joint.
(2) These forces are then used to determine individual fastener loads and bypass
forces acting at each fastener hole of the joint.
(3) Joint strength can be assessed by applying two methods: one is the semiem-
pirical failure envelope method; another is to use material failure criteria and
characteristic curves.
Finite Element Analysis of Fastener Load Distribution in Mechanical Joints
Methods of determining the fastener load distribution of mechanical joints can be

separated into three classes: classical stiffness methods, elastic mechanics, and
FEMs. This section considers the application of FEMs, which also have broader
applicability to analysis of other components. FEMs are suitable for both regular
multi-row fastener arrangements and complex shaped joints. More information on
the other two methods can be found in Ref. [1].
There are two major differences that should be considered when dealing with
composite materials: First, composite laminate stiffness is dependent on the
direction of the applied force; second, most composite materials tend to exhibit
nearly linear stress–strain behavior up until failure and have little load redistribution
capability.
The MSC/NASTRAN program has become widely applied in aeronautic design.
Therefore, we introduce issues affecting calculations of fastener load sharing with
MSC/NASTRAN.
(1) Element modes
One important point to consider for solving fastener load distribution is that fas-
teners are regarded as fastener elements. Two end points of the fastener elements
are placed at finite element net nodes of the joining members.
(1) Fastener modes: Fasteners can be modeled with shear fastener type elements
(CELAS2 spring element) and beam elements (BAR element). However,
beam elements are used more frequently because bending effects can be
considered. Beam elements are suitable for both single and double shear joints,
but spring elements are only suitable for double shear joints.
(2) Joined plate modes: Joined plates are modeled with QUAD4 elements, which
have membrane and bending type elements. Bending plate elements are used
generally when the fasteners are modeled with beam elements. The use of
bending plate elements has no meaning if the fasteners are modeled as spring
elements. For commonly used geometric sizes of multi-fastener joints, it is
suggested that the node numbers placed along the plate width are no less than
five, and those placed between fasteners are no less than one.
(2) Fastener flexibility
The distribution of internal loads within a complex redundant mechanical joint
depends upon the plate members and the fasteners connecting them. Each fastener’s
contribution to joint flexibility is dependent upon fastener stiffness, joint member
stiffness, and load eccentricity.
(1) Linear analysis: In normal practice, the fastener load/deflection behavior is
assumed to be linear throughout the loading range. Friction and clearance
between the fastener and hole effects are usually ignored. For preliminary
498 Z. Shen et al.
design purposes, the following relation of bolt flexibly can be used, which is
simple and satisfies engineering precision requirements.
a ¼ L=Ks ¼ L=As G ð4:70Þ
where
Ks —shear stiffness of the fastener;
As —shear area of the fastener;
G —shear modulus of the fastener;
L —effective length of the fastener.
For single shear, the effective length l can be assumed to be one-fourth the
combined thicknesses of the attached sheets. The effective length in double shear
can be approximated as half the single shear value. Equation 4.8.2 is used for
fasteners where only shear is accounted for; fastener bending and rigid body
rotation (in a single-lap joint) are not considered. The fastener load distribution
derived from these relations will be slight conservative.
(2) Nonlinear analysis: Load-deflection (P–d) curves from single fastener joint tests
can be modeled as bilinear curves, as shown in Fig. 4.83. The nonlinear
strength analysis should permit some bolts to fail while the structure should still
be able to carry loads. Nonlinear analysis can provide more exact load-sharing
analysis and ultimate strength predictions.
Detailed Stress Analysis Methods
Stress analysis methods of single fastener joints are described in detail in Ref. [1].
Fig. 4.83 Bilinear load–

deflection (P–d) curves
After the load distribution is determined (i.e., the bearing and bypass loads of
fastener holes) analytical methods for single fastener joints can be used to calculate
the detailed stress and strain near the fastener hole. Finally, joint strength and failure
modes can be assessed by applying material failure criteria or characteristic curves.
Theoretical analytical methods of single fastener joints mainly depend on ana-
lytical and FEMs. In finite element analysis a fine mesh must be used in regions of
high stress gradients, such as around the cutouts and at ply and stiffener drop-offs.
Joint analysis should include the effects of shimming to the limits permitted by
drawings. The effects of shimming may reduce joint strength. The effects of per-
missible manufacturing parameters should be considered, for example, hole per-
pendicularity (±10°), shimming, and loose holes.
Semiempirical Methods
Analyses of mechanical joints in composite structures typically follow the proce-

dures: First, load-sharing analysis is performed; second, detailed analyses are
conducted for individual severely loaded holes to determine the stress distribution;
finally, failure hypothesis and material failure criteria are used to assess whether a
joint will fail or not.
The disadvantages of detailed analysis include the requirements of manpower
and material resources and the use of failure criteria. Currently, no single material
failure criteria are uniformly endorsed, and moreover, some failure criteria have an
empirical nature. Generally, analysis of fastener load distribution is more exact and
errors of estimates of the strength derive mainly from the failure criteria. A failure
envelope is used by the test judge to determine whether failure will occur, and
complicated detailed analysis and disputed failure criteria may be avoided.
Having determined the bearing and bypass load of individual fastener holes by
finite element or other methods, joint strengths are pre-estimated by empirical
methods. Thus, a failure envelope is determined from test specimens and used to
judge the likelihood of joint failure.
(1) Tensile load conditions
Under the combined action of bearing and bypass loads, assume that the joint
tensile failure will occur when Eq. (4.71) is satisfied:
Kbc rbr þ Ktc rnet ¼ rb ; ð4:71Þ
where
rb —unnotched laminate tensile strength;
rbr —loaded hole bearing stress;
rnet —laminate net-tension stress caused by bypass loads;
Kbc —composite bearing stress concentration factor, with respect to bearing
stress;
500 Z. Shen et al.
Ktc —composite stress concentration factor, with respect to net-section tension

stress;
Ktc ¼ 1 þ C ðKte 1Þ ð4:72Þ
Kte ¼ 2 þ ð1 D=W Þ3 ð4:73Þ

W=D 1
Kbc ¼ 1 þ C 1 þ ðW=D 1Þ 1:5 h =
W=D þ 1 ð4:74Þ
ðW=D 1Þ
Kte —elastic isotropic stress concentration factor, with respect to net-section

tension stress;
W —width;
D —hole diameter;
h —may be considered as 1.0;
C —stress concentration correlation coefficient, as seen in Fig. 4.85.
The left side of Eq. (4.71) can be regarded as the sum of contributions from the
combination of bearing and bypass loads to tensile stress. Failure will occur when it
exceeds the laminate tensile strength.
Fig. 4.84 Failure envelope

Otherwise, joint-bearing failure will occur when the bearing stress achieves the
bearing strength:
rbr ¼ rbru ð4:75Þ
where rbru—is bearing strength.

A typical failure envelope is shown in Fig. 4.84a. The inclined line AB repre-
sents the tensile failure satisfying Eq. (4.71). The flat line BC represents the bearing
failure satisfying Eq. (4.75).
(2) Compressive load conditions
Under the combined action of bearing and bypass loads, assume that the
joint-bearing failure will occurred when Eq. (4.76) is satisfied:
rbr þ rnet ¼ rbru : ð4:76Þ
Compressive failure will occur when Eq. (4.77) is satisfied:
Ktc rnet ¼ rc ; ð4:77Þ
where rc—unnotched laminate compressive strength.

In the absence of a filled hole Ktc value, the mean open hole Ktc value of 1 can be
used.
This failure envelope is shown in Fig. 4.84b, where the inclined line represents
the bearing failure satisfying Eq. (4.76). The vertical line represents compressive
failure satisfying Eq. (4.77).
(3) Stress concentration correlation coefficient C
The stress concentration correlation coefficient considers the effects of anisotropy,
non-homogeneity, nonlinearity, and damage to the composite material. Test results
of composite specimens are used to measure C.
Fig. 4.85 C curves as a

function of ply proportions
502 Z. Shen et al.
The stress concentration correlation coefficient C is key to applying empirical

methods. Because stress concentration factors of open holes and loaded holes for
isotropic materials are known. If the C value is determined, stress concentration
factors for composites can be determined by linear relations. Thus, joint strengths
can be simply estimated.
Figure 4.85 shows C curves as a function of ply proportions. The curves are
based on test results of HT3/QY8911, HT3/5222, and HT3/4211.
In general, C takes values between 0 and 1.0. If the proportion of 0°-plies of
laminate is too high and that of ±45°-plies is too low, C may be greater than 1, and
loses its meaning as a stress concentration correlation coefficient. Nevertheless, the
same, single fastener joint strength can be pre-estimated from the C value.
In the absence of test data, within the recommended range of layering conditions
in joint areas, C may be considered to be:

C ¼ %0 plies =100
(4) Failure envelopes

Failure envelopes provide failure criteria for multirow joint analysis. The failure
envelope is the foundation for estimating joint strength by empirical approaches.
Failure envelopes can be determined for single fastener and unloaded hole speci-
mens by the following methods:
(1) The bypass stress point at the abscissa can be determined from the tensile and
compressive strength of unloaded hole (fill-hole) specimens.
(2) The cutoff can be determined from the bearing strength of a wide plate (W/
D = 6–8).
(3) The inclined line represents the tensile failure, which may be determined from
the stress concentration correlation coefficient C and joint geometry.
4.8.3.4 Checking Mechanical Joint Strength
Allowable Bearing Stress of Full Carbon Fiber Composites
The information presented here is not only applicable to single fastener joints, but
also useful for determination of multirow joint strength. All joint strength data are
developed from tensile test results, and the results will be conservative for use in
compression loads [2, 17].
(1) Allowable bearing stress
To ensure structure integrity the loading should generally not be greater than the
initial bearing failure stress. Therefore, selection of an allowable bearing stress
strongly depends on the failure criteria. The initial bearing stress is very different to
the definition of failure. Failure criteria can be classified in different ways: One
approach is to base failure on stress, which guarantees that structures have sufficient
strength; another is based on deflection of the loaded hole, which guarantees that
structure have sufficient stiffness. One frequently used approach is based on the
degree of hole deformation. However, the failure deflection limits of loaded holes
selected by various countries and departments are very different, ranging from 0.5
to 6%.
The following are recommended criteria for determining the initial bearing
failure stress of a loaded hole: the lowest value between the first slope inflexion
point and bearing deformation of 4% in the load deformation curve. Experience
indicates that the minimum initial bearing failure stress can be considered to be half
of the ultimate bearing strength rbru.
Fig. 4.86 Bearing strengths

of three composite systems
504 Z. Shen et al.
The ratio of the initial bearing failure stress to the ultimate bearing strength
depends on the material system and laminate pattern. Generally, the ratio decreases
as the proportion of ±45° plies is increased. For laminate frequently used in joint
areas, the ratio is in the range 0.55–0.66. Selection of allowable bearing stress
should also consider joint importance, structural characteristics, load type, dura-
bility and service life and environmental effects.
Allowable bearing stress can be determined from the following:
½rbr ¼ Cw Ce Cp Cd Cs Cen Krbru ð4:78Þ
where
Cw correlation factor for width;
Ce correlation factor for end distance;
Cp correlation factor for load direction;
Cd correlation factor for hole diameter;
Cs correlation factor for single shear;
Cen correlation factor for environment;
K factor considering initial failure, durability, aging, and technological quality.
The value of K is typically in the range 0.50–0.66;
rbru bearing strength, MPa.
The bearing strengths of several composite laminates are illustrated in Fig. 4.86.
Various correlation factors are shown in Fig. 4.86 for W/D
6, e/D
4,
D/t = 1.0–2.0, D = 5 mm, double shear, torque 4 Nm, at room temperature, in dry
conditions.
For laminates typically used in joint areas (i.e., 0°-plies = 25–
50%, ±45°-plies
40%, 90°-plies = 10–25%), the allowable bearing stress for
HT3/QY891 and HT3/4211 can be taken as 600 and 500 MPa, respectively.
Hence, the formula (4.78) is a concise, convenience, and effective model. The
effects of many parameters have been considered in various correlation factors, and
therefore, numerous procedures can be avoided. Traditionally, both the bearing
strength and tension strength as well as shear strength would require checking. This
method has been successfully used in joint design for many aircraft structures.
(2) Bearing strength
To fully develop the bearing capability, joint geometry selection requires that
bearing failure or combined failure modes depending on bearing failure are con-
sidered. Full load-bearing failure strengths are the foundation of joint design.
Failure modes are dependent not only on geometric parameters but also the fiber
pattern. Full bearing failures typically occur when W/D = 6 and e/D = 4 in the
laminate pattern range of joint areas. The bearing strengths given in this paragraph
are equal to the ultimate load divided by the bearing area Dt.
The bearing strengths of laminates of HT3/QY8911 and HT3/5222 composites

are shown in Fig. 4.86a. The laminate bearing strengths of HT3/4211 composite are
given in Fig. 4.86b. The test parameters are as follows: double shear, hole diameter
5 mm, W/D
6, e/D
4, D/t = 2, load direction was consistent with the 0° fiber
orientation. The fixture was made of steel with a stiffness approximately 8 times as
high as that of the specimen. Loading bolts were made of 30CrMnSiA steel. The fit
precision of the bolt in the hole was H8/h8, and the bolt tightened torque was
4 Nm. The interior and exterior diameters of the washers were 5.5 and 10 mm,
respectively. The environmental conditions were room temperature and a dry
atmosphere.
The double shear method is a basic procedure and preferable to single shear joint
tests. For double shear joints, the test specimen size is smaller and test fixture is
simpler. These features not only can save costs and time, but also give a smaller
data dispersion. Moreover, actual aircraft single shear joints with supported struc-
tures differ considerably from tests of single shear joints. Therefore, test results of
single shear joints may be considered conservative.
(3) Correlation factors of bearing strength
When the actual applied parameters are different from those in Fig. 4.86, it is
necessary to correct the bearing strength in Fig. 4.86. The bearing strength corre-
lation factors are mainly based on HT3/QY8911, HT3/5222, and HT3/4211 lami-
nate test results. Laminate codes names used in this paragraph are described in
Table 4.20.
(1) Width correlation factors Cw: The width correlation factors Cw are shown in
Fig. 4.87a for several representative laminates.
(2) Edge distance correlation factor Ce is shown in Fig. 4.87b for several repre-
sentative laminates.
(3) Load orientation correlation factors Cp are shown in Fig. 4.87c. Generally, the
more 0° plies, the greater the load orientation effect, i.e., more ±45°-plies will
give a smaller load orientation effect.
(4) The hole diameter correlation factor Cd: When geometric sizes (W/D, e/D, and
D/t) of mechanical joints are all the same, a larger hole diameter will lower
strength. Hole diameter correlation factors Cd are shown in Fig. 4.87d.
(5) Single shear correlation factor Cs: The single shear correlation factor Cs is
given in Fig. 4.87e. Note that for single shear joints in actual aircraft
Table 4.20 Laminate codes
Laminate codes Percentage (0°/±45°/90°) Stacking sequence
2 70/20/10 [45/0/0/−45/0/0/0/90/0/0]S
4 50/40/10 [45/0/−45/0/90/0/45/0/−45/0]S
6 30/60/10 [45/0/−45/0/45/90/−45/0/45/−45]S
8 0/100/0 [±45]5S
9 50/0/50 [0/90]5S
10 25/50/25 [45/0/−45/90]2S
506 Z. Shen et al.
Fig. 4.87 Correlation factors of bearing strength
Table 4.21 Environmental correlation factor Cen

Materials Environmental Cen Materials Environmental Cen
condition condition
T300/QY8911 100° moisture 0.75 T300/4211 82° moisture 0.83
content 1% content 1%
130° moisture 0.67 100° moisture 0.75
content 1% content 1%
structures, owing to support by surrounding components, practical bending

effects will far less than those in test cases. Consequently, Cs is used to reflect
an actual aircraft structure.
(6) Environmental correlation factor Cen: Environment has strong effects on
bearing strength of laminates. In the laminate pattern range recommended for
joint areas, the environmental correlation factors Cen of T300/QY8911 and
T300/4211 laminates are given in Table 4.21.
Strength Checking of Single Fastener Joints

(1) Strength checking of joined plates: Bearing strength checking is performed as
follows:
rbr ¼ Pbr =Dte ½rbr ð4:79Þ
where
Pbr —fastener load, N;
D —hole diameter, mm;
te —plate effective thickness, defined as:
te = t, when t D,
te = D, when t > D;
[rbr] —allowable bearing value, MPa.
Note that tension and shear strength will be satisfied automatically without
checking because the effects of width and edge distance have been considered
in the allowable bearing strength value.
(2) Checking of fastener strength: The shear strengths of single fastener joints can
be checked as follows:
s ¼ 4Pbr =Dte ½s ð4:80Þ
Fig. 4.88 Approximate

single-row allowables
508 Z. Shen et al.
where [s]—allowable shear strength of fastener.

(3) Bolt bending failure curves: Design guidelines for the selection of fastener were
sizes traditionally based on the fastener shear strength and limitations of the
allowable d/t ratio. However, such a broad criterion can sometimes be either
unconservative or overly conservative, depending on the relative dimensions of
the members to be joined or the splicing material through which the load is
transferred. The chart shown in Fig. 4.88 was developed to provide a more
comprehensive method for selecting fastener sizes, with consideration given to
the bearing strengths of the materials to be joined, the fastener shear strength,
and the potential for bolt bending failures. The bolt bending failure curves were
derived from limited test results and assume that the bending failure is a
function of the d/t ratio for both the skin and splice members.
Figure 4.88 was developed for double shear and is nondimensionalized, except
for the center skin bearing stress allowables, which are plotted in units of ksi.
The chart shows that when the value of d/t2 (t2 is the thickness of one splice
plate) is low, and the value of d/t1 (for the central skin) is about 1.0, the bearing
stress allowables of composite joints reach maximum. The bending failure
curves show that at low d/t ratios for both the skin and splice plates, bending
failure can occur at low percentages of the joint member bearing strength and
fastener shear strength. As the d/t2 ratio increases, the propensity for bolt
bending failure decreases owing to the lower eccentricity, and fastener shear
strength becomes the limiting factor. Eventually, as the d/t2 ratio becomes large,
the splice plate bearing strength approaches the strength cutoff, as indicated by
the dashed lines in the upper left of Fig. 4.88. It should be noted that the bolt
bending curves on this chart are approximate, and will likely require modifi-
cation as more test data are obtained. All potential failure modes can be
included on this chart except for net-section failure, which must be calculated
separately.
Strength Checking of Multirow Fastener Joints

(1) Tensile load
(1) Bearing strength checking: With knowledge of fastener loads, bearing
strength checking is the same as that of single fastener joints according to
formula (4.78). For joints of uniform plate thickness and equal fastener
diameter, only the fastener holes of maximum load-carrying capability need
to be checked.
(2) Tensile strength checking: For strength checking, the tensile loading of a
multirow joint, rb, of the right side of Eq. (4.71) can be replaced by the
allowable tension stress of the laminate, i.e.,
Kbc rbr þ Ktc rnet ¼ ½r ð4:81Þ
where
[r] —allowable tension stress of laminate, MPa, [r] = Ext[e];
Ext —longitudinal tensile elasticity modulus of laminate, MPa;
[e] —allowable tensile strain of laminate.
Design allowable strains can be classified on A-basis and B-basis. The use of
either basis depends on the structure design criteria of the practical engineering
project. Generally, for components without a structure test or single path
transfer component, A-basis is used; B-basis is used for multi-path transfer or
fail-safe components. For carbon fiber resin matrices composites, allowable
tension strains are [eA] = 0.0082 for A-basis and [eB] = 0.0090 for B-basis.
Shear failure will not occur within the ply range recommend for joint areas
when the pitch is not less than 4D and the edge distance is not less than 3D.
(2) Compressive load
For strength checking of multirow joints under a compressive load, rbru on the
right side of Eq. (4.71) may be replaced by the allowable bearing stress of the
laminate, [rbr], i.e.,
rbr þ rnet ¼ ½rbr ð4:82Þ
4.9 Damage Tolerance and Durability
4.9.1 Overview
4.9.1.1 General Concepts
Inspection plans should be combined with knowledge of damage threats, including

damage growth rates and residual strength. This concept is referred to as damage
tolerance. Specifically, damage tolerance is the ability of a structure to sustain
design loads in the presence of damage caused by fatigue, corrosion, environmental
effects, accidental events, and other sources until such damage is detected, through
inspections or malfunctions, and then repaired. Thus, safety is the primary goal of
damage tolerance.
510 Z. Shen et al.
Durability considerations are typically combined with damage tolerance to meet

economic and functionality objectives. Specifically, durability is the ability of a
structural application to retain adequate strength and stiffness to resist fatigue
cracking, corrosion, thermal deterioration, peeling, delamination, wear-off, and
external impact damage over the designed operation life time. Structures should
have a certain durability under expected loads and environmental conditions to
avoid high costs caused by frequent maintenance, repair, and replacement of parts
over the designed operation life time. Thus, economics is the primary motivating
factor for durability.
4.9.1.2 Composite Damage Tolerance and Durability
All structural applications should be designed to be damage tolerant and durable. In

the use of composite materials, typical design objectives involve meeting or
exceeding the design service and reliability objectives for the same structure made
of other materials. Generally, the good fatigue and corrosion resistance of com-
posites can help to achieve these objectives. However, the unique characteristics of
composite materials also present some challenges for developing safe and durable
structures.
The new problems of composites relate to their impact resistance, and residual
load-bearing ability after an external impact and before damage is inspected.
Damage resistance has become an important topic in composite research in recent
years. Although composites offer excellent anti-fatigue and corrosion resistance,
they are very sensitive to impact. In particular, thin skin structures or thin skin
surface panel sandwich structures are susceptible to small external impacts
encountered in manufacture or operation, which can necessitate considerable
maintenance and repair. Studies on damage resistance of composites typically focus
on two aspects: characterization of the impact resistance of composite systems, and
the durability design requirements of composite structures. The feature of com-
posite damage tolerance is that barely visible impact damage (BVID) can decrease
compression strength by up to 40%, and the regular inspection and maintenance of
composite structures cannot use special NDT equipment. Only visible inspection of
dent depth is specified as standard in design. Similarly, studies on composite
damage tolerance involve two aspects: characterization of damage resistance of the
composite system and the damage tolerance design requirements of composite

structures. The damage resistance and damage tolerance design requirements of
composite structures are discussed in Sect. 4.9.2.
The optimum balance of damage resistance and damage tolerance for specific
composite applications involves a number of technical and economic issues early in
the design process. Damage resistance often competes with damage tolerance
during the design process, both at the material and structural level. In addition,
materials and fabrication costs, as well as operational costs associated with
inspection, repair, and structural weight, are strongly influenced by the selected
material and structural configuration. For example, toughened resin material sys-
tems typically show improved damage resistance compared with untoughened
systems, which results in reduced maintenance costs associated with damage from
low-severity impact events. However, these cost savings compete with the higher
material costs per unit weight of the toughened systems. In addition, these materials
can also result in lower tensile capabilities of the structures with large damage or
notches, which might require the additional material to satisfy structural capability
requirements at the limiting load. This extra material and increased weight will
result in higher material and fuel costs, respectively.
4.9.2 Evaluation of the Effects of Defects/Damage

on Strength
Damage can be divided into two types according to its source: manufacturing
defects, which cover structural abnormalities caused by production, and operational
damage, which covers structural abnormalities caused in service [1, 2].
4.9.2.1 Manufacturing Defects
Manufacturing defects can usually be divided into two categories: First, lamination
and part curing processes may create defects such as voids, delamination,
debonding, inclusions, resin-rich or resin-poor areas, improperly cured resin,
deviation of fiber orientation (fiber bending), layering sequence errors, and gaps
between fibers. Second, defects may be produced in machining, packing and
delivery such as scratches, abrasion, improper hole drilling, and torque and impact
damage.
4.9.2.2 Operational Damage
Operational damage mainly concerns impact damage occurring in service. Impacts

can be classified by the type of external impact energies. The impact caused by
512 Z. Shen et al.
external bodies such as bullets, non-inclusive engine fragments and bird-strikes are
classed as high-energy impacts. These events are also known as high-speed impacts
and can produce penetrating damage with a certain amount of delamination.
Lightning can also break through the structure of the skin and produce deep
delamination and burning. This type of damage is visibly inspectable and can be
detected, allowing the part to be replaced or repaired. During production and
maintenance, low-energy impacts include events such as: tool dropping; impact
with maintenance facilities such as forklifts, trucks, and work platforms; damage by
personnel standing on structures; impacts caused by stones, screws, and tire frag-
ments during taking off or landing; impact of hail stones.
In fact, impact damage modes depend not only on external impact energy, but
also the laminate thickness. For thin skins or thin surface panels, impact damage
mainly results in fiber fracture, or penetration, resulting in decreased compressive
and shear strength. Furthermore, after such damage water may diffuse into the
sandwich core and causing durability issues. For medium thickness laminated
structures (less than 6 mm), impact damage may not be visible from the surface.
However, damage may be induced inside the laminate in the form of delamination
or matrix cracking. Such damage will greatly reduce the compression strength of
the component and presents damage tolerance safety issues.
4.9.2.3 Evaluation on the Effects of Defects/Damage on Strength
Great attention has been paid to the effects of defects/damage on the strength of
composites. Since their initial use in aircraft primary structures in the 1970s, many
tests and investigations have been performed on the effects of damage on com-
posites. On the basis of test data derived from various composite material systems
(mainly carbon/epoxy, and carbon/BMI systems), and studies on the effects of
defects/damages on the static strength and fatigue strength of specimens under
different ambient conditions (room temperature/dry, hot/wet, cold/dry), the effects
of defects/damage on composite strength have been established as follows:
(1) Tensile loading: Many dangerous defects, such as cuts and slots, are inspectable
to some extent. The residual strength of laminates containing cuts will mainly
depend on the width, and is basically independent of the cut shape. Test results
for an open hole (typically 6.35 mm in diameter) can be used to consider the
strength reduction associated with an edge cut of similar size, when the
structure design allowable values are to be determined.
(2) Compression loading
Table 4.22 Notch sensitivity and applicable failure criterion

Laminate type Load type Defect type Notch Applicable failure criterion
sensitivity
0° unidirectional Tensile Penetration No Net cross-section failure
criterion
[±45]nS Tensile Penetration No Net cross-section failure
criterion
Multi-directional Tensile Penetration Yes DI criterion, FD criterion, AS
laminates criterion, PS criterion
Compression Penetration Yes FD criterion
Delamination DI criterion
Impact DI criterion, FD criterion
damage
Note The failure criterion under compression load can only suit the case of no buckling before
failure
Fig. 4.89 DI criterion

schematics
① Compared with many defects caused in production and operation (in-

cluding delamination up to 50 mm in diameter, hole making defects,
scratches, and void content up to 2%), the low-speed impact damage
caused by an impactor 12.7–25.4 mm in diameter will induce more
critical damage.
② Compression strength reduction caused by filled and load-free hole
6.35 mm in diameter can be used to as a model for the effects of all other
defects including: delamination up 38.1 mm in diameter, hole making
defects, scratches, and void content up to 2%.
③ BVID of the front surface may cause a static compression strength
reduction up to 60%.
④ The compression fatigue S−N curve is quite flat and smooth, and the
conditional fatigue ultimate strength (the fatigue strength corresponding
to 106 testing cycles) will be 60% of the static residual strength of a
specimen containing a defect of the same size. The fatigue threshold
value may be higher when structures are load bearing in aircraft with a
random fatigue load spectrum.
⑤ No clear regularity of damage growth can be found in specimens with
impact damage under fatigue loading conditions.
514 Z. Shen et al.
4.9.3 Analysis of Durability and Damage Tolerance
4.9.3.1 Analytical Methods Applied to Damage Tolerance
(1) Notch sensitivity and applicable failure criterion

The different ply stacking of laminates will result in different notch sensitivities
as well as different failure criteria. In Table 4.22, the notch sensitivities of
different laminates and their applicable failure criteria are listed. In addition,
failure criterion is also related to failure modes, and the criteria listed in the
table are applicable for laminates with fiber-dominated failure modes [1, 2, 32–
37].
(2) Introduction to applicable failure criterion
(1) Damage influence (DI) criterion can be expressed as: the point where
weighted normal stress at a characteristic point near the notch (damage)
reaches laminate failure strength, at which point the damaged laminate will
fail (see Fig. 4.89). The expression for DI is given as:
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ry ðx; 0Þð1 þ a 2x=W Þ ð4:83Þ
x¼Di ¼rb
where Di is equal to the x value,
d pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ry ðx; 0Þ 1 þ a 2x=W ¼0 ð4:84Þ
dx
Where
Fig. 4.90 Stress distribution

of 0° plies near the notch of
laminate with a hole
rb — laminate damage-free strength;

ry(x, 0) — normal stress distribution near damage;
W — specimen width;
a — constant related to the damage types (hole, crack, delamination,
impact damage), loading condition and performance. For open hole
tensile loading:
0sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 1

3
2
A11 þ A12 2R 2R A
a¼ v þ KT1 @ ð4:85Þ
2A22 ð1 þ ðKT1 3Þ2 Þ W W
where
Aij — laminate in-plane stiffness coefficient;

m —laminate Poisson’s ratio;
KT1 —laminate hole edge stress concentration coefficient.
(2) Failure criterion for fiber breakage in damage zone can be expressed as: the
point when average normal stress of 0° plies within the characteristic
distance l0 near the notch (or damage) reach the ultimate strength of a
unidirectional laminate (see Fig. 4.90). At this point, the damaged laminate
will behave according to the expression:
Z a þ l0
1
r0y ðx; 0Þdx ¼ Xt ð4:86Þ
l0 a
where
r0y ðx; 0Þ —the normal stress distribution of 0° plies on the notch cross
section without considering damage zone influence;
Fig. 4.91 Average stress

criterion
516 Z. Shen et al.
l0 —material system constants independent of ply orientation and

notch shape and dimensions;
a —half the length of a notch in the x-axis direction;
Xt —longitudinal tensile or compression strength of unidirectional
laminates.
(3) Average stress criterion (AS) and point stress criterion (PS)
① Average stress criterion: This criterion considers the average
stress within a characteristic distance a0 from the hole edge,
which achieves the ultimate strength of a notch-free laminate.
Failure will occur in laminates as shown in Fig. 4.91, according
to:
Z R þ a0
1
ry ðx; 0Þdx ¼ rb ð4:87Þ
a0 R
where
ry(x, 0) —stress distribution in Y direction of the minimum cross section
with a hole;
R —hole radius, and half length of the central crack;
a0 —characteristic length determined by testing.
For orthotropic infinite laminates with a tensile hole, the hole

edge stress distribution is substituted into the average stress
criterion Eq. (4.87), and the equation for residual stress calcu-
lation can be derived as:
2rb ð1 n2 Þ
r1
c ¼ ; ð4:88Þ
2 n22 þ ðKT1 3Þðn62 n82 Þ
n42
Fig. 4.92 Point stress

criterion
where n2 ¼ R þR a0 :
② Point stress criterion (PS): This criterion assumes that failure of
the laminate will occur if the stress ry at a point d0, a charac-
teristic distance, reaches the ultimate strength rb of a notch-free
laminate (Fig. 4.92), that is:
ry ðx; 0ÞjR þ d0 ¼ rb ð4:89Þ
For an orthotropic infinite laminate with tensile holes, the hole

edge stress distribution is substituted into the point stress crite-
rion expression (4.89), and an equation for residual stress cal-
culation can be derived as:
2rb
r1
c ¼ ð4:90Þ
2 þ n24 þ 3n44 ðKT1 3Þð5n64 7n84 Þ
where n4 ¼ R þR d0 :
③ Characteristic length a0 and d0: The characteristic length a0 and
d0 in average stress criterion and point stress criterion are
determined by testing. A number of specimens with different
hole sizes and crack lengths are used for tensile failure testing to
obtain a set of residual strength data ðr1 c ÞT These data are
substituted into the residual calculations by Eqs. (4.88)
and (4.90) based on the average stress criterion and point stress
criterion. The finite width correction and notch-free specimen
tensile strength r0, and a set of a0 and d0 values corresponding
to hole diameter, and crack length can be derived. Their average
values will be the characteristic lengths a0 and d0.
④ Finite width correction: The above-mentioned open hole lami-
nate or cracked laminate residual strength r1 c is the stress of a
laminate with an infinite width. Thus, corrections should be
performed for finite width laminates. Let rc be the residual
strength of a finite width laminate, such that:
r1
c ¼ grc ð4:91Þ
where η is the correction coefficient for a finite width laminate,

when the ratio between the defect width and laminate width is
equal to or less than 1/3 (laminate width is W). For a laminate
with a central hole radius R:
518 Z. Shen et al.
2 þ ð1 2R=WÞ3
g1 ¼ ð4:92Þ
3ð1 2R=WÞ
For laminates with an ellipse hole (long axis is 2a, short axis is
2b):
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

2
k2 1 2k 2a
g2 ¼ þ 1 þ ðk 2
1Þ M
ð1 kÞ2 ð1 kÞ2 W

"
2 #1=2 ð4:93Þ
2
k2 2a 2a
M 1 þ ðk 1Þ
2
M
1k W W
where
0vu
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
" #ffi 1
u 3ð1 2a=wÞ
M 2 ¼ @ t1 8 1 1A=2ð2a=wÞ2 ; k
2 þ ð1 2a=wÞ3
b
¼ :
a
For laminates with a central crack length 2a:

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
g3 ¼ ðW=paÞ tanðpa=WÞ ð4:94Þ
(3) Estimation of residual strength of laminate with penetrating defect

(1) Tensile loading: The above-mentioned four failure criteria can be used to
perform residual strength estimation. The defect shape has no effect and can
be simplified as a hole with a diameter equal to the defect width. Because
no tests are needed for determination of material constants, DI criterion will
become the first selected method.
(2) Compression loading: Fiber breakage damage failure criterion (FD) can be
used for the estimation, as given in Eq. (4.86), where Xt in the equation is
changed into a unidirectional laminate compression strength Xc, and the
characteristic length l0 should use the value given in the compression load
case.
(4) Estimation of residual compression strength of laminate with impact
damage
The estimation of residual compression strength of laminates with impact damage
consists of two parts, namely the estimation of impact damage and the estimation
of the residual compression strength of the laminate with impact damage.
(1) Estimation of impact damage: To analyze the residual characteristics of
composite laminates after impact, it is necessary to know characteristics of
the impact damage, such as shape, size, and distribution along the thick-
ness. This information can be derived from testing and inspection (such as
nondestructive CT-scans and X-ray methods), or from quantitative ana-
lytical estimations. The analytical estimation of composite laminate impact
damage includes two parts: a) analysis of the impact transient response of
laminates, b) the use of appropriate failure criteria to calculate the impact
zone, which will be mainly discussed in this section.
Impact damage of composite laminates includes matrix cracking, fiber
rupture, and delamination. In the following section, methods for calculating
impact damage size will be discussed based on delamination failure crite-
rion, which can be used in composite structural design.
① Delamination failure criterion: In terms of bending strain energy
density delamination failure criterion, If impact delamination of
composite laminates is dominated by matrix strength and
interlaminar strength, initial delamination can be derived from
the criterion:
R ¼ ðyS =YS Þ2 þ ðyM =YM

2
Þ
1 ð4:95Þ
where YS ¼ ð9=50ÞðS2i =Ef Þ is the average transverse shear strain

energy density, while Si is interlaminar shear strength,
Ef is the

corresponding bending modulus, YM ¼ ð1=2Þ S2y =Ey is the
strain energy density reflecting matrix failure, while Sy is the
tensile strength or compression strength vertical to fiber
direction (depending on stress conditions), Ey is the tensile
modulus or compression modulus vertical to fiber direction;
yS ¼ ð1=2Þsxz cxz:max , while sxz is interlaminar shear stress, cxz
max is the maximum shear strain:
yM ¼ ð1=2Þry ey f , while ry, ey are the stress and strain vertical to
fiber direction, respectively. Here, f is an empirical coefficient
reflecting stiffness inconsistencies as well as the thickness dif-
ference between two adjacent plies, and has the following form:
L 0

Q11 QU
f ¼ tL =tU = 1 þ 11
ð4:96Þ
QL11 QU
22
where superscripts L and U indicate the lower and upper plies,

respectively. This means that the stiffness should be converted
according to the following lower ply fiber direction.
② Shear strain energy density delamination failure criterion: This is
a new delamination failure criterion from consideration of the
effects of transverse strength on delamination failure based on
the bending strain energy density delamination failure criterion:
520 Z. Shen et al.
Fig. 4.93 Analytical model

of impact damage

2
2
2
rL2 sU sL31
eD ¼ f 1 þ f2 23
þ f3
1 ð4:97Þ
YL SU
23 Si
where f1 is the influence coefficient reflecting the stiffness

inconsistency between two adjacent plies:
L
L
t Q11 QnU
f1 ¼ 11
ð4:98Þ
tU QL11 QU
22
where tL ; tU are the upper and lower ply group thickness,

respectively. QL11 is the stiffness coefficient along fiber direction
of lower ply, QU 22 is the stiffness coefficient vertical to fiber
direction of the upper ply, QnU11 is the off-axis stiffness coefficient
of the top ply along the lower ply fiber direction.

1 GU GU
f2 ¼ 1 þ 23 cos 2
ðDhÞ þ 23
sin 2
ðDhÞ ð4:99Þ
2 GL23 GL31

15 GU GU
f3 ¼ 1 þ 31 cos 2
ðDhÞ þ 31
sin 2
ðDhÞ ð4:100Þ
16 GL31 GL23
This model not only allows determination of bending strain

energy density delamination failure criterion, but also reflects
the characteristics of impact delamination along the thickness
direction.
(2) Estimation of residual strength: In this section, two methods for estimating
residual strength of laminates containing impact damages will be discussed.
① Estimations based on the FD criterion have the main steps given
below (as shown in Fig. 4.93):
(a) Testing, determination, or estimation of impact damage;
(b) Simplify impact damage as an ellipse with its long axis
equal to the projected width of delamination, the projected
delamination can be determined by NDT or calculated by
the following the procedures mentioned above. The short
axis is equal to the width of a surface dent that can be
measured directly, or is assumed to be 0.3 on the long axis;
Fig. 4.94 Cross section of

damaged zone
Fig. 4.95 Calculation (a) (b)

method of tdmax
(c) A complex stress functional method or FEM is used to

calculate the normal stress distribution of 0°-plies near the
elliptic notch;
(d) FD criterion are used [as given in Eq. (4.88)] and the
characteristic length l0 determined by open-hole laminate
compression tests.
② Estimation based on DI criterion: Estimating methods based on

DI criterion can be used to calculate residual compression
strength after impact, the main steps are:
(a) Determine the impact damage conditions (such as delami-
nation, matrix crack, and fiber rupture) by the
above-mentioned methods, or by NDT inspection. Store the
damage information as a data damage structure (DDS).
(b) Assume that the impact causes delamination in the sub-
laminate with a certain thickness, and perform multi-
sublaminate buckling analysis.
(c) Use the analytical results to calculate the stiffness reduction
of delaminated zone. If fiber rupture or matrix cracks are
included in DDS, it is necessary to perform stiffness
degradation for the corresponding damaged units, letting the
damaged zone be a softened ply. The delamination and
delamination zone are defined as represented in Fig. 4.94.
522 Z. Shen et al.
(d) Use FEM to calculate the stress distribution of the laminate

with a softened ply;
(e) Use DI failure criterion [Eq. (4.82)] to estimate the com-
pression strength. The damage effect distance Di is defined
in Fig. 4.88. For an impact damaged laminate, a is the
influence factor involving the delamination distribution
along the laminate thickness direction, and defined as:
tdmax ð1 h Þ
tdmax
a¼ 2 1 ð4:101Þ
h
where tdmax is the total thickness of plies (ply group) in a

continuous arrangement with the same stiffness degradation
coefficients (as shown in Fig. 4.95), and h is laminate
thickness.
(5) Estimation of residual strength of laminate containing delamination
The calculation steps are the same as mentioned in the above section on esti-
mations based on DI criterion.
(6) Estimation of stiffened laminates containing defects/damage
(1) Estimation of stiffened laminate with impact damage: As for the estimation
of impact damage of laminates, to analyze the residual strength of a stiff-
ened laminate after impact, characteristics of the impact damage shape, size
and distribution along the thickness should be derived from NDT
inspection or analytical estimations.
(2) Estimation of stiffened laminates containing damage: The analysis may be
divided into two cases: the estimation of residual strength of stiffened
laminate containing penetrating defects (hole or cracks) under a tensile
load; and the estimation of the residual strength of stiffened laminates
containing holes or impact damage under a compression load. In this cal-
culation software, a force calculation of the crack tip stress strength factor,
similar to that of a stiffened metal plate, is used, and the stress distribution
in the area adjacent to the notch (including crack and ellipse hole) of an
anisotropic stiffened laminate can be determined. In this case, both the
simplification of the impact damage as an ellipse hole and the DI failure
criterion are used simultaneously.
4.9.3.2 Analysis of Durability
Composite laminated structures can offer excellent fatigue performance. For common
fiber-dominatedmulti-directionlaminates(includingspecimenswithholes),thetensile–
tensilefatiguelifeis106 cyclesunderamaximumstressequalto80%oftheultimatetensile
strength. In the case of tensile–compression fatigue, the fatigue strength will be slightly
lower,withthefatiguestrengthequalto50%ofthecorrespondingstaticstrengthafter106
cycles. In particular, for specimens with impact damage, the fatigue strength will not be
lower than 60% of the corresponding static strength after 106 cycles. In thermoplastic
composites, values may reach up to 65% under the same conditions. Currently used
allowablesincompositestructuredesignmainlydependondamagetoleranceallowables.
Under such strain levels, composite structures can have infinite service life, which is
so-called static cover fatigue. Special attention should be paid to adhesive structures
becausefatiguefailuremayoccurifthedesignisperformedincorrectly.Currently,fatigue
failure is not a critical problem in design; however, no mature analytical methods for
durabilityarecurrentlyavailable.
4.9.4 Measures to Improve Durability and Damage

Tolerance
(1) Softened-zone design
With softened-zone design, the damage tolerance of structures can be effec-
tively improved while maintaining low weight and costs. This is a potentially
effective design approach, which has a wide range of applications [1, 2]:
(1) Tension panels: In this design method, high failure strain fibers (such as a
glass-fiber) or prepreg tape (such as ±45° with a high failure strain and low
modulus) are spread at intervals in a high modulus fiber that bears main
structural load. These constituents can inhibit damage growth and improve
damage tolerance. This design method may become an important approach
for damage growth inhibition. For example, a number of strips can be
selected in the panel and constructed into a glass/carbon fiber hybrid
softened zone, arranged at intervals in a high modulus panel parallel to the
load direction. This design can inhibit damage growth and direct damage
growth along the softened-zone edge, so that the residual tensile strength
will be increased. This design approach can be used for the design of
carbon/epoxy composite wing skin and fuselage integral stiffened or
sandwich panels.
(2) Mechanical joint zone: Mechanical joining is suitable for high and complex
load-bearing situations, and has become a commonly used composite
structure joining method. Holes can cause more serious problems in
composites than in metals, and will influence the joint strength. In a soft-
ened design, low modulus ply or prepreg tape is placed in the mechanical
joining zone to improve the connection strength.
(2) Soft skin design approach
The basic concept in soft skin design is to place ply groups with different ply
angles into skin or stiffener to enhance the structural damage tolerance and the
allowable strain in the damage tolerance design. The so-called soft skin is a
designed low stiffness wing skin with a low thickness. Soft skin mainly uses
524 Z. Shen et al.
low modulus ±45° plies (at a percentage of 70–80%), and contains a certain
amount of glass-fibers in some local zones, which can bear shear load and the
internal pressure of an oil tank for example. Laminates with a small ratio of 0°,
90° plies, such as a (10/80/10) ply ratio, can also be used to ensure local
strength and structural stability. Stiffeners mainly use 0° plies that are orientated
along the wing span direction and can be used to withstand tensile and com-
pression loading in wing panels. The skin and stiffeners are mechanically joined
or co-cured to form the wing panel. In some design programs (such as for body
panels), a certain proportion of 0° plies are embedded into the soft skin at
certain intervals as additional reinforcing elements (crack-blocking zones). This
approach is mainly used in shear-bearing transportation aircraft wings.
(3) Film enclosure
A layer of adhesive film may be introduced in between laminate plies to
increase the interlaminar damage resistance or to reduce the interlaminar stress
concentration for easily impacted structures. Epoxy films (such as FM series
films) or thermoplastic films (such as HXT series films and PEEK film) can be
inserted between the carbon fiber plies to increase damage resistance. A new
generation of interlaminar enclosed films can be made by spraying toughened
particles on prepreg tapes, which can largely increase the interlaminar tough-
ness and compression strength after impact without increasing the thickness
between plies.
(4) 3D reinforcing (Z-axis reinforcing)
3D reinforcing is mainly used to inhibit the delamination growth caused by
impacts and to increase the composite structural damage tolerance. Approaches
include reinforcement braiding in the thickness direction (such as 3D braiding
and Z-axis knitting performed in combined RFI and RTM processing), as well
as fasteners and Z-axial pin joining. Among these methods, dry/knitting and 3D
braiding/RTM show great potential for applications in improving damage
tolerance.
Z-pin joining is another mechanical joint for Z-axial reinforcement, other than
the use of metal fasteners. A foam preform (made of FM) containing small
strong carbon/epoxy pins is placed on a laminate structure. These preforms will
be pressed into laminates during hot pressing. This approach can be used for
reinforcement, locally or over the entire component. This approach can also be
used to replace metal fasteners used to fix frame construction. Test results
indicate that it may be possible to reduce delamination size and increase
damage tolerance with this method.
(5) Other approaches for durability/damage tolerance improvement
Three approaches can be used for durability/damage tolerance improvements:
use of special designs methods to inhibit damage growth and increase residual
strength. On the basis of the analysis of failure mechanisms of laminated
structures containing damage (including impact damage), the composite per-
formances can be improved to increase their damage tolerance. Namely, the
residual strength can be improved when laminates contain damage of the same
size. On the basis of statistical analysis of external impact energies, and

improved production and maintenance conditions (increased supportability),
the current damage tolerance requirements may be revised. The initial defect
sizes are changed from the current BVID to the external impact energy prob-
ability distribution at different locations.
(6) Special issues
(1) Owing to the variety of damage patterns with different formation and
expansion mechanisms, proper design approaches should be used for dif-
ferent damage types, such that damage tolerance can be effectively
improved.
(2) In this section, improvements of impact damage tolerance are discussed.
Attention should be paid to other possible damages caused under different
loading conditions, for example, holes or other penetrating damage may
cause potential dangers under tensile or tensile–shear loads. To improve the
structural efficiency and design strain level, special design approaches
should be used based on the different load conditions and the potential
damage modes.
(3) In practice, no single approach can be used to improve composite structural
damage tolerance. Good results can be achieved only through consideration
and use of a combination of design concepts.
(4) It should be noted that damage tolerance is critical, for example, if damage
tolerance contributes only a small part to the whole structure (20% for
example), the weight may be increased by approximately 4% by increasing
the thickness to reduce the strain level. However, the design approaches
used for improving damage tolerance can be costly. In practice, a combi-
nation of considerations should be taken, including structural strength,
stiffness durability, damage tolerance, weight and cost, so that the structure
is optimized in terms of cost effectiveness, while balanced performance is
achieved.
Fig. 4.96 Typical relationship of damage size and impact energies

526 Z. Shen et al.
4.9.5 Characterization of Composite Damage Resistance

and Damage Tolerance
4.9.5.1 Review
In fact, the most effective approach to increase composite structure damage toler-
ance and damage resistance is to develop new material systems with high damage
tolerance and high damage resistance. The traditional method to evaluate the
composite damage tolerance is use of compression strength after impact (CAI) as
detained in NASA RP1142 and SACMA SRM 2R−94; in the recent studies, it has
been indicated that CAI obtained in such approaches can only evaluate damage
Fig. 4.97 Typical

relationship of compressive
failure strain and damage size
Fig. 4.98 Typical knee point

phenomenon for damage
tolerance and damage
resistance properties of
composite systems
Fig. 4.99 Comparison of damage resistance behavior obtained by two methods

Fig. 4.100 Typical contact–

displacement curve of
composite laminates and
corresponding internal
damage state
resistance, rather than damage tolerance, which needs a proper evaluation approach
[38–45].
In ASTM D 3878−07 Standard Terminology for Composite Materials, defini-
tions on damage resistance and damage tolerance are given, and their differences
are also discussed.
4.9.5.2 Complete Description of Damage Resistance, Tolerance

and Knee Point
As discussed above, a main parameter describing composite damage resistance is

the damage size, which is a function of the impact event. Other parameters
describing composite damage tolerance, including the compression load-bearing
capacity, are a function of damage size. Usually, impact energy is used as a
parameter to describe an impact event. As shown in Fig. 4.96, testing data have
indicated that, among the commonly used damage size parameters (such as damage
area, damage width and surface dent depth), surface dent depth measured imme-
diately after impact shows a good linear relationship with the impact energy. This
measurable is also consistent with the damage parameters required in aircraft
structural design. Compression load-bearing capacity is usually expressed by
compressive strength or compression failure strain. A comprehensive description of
composite damage resistance and tolerance is illustrated in Figs. 4.96 and 4.97.
Testing data have indicated that there will be a visible knee point for composite
damage resistance and damage tolerance, occurring at the same damage size for a
dent depth of approximately 0.5 mm, as shown in Fig. 4.98. It has been verified by
theory and experiments, that quasi-static indentation forces can be used to replace
hammer dropping to induce damage. The same conclusion is derived as shown in
Fig. 4.99. In some studies, supersonic C-scans have been used to study damage
propagation with increasing indentation force under quasi-static pressing condi-
tions. The change of damage size was the same as that found for impact energy, as
shown in Fig. 4.100. From these studies, we may conclude that when the
528 Z. Shen et al.
indentation force reaches a lower threshold (corresponding to a certain impact

energy), apparent delamination occurs inside the specimen, while no dent can be
found on the surface. As the indentation force increases (also corresponding to an
increase of impact energy), the degree of inner delamination increases gradually as
the surface dent depth increases to a depth not larger than 0.3 mm. When the
indentation force reaches the ultimate value it drops down quickly and the dent
depth will rapidly increase. This is analogous to the impact energy reaching a
threshold, such that the dent depth increases markedly, as shown in Figs. 4.99 and
4.100, where the dent depth will not exceed 0.5 mm. Further increases of inden-
tation force or impact energy will not increase the internal damage size further
although the dent depth will increase continuously.
In some studies, the two methods described above have been used to induce
damage in specimens; damaged specimens from before and after the knee point
were soaked with gold chloride ether solution, and ply peeling of the internal
damage states was observed. These results have indicated that impact damage prior
to the knee point involves matrix cracking and internal delamination. After the knee
point, fiber breakage can be found on the front surface of the specimen. Thus, the
knee point marks the onset of fiber breakage at the impact point on the front surface.
Knee point phenomenon indicates a sudden change of impact (or contact force)
resistance in composite laminates. Before the knee point, the impact resistance of a
composite derives from both resin and fibers. Damage is induced to the matrix in
the form of cracking and delamination; however, the ply, as the basic unit of a
composite and, particularly, plies on the surface (including their matrix and inter-
laminar structure) are undamaged before the knee point. After that the knee point
fiber breakages occur, and damage becomes visible on the surface plies. This
indicates that the laminates cannot provide further impact resistance. The damage
growth will cause fiber ruptures from the front and back surfaces extending to the
center, and internal delamination will also increase. Internal delamination is the
main factor contributing to the reduction of the composite laminate compression
strength, and the size of delamination will not change greatly after the knee point.
Thus, the compression strength will remain unchanged.
For composite laminates, a knee point on the impact energy versus dent depth curve
will also be a knee point on the impact energy (dent depth) versus compression failure
strength (strain) curve. The former relates to the damage resistance characteristics of a
composite laminate, while the latter relates to the damage tolerance characteristics of
the laminate. The former denotes a sudden change of damage resistance in composite
laminates after an impact event. Before such an event, external impacts are resisted by
the combination of matrix and fibers. Damage is caused mainly in the form of internal
delamination and small matrix cracking. The same increase in impact energy can result
in a small increase in the dent depth, while a larger increase in the damage area and
damage width can be expected with good regularity. The presence of a knee point
indicates fiber breakage on the surface, and further increases in impact energy will not
produce greater delamination beyond that which exists in the damage width. Instead,
further increases in the impact energy will produce more fiber breakages from the
surface to the inside. Thus, increasing impact energy will increase the dent depth, and
have a smaller effect on the damage area and damage width. The residual compression
strength is directly related to the damage width (damage area); thus, a knee point on the
impact energy (dent depth) versus compression failure strength (strain) curve will
result. Before the knee point, the compression failure strength (strain) will rapidly
decrease as the impact energy (dent depth) increases. After the knee point, the com-
pression failure strength (strain) will not change any further or only show a small
change.
On the basis of the physical consequences of a knee point, typical values taken
from areas adjacent to the knee point can be used to characterize the damage
resistance and damage tolerance of composite laminates.
4.9.5.3 Characterization of Composite Damage Tolerance

and Damage Resistance
It is recommended that the following physical parameters are used to characterize

the damage resistance and damage tolerance of composite systems.
• For quasi-isotropic laminates, the maximum indentation force Fmax on the
indentation force versus displacement curve obtained by static indentation
testing can be used to characterize the damage resistance of a composite system.
Fig. 4.101 Comparison of

damage tolerance behavior for
two composites with different
CAI
Fig. 4.102 Comparison of CAI and CAIT values

530 Z. Shen et al.
Table 4.23 Damage Composite CAI CAIT

properties for four composite system (MPa) Strength Failure
systems
(MPa) stain
T300/Epoxy A 136 136 2910
T700S/Epoxy B 167 127 2593
CCF300/BMI A 149 142 2730
CCF300/BMI B 194 177 3419
This represents the maximum capacity of a composite system to resist an

external impactor.
For quasi-isotropic laminates, the dent depth (or impact energy) versus com-
pression failure strain curve threshold (CAIT), or the compression strength (or
failure curve) (CAI) at a dent depth of 1.0 mm (measured immediately after impact)
can be used to characterize the damage tolerance of a composite system.
On the basis of these characterizations, composite systems, which are shown to
have good damage resistance, will also give aircraft structures with good damage
resistance. Similarly, if composite systems have very good damage tolerance
behavior, aircraft structures made of these composite systems will also show good
damage tolerance.
4.9.5.4 Comparison Between the Recommended Method

and the Traditional CAI Evaluation
For a long time, CAI values obtained from NASA RP 1142 or SACMA SRM 2R
−94 have been considered to be the main specifications for characterizing damage
tolerance. In the NASA standard, an impactor 12.7 mm in diameter with an impact
energy of 27 J (about 4.45 J/mm) is used. In the SACMA standard, an impactor
16 mm in diameter with an impact energy of 6.67 J/mm is used.
Here, the obtained damage tolerance values represent the corresponding com-
pression failure strength obtained under testing conditions of 27 J (NASA standard)
or 6.67 J/mm (SACMA standard). In fact, the impact energy cannot reflect damage
parameters, such that values derived from these methods cannot be used to evaluate
the damage tolerance behavior of composite systems perfectly. In Fig. 4.101, the
relationship between the damage width versus compression failure strain of two
different toughened composite systems is shown. In terms of damage tolerance, the
composite systems IM6/3501−6 (brittle epoxy) and IM7/8552−1 (toughened
epoxy) have similar damage tolerance behavior, but their CAI values are quite
different [15]. According to the above analysis, the composite systems with the
higher CAI value at knee point may produce a larger maximum damage area (or
diameter) than composite systems with a lower CAI values. Composite systems
with higher CAI values may show lower CAIT as given in Fig. 4.102. In
Table 4.23, some test results are listed.
4.10 Environmental Effects and Protection
4.10.1 Introduction
Aircraft composite structures in service may be subjected to maneuver and gust

loading environments. External environmental conditions, such as temperature,
humidity, lightning strikes, sand, hail, rain, snow, ultraviolet light, and atmospheric
pollution may influence the structural integrity of composites. The local environ-
ment, including fuel, hydraulic fluid, and cleaning solvents can also affect com-
posites. Thus, environmental effects should be considered at the stage of material
and configuration selection in the detailed design phase of composite structure
design. Environmental design criteria and effective environmental protection
methodologies must be established. The influences of hygrothermal and aging
environments on airplane composite structures should be considered in structural
design and these aspects are discussed in this chapter.
4.10.2 Environmental Design Criterion
Environmental design criteria for aircraft composite structures should be deter-

mined based on the service area, flight scope, material systems, mission purpose,
and structural status [1, 2, 13].
4.10.2.1 Hygrothermal Environment
For composite structures, the hygrothermal environment must be considered as part

of the overall environment. Two aspects should be carefully considered: first, the
degradation of mechanical properties caused by the most extreme potential
hygrothermal environments, and second the effects of long-term hygrothermal
aging on mechanical behaviors. These aspects should be qualified through analysis
and testing of composite structures within the designated service life duration.
Structures should maintain sufficient integrity under the individual or combined
actions of temperature, humidity, and loading environments. In certain special
structural positions, the combined effects of local and overall environments should
also be qualified. Detailed requirements are as follows:
(1) Rigorous structural use environments can be determined based on flight mis-
sions, the structural configuration, and the ground rest environment. Thermal
spiking effects caused by aerodynamic heating in flight at speeds greater than
Mach 2 should also be considered.
(2) Moisture diffusion behaviors of a chosen material system under a specific
hygrothermal environment and the effects of this environment on the physical
and mechanical properties of the system should be determined.
532 Z. Shen et al.
(3) The service moisture absorption content, final moisture content, steady condi-
tions, and hygrothermal allowables of chosen materials and configurations
should be determined.
4.10.2.2 Physical Impacts
Aircraft composite structures are susceptible to impact damage from tool dropping,
runway detritus, hail stones, and ground service vehicles. Other considerations
include lighting strikes, bird-strikes, and bullet damage. In general, lightning strikes
will result in visible damage and local ablation of the composite structures,
Table 4.24 Typical airplane service environmental areas in China

Type Typical Main characteristics Representative regions
area
1 Dry–cold Low air-temperature; annual average Tibet, Qinghai, Ningxia,
air-temperature lower than 10 °C; low Jilin and most of the
rainfall; not more than 500 h of relative Heilongjiang region
humidity more than 80% on average; low
levels of industrial pollution and
corrosive media in air
2 Basic warm Moderate air-temperature; annual average Xi’an, Zhengzhou, Beijing,
air-temperature lower than 15 °C; and Shenyang
moderate rainfall, relatively dry; not more
than 3000 h of relative humidity more
than 80% on average; moderately serious
industrial pollution
3 Hot–wet High air-temperature; annual average Chongqing, Wuhan,
inland air-temperature of 15–20 °C; high levels Changsha, Guangzhou, and
of rainfall, dew, and fog; high air Nanjing
humidity; more than 4000 h hours of
relative humidity more than 80% on
average; serious industrial pollution and
high levels of corrosive media in air;
semitropical humid climate
4 Warm Moderate air-temperature, annual average Qingdao, Xiamen, and
coastal air-temperature lower than 15 °C, high coastal regions
levels of rainfall, high air humidity,
strong winds, high salt content in air,
high salt-fog sedimentation, serious
industrial pollution
5 Hot–wet High air-temperature, annual average Hainan coast
coastal air-temperature more than 20 °C, other
characteristics resemble those of the
warm coastal region
introducing through-thickness holes or local delamination. Bird and bullet strikes

will produce through-thickness holes.
For composite structures, the requirements of strength and service life after
low-energy impacts must still be satisfied, and damage caused by high-energy
strikes should not grow further.
4.10.2.3 Aging Environment
Here, the aging environments used to study composite structures are discussed,
including corrosive liquids (fuel, hydraulic fluid, and antifreeze), ultraviolet radi-
ation, weathering, and sand and rain erosion.
Table 4.25 Maximum and minimum air-temperature of every month in typical areas °C
Area 1 2 3 4 5
Month Dry-cold Basic warm Hot–wet Warm coast Wet-hot
inland coast
Tmax Tmin Tmax Tmin Tmax Tmin Tmax Tmin Tmax Tmin
1 −7.4 −21.8 1.4 −9.9 9.6 3.2 3.5 −2.6 20.0 12.0
2 −4.0 −18.4 2.5 −8.5 9.8 3.9 4.4 −0.2 20.0 12.0
3 4.0 −10.4 10.5 −0.5 15.7 6.8 8.1 1.4 24.0 16.0
4 12.6 −0.8 18.6 6.0 20.2 12.8 11.6 5.7 30.0 22.0
5 18.9 5.5 27.0 15.0 26.7 18.8 18.2 11.2 31.0 23.0
6 23.5 10.1 30.0 19.0 28.3 20.5 22.1 16.7 32.0 24.0
7 25.5 12.6 30.8 21.5 31.9 23.5 25.5 21.3 33.0 24.0
8 23.8 11.6 29.5 20.5 31.1 22.5 28.2 23.7 34.0 24.0
9 18.2 5.4 23.5 4.5 29.3 19.5 25.1 19.7 32.0 22.0
10 13.2 −2.4 18.0 6.0 21.4 4.1 20.2 15.4 28.0 22.0
11 1.6 −13.2 9.30 −3.0 16.4 9.3 13.0 6.2 24.0 18.0
12 0.2 −20.2 2.0 −10.0 11.5 3.5 6.9 0.5 21.0 13.0
Table 4.26 Statistical results of relative humidity in basic warm and dry-cold areas
Area Relative humidity/%
Average monthly Average monthly Monthly Monthly
maximum minimum maximum minimum
Basic warm 85 30 100 0
Dry–cold 78 25 100 0
534 Z. Shen et al.
4.10.3 Hygrothermal Environment Effect
One important key point for composite structure design is to consider the influence
of the hygrothermal environment on structural performance. The resin matrix has
the ability to absorb moisture, and moisture diffusion can result in a distribution of
moisture content in the structure. Thus, both the anti-corrosion resistance of fibers
and the glass transition temperature Tg might decrease. The structural stiffness and
strength of the composites might also be reduced through these effects. At all stages
of material and configuration selection, detailed design and testing of the composite
structure should account for environmental response of the system [1, 2, 13].
4.10.3.1 Aircraft Service Environment in China
The long-term environmental conditions to which an aircraft will be exposed should

be determined as the use environment. The most extreme environmental conditions
and use environment can be confirmed by a statistical process based on a large
volume of measured data. Typical airplane service areas in China are represented in
Table 4.24. The average maximum and minimum air-temperature and average
relative humidity (RH) each month in typical areas are listed in Tables 4.25 and
4.26.
4.10.3.2 Prediction of Moisture Absorption Diffusion Behaviors
To use composites in structures, first issues related to changes of mechanical per-

formance after moisture absorption by the resin matrix should be addressed. The
change of mechanical performance depending on moisture content should be
qualified. The composite moisture content in a specific environmental and the time
taken for that moisture content to be attained under specified environmental con-
ditions should be determined by theoretical analysis and moisture absorption
experiments.
Theoretic Predictions
Characteristics of moisture absorption and diffusion can be predicted by the fol-

lowing two models at the initial stages of composite structure design. Moisture
diffusion in composites at low relative humidity can be described by the Fickian
diffusion model, while moisture diffusion processes at high relative humidity are
preferably described by the vapor boundary model.
(1) Fickian model

Analysis of the moisture diffusion in resin matrix composites can be accom-
plished with this simple model. The main characteristics of this model are its initial
linear moisture absorption curve leading over the long term to a steady moisture
level. The model is equivalent to that for moisture absorption of a material
immersed in water. The moisture diffusion of bismaleimide (BMI) matrix com-
posites can be described perfectly by this model. In one dimension the model is:
@C @2C
¼ Dz 2 t [ 0; z 2 ½h=2; h=2 ð4:102Þ
@t @Z
The boundary conditions are:
Cðz; 0Þ ¼ C0
Cðh=2; tÞ ¼ C ðh=2; tÞ ¼ C1 t[0
where
C moisture concentration;
C0 , C1 initial concentration and equilibrium concentration;
Dz moisture diffusivity through the thickness direction;
t time;
h laminate thickness;
z coordinate in the thickness direction.
The total moisture content is:
MðtÞ ¼ M1 ðM1 M0 Þ p82

1 n
P o
ð4:103Þ
2 expðkn Dt=h Þ
1 2 2
ð2n þ 1Þ
n¼0
where
M(t) moisture of laminate;
M0, M∞ initial moisture content and equilibrium moisture content
kn ¼ 2p þ n; n ¼ 0; 1; 2. . .
For long-term moisture absorption, the n ¼ 0 term is unchanging. When diffu-

sivity of the material system and equilibrium moisture content are known the
moisture content at any time point can be calculated. Diffusivity can also be cal-
culated from knowledge of the moisture content at two different times.
536 Z. Shen et al.
h2 Mðt1 Þ Mðt2 Þ 2
D¼p pffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffi ð4:104Þ
4ðM1 M0 Þ t1 t2
The disadvantage of this model is the use of fixed boundary conditions, and the
shape of the moisture curve at the initial stage are not accurately described.
Therefore, the initial moisture absorption is greatly over estimated and the diffu-
sivity is under estimated.
(2) Vapor boundary model
When a solid absorbs or desorbs water vapor from the atmospheric environment,
the Fickian model produces large deviations. A proportionality constant F may be
introduced. Hence, F is defined as the moisture absorption gradient and is pro-
portion to the difference between the actual surface concentration and equilibrium
concentration. The diffusion equation is unchanged from that given in (4.102);
however, the boundary conditions are modified as:
C ðz; 0Þ ¼ C0 ð4:105Þ
D @C
Cð h=2; tÞ ¼ C1 þ ð h=2; tÞ
F @z
Thus, in the limit F ! ∞, the vapor boundary model degrades to the Fickian
model.
The moisture content is:
X
1
MðtÞ ¼ M1 ðM1 M0 Þ
n¼0
( ) ð4:106Þ
2
2 sin bn
expð4b2n Dt=h2 Þ
bn ðsinbn cosbn þ bn Þ2
bn : b tanb ¼ hF=2D n ¼ 0; 1; 2. . .
n p o
bn 2 np; þ np
2
as F
D ! 0,bn ! np;
as DF ! 1, bn ! p2 þ np;
An iteration of the following form can be adopted.
ðbi tanbi hF=2DÞcos2 ðbi Þ

bi þ 1 ¼ bi I ¼ 0; 1; 2. . .
sinbi cosbi þ bi
The value of F can be determined from measurements of moisture content at

times t1 and t2 .
Table 4.27 Equilibrium moisture content and diffusivity of materials in specified environment
Material D D me
30 °C, 95%RH 50 °C, 95%RH 50 °C, 95%RH
T300/5405 1.15 10−7 mm2/s 3.788 10−7 mm2/s 0.85%
T300/QY8911 3.50 10−7 mm2/s 7.043 10−7 mm2/s 1.35%
F ¼ 2ðC11C0 Þ
ð4:107Þ
M0 ðt2 t1 Þ Mðt1 Þ Mðt1 Þ 2 Þt1
2M
t2
0
t1 t2 þ t1 þ t2 t1 t2Mðt
ðt2 t1 Þ
This model corresponds to a situation in which moisture enters the material from
the ambient environment. The initial rate parameters can be obtained easily and
have clear physical meanings. Results predicted by this model for high relative
humidity are consistent with experimental findings, and at low relative humidity the
predictions can satisfy engineering requirements.
In conclusion, for environments with low relative humidity, the moisture
absorption diffusion process in composite laminate can be described by the Fickian
model; however, under environments of high relative humidity, the moisture
absorption diffusion process is better described by the vapor boundary model owing
to swelling of the composite laminate.
Moisture Absorption Experiments
Composite material systems require experimental confirmation of moisture

absorption and testing should be performed. The purpose of moisture absorption
tests is to determine the moisture diffusivity at different temperatures and the
equilibrium moisture content at different relative humidity. The test must be per-
formed according to the aviation industry standard Environmental Moisture
Absorption Test Method (HB-7401-96). The moisture absorption and desorption
behaviors of resin matrix composites are controlled mainly by two parameters; the
equilibrium moisture content of the material, which depends on the environmental
relative humidity; and the moisture diffusivity, which correlates with the environ-
mental temperature (Table 4.27). The moisture absorption content within a specified
time may be determined from these two parameters. Moisture absorption tests should
be performed at three different combinations of temperature and humidity for every
type material. Two sets of conditions will have the same relative humidity, and two
sets of conditions will have the same temperature. Hence, these basic parameters will
allow the moisture absorption content to be calculated under a specified environment
at different time intervals. Furthermore, the required time to achieve a certain
moisture absorption level in a specified environment can be estimated.
538 Z. Shen et al.
4.10.3.3 Principle and Methodology of Accelerated Moisture

Absorption
The mechanical, thermodynamic, and chemical properties of resin matrix com-

posites will change on exposure to certain hygrothermal environments over a long
time. This is a slow accumulative process, and hygrothermal experiments are time
consuming and costly. Therefore, accelerated hygrothermal experiments are a
necessary part of such studies.
A large volume of experimental results has indicated that there is a direct
relationship between the moisture content and the mechanical performances of
composite laminates after moisture absorption. Moreover, this relationship is not
affected by the hygrothermal history of the composite. This is the basis for accel-
erated laboratory moisture absorption testing for prediction of mechanical proper-
ties after moisture absorption. Additional material degradation should not be
induced. The use of high temperatures for accelerated moisture absorption is not
generally appropriate.
Two methods for calculating accelerated moisture absorption are given as
follows:
(1) The accelerated time coefficient K can be estimated according to following
equation:
t1 eC=T2 /2
k¼ ¼ ð4:108Þ
t2 eC=T1 /1
where
K accelerated time coefficient;
t1 actual exposed time;
t2 time after acceleration;
T1 /1 temperature (°C) and relative humidity of actual exposure environment;
T2 /2 temperature (°C) and relative humidity of accelerated environment.
(2) The accelerated time coefficient K can be estimated from the ratio of dif-
fusivity in the different environments:
t1 D2
K¼ ¼
t2 D1
D ¼ D0 expðC=T Þ ð4:109Þ
where
Table 4.28 Diffusion constants of different materials under different environments at room
temperature
Material T300/1034 AS/3501-5 T300/5208 934 3501-5 5208
Constant D0 C D0 C D0 C D0 C D0 C D0 C
Distilled 16.3 6211 768 7218 132 6750
water
Saturated 5.85 6020 5.38 6472 6.23 5912
brine
Moist air 2.28 5554 6.5 5722 0.57 4993 4.85 5113 16.1 5690 4.19 5448
D0 ; C —two diffusion constants under different moisture environments at room

temperature;
T —absolute temperature.
The diffusion constants of different materials under different moisture environ-
ments are shown in Table 4.28.
The results estimated from these two methods are often inconsistent and the
more conservative result should be adopted. For example, suppose that T300/5208
laminate is exposed to an environment at 25 °C and 60% relative humidity for
100 days. For accelerated moisture absorption at 60 °C and 95% relative humidity,
the accelerated time required is t2 = 10.4 days according to Eq. (4.108), and
t2 = 17.2 days according to Eq. (4.109). The differences may be caused by the
experimental and material constants used. To obtain the most conservative result,
both methods should be used and the longer accelerated time selected.
4.10.3.4 Influence of Hygrothermal Environment on Composite

Performance
Composites are sensitive to their hygrothermal environment. Moreover, the com-

bination of temperature and humidity has a synergic effect. The influence of
hygrothermal environment on the physical and mechanical properties can be pre-
dicted based on empirical equations or interpolation of experimental results.
Alternatively, the influence could be numerically calculated at a structural level.
Namely, the initial strains caused by temperature and humidity could be calculated
based on the structural temperature and humidity distribution. The initial strains are
transformed to the initial load and the initial load can be superposed with a
mechanical load. Finally, the structural stress analysis and strength could be
checked by FEMs [46].
540 Z. Shen et al.
Influence of Hygrothermal Environment on Physical Properties

of Composites
(1) Glass transition temperature

Changes in the physical behavior of composites occur after moisture absorption.
The glass transition temperature Tg will decline with increasing moisture content.
The extent of this influence can be predicted by the following equation:

Tg ¼ bm ð1 vf ÞTgm þ bf vf Tgf =
ð4:110Þ
½bm ð1 vf Þ þ bf vf
where
Tg glass transition temperature of matrix under certain moisture content;
bm wet swelling coefficient of matrix under certain moisture content;
bf wet swelling coefficient of fiber under certain moisture content, usually equal
to zero;
Vf fiber volume content under certain moisture content;
Tgm glass transition temperature of matrix under certain moisture content;
Tgf glass transition temperature of fiber under certain moisture content.
Tgf —glass transition temperature of fiber under certain moisture content.
The changes of glass transition temperature with moisture content for some
composite material systems are given in Table 4.29. The experimentally determined
variation of the glass transition temperatures of three material systems is presented
in Fig. 4.103. This figure shows that for polymer matrix systems the Tg declines by
approximately 25 °C for at a moisture content of 0.5%. For further increases in the
moisture content over 1.2% there is only a slight decrease of Tg. For cyanate esters
matrix composites, Tg declines by approximately 20 °C when the moisture content
is greater than 0.3%. For a BMI matrix composite, moisture content has hardly any
effect on Tg.
(2) Wet swelling coefficient and thermal expansion coefficient
The wet swelling and thermal expansion coefficients for some materials are
shown in Table 4.30. The change of the thermal expansion coefficient with mois-
ture content can be predicted by the following equation:

1
Tgw T 2
aðTÞ ¼ aðRTÞ ð4:111Þ
Tgd TRT
where
a(T) thermal expansion coefficient at temperature T under a certain moisture
content;
a(RT) thermal expansion coefficient at room temperature;
Tgw glass transition temperature at certain moisture content;
Table 4.29 The change of glass transition temperature with moisture content for some materials
Material 914 T300/914C T300/5222 T300/4211 4211
Moisture 0 0.9 0.6 2.9 4.7 0 0.9 1.6 0 1.0 0 1.0 0 1.02
content/%
Tg/°C 208 188 178 160 137 219 169 153 245 195 99 84 156 132
541
542 Z. Shen et al.
Fig. 4.103 Change of Tg

with moisture content for
three material systems
Table 4.30 Wet swelling and thermal expansion coefficients of some materials
T300/5208 B/5505 AS/3501 Scotch/1002 Kevlar/epoxy
aL/10−6K−1 0.02 6.1 −0.3 8.6 −0.4
aT/10−6K−1 22.5 30.3 28.1 22.1 79.0
bL 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
bT 0.6 0.6 0.44 0.6 0.6
Tgd the glass transition temperature in dry state;

TRT room temperature.
The changes of the thermal expansion coefficients for 914C pure resin and
T300/914C unidirectional laminate with temperature are shown in Table 4.31 and
Fig. 4.104. Equation (4.111) is used and has already been validated. The wet
swelling coefficient is shown in Fig. 4.105, and the change of wet swelling strain
with moisture content is shown in Fig. 4.106 These results indicate that the change
of lengthways wet swelling coefficient bL is small, while the transverse wet swel-
ling coefficient varies linearly with moisture content.
Influence of Hygrothermal Environment on Mechanical Properties of

Composites
Composite mechanical performances, particularly the mechanical performances

related to the matrix, are strongly influenced by the hygrothermal environment. Test
results have highlighted the importance of considering the influence of
hygrothermal environment on the compression, interlaminar shear, compression
after impact, and tension and compression strength with an open hole in composite
structure design. The non-dimensional parameter T* may be introduced.
Table 4.31 Change of thermal expansion coefficient with temperature

T/°C aT/10−6K−1 aL/10−6K−1
120 38.4
80 36.0
40 34.4 −0.8
23 32.8
0 32.0
−55 29.6
Fig. 4.104 Change of

thermal expansion coefficient
for 914C pure resin and
T300/914C unidirectional
laminate with temperature
Fig. 4.105 Change of wet

swelling coefficient for 914C
pure resin and T300/914C
unidirectional laminate with
fiber volume content

swelling strain with moisture
content for 914C pure resin
and T300/914C unidirectional
laminate
544 Z. Shen et al.
T ¼ ðTg TÞ=ðTg Tr Þ ð4:112Þ
where
T operation temperature;
Tg glass transition temperature;
Tr reference temperature or room temperature.
When experimental results on the influence of hygrothermal environment on
composite mechanical performance are lacking, the following equations may be
used to make predictions:

Xt =Xt0 ¼ Vf =Vf0 ðT Þ0:04

E1 =E10 ¼ Vf =Vf0 ðT Þ0:04

XC =XC0 ¼ Vf =Vf0 ðT Þ0:04 ðT Þ0:05
h i0:5
E2 =E20 ¼ Tg T = Tg0 Tr ð4:113Þ
h i0:5
G12 =G012 ¼ Tg T = Tg0 Tr
S=S0 ¼ ðT Þ0:2
h i0:5
m=m0 ¼ a Tg T = Tg0 Tr
where
the superscript 0—represents the dry state;
a—parameter related to moisture content, for carbon fiber-reinforced composite
(when moisture is not more than 1.0%, a 1:0);
Vf—fiber volume content.
Tension and compression tests have been performed on different multi-laminate
T700S/5405 material systems of different thicknesses immerged in 70 °C distilled
water for 3 weeks. The ply ratio of these laminates was 0°-plies 40%, 45°-plies
50%, and 90°-plies 10%. The test results are shown in Table 4.32. The following
conclusions could be drawn:
① Moisture absorption alone has little influence on the tension strength and
modulus.
② Moisture absorption alone has little influence on the compression
modulus; however, the compression strength of 1.5-, 2.5-, and
3.0-mm-thick laminates dropped 2.2%, 8.6%, and 5.0%, respectively.
Table 4.32 Tension and compression properties of T700S/5405 system laminate at different
thickness
Properties Nominal thickness of specimen
1.5 mm Cv / 2.5 mm Cv / 3.0 mm Cv /
% % %
Tension strength/MPa Dry 1410.0 3.1 1151.8 7.5 1291.1 6.0
Wet 1326.0 6.6 124.8 3.9 1308.5 6.3
Tension modulus/GPa Dry 81.77 3.5 64.71 3.3 71.92 3.3
Wet 81.72 4.6 66.31 1.5 75.56 6.2
Tension Poisson’s ratio Dry 0.34 5.6 0.52 3.5 0.52 5.9
Wet 0.36 6.7 0.53 2.8 0.53 3.3
Tension extensibility/ Dry 2.03 5.0 2.09 6.6 2.11 5.1
% Wet 1.90 8.8 2.17 3.6 2.01 5.9
Compression Dry 560.28 7.9 716.81 7.1 752.66 6.9
strength/MPa Wet 548.07 6.8 654.99 4.1 715.10 6.6
Compression Dry 79.19 8.7 61.32 2.7 67.71 5.1
modulus/GPa Wet 80.97 10.3 64.00 9.6 73.79 5.2
Compression Poisson’s Dry 0.31 8.5 0.48 8.3 0.49 4.1
ratio Wet 0.32 9.4 0.48 13.4 0.50 10.6
③ The change of the compression strength was more pronounced in thicker

laminates.
Mechanical performances tests have been performed on a stitched multi-laminate
T300/QY 8911-III material system of different thicknesses immersed in 70 °C
distilled water for three weeks. The specimens were divided into types A and B.
The ply proportions of the type A laminate were 0°-plies 50%, 45°-plies 40%, and
90°-plies 10%. The ply proportions of the type B laminate were 0° lamina 45%, 45°
lamina 40%, and 90° lamina 15%. The test results are shown in Table 4.33, and the
following conclusions may be drawn:
① The moisture content of stitched T300/QY 8911-III laminate was
approximately 1.5 times as large as that of the unstitched laminate.
② Moisture absorption only had little influence on the tension strength,
modulus, and Poisson ratio of the stitched T300/QY8911-III laminate.
③ Moisture absorption alone had little influence on the compression
modulus of stitched T300/QY 8911-III laminate. However, the com-
pression strength of the 3.0-, 4.0-, and 4.5-mm-thick laminates dropped
15.3%, 3.3%, and 8.6%, respectively.
④ Moisture absorption alone had little influence on the in-plane shear
strength of stitched T300/QY
For 8911-III laminate, however, the in-plane shear strength of
3.0-mm-thick laminates dropped by 11.3%.
546 Z. Shen et al.
Table 4.33 Mechanical properties of T300/QY8911-III system stitched laminate under different
thickness
Properties Layering and nominal thickness of specimen
Type A Type B
3.0 mm 4.0 mm 4.5 mm 3.0 mm 4.0 mm 4.5 mm
Tension strength/MPa Dry 631.03 565.16 601.80 498.55 671.29 707.15
Wet 672.38 573.61 609.30 – – –
Tension modulus/GPa Dry 63.21 58.59 56.88 54.97 68.11 69.85
Wet 64.03 64.92 62.86 – – –
Tension Poisson ratio Dry 0.41 0.49 0.42 0.42 0.54 0.38
Wet 0.42 0.52 0.45 – – –
Tension extensibility/% Dry 1.22 1.15 1.25 1.08 1.16 1.21
Wet 1.20 1.05 1.16
Compression Dry 613.41 659.89 610.26 435.86 648.97 693.03
strength/MPa Wet 519.59 637.94 557.81 – – –
Compression Dry 51.81 52.99 51.42 48.20 65.31 66.57
modulus/GPa Wet 54.38 54.07 52.48 – – –
In-plane shear Dry 247.92 276.32 289.41
strength/MPa Wet 219.92 271.09 294.88
In-plane shear Dry 13.13 16.77 17.47
modulus/GPa Wet 15.37 18.11 18.25
Flexural strength/MPa Dry 713.33 699.77 74.61 783.13 801.58 765.60
Wet – 700.75 – 793.79 – 771.36
Flexural modulus/GPa Dry 47.93 40.66 48.30 52.60 44.18 52.03
Wet – 40.58 – 53.41 – 51.99
Flexural failure Dry 10.20 10.70 7.38 10.55 10.58 7.86
deformation/mm Wet – 10.73 – 10.45 – 8.00
Interlaminar shear Dry 53.61 64.28 60.69 57.03 66.23 67.37
strength/MPa Wet 53.19 62.74 58.48 – – –
⑤ Moisture absorption had little influence on the flexural performances of

stitched T300/QY 8911-III laminate.
⑥ The interlaminar shear strength of stitched T300/QY 8911-III laminate
decreased appreciably after moisture absorption.
Mechanical performances tests have been performed on nine material systems
(T700S/5428, T700S/5429, T700S/5405, T700S/5228, T300/5405, T800/QY9511,
T700S/QY 9511, T300/QY8911, and stitched T300/QY9512) immerged in 70 °C
distilled water for 3 weeks in six different environments (−55 ± 2 °C, 23 ± 2 °C
and (50 ± 5)%RH, 80 ± 2 °C and (50 ± 5)%RH, 125 ± 2 °C, 150 ± 2 °C,
170 ± 2 °C). The ply ratio in the eight unstitched laminates was 0°-plies 33%,
45°-plies 57%, and 90°-plies 10%. The ply ratio in the stitched laminate was
0°-plies 35%, 45°-plies 53%, and 90°-plies 12%.
Table 4.34 Moisture contents of nine materials systems after immersion in 70 °C distilled water
for three weeks
Material Moisture content/% Material Moisture content/%
T700S/5428 0.58 T800/QY9511 0.95
T700S/5429 0.46 T700S/QY9511 0.58
T700S/5405 0.67 T300/QY8911 1.11
T700S/5228 1.00 Stitched T300/QY9512 1.45
T300/5405 0.66
The moisture contents of the nine materials systems after immersion in 70 °C

distilled water for three weeks are shown in Table 4.34. The moisture content of the
T700S/5429 system was lowest. The moisture content of the stitched T300/QY9512
system was highest, and approximately 3.2 times as large as that of the T700S/5429
system.
Results of testing tension and compression, and tension and compression with an
open hole for nine material systems are shown in Table 4.35 and Figs. 4.107,
4.108, 4.109, 4.110.
① The tension strengths of the nine wet open hole specimens were very
similar under the six hygrothermal environments. The tension strength of
the open-hole specimen of the T700S/5405 system was slightly higher
than that of other systems.
② The tension strength gradually declined as temperature was elevated.
The tension strength of the specimens at −55 °C was basically equiva-
lent to that room temperature. The material most sensitive to elevated
temperature was T700S/5405, which at 170 °C featured a tension
strength drop of 25.7%. The material most sensitive to cryogenic tem-
peratures was T700S/5429; the tension strength at −55 °C dropped by
8.1% compared with that at room temperature. Among the nine mate-
rials, the tension strength of the T700S/5405 system was highest. The
tension modulus fluctuated within a range of 20% at the six
temperatures.
③ The Poisson’s ratio at high temperature was elevated increased except
for the T700S/5228 system.
④ The tension and the tension performance of the open-hole specimen of
the stitched laminate gradually declined at elevated temperature. The
corresponding strengths decreased by 17.0% and 4.9%, compared with
room temperature.
⑤ Hygrothermal environment had a strong influence on the compression
performance of the open-hole specimens for all the material systems.
The residual performances of the various materials are shown in
Table 4.36. The compression strength of the open-hole specimens at 170
°C decreased by more than 50%. The residual compression strength of
the stitched T300/QY9512 system was only 16.6%.
548 Z. Shen et al.
Table 4.35 Test results of tension and compression and tension and compression with open hole
specimens for nine material systems
Material Test Test type
environment Tension with Tension Compression Compression
an open hole with an open hole
rkt rt Et mt rkc/MPa rc Ec
/MPa /MPa /GPa /MPa /GPa
T700S/5428 −55 °C 628.3 991.5 63.36 0.46 347.2 574.5 53.50
23 °C, 50% 675.5 1071.4 59.58 0.51 332.2 549.4 59.39
RH
80 °C, 50% 694.8 1045.6 3.48 0.54 283.8 466.3 54.04
RH
125 °C 709.4 908.4 72.12 0.55 248.0 419.2 54.54
150 °C 717.5 934.0 68.29 0.48 204.1 358.4 54.98
170 °C 728.5 870.1 69.32 0.53 146.0 260.1 55.31
T700S/5429 −55 °C 622.0 1037.2 59.78 0.48 348.4 543.1 50.31
23 °C, 50% 636.9 1129.1 58.51 0.49 304.1 491.3 50.06
RH
80 °C, 50% 626.9 1047.8 57.03 0.53 276.6 495.8 50.73
RH
125 °C 654.3 990.5 68.54 0.60 263.3 433.4 47.63
150 °C 637.1 900.0 68.66 0.59 165.3 360.0 53.55
170 °C 636.4 863.0 68.27 0.53 135.4 234.7 44.57
T700S/5405 −55 °C 706.8 1261.2 65.60 0.50 411.8 525.9 54.84
23 °C, 50% 732.5 1268.7 68.48 0.53 355.4 493.3 51.08
RH
80 °C, 50% 874.0 1151.4 63.46 0.56 306.8 485.9 52.78
RH
T700S/5405 125 °C 722.1 1045.8 69.81 0.60 239.0 411.5 50.69
150 °C 683.2 1004.3 64.55 0.54 120.8 409.6 52.42
170 °C 668.9 942.3 50.69 0.45 92.0 250.7 51.04
T700S/5228 −55 °C 522.9 905.7 56.36 0.53 363.0 528.4 45.44
23 °C, 50% 573.5 832.6 49.99 0.51 319.3 497.6 44.15
RH
80 °C, 50% 577.7 899.3 52.65 0.54 258.1 500.5 44.58
RH
125 °C 532.5 843.6 69.08 0.52 180.2 436.3 44.32
150 °C 507.7 754.2 59.76 0.50 108.2 315.1 47.22
170 °C 533.9 685.5 59.70 0.52 81.3 215.4 48.60
T300/5405 −55 °C 355.2 768.2 64.28 0.49 449.9 644.4 61.37
23 °C, 50% 340.3 702.4 69.01 0.50 356.1 570.9 56.12
RH
80 °C, 50% 352.3 688.8 61.60 0.52 299.3 487.7 54.14
RH
(continued)
Table 4.35 (continued)

Material Test Test type
environment Tension with Tension Compression Compression
an open hole with an open hole
rkt rt Et mt rkc/MPa rc Ec
/MPa /MPa /GPa /MPa /GPa
125 °C 331.6 650.0 233.5 55.42

150 °C 339.0 556.6 75.70 0.53 125.1 281.1 55.32
170 °C 331.2 476.1 70.32 0.46 91.1 210.4 58.46
T800/QY9511 −55 °C 470.3 893.7 65.27 0.51 373.33 646.4 70.82
23 °C, 50% 479.9 949.0 61.01 0.52 336.51 628.3 76.89
RH
80 °C, 50% 469.9 901.6 59.36 0.54 311.71 530.7 68.64
RH
125 °C 505.6 927.9 67.71 0.59 238.05 515.6 70.65
150 °C 518.1 802.0 53.23 0.51 200.77 383.5 74.32
170 °C 499.1 746.7 60.47 0.53 168.45 321.9 65.77
T700S/QY9511 −55 °C 591.8 968.9 54.32 0.50 404.7 651.3 62.92
23 °C, 50% 584.2 956.3 55.51 0.51 338.6 636.0 71.16
RH
80 °C, 50% 608.9 956.1 59.58 0.53 317.4 476.8 60.67
RH
125 °C 586.2 877.4 58.72 0.53 247.8 485.4 56.09
150 °C 640.1 870.1 51.08 0.53 216.6 413.7 53.25
170 °C 613.0 830.9 56.21 0.50 147.3 280.9 58.37
T300/QY8911 −55 °C 312.9 743.2 60.33 0.47 378.0 649.1 52.48
23 °C, 50% 329.4 673.8 63.40 0.49 380.2 675.5 59.49
RH
80 °C, 50% 329.7 672.7 58.31 0.53 353.2 605.3 56.76
RH
125 °C 327.0 591.7 63.93 0.51 249.5 457.7 58.97
150 °C 317.8 556.3 71.63 0.51 168.4 255.1 60.18
170 °C 306.9 523.9 64.05 0.52 128.3 200.4 59.29
Stitched −55 °C 299.8 577.7 56.30 0.42 376.6 576.5 49.96
T300/QY9512 23 °C, 50% 323.2 536.1 57.76 0.44 341.3 550.4 46.75
RH
80 °C, 50% 334.2 506.0 61.32 0.54 249.1 432.6 44.46
RH
125 °C 301.7 498.5 54.72 0.43 127.1 227.8 43.72
150 °C 291.8 396.9 58.34 0.42 76.5 139.2 47.36
170 °C 307.4 445.2 53.79 0.46 56.8 80.4 42.13
550 Z. Shen et al.
Fig. 4.107 Influence of temperature on tension strength with an open hole for nine material
systems
Fig. 4.108 Influence of temperature on tension strength for nine material systems
⑥ The hygrothermal environment also strongly affected the compression

strength of the nine material systems. The compression strength at 170 °
C dropped to 50% or less, and the residual compression strength of the
stitched T300/QY9512 system was only 4.6%. The modulus dropped
Fig. 4.109 Influence of temperature on compression strength with an open hole for nine material
systems
Fig. 4.110 Influence of temperature on compression strength for nine material systems
approximately 10% on average. The modulus of the T700S/QY9511

system dropped 18%.
⑦ The compression strength at −55 °C was equivalent to that at room
temperature. The most sensitive material to cryogenic temperatures was
Table 4.36 Strength and modulus survivability of compression and compression with an open hole
552
Residual T700S/5428 T700S/5429

performance −55 °C 23 ° 80 ° 125 °C 150 °C 170 °C −55 °C 23 °C, 80 °C, 125 °C 150 °C 170 °C
C, C, 50% 50%
50% 50% RH RH
RH RH
rkc /% 104.5 100 85.4 74.7 61.4 43.9 14.6 100 91.0 86.6 54.4 44.5
rc /% 104.6 100 84.9 76.3 65.2 47.3 110.5 100 101 88.2 73.2 47.8
EC /% 90.1 100 91.0 91.8 92.6 93.1 100.5 100 101.3 95.1 107 89.0
performance −55 ° C 23 ° 80 ° 125 ° C 150 ° C 170 ° C −55 ° C 23 °C, 80 ° C, 125 ° C 150 ° C 170 ° C
C, C, 50% 50%
50% 50% RH RH
RH RH
rkc /% 115.9 100 86.3 67.2 34.0 25.9 113.7 100 80.8 56.4 33.9 25.5
rc /% 106.6 100 98.5 83.4 83.0 50.8 106.2 100 100.6 87.7 63.3 43.3
EC /% 107.4 100 103.3 99.2 102.6 99.9 102.9 100 101 100.4 107 110.1
Residual T300/5405 T800/QY9511
performance −55 °C 23 ° 80 ° 125 °C 150 °C 170 °C −55 °C 23 ° C, 80 °C, 125 °C 150 °C 170 °C
C, C, 50% 50%
50% 50% RH RH
RH RH
rkc /% 126.3 100 84.0 65.6 35.1 25.6 110.9 100 92.6 70.7 59.7 50.1
rc /% 112.9 100 85.4 73.3 49.2 36.9 102.9 100 84.5 82.1 61.0 51.2
EC /% 109.3 100 96.5 98.8 98.6 104.2 92.1 100 89.3 91.9 96.7 85.5
(continued)
Z. Shen et al.
C, C, 50% 50%
50% 50% RH RH
RH RH
Residual T700S/QY9511 T300/QY8911
C, C, 50% 50%
50% 50% RH RH
RH RH
rkc /% 119.5 100 93.7 73.2 64.0 43.5 99.4 100 92.9 65.6 44.3 33.7
rc /% 102.4 100 75.0 76.3 65.0 44.1 96.1 100 89.6 67.8 37.8 29.7
EC /% 88.4 100 85.3 78.8 74.8 82.0 88.2 100 95.4 99.1 101.2 99.7
Residual Stitched T300/QY9512
C, C, 50% 50%
50% 50% RH RH
RH RH
rkc /% 110.3 100 73.0 37.2 22.4 16.6
rc /% 104.8 100 78.6 41.4 25.3 4.6
EC /% 106.9 100 95.1 93.5 101.3 90.1
553
554 Z. Shen et al.
T300/QY8911; the compression strength and modulus at −55 °C

dropped 4.9% and 11.8%, respectively, compared with
room-temperature values.
Influence of Hygrothermal Environment on Composite Failure Mode
The hygrothermal environment not only affects the physical and mechanical
properties of composite laminate, but also affects failure modes. The failure modes
at low temperatures and in the dry state are related to basic failure of the matrix
itself. The failure modes of wet composites at room temperature involve hybrid
failure of a matrix/interphase. The failure modes of wet composites at elevated
temperature involve failure of the fiber/matrix interface.
Hygrothermal Stress Analysis
The hygrothermal environment seriously affects the stress distribution of composite

structure and composite/metal hybrid structures. The response of the steady or
quasi-steady hygrothermal field in structural stress analysis should be dealt with by
linear superposition, neglecting coupling. Thermal strain and wet strain can be
considered as the initial strain, and the equivalent hygrothermal initial load can be
created. The hygrothermal initial load should then be superposed on the mechanical
load. The displacement and total strain can be resolved by FEMs and the stress
distribution of the structure can be resolved by subtracting the initial strain from the
total strain.
The initial strain and the equivalent hygrothermal initial load caused by the
hygrothermal environment can be calculated from the following equations.
① For an isotropic material:
eT ¼ aDT
eC ¼ 0 ð4:114Þ
ZZ
fRT ge ¼ Dt ½BT ½DfeT gdxdy
② For an anisotropic material:

0 1 0 1
e1T a1 DT
@ e2T A ¼ @ a2 DT A
0 0
0 1 0 1
e1C b1 DC
@ e2C A ¼ @ b2 DC A
0 0
ZZ
fRT ge ¼ Dt ½BT ½T T ½QfeT gdxdy ð4:115Þ
e
ZZ
e
fRT g ¼ Dt ½BT ½T T ½QfeT gdxdy
e
ZZ
fRC ge ¼ Dt ½BT ½T T ½QfeC gdxdy
e
where
a —thermal expansion coefficient of material, 1/°C;
DT —increment of temperature, °C;
DC —increment of moisture content;
a1 —longitudinal thermal expansion coefficient of laminate, 1/°C;
a2 —transverse thermal expansion coefficient of laminate, 1/°C;
b1 —longitudinal wet swelling coefficient of laminate;
b2 —transverse wet swelling coefficient of laminate;
eT —initial strain caused by temperature;
eC —initial strain caused by moisture absorption;
{RT}e —equivalent thermal load at element node;
{RC}e —equivalent wet swelling load at element node.
4.10.4 Hygrothermal Aging Response
The strength and stiffness performance of resin matrix composites will vary con-
siderably with extended usage-time, especially in certain hygrothermal environ-
ments. Hygrothermal aging of fiber-reinforced composites is a gradual degradation
process caused by the combined action of moisture uptake, temperature, and stress.
Fibers and the fiber/matrix interface are degraded by physical/chemical reactions.
During the moisture absorption process, a swelling stress will be introduced to the
interior of composites. A greater swelling stress might be introduced owing to rapid
desorption of the surface layer of wet structures under thermal spiking. Under this
repeated interior stress, at a certain threshold stress, cracking will occur followed by
crazing. The moisture re-absorption and re-desorption rates will be affected by the
556 Z. Shen et al.
crazing, and finally, macroscale cracks will form. Therefore, the hygrothermal
aging response of any selected composite material system should be investigated at
the design stage. However, this theoretical analysis is difficult owing to uncer-
tainties of the environmental and the coupling effect between hygrothermal stress
and exterior loading. In general, experimental methods are used to study these
factors based on ground environmental aging, accelerated laboratory aging and
aging in actual flights. The experimental data are globally analyzed to obtain design
criterion for hygrothermal aging [1, 2, 13].
4.10.4.1 Influence of Hygrothermal Aging on Composite Physical

Properties
In certain hygrothermal environments over a long period, matrix constituents will

undergo chemical reactions, particularly at elevated temperatures. The rate of these
reactions will be affected by many factors, including the chemical components of
the materials, the aging temperature, fiber volume fraction, and ply stacking
sequence of the laminate. For any composite system, the main factors are aging
time and temperature.
There have been few investigations on the effect of hygrothermal aging on the
physical properties of composites. The changes of Tg with aging time for three
material systems under a 70–85%RH aging environment are shown in Fig. 4.111.
The Tg of the polymer matrix composite was considerably affected by aging. From
the start of aging to 50 h, Tg declined lineally; a maximum decrease of 25 °C was
found, after which the Tg stabilized. Aging up to 900 h, the Tg underwent a second
drop of approximately 10 °C which remained stable with aging for 2700 h. For a
cyanate ester matrix composite, the Tg showed a slow reduction with increasing
aging time. After about 1400 h of aging, the Tg dropped by 20 °C and then
stabilized. For BMI composite, aging time had hardly any effect on Tg.
The influences of hygrothermal aging on the thermal expansion coefficients of a
composite matrix can be determined as follows:
Fig. 4.111 Change of Tg

with aging time under
70 °C/85% RH environment
a0m ¼ am ½1 þ Daa1 ða1 Þnaa1

ð4:116Þ
½1 þ Daa2 ða2 Þnaa2
Tgd Tg0
a1 ¼
Tgf Tg0
m0 m
a2 ¼
m0 mf
where
am ′ matrix thermal expansion coefficient after accounting for
aging effects;
am matrix thermal expansion coefficient at room temperature
in dry state;
a1 degradation parameter of the crosslinking mechanism;
a2 parameter of matrix mass change;
Tgd measured glass transition temperature at room temperature
in dry state;
T0g measured glass transition temperature at initial aged state;
Tgf measured glass transition temperature at final aged state;
m0 mass of a small neat matrix specimen at initial aged state;
m mass of a small neat matrix specimen at room temperature
and dry state;
mf mass of a small neat matrix specimen at final aged state.
Daa1 , Daa2 , naa1 , naa2 fitting parameters based on the change of a1 and a2 data.
The matrix wet expansion coefficient can also be modified by an analogous
methodology.
4.10.4.2 Influence of Hygrothermal Aging on Mechanical Properties

of Laminates
The aging of resin matrix composites involves degradation (degeneration) pro-

cesses. During this process, mechanical properties, in particular matrix controlled
properties, such as shear and transverse behavior, are markedly affected.
The thermal aging properties of HT3/QY8911 and HT3/5405 unidirectional
laminates are shown in Tables 4.37 and 4.38. Test results of the interlaminar shear
strength for a polymer matrix composite at different temperatures after 70–85% RH
environmental aging are shown in Figs. 4.112 and 4.113. The influence of aging
time and moisture content on interlaminar shear strength at room temperature was
slight; however, the interlaminar shear strength at 100 °C decreased linearly with
increasing moisture content. For every 1% increase in moisture content, the inter-
laminar shear strength dropped by approximately 7.9 MPa. The hygrothermal aging
558 Z. Shen et al.
Table 4.37 Thermal aging properties of T300/QY8911 unidirectional laminate

Aging time s ib/MPa r b f/MPa
25 °C 150 °C 25 °C 150 °C
0 14.1 77.0 1916 1752
100 118.1 94.4 1925 1748
240 113.2 84.1 1876 1759
400 14.8 92.2 1819 1700
710 117.5 89.1 1914 1684
1000 14.7 88.0 1941 1684
Table 4.38 Thermal aging properties of T300/5405 unidirectional laminate

Aging time /h
0 310 607 1000
sib Average value/MPa 96.8 90.0 88.4 93.1
(RT) Standard deviation/MPa 5.9 3.8 3.6 3.9
Cv/% 6.1 4.2 4.0 5.2
t ib Average value/MPa 81.2 82.2 81.5 84.9
(130 °C) Standard deviation/MPa 1.1 1.8 4.9 1.8
Cv/% 1.4 2.3 6.1 2.1
sfb Average value/MPa 1770 1764 1876 1865
Cv/% 3.2 1.7 4.0 1.9
sfb Average value/MPa 1300 1323 1396 1437
Cv/% 2.6 2.4 3.5 3.0
S Average value/MPa 113.6 108.2 104.5 97.2
Cv/% 1.2 1.5 6.4 2.4
S Average value/MPa 96.3 102.6 103 99
Cv/% 4.3 1.1 1.5 1.4
G12 Average value/GPa 1.75 4.51 4.60 4.57
(RT) Standard deviation/GPa 0.06 0.08 0.09 0.05
Cv/% 1.4 1.7 2.0 1.1
G12 Average value/GPa 3.1 3.8 4.0 4.1
(130 °C) Standard deviation/GPa 0.2 0.6 0.1 0.1
Cv/% 5.1 1.6 2.7 2.7
responses of BMI matrix composite are shown in Figs. 4.114 and 4.115. When the
moisture content was less than 0.6% (corresponding to 70 h of aging), there was
little change in the interlaminar shear strength; however, for a moisture content
greater than 0.6%, the interlaminar shear strength showed a marked decrease. The
interlaminar shear strength of the moisture saturation state dropped by approxi-
mately 50% compared with that of the dry state.

interlaminar shear strength
with aging time for polymer
matrix composite after 70–
85% RH environmental aging
at different temperatures

polymer matrix composite
after 70–85% RH
environmental aging at
different temperatures

with aging time for BMI
matrix composite after 70–
85% RH environmental aging
at different temperatures

BMI matrix composite after
70–85% RH environmental
aging at different temperatures
560 Z. Shen et al.
This may be explained by the reaction between the water and matrix requiring a
certain time. Thus, controlling moisture content is a design criterion for application
of MBI matrix composites in structures.
4.10.4.3 Prediction of Composite Aging Effects
Physical Aging
When a polymeric matrix material is used below its glass transition temperature for a
long time, the mechanical properties will change markedly. This change is termed
physical aging. During the physical aging process, the material becomes stiffer, with
decreased compliance and an increased modulus. The physical aging responses of
resin matrix composites have received considerable research attention. The results of
various investigations have shown that the matrix-dominated properties of continuous
fiber-reinforced composite (e.g., the shear and transverse responses) are most seri-
ously affected by physical aging in a similar manner to that of a pure polymer.
Physical Aging of Polymers

(1) Influence of aging time
The polymeric compliance varies with aging time according to:
SðtÞ ¼ S0 eðt=iðte ÞÞb
sðte Þ ¼ sðteref Þ=ate ð4:117Þ

l
teref
ate ¼
te
d lg ate
l¼
d lg te
where
S(t) compliance at time t;
S0 initial compliance;
te aging time;
s relaxation time;
T time;
teref reference aging time;
ate aging time shift factor at aging time;
b shape parameter;
l shift rate.
Note from Eq. (4.117) that if the initial compliance S0, shape parameter b, shift
rate l and relaxation time s at reference aging time teref of the polymer are known,
then the compliance at any time may be determined. If te > teref, then ate < 1;
otherwise, ate > 1. In the case of te > teref, the relaxation time at te is also greater
than that at the reference aging time [s (te) > s(teref)]. This relation shows that at a
given time the modulus of the material is higher and the compliance is lower [S(t;
te) < S(t;teref)].
For most polymers, if the material is being used at temperatures close to its Tg,
the material changes into an equilibrium state in a relative short time. The time
required to achieve the equilibrium state is known as the equilibrium aging time.
The shift factor, l characterizes the influence of aging on material properties. For
the same aging time a larger value of l indicates a smaller compliance change.
Thus, the shift factor l can be used as a screening parameter for selection of
materials. Materials with larger l values should be chosen. In general, experimental
results have shown that before the aging equilibrium l 1 and after the aging
equilibrium l 0.1. These results indicate the dramatic change of materials in the
aging equilibrium state. Thus, in the design stage of polymer matrix composite
structures, materials with larger l value should be selected, while avoiding aging to
an equilibrium state during the full life period, particularly in structures for use in
high temperature applications.
(2) Influence of aging temperature
Although the shift factor l over a large temperature range is constant, in fact,
both l and ate are functions of temperature. In general, the relationship of the time
temperature-aging time shift factor can be expressed as:
lga ¼ lgate þ lgaT ð4:118Þ
where aT is a time temperature shift factor, i.e., a function of temperature and aging
time at temperatures below Tg.
The relationship between aT and l (T) can be expressed as:

lðT2 ÞlðT1 Þ
atTe21 =T2 te2
¼ ð4:119Þ
atTe11 =T2 te1
where atTe11 =T2 —time temperature shift factor between temperature T1 and T2 at aging
time te1 .
Thus, if the l(T) value or its expression and the time temperature shift factor at a
single aging time are given, then at at any aging time can be calculated. Therefore,
the shift factor, l, and the time temperature shift factor, at , have an effect on aging
time.
562 Z. Shen et al.
Aging Response of Unidirectional Laminate
The effective compliance matrix of a unidirectional laminate under plane stress

condition can be described as:
½S ¼ ½T 1 ½S½T ð4:120Þ
where
½S—effective compliance matrix;
[S]—compliance matrix with respect to the fiber coordinate system;
[T]—transformation matrix.
The elastic stress–strain relation under in-plane loading is given by:
2 3 2 3
exx rxx
4 eyy 5 ¼ S 4 ryy 5 ð4:121Þ
exy rxy
Experimental studies of polymer matrix composites have shown that the trans-
verse compliance S22 and the shear compliance S66 are related to time temperature
and subject to physical aging. Their values can be determined by Eq. (4.122), such
that in a functional form:
S22 ðtÞ ¼ f ðS022 ; b22 ; s22 ðteref Þ; l22 ; tÞ

ð4:122Þ
S66 ðtÞ ¼ f ðS066 ; b66 ; s66 ðteref Þ; l66 ; tÞ
Note from Eq. (4.122), the transverse and shear compliance of composite uni-
directional laminates are independently described by four viscoelastic parameters,
namely the initial compliance, shape parameter, relaxation time at a given reference
aging time, and shift factor. For any given material the four independent parameters
may be determined by short-term aging tests in the laboratory.
Equation (4.121) is rewritten, accounting for time relativity as:
2 3 2 3
exx ðtÞ rxx
6 7 6 7
6 eyy ðtÞ 7 ¼ ½sðtÞ6 ryy 7;
4 5 4 5 ð4:123Þ
exy ðtÞ rxy
Sij ðtÞ ¼ f ðh; Sij Þ
Investigations have shown that the compliance of 0°-ply laminates shows

essentially no change with aging time, and that the response of other angle plies
shows an increasing trend with angle. The compliance change is highest for 90° -
ply laminates.
Table 4.39 Viscoelastic parameters, transverse and shear compliance of IM7/8320 material
system
Viscoelastic parameter S22 S66
l 0.77 0.93
b 0.416 0.456
s 1.19 106 s 4.31 105 s
S0 750 10−9 Pa−1 1364 109 Pa−1
teref 3.24 104s 3.24 104 s
Elastic parameters: S11 = 5.75 10−91/psi t12 = 0.348
Fig. 4.116 Predicted aging

response of IM7/8320 system
Aging Response of Laminate
To determine the influence of physical aging on composite properties, first, the

transverse and shear compliance in each lamina self-coordinate system under a
specific aging environmental condition is determined. These values are transformed
in the laminate coordinate system, and finally the laminate response is resolved by
laminate theory.
The viscoelastic parameters, transverse and shear compliance of IM7/8320
composite lamina, are listed in Table 4.39. The estimated aging response for a
quasi-isotropic laminate [0/±45/90]s IM7/8320 is illustrated in Fig. 4.116. The
figure shows that although the quasi-isotropic laminate is fiber-dominated, the
compliance changes by 8–10% over a 10-year aging period. This type of change
must be considered in the composite structure design stage.
4.10.4.4 Aging Test Results of Boeing Commercial Group
The influence of environmental exposure on the performance of three composite

material systems is experimentally investigated. More than 8000 standard speci-
mens made from T300/5208, T300/5209, T300/934, machined according to the
564 Z. Shen et al.
Fig. 4.117 Laboratory

accelerated aging scheme of
Boeing Commercial Group
required test methods, were exposed for approximately 13 years. The exposure tests
included ground exposure, flight travel\exposure, and accelerated laboratory aging,
which simulated the change of temperature, humidity, and pressure during aircraft
flight. The ground-based exposure tests were performed at Dallas, NASA Dryden,
Honolulu, and Wellington. Aloha Airlines, Air New Zealand Ltd., and Southwest
Airlines were selected for flight exposure studies. The laboratory accelerated aging
results are shown in Fig. 4.117.
On the basis of global analysis of the test results, the following recommendations
for composite structural design were proposed:
① The tension and flexure strength at room temperature after aging for the
three materials showed a slight overall increase. At elevated tempera-
tures, the results were mixed. For the T300/5209 and T300/934 systems
the flexure and tension strength decreased slightly. For the T300/5208
system, both these properties were greater their baseline strength. The
T300/934 tension strength also increased. However, in all cases, the
differences were relatively small.
② Room-temperature compression strength dropped in general. At the end
of 10 years’ exposure, all three materials showed decreases of approx-
imately 30%. The elevated temperature residual strength was likely
seriously decreased; however, the exact test data could not be deter-
mined owing to the grab-tab failure.
③ The short-beam shear displayed a peculiar pattern for residual strength in
both room and elevated temperature tests on all three material systems.
The drop of the shear strength was largest after 1, 2, and 3 years of
exposure; lesser degradation was found after 5 years exposure; however,
the room-temperature residual strength increased slightly, and strength at
elevated temperatures remained at or near their baseline levels after
10 years of exposure.
④ Accelerated laboratory aging can be useful for predicting the relative

durability of composite materials. Accelerated aging over a 6-month
aging period was sufficient to predict changes in the properties of all
three materials systems.
⑤ Strength tests after aging at both room and elevated temperatures should
be performed.
4.10.4.5 Accelerated Hygrothermal Aging Scheme for Fighter Aircraft

and Test Results
In general, the designed life of fighter aircraft is 5000 flight hours, or 20–30 years.
Complete simulation of both the mechanical and environmental loading history is
the most credible evaluation; however, this would be impractical. Acceleration of
the actual temperature/humidity time history can be used to obtain the accelerated
hygrothermal aging results. Therefore, a large amount of comparable data can be
accumulated and the development period for structures can be shortened and the
test costs reduced. Furthermore, individual test results can be very easily interpreted
and estimated.
In this section, based on the flight environment and service mission of aircraft in
China, accelerated hygrothermal aging and test results for composite components of
certain fighter aircraft are introduced.
(1). Basis for Establishing Scheme
On the basis of a typical mission profile, involving 5000 flight hours over
20 years, an accelerated aging program is developed.
(2). Developing Requirements and Basic Rules
① Accelerated tests should yield the same results for composite degrada-
tion and residual strength compared with that resulting from the real-time
history, or give more conservative results than those from experiments.
② The actual aircraft usage environment should be reflected reasonably.
③ For accelerated aging, the response of thermal spiking caused by aero-
dynamic heating should be considered because an elevated temperature
environment will have a considerable influence on composite properties
over the long term.
④ The greatest test acceleration may be achieved by compressing the
simulated ground standing time as much as possible. The ambient
environmental exposure over 20 years may be simulated by accelerated
tests over one year.
⑤ The selected accelerated conditions should not have any additional
effects on composites. For BMI matrix systems, an accelerated temper-
ature of 70 °C is appropriate.
566 Z. Shen et al.
(3). Flight Temperature and Humidity Profiles and Their Simulation

In the accelerated spectrum, the temperature profile of composite structures
subjected to high loads and sites that experience elevated temperatures should be
considered. Elevated temperatures may approach the glass transition temperature of
the resin. Elevated temperatures below the glass transition temperature will also
diminish the ability of the resin matrix to support fibers against compression
buckling and load transfer from fiber to fiber.
Testing should include low-temperature environments; however, these effects
are smaller and may be neglected to reduce test time and cost.
The time of flight missions can be described by four stages, namely, ground
running, climbing, cruising, gliding and landing. Representative extreme temper-
ature and humidity profiles may be chosen for each of these stages. The detailed
conditions are as follows:
① Slide running: M = 0.6, T = 20–30 °C; M = 0.6–0.95, T = 60 °C;
M = 1.8, T = 110 °C; M
2.0, T = 125 °C;
② On the ground: M < 0.6, environmental humidity is 95%; M = 0.6–0.8
(flight altitude H = 0–5 km), 50% RH; M = 0.8–1.8 (H = 11–15 km),
0% RH;
③ Change of air pressure can be neglected and pressure was not simulated
in the accelerated aging scheme;
④ One symmetrical axis may be used to describe
sliding/take-off/climbing/cruising/gliding/landing processes, as shown in
Fig. 4.118.
⑤ The overall flight time should be determined based on Fig. 4.119.
According to flight numbers the flight characteristics (M number, tem-
perature, humidity) may be cycled at the same amplitude. This accel-
erated model closely replicates the situation of a real flight in terms of
the elevated temperatures and the time of the temperature changes.
⑥ The test time may be shortened by acceleration for M = 0–0.6, as for the
case of ground standing.
Fig. 4.118 Symmetrical

assumption
Fig. 4.119 Accelerated
hygrothermal scheme
(4). Accelerated Aging Methods for Aircraft at Rest on the Ground

It may be assumed that aircraft are exposed to open air on the ground, which
should result in more conservative test results. The effects of ambient temperature,
humidity, and solar radiation heating should be considered for outdoor standing
conditions.
The airfield temperature and humidity from Guangzhou and Beijing airfield over
half a year were adopted, respectively. Thus, conditions of 70 °C/95%RH were
chosen for the accelerated testing environment. A ground standing time of one year
was simulated by accelerated hygrothermal aging over 14 days.
(5). Developed Accelerated Hygrothermal Aging Testing Scheme
The flight life only accounts for about 3% of the total life of a fighter aircraft. In
the accelerated testing the moisture recovery between flight intervals and maximum
acceleration from rest on the ground are considered adequately. For climbing,
high-speed cruising, and gliding, a real simulation may be adopted.
The developed accelerated testing scheme is illustrated in Tables 4.40 and 4.41
and Fig. 4.119. One cycle covers 1 day, and an accelerated laboratory aging of
268 days can be used to simulate the hygrothermal history of a fighter composite
structure with a service life of 20 years and 5000 flight hours.
(6). Test Results
Tests of the mechanical properties of 312 specimens made from the
HT3/QY8911 material system subjected to the hygrothermal aging testing proce-
dures described above were performed. The tests included tension, compression,
bend, shear, bond-joint, interlaminar tension–shear, single bolt-joint measurements
for multi-laminates and tension, compression, bend, shear measurements for
sandwich constructions.
The test results showed:
(1) Tension strength after hygrothermal aging did not decrease, in fact a slight
increase was found.
(2) Compression strength after aging was markedly decreased.
(3) Interlaminar shear strength after aging showed the most serious decrease.
(4) Bearing strength of bolt joints after aging showed a large decrease of
approximately 15%.
568 Z. Shen et al.
Table 4.40 Accelerated hygrothermal aging spectrum

tI Temperature spectrum Humidity spectrum Remarks:
Durative Temperature Durative Relative ① “2 + 5” represents humidity decrease
time/min /°C time/min humidity from 95%RH to 50%RH within 2 min, then
/%(RH) from 50%RH to 0% within 5 min.
t1 452 70 450 95 ② Highest temperature: +110 °C.
③ Lowest temperature: +70 °C
T2 5 70–110 2+5 95–50–0
④ Maximum humidity: 95% RH
t3 6 110 6 0 ⑤ Minimum humidity: 0% RH
t4 5 110–70 5 0–95 ⑥ Rate of temperature increase/decrease: 8.0
t5 245 70 243 95 °C/min
t6 5 70–110 2+5 95–50–0
t7 6 110 6 0
t8 5 110–70 5 0–95
t9 245 70 243 95
t10 5 70–110 2+5 95–50–0
t11 5 110 5 0
t12 5 110–70 5 0–95
t13 451 70 451 95
Table 4.41 Accelerated hot–wet spectrum aging results of laminates and sandwich construction
Strength properties Baseline value Accelerated hot–wet spectrum aging
Compression/MPa 525.3 500.4
Tension/MPa 606.7 660.1
SBS/MPa 68.2 46.7
Interlaminar shear/MPa 4.3 13.3
Bearing/MPa 104.1 851.1
Flatwise tension/MPa 2.1 2.1
Core shear/MPa 1.1 1.0
Core shear modulus/MPa 39.6 38.7
(5) Properties of the sandwich construction after aging were unchanged with the
exception of the facing modulus.
4.10.4.6 Accelerated Hygrothermal Aging Spectrum for Transport

Airplane and Test Results
Aerodynamic heating effects can be neglected for investigations of hygrothermal

aging response of composite structures used in transport airplanes. The accelerated
aging spectrum may be developed based on the ground standing environment.
A coastal tropical environment was simulated, and 80%RH adopted as the average
humidity. The accelerated environment was 70 °C/100%RH (distilled water
immersion). On the basis of the acceleration principle, 1 year of the natural envi-
ronment could be simulated by 28 days of in the accelerated environment. The
effects of midday solar radiation in June, July, August, and September were con-
sidered. If the irradiation time each day is 2 h, and the irradiation temperature is 50
°C, and then the total irradiation time of each month is 60 h, or 240 h in 4 months.
Therefore, 1 year of ambient environmental aging could be simulated using our
accelerated testing method for 38 days. This scheme involved the following steps:
4 þ 1 þ 4 þ 1 þ 4 þ 2 þ 4 þ 2 þ 4 þ 2 þ 4 þ 1 þ 4 þ 1 ð4:124Þ
where
4—Immersion in 70 °C/100% RH (70 °C distilled water immersion) for 4 days;
• —50 °C heating for 1 day;
②—50 °C heating for 2 days.
For an aging duration of 3 years, the above spectrum may be repeated three
times.
Ambient environmental aging for 1 and 3 years was performed at an environ-
mental experiment field in Hainan Province in China. The corresponding acceler-
ated aging was performed in a laboratory of the Aircraft Strength Research Institute.
The test results are shown in Tables 4.42 and 4.43. The test results indicated:
① Ambient aging has no measurable influence on tensile and compressive
strength.
② Ambient aging has a large influence on short-beam shear (SBS) strength.
The SBS strength after 1 and 3 years of ambient aging decreased by
26.5% and 37.0%, respectively. The shear strength of single- and
double-lag bonds after 1 and 3 years of ambient aging decreased by
45.1% and 12.7%, and 51% and 30.2%, respectively. The tension–shear
strength after 1 and 3 years of ambient aging decreased by 9.8% and
30.2%, respectively.
Table 4.42 Ambient aging and accelerated laboratory aging results of laminates
Strength Baseline 1 year 3 years 3 years 1 year 3 years
properties value ambient ambient ambient accelerated accelerated
aging aging aging aging aging
(unpainted) (painted)
Compression/MPa 525.3 533.3 659.7 695.6 482.8
Tension/MPa 606.7 662.4 682.6
SBS/MPa 68.2 50.1 43.0 65.9 55.1
Bonded I/MPa 37.7 20.7 18.5
Bonded II/MPa 32.9 26.3
Tension– 4.3 12.9 11.8
shear/MPa
570 Z. Shen et al.
Table 4.43 Ambient aging and accelerated laboratory aging results of sandwich construction
Strength properties Baseline 1 year 3 years 3 years 1 year 3 years
value ambient ambient ambient accelerated accelerated
aging aging aging aging aging
(unpainted) (painted)
Flatwise 3.62 3.49 2.96
compression
(H = 19)/MPa
Flatwise 2.88 3.03 2.97
compression
(H = 44)/MPa
Core shear 1.21 1.23 0.77 0.76
(H = 19)/MPa
Core shear 1.11 1.04 1.03 1.06
(H = 44)/MPa
Core shear modulus 39.2 33.7 45.0 44.4
(H = 19)/MPa
③ Ambient aging had little influence on the properties of the sandwich

construction. The residual strength after accelerated ambient aging was
higher than that of ambient aging. This indicates that the
above-mentioned accelerated ambient aging scheme is less conservative
than ambient conditions. It is recommended that to simulate the aging
effects of 1 year, the testing method described in this section may be
repeated 2 or 3 times.
4.10.5 Protection of Composite Structures in Corrosive

Environments
Aircraft composite structures in service may encounter a range of environmental

conditions, including temperature, humidity, rain and snow, sun light, lightning
strikes, wind borne sand, dust, salt-fog, noise, and industrial pollution. These
conditions may degrade composite structures [1, 2, 13].
This process may be considered to be a corrosive process. However, there are no
satisfactory explanations of the corrosive mechanisms of composites because of
their complexity. The relationship between corrosion–strength–time is difficult to
predict. In service, aircraft structures may be affected by the exterior environments,
and interior fuel, hydraulic fluid, refrigerants, and sealants. Acidic and alkali sub-
stances may be introduced in fabrication and service processes. Furthermore,
composites are considered to be high electrode potential materials; thus, in con-
nection with a low electrode potential materials galvanic erosion may occur.
Corresponding protection methodologies should be considered during the
composite structure design. These protective measured should also be tested to

ensure the integrity of the composite structure.
4.10.5.1 Control of Corrosion in Composites

(1) Corrosive Effects of Environment on the Constituents of Composites
The following effects may occur to constituents of composites exposed to cor-
rosive environments: corrosion of the resin matrix, reinforced fiber, interface, and
corrosive fatigue. The chemical erosion behaviors of general thermoset resins are
given in Table 4.44. Epoxy resin matrices used for aircraft structures appear to have
good corrosion resistance against acid and alkali.
(2) Influence of Environmental Media on Mechanical Performance of
Composites
The influence of hygrothermal aging on composite performance have been
discussed in detail in 4.10.4. On the basis of experiments and usage experiences, the
influences of other corrosive agents in the aging environment can be summarized as
follows:
① Composites are not susceptible to corrosive liquids, such as interior fuel,
hydraulic fluid, and antifreeze. Hence, the influence of these liquids can
be neglected.
② Damage caused by ultraviolet radiation is a slow cumulate process. This
type damage can be neglected if the protective coating of the structural
surface is in good condition. If the surface coating brushes off, a new
layer of coating should be applied to the surface. The most feasible
method is to spray paint an acrylate paint. If a varnish is adopted an
appropriate ultraviolet absorber should be applied. Light colored paints
are more effective. If no protecting coat is applied, ultraviolet radiation
Table 4.44 Anti-chemical erosion behaviors of typical thermoset resins

Medium Phenol ether Polyester Epoxy Epoxy (acid
(amine cure) anhydride
cure)
Thin acid Slight corroded Slight Uncorroded Uncorroded
corroded
Strong Eroded Eroded Eroded Slight
acid corroded
Thin alkali Slight corroded Slight Uncorroded Slight
corroded corroded
Strong Decomposed Decomposed Slight Eroded
alkali corroded
Solvent Decomposed by some Eroded Anti-erosion Anti-erosion
solvent
572 Z. Shen et al.
might have an effect on laminate performance. The effects of ultraviolet

radiation on the modulus of unidirectional laminate have been investi-
gated by MBB Company.
The results showed that under 12260–40866 equivalent hours of solar irradiation
the specimen tensile stiffness dropped approximately 6–10% (see Fig. 4.120), under
17,800 and 22,800 equivalent hours’ sun irradiation the bending modulus dropped
12.5% and 28.0%, respectively (see Fig. 4.121).
③ Damage caused by wind, sand, and rain erosion is a slow cumulative
process. This type of damage can be prevented provided that an anti-rain
erosion protective paint is sprayed on structural surfaces. If the surface
coat brushes off, applying a new layer of the coat to surface will give
sufficient protection. The mechanism of rain erosion and respective
anti-rain erosion measures has been widely investigated. It has been
shown that the pressure impulse and fluid of rainwater impacts are
physical factors of rain erosion. The main factors influencing rain ero-
sion are the angle of incidence of the raindrop and raindrop parameters,
Fig. 4.120 Effects of

ultraviolet radiation on tensile
stiffness of unidirectional
laminate
Fig. 4.121 Effects of

ultraviolet radiation on
flexural modulus of
unidirectional laminate
such as its size and velocity. When the angle of incidence of a raindrop is
90° and the raindrop velocity is more than 200 m/s an anti-rain erosion
protective coat should be applied to the surface of the composite
structure. At the design stage, the layout of components should attempt
to minimize the area of impacted surfaces and lower the angle of rain
drop incidence in addition to protective coatings. Anti-erosion paint and
metal or ceramic protective coatings may be adopted as anti-rain water
erosion measures.
(3) Corrosive Control
There are two main principles for controlling composite corrosion caused by
environmental media.
(1) Enhance innate material corrosion resistance: In some cases it is possible to
improve the crystallinity, tropism grade, or crosslinking density of com-
posites. The matrix compactness can also be enhanced to reduce the dif-
fusion coefficient and penetrative coefficient of the medium. A surface
cleanup solvent may be used to enforce the adherence strength between the
reinforced fiber and matrix, reduce the interface clearance, and enhance
impermeability.
2) Use of protective coatings: A protecting coat is sprayed on the composite
surface to avoid direct corrosion of the composite by environmental media.
(4) Biological Corrosion and its Control
Biological corrosion occurs mainly at the fuel box position of aircraft structures.
The combination of moisture and other impurities in fuel can provide appropriate
conditions for biological organisms to grow. The main microorganisms that might
affect composites are germs, epiphyte, and mildew. Such microorganisms may
reproduce and excrete acidic substances, such as lactic acid and grass fungus. These
acidic substances might react with composites. Biological corrosion of composite
structures used in a sea environment can pose a threat. Composite destruction
caused by oceanic organisms can occur. The composite might be bitten away by
hexapods and chisel-ship worms, and the above-mentioned microbe encroachment
can become more serious. The following steps should be taken to control biological
corrosion:
① Fuel quality should be controlled. The content of moisture and impurities
in fuel and possible pollution during the fuel transport process should be
minimized to remove the conditions necessary for microbial growth.
② An effective drainage system should be designed in the fuel tank.
A fluent-fuel mouth should be installed at the lowermost position and
water should be drained at intervals.
③ Anti-bioerosion protective coatings may be applied. A coating in com-
mon use is SF-9 epoxy, which can effectively prevent biological growth.
574 Z. Shen et al.
④ Additives made be added to fuel. Typical additives include: chromic

acid, strontium glycol ether and organic borides. These additives can kill
microorganisms and effectively limit bioerosion.
4.10.5.2 Galvanic Erosion Between Composites and Metals
When two types of materials with different electrode potentials are directly con-
nected or in contacted through an electrolyte, accelerated corrosion might be caused
in the lower potential material. This is known as galvanic or electrical dipolar
erosion. Carbon has good electrical conductivity and a relatively high electrode
potential. Carbon fiber-reinforced composites under general environmental condi-
tions show inert behavior similar to that of noble metals with high electrode
potentials. Thus, when carbon fiber-reinforced composites are joined with metal the
cathode-like behavior could accelerate corrosion of the metal. The electrode
potential difference between carbon fiber-reinforced composite and most metals is
0.5–1.0 V, and in some cases, may reach as high as 1–2 V. Therefore,
anti-electrical dipolar erosion steps must be adopted in areas of connected metals
and composites. The generation of electrical dipolar erosion requires three condi-
tions: an electrode potential difference, electrolyte, and an electrical conductive
connection. Protective measures against galvanic erosion should consider these
three aspects.
(1) Structural Design
The accumulation of electrolyte can be prevented to a large extent by careful
structural design to avoid formation of corrosion batteries.
① Attention should be paid to structural seals, to avoid infiltration of
rainwater, fog, and seawater. Holes and places where contamination may
accumulate should be reduced. Countermeasures should be mounted at
positions subject to seepage.
② Small metallic elements surrounded by a large area of composite should
be avoided. Strict protecting steps should be adopted for mechanical
fastener joints.
③ The lumen and blind holes should be designed with perforation to pre-
vent condensation water cohesion.
(2) Selection of Materials
Consistent materials should be selected to prevent galvanic erosion.
① Anticorrosive materials and materials with a low potential difference
compared with that of the composite should be chosen. Pay special
attention to small parts such as fasteners.
② Insulated and closed down materials should be non-hygroscopic and
should not contain any corrosive components. When a single layer of
co-cured glass-cloth on a surface is used as an insulating coat, the edge

must be sealed. Otherwise, counterproductive effects may be caused.
(3) Protective Methodologies
Effective protective measures must be adopted for metals, which show corrosion
in direct contact with composites and the contact is otherwise unavoidable.
① An appropriate overlay coating for the metal or a non-metal may be used
as a transition layer or adjustment. For example, anodization, chemical
oxygenation, passivation, and phosphorization are commonly used
treatments. The contact resistance is increased and the electrical dipolar
erosion can be reduced providing that the covering coat is perfect.
Selection principles for the thickness of an over coat and its applicable
range can be found in the standard HB5033.
② Efforts to insulate the component should be made; however, steps to
reduce the electrode area should also be taken through the use of
appropriate coatings on the surfaces. Protective coats should be applied
to both the metal and composite to avoid forming large cathode and
small anode areas in case electrolyte in-leakage occurs via microholes or
local damage of the protecting coats. Furthermore, the protective coats
should be resistant to alkali because alkaline substances are generated at
the cathode by electrical dipolar erosion.
③ Gaskets, cannula, and adhesive tapes made from inert materials should
be used between metals and composites to form an insulated coating.
④ Appropriate hermetic sealing materials should be used to form gapless
seals that insulate against electrolyte formation. Such sealants are
effective at slowing corrosion.
(4). Protection of Metals Against Galvanic Erosion of Carbon Fiber-
Reinforced Composite
① The composite should not be connected with magnesium or magnesium
alloy.
② Aluminum and its alloys should be treated as follows: The metal may be
placed in a recycling hot water or chromate solution after an anodization
process. Typical coatings include chromate +H06-2 zinc yellow epoxy
resin priming and chromate +SF-9 for fuel tank dope (used interior of
fuel tank).
③ Steel and low-carbon steel should be treated by any of the following:
coating by galvanization and H06-2 zinc yellow epoxy resin priming;
phosphorized and coated with X04-1 acetal phosphoric paint and X04-1
varnish (oil proof); phosphorized and coated with H06-2 iron red epoxy
resin priming and X04-2 epoxy nitryl magnetism paint (available in
various colors); phosphorized and two-layer zinc yellow epoxy resin
priming (add FLU14 aluminum powder) and H61-2 steel gray organic
silicon epoxy polyamide magnetism paint applied.
576 Z. Shen et al.
④ Stainless steel should be treated as follows: The unmodified surface may

be used or one of the passivation process described above.
⑤ Titanium alloy should be treated as follows: The unmodified surface may
be used; an anodized process; souring or sand blasting and H06-2 zinc
yellow epoxy resin priming and 13-2 propenoic acid polyurethane
magnetism paint; souring or sand blasting and F06-9 zinc yellow phe-
nolic priming and 13-2 propenoic acid polyurethane magnetism paint.
The above-mentioned methodologies may be selected based on the service
environment and structural conditions. Under poor environmental condition metals
should also be sealed, with sealants such as XM 22, XM 23, XM30, and XM 34.
4.10.5.3 Protective Coatings for Composites
Protective coatings for composite components can not only improve the appearance
of faces but are also important for slowing moisture absorption and aging processes
of the material. The application of an anti-friction dope on the front structural
features can improve resistance to sand and rain erosion. Application of anti-friction
dope on interior surfaces can prevent direct contact of composites with metal and
avoid electrical dipolar erosion.
(1) Cover Coatings and their Effects
Different cover coat materials are used at different positions and fall mainly into
the following types:
① For interior surfaces and end faces a protective coat formed by priming
should be applied.
② For general exterior surfaces with ornamental protective coatings,
priming, sealants, transition priming, and surface paint may be applied.
③ For front structural features, an anti-friction and antiscouring protective
coating system formed by priming, an elastic anti-friction dope, and
surface paint should be applied.
④ For upright surfaces or other surfaces requiring anti-static protection,
anti-static protective coatings system formed by priming, and anti-static
or elastic anti-static dopes should be applied.
⑤ For the interior surfaces of the fuel tank an anti-static protective coat
system formed by priming, and anti-static and oil proof dopes should be
applied.
⑥ For exterior surfaces of the fuel tank, an electrical protective coating
system formed by priming, an electrical layer, and painting of the sur-
faces should be applied.
(2) Surface Dopes and Coating Systems
Currently, the most widely used dopes are epoxy- and polyurethane-based.
Epoxy dopes are strongly adherent, show low contraction, and good toughness.
Epoxy dopes are versatile and can be applied with many types of surface paint.
However, because this dope has poor gloss retention after film formation and it is
prone to pulverization, it is mainly applied in priming coats.
A large variety of polyurethane dopes are available, which shows excellent
performance, strong adherence, and high rigidity. Polyurethane dopes form bright
films with excellent oil and moisture proofing, heat endurance, and wear and
chemical resistance. Therefore, these dopes are widely applied in the aviation
industry.
Dopes and coating systems in common use for aircraft composite structures are
shown in Tables 4.45 and 4.46.
4.10.6 Relationships Between Atmospheric Aging,

Accelerated Atmosphere Aging, and Hygrothermal
Aging and Recommendations
The relationships between three different types of aging methods are investigated to
determine an optimal method for studying aging response. It is important for the
method to not only reflect the real history of an aircraft but also to be convenient
and simple. On the basis of real investigations, the following recommendations are
given.
① For the composite structures of military aircraft, the accelerated testing
scheme shown in Fig. 4.119 may be considered to be a standard
accelerated hygrothermal scheme. An actual history of 5000 flight hours
and 20-year service life can be simulated in approximately 1 year. The
highest temperature of thermal spiking can be determined based on the
type of fighter plane (M = 2.0, T = 110 °C; M = 2.2, T = 125 °C).
② In general, the compression, interlaminar shear and compression after
impact strength are sensitive to hygrothermal aging. Thus, the afore-
mentioned properties must be tested for all material selected during the
structural design phase.
In particular, the residual strength should be tested at the operating
temperatures.
③ Hygrothermal aging has an influence on the facing properties of sand-
wich constructions, but it has no obvious influence on other properties
providing that the facing is undamaged and sealed.
④ Ultraviolet radiation and rain erosion have no obvious effects on com-
posite properties providing that a protective coating is maintained.
⑤ Cryogenic temperatures and changes of air pressure have little effect on
the properties of composites and may be neglected to reduce the test
costs.
Table 4.45 Paint and coatings commonly used for composites
578
Number Title Sign Main Elasticity Impact Grade of Properties Dry criterion
Standard constituent /mm /Ncm adherent T/°C t/h
force
1 Epoxy H01-101H E-20 epoxy and 1 490 1 Paint film tenacity, 18–25 24 – 26
polyamide Q/6s72-80 polyamide resin good adhesiveness 50–60 6–8
varnish with composites, 110 – 1–2
liquid proof, 120
waterproof, low air
permeability
2 Epoxy H01-102H E-20 epoxy and 1 490 1 Liquid proof, 18–25 24–26
polyamide Q/6s455-85 polyamide matches with many 50–60 6–8
priming resin, strontium other surface 110– 1–2
yellow paints, high 120
interlaminar
adhesion force,
good adaptability
3 Polyurethane 13-2 Acrylic resin, 1 490 1 Good 18–25 24–26
surface paint HOI, paint, adhesiveness, 50–60 6–8
padding waterproof, 110– 1–2
hygrothermal 120
resistance,
excellent resistance
to radiation and
weatherability
4 Elastic HTY/B-80-15(1) TDI mixed 1 490 180° peel off Paint film tenacity 18–25 24–26
polyurethane polyamine
39.2 N/cm and good elastic 50–60 8–12
magnetism Prepolymer, behavior, good
paint MOCA curing wear, rain, and
agent, paint scouring
padding resistance, good
Z. Shen et al.
adhesiveness to
priming
(continued)
Number Title Sign Main Elasticity Impact Grade of Properties Dry criterion
Standard constituent /mm /Ncm adherent T/°C t/h
force
5 Epoxy Q/6sz358-83 Epoxy Good adhesiveness 18–25 36–48
polyamide polyamide to fundus varnish 50–60 6–8
sealant varnish, talcum and transition
powder priming, easily
scraped, easily
polished, low
contraction
6 Thinner X-7 Xylene, Use to dilute epoxy
X-10 positive butyl type paints
alcohol, Use to dilute
butyl-resin, polyurethane type

cyclohexanone paints
7 Epoxy black HL04-1019 H. D Epoxy resin, 1 490 1 Good electrical 70 24
polysulfide Q/6s530-90 Thiokol, properties (0.5–
electric dope electriccarbon 15 MX/m), oil
black proof, good
adhesiveness to
sealant, apply as a
thin glue in the
interior surface of
the fuel tank
8 Epoxy H06-1020 H.D Epoxy and 1 490 1 Good electric 90 – 4
polyamide Q/6s530-90 polyamideresin, properties (0.5– 100 2
electric dope ST-3 electric 15 MX/m), oil 100–
powder proof, apply to the 120
bottom priming in
the interior surface
579
of the fuel tank

580 Z. Shen et al.
Table 4.46 Dopes in common use for composites

Number Coating system Dry Coat thickness Coating property Location of
criterion use
T/°C t/h Monolayer Total/lm
/lm
1 First or second 18–5 24– First 15– 15–20 Low air Interior and
epoxy 50–0 36 20 25–35 permeability, exterior
polyamide 110– 6–8 Second good surfaces,
varnish (lower 120 1–2 25–35 adhesiveness, end faces
varnish) and waterproof as and walls of
a sealant holes
2 First epoxy 18– 24– First 15– 80–100 Good Exterior
polyamide 25 36 20 100–120 interlaminar surfaces of
varnish adhesion force, components
Smeared 18– 24– waterproof,
locally 25 36 hygrothermal
polyamide 50-60 6–8 proof
sealant
First 18– 24– 15–20
polyamide 25 36
priming 50-60 6–8
(filtration
priming)
Second 18– 36– 50–60
polyurethane 25 48
surface paint 50– 6–8
60
3 First epoxy 18– 24– 15–20 240–260 Good Front facing
polyamide 25 36 interlaminar surfaces and
varnish adhesiveness, those
Eight elastic 18– 24– 180–200 excellent requiring
polyurethane 25 36 wearability, anti-friction
magnetism 50– 8– anti-scourability; coatings
paint 60 12 Facing- paint is
hygrothermal
Second 18– 36– 40–50
proof and has
polyurethane 25 48
good
surface paint 50– 6–8
weatherability
60
4 Epoxy 18– 18– 15–20 80–100 Good electrical Fuel tank,
polyamide 25 25 50–60 properties, oil up panels
varnish, epoxy 50– 6–8 proof, and good and other
polysulfide 60 24 interlaminar position
electric dope 70 adhesion force requiring oil
proofing
5 Epoxy 18– 24– 25–30 200–400 Good electrical Fuel tank,
polyamide 25 36 40–50 properties, oil erect gaps,
varnish, epoxy 50– 6–8 50–60 proof, and good horizontal
polyamide 60 24 interlaminar gaps, down
electric dope, 70 24 adhesion force panels and
XM-electric 70 24 edges
thin glue, 70
epoxy black
polysulfide
electric dope
4.11 Impact Damage Tolerance Reliability of Composite

Structures
4.11.1 Introduction of Structural Reliability Design

and Analysis
4.11.1.1 General
Composite materials are widely used in modern structures for their high perfor-
mance and reliability. However, because these structures usually operate in hostile
and variable service environments, it is difficult to predict their structural perfor-
mance. In addition, experiments show that composite structural behavior exhibits a
wide scatter as a result of the inherent uncertainties in design variables.
Design variables, known as primitive variables, include: the fiber and matrix
material properties at the constituent level; fiber and void volume ratios; ply
misalignment and ply thickness; the fabrication process; size of random structures;
boundary conditions; loadings; and the operating environment.
The full range of structural behavior cannot be computationally simulated by
traditional deterministic methods, which use a safety factor to account for uncertain
structural behavior. Thus, the true structural reliability cannot be discerned.
A probabilistic design methodology is needed to accurately determine the structural
reliability of composite structures.
For the purposes of structural reliability analysis, it is necessary to distinguish
between at least three types of uncertainty: physical uncertainty, statistical uncer-
tainty, and model uncertainty.
4.11.1.2 Reliability Function
The probability of failure FðtÞ
F ðtÞ ¼ PfT tg ð4:125Þ
The probability density function f ðtÞ
dF ðtÞ
f ðt Þ ¼ ð4:126Þ
dt
The reliability function RðtÞ, which is the probability that the system will still be
operational at time t is given by
RðtÞ ¼ PfT [ tg ¼ 1 FðtÞ ð4:127Þ

582 Z. Shen et al.
4.11.1.3 Structural Reliability
According to Chinese standard GB/T 3187 (Reliability and maintainability terms),

the reliability of a structure is its ability to fulfill its design purpose for some
specified time.
4.11.2 Types of In-Service Damage
To analyze the rate of occurrence of in-service damage to composite structures,

potential mechanical impact and types of in-service damage should be categorized.
Depending on the projectile speed (V), mechanical impacts causing damage in
composites may be subdivided into low-speed (V < 6–8 m/s) and mid-speed
(V < 30–200 m/s) phenomena.
Unlike metals, where impacts may be absorbed by plastic deformation, polymer
composites fail as brittle materials. Therefore, low- and mid-speed impacts cause
damage to a composite skin which may be categorized as follows:
① Surface damage, scratches, and fracture notches. Such damage has a
negligible effect on the load-bearing capabilities of a structure and may
be neglected in analyses.
② Delamination followed by matrix cracking and fiber failure. This damage
occurs inside the composite layer. The external skin surface may feature
indentation. Delamination may be categorized as: internal delamination,
visually undetectable at both skin surfaces, which may be followed by
matrix cracking at the face opposite to the impacted surface; delamina-
tion visually detectable at the external skin surface, with respect to the
impact surface.
③ Through damage cracks and punctures. In this case, the damaged area
will feature failure of layers through the thickness of the composite.
Through damage may be characterized as either clean holes or other
damaged material. Puncture edges usually show delamination and
cracking.
Damage types 2 and 3 may considerably reduce the load-bearing capability of a
structure and must be accounted for in analyses.
4.11.3 Random Variables
Variables that need to be considered in the stiffness reduction model can be clas-
sified into three categories:
① Material parameters, which include strength of the undamaged laminate,

fracture toughness of the material system, laminate thickness, and lam-
inate layer pattern.
② Structural parameters, which include boundary conditions and sub-
structural configurations.
③ Impact threat parameters, which include impact energy and impactor
size. The model assumes that the severity of stiffness reduction, for a
given material system and impact condition, depend on the impact
energy.
In considering the structural integrity of a structural component containing
damage, potential random variables should be accounted for including the number
of damage sites, damage size, time to detection/repair of damage, load, and strength
properties. The effectiveness of inspections is another potential random variable.
The effectiveness of an inspection can be characterized by the probability of
damage detection distribution. In total, nine random variables are considered:
① Number of damages sites per life, for each type of damage;
② Time of damage initiation;
③ Damage size, for each type of damage;
④ Time from damage initiation to repair, i.e., a random function of damage
size and damage initiation;
⑤ Initial failure load, for each load case;
⑥ Residual strength of damaged structure for each type of damage and
each load case;
⑦ Failure load of repaired structure, for each type of damage;
⑧ Structural load for each load case;
⑨ Structural temperatures at the sites when maximum external loads occur.
4.11.4 Impact Threat Distribution
At the beginning of advanced certification methodology for composite structures,

no detailed data existed on the actual impact threat encountered by in-service
composite structures. Consequently, some scenarios for impact threat distributions
were developed. The impact threat scenarios clearly depend on the location of the
structure and its structural configuration. To establish realistic impact damage
requirements, a structural zoning procedure is used to categorize the structure. On
the basis of available date, the impact threat can be tentatively divided into three
levels — high, medium, and low. The probabilistic distributions of these impact
threats are discussed below [3, 47–52].
To quantify the different levels of impact threat, it is assumed that the probability
of a structure being exposed to a given impact can be described by a two-parameter
Weibull distribution in terms of the impact energy. Instead of expressing the
584 Z. Shen et al.
distribution by the usual scale ðbÞ and shape ðaÞ parameters, the threat is charac-
terized by two impact energy levels. These are the model energy level associated
with a high possibility of occurrence ðXm Þ, and the high energy level associated
with a low probability of occurrence ðXP Þ: The relationships between the energy
parameters and the Weibull scale and shape parameters can be expressed by the
following two equations.

a 1 1=a
Xm ¼ b ð4:128Þ
a
and
XP ¼ b½ lnðPÞ1=a ð4:129Þ
where P is the probability of occurrence of the impact energy PðX [ XP Þ:

Combining Eqs. (4.128) and (4.129) gives:

Xm a 1 1=a
¼ ð4:130Þ
XP a lnðPÞ
Equation (4.130) is solved for a by iteration and b is then obtained from

Eq. (4.128). The Weibull distribution for the impact threat to a structure is then
defined from the obtained values of a and b.
The three scenarios of impact threats, denoted as high, medium and low, are
defined as shown in Table 4.47. The high threat distribution is considered to be a
conservative estimate of the impact threat to a structure. The medium threat is a
more realistic estimate of the impact damage threat for composite structures. The
table shows the computed Weibull parameters corresponding to these threats.
Figure 4.122 shows that all three assumed threat scenarios are conservative com-
pared with the MCAIR in-service survey results.
Table 4.47 Impact threat scenarios

High Medium Low MCAIR Data
threat threat threat fitting
Modal energy 15 6 4 1
Xm(1.36 J)
XP(1.36 J) 100 100 100 35
P(X > XP) 0.1 0.01 0.0001 0.00005
a 1.264 1.192 1.221 1.177
b 57.7 27.8 16.2 4.992
4.11.5 Cases and Solution Steps
In this section, four cases will be introduced as follows:

(1) Case one
Calculate the structure reliability R at a given applied stress and impact energy as
shown in Fig. 4.123.
(2) Case two
Establish the relation between the reliability R and impact energy E as shown in
Fig. 4.124.
(3) Case three
at a given stress
Calculate the cumulative damage tolerance strength reliability R
and impact threat as shown in Fig. 4.125.
(4) Case Four
Establish the relationship between stress and cumulative damage tolerance
strength reliability as shown in Fig. 4.126.
Fig. 4.122 Impact threat distributions
Fig. 4.123 Inference theory

586 Z. Shen et al.
Fig. 4.124 Relation between the reliability R and impact energy E

Fig. 4.125 Cumulative damage tolerance strength reliability R
Fig. 4.126 Relation between Stress and Cumulative Damage Tolerance Strength Reliability
(In the Chapter, 4.1–4.6 and 4.9 were translated by Jianmao Tang; 4.7 was
translated by Jiahui Xie.)
(4.1–4.6 and 4.9 were translated by Jianmao Tang, 4.7 was translated by Jiahui
Xie.)
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What are some applications of advanced composite materials discussed in the text?

What are some applications of advanced composite materials discussed in the text?

What programs were implemented in the USA in the 1970s to promote confidence in composite technologies for civil aerospace applications?

What programs were implemented in the USA in the 1970s to promote confidence in composite technologies for civil aerospace applications?

Chapter 4

Composite Structure Design and Analysis

Zhen Shen, Xianxin Tong, Naibin Yang, Mingjiu Xie,

The term advanced composite materials is given to an innovative range of materials

Z. Shen (&) X. Tong M. Xie Y. Li

ships. Applications of composite began in aerospace structures. Hence, resources

4.1.2 Applications of Advanced Composite Materials

4.1.3 Properties of Advanced Composite Materials

4.1.3.1 Structural Performance

Table 4.1 Comparison between composite and metal materials

(3) Damage, fracture, and fatigue behavior

Table 4.2 Comparison of factors affecting fatigue and damage tolerance

② Notch sensitivity: Generally, metals possess a yielding stage; however,

(5) Electrical Conductivity

4.1.3.2 Structure Design and Processing

4.1.4 Overview of Composite Structure Design

4.1.4.1 Design Essentials

According to speciﬁcations for composites in military or civil airplanes applica-

(2) Determination of design allowables

4.1.4.2 Affordability of Composite Structures in Low-Cost Design

Although composites can satisfy the high-performance requirements of aircraft

4.2 Requirements of Structure Design

4.2.1 General Requirements of Structure Design

The following requirements should be satisﬁed in composite structure design, in

4.2.2 Requirements of Military Aircraft Structure Design

4.2.2.1 Static Strength

(1) General requirements

stone sizes. The majority of stones that will likely be encountered by

(a) Use of corrosion-resistant edge protection, such as co-cured metal edge

4.2.2.3 Damage Tolerance

When structures are not exposed to external impact or under threat of

Table 4.5 Initial defect assumption

4.2.3 Requirements for Civil Aircraft Structure Design

4.2.3.1 Advisory Circular AC 20-107A “Composite Structure”

⑥ The effects of temperature, humidity, and other environmental fac-

4.2.3.2 Differences from Military Aircraft Requirement

(1) Residual strength level

4.2.3.3 AC20-107A Conformity Requirements

(1) Static strength [1–6]

Fig. 4.1 Flowchart of composite structure static strength veriﬁcation

Fig. 4.2 Flowchart of composite structure damage tolerance veriﬁcation

4.3 Material Selection in Structure Design and Structural

4.3.1 Principles of Structural Material Selection

4.3.1.1 General Principles

① We should prefer materials with adequately characterized performance,

(c) Open-hole tensile and compression strength, and joining

4.3.1.2 Property Data Sources

4.3.1.3 Evaluation of Replacement Materials

Fig. 4.3 Material selection (a)

4.3.2 Environmental Effects of Material Performances

The properties of composite materials are resin matrix-dominated and sensitive to

4.3.3 Selection and Use of Matrices and Fibers

Resin matrices have an important influence on mechanical properties of composites.

4.3.4 Structural Processing Ability

Table 4.7 Evaluation of different ﬁbers

e1 Xte ¼ Xt =E1 je1 j Xce ¼ Xc =E1