Unit-Three

Social system and social stratification, social and cultural change in Nepal, of
social and cultural change in Nepal, caste ethnicity based stratification, gender
based stratification, religion based stratification ecological based stratification,
national integration: Historical process of national hood, cultural integration (
Language, ritual and customs)

Social system
The term ‘system’ implies an orderly arrangement, an interrelationship of parts. In
the arrangement, every part has a fixed place and definite role to play. The parts
are bound by interaction. To understand the functioning of a system, for example
the human body, one has to analyse and identify the sub-systems (e.g. circulatory,
nervous, digestive, excretionary systems etc.) and understand how these various
subsystems enter into specific relations in the fulfillment of the organic function of
the body.

Likewise, society may be viewed as a system of interrelated mutually dependent

parts which cooperate to preserve a recognisable whole and to satisfy some
purposes or goal. Social system may be described as an arrangement of social
interactions based on shared norms and values. Individuals constitute it and each
has place and function to perform within it.

Meaning of Social System:

It is Talcott Parsons who has given the concept of ‘system’ current in modern
sociology. Social system refers to’ an orderly arrangement, an inter relationships of
parts. In the arrangement, every part has a fixed place and definite role to play. The
parts are bound by interaction. System signifies, thus, patterned relationship among
constituent parts of a structure which is based on functional relations and which
makes these parts active and binds them into reality.
Society is a system of usages, authority and mutuality based on “We” felling and
likeness. Differences within the society are not excluded. These are, however,
subordinated to likeness. Inter-dependence and cooperation are its basis. It is
bound by reciprocal awareness. It is essentially a pattern for imparting the social
behaviour.

It consists in mutual inter action and interrelation of individuals and of the

structure formed by their relations. It is not time bound. It is different from an
aggregate of people and community. According to Lapiere, “The term society
refers not to group of people, but to the complex pattern of the norms of inter
action that arises among and between them.”

Applying these conclusions to society, social system may be described as an

arrangement of social interactions based on shared norms and values. Individuals
constitute it, and each has place and function to perform within it. In the process,
one influences the other; groups are formed and they gain influence, numerous
subgroup come into existence.

But all of these are coherent. They function as a whole. Neither individual, nor the
group can function in isolation. They are bound in oneness, by norms and values,
culture and shared behaviour. The pattern that thus comes into existence becomes
the social system.

A social system may be defined, after Parsons, a plurality of social actors who are
engaged in more or less stable interaction “according to shared cultural norms and
meanings” Individuals constitute the basic interaction units. But the interacting
units may be groups or organisation of individuals within the system.
The social system, according to Charles P. Loomis, is composed of the patterned
interaction of visual actors whose’ relation to each other are mutually oriented
through the definition of the mediation of pattern of structured and shared symbols
and expectations.

All social organisations are, therefore, ‘social system’, since they consist of
interacting individuals. In the social system each of the interacting individual has
function or role to perform in terms of the status he occupies in the system. For
example, in the family parents, sons and daughters are required to perform certain
socially recognised functions or roles.

Similarly, social organisations function within the frame work of a normative

pattern. Thus, a social system presupposes a social structure consisting of different
parts which are interrelated in such a way as to perform its functions.

Social system is a comprehensive arrangement. It takes its orbit all the diverse
subsystems such as the economic, political, religious and others and their
interrelation too. Social systems are bound by environment such as geography.
And this differentiates one system from another.

Characteristics of Social System:

Social system has certain characteristics. These characteristics are as follows:
1. System is connected with the plurality of Individual actors:
It means that a system or social system cannot be borne as a result of the activity of
one individual. It is the result of the activities of various individuals. For system, or
social system, interaction of several individuals has to be there.

2. Aim and Object:

Human interactions or activities of the individual actors should not be aimless or
without object. These activities have to be according to certain aims and objects.
The expression of different social relations borne as a result of human interaction.

3. Order and Pattern amongst various Constituent Units:

Mere coming together of various constituent units that from social system does not
necessarily create a social system. It has to be according to a pattern, arrangement
and order. The underlined unity amongst various constituent units brings about
‘social system’.

4. Functional Relationship is the Basis of Unity:

We have already seen different constituent units have a unity in order to form a
system. This unity is based on functional relations. As a result of functional
relationships between different constituent units an integrated whole is created and
this is known as social system.

5. Physical or Environmental Aspect of Social System:

It means that every social system is connected with a definite geographical area or
place, time, society etc. In other words it means that social system is not the same
at different times, at different place and under different circumstances. This
characteristic of the social system again point out towards its dynamic or
changeable nature.

6. Linked with Cultural System:

Social system is also linked with cultural system. It means that cultural system
bring about unity amongst different members of the society on the basis of
cultures, traditions, religions etc.

7. Expressed and implied Aims and Objects:

Social system is also linked with expressed and implied aims. In other words, it
means that social system is the coming together of different individual actors who
are motivated by their aims and objectives and their needs.

8. Characteristics of Adjustment:
Social system has the characteristic of adjustment. It is a dynamic phenomenon
which is influenced by the changes caused in the social form. We have also seen
that the social system is influenced by the aims, objects and the needs of the
society. It means that the social system shall be relevant only if it changes itself
according to the changed objects and needs. It has been seen that change takes
place in the social system due to human needs, environment and historical
conditions and phenomena.

9. Order, Pattern and Balance:

Social system has the characteristics of pattern, order and balance. Social system is
not an integrated whole but putting together of different units. This coming
together does not take place in a random and haphazard manner. There is an order
am’ balance.

It is so because different units of the society do not work as independent units but
they do not exist in a vacuum but in a socio-cultural pattern. In the pattern different
units have different functions and roles. It means that there is a pattern and order in
the social system.

“Social stratification: meaning, types, and characteristics”

In all societies people differ from each other on the basis of their age, sex and
personal characteristics. Human society is not homogeneous but heterogeneous.
Apart from the natural differences, human beings are also differentiated according
to socially approved criteria.
So socially differentiated men are treated as socially unequal from the point of
view of enjoyment of social rewards like status, power, income etc. That may be
called social inequality. The term social inequality simply refers to the existence of
socially created inequalities.

Meanings:
Social stratification is a particular form of social inequality. All societies arrange
their members in terms of superiority, inferiority and equality. Stratification is a
process of interaction or differentiation whereby some people come to rank higher
than others.

In one word, when individuals and groups are ranked, according to some
commonly accepted basis of valuation in a hierarchy of status levels based upon
the inequality of social positions, social stratification occurs. Social stratification
means division of society into different strata or layers. It involves a hierarchy of
social groups. Members of a particular layer have a common identity. They have a
similar life style.

The Indian Caste system provides an example of stratification system. The society
in which divisions of social classes exist is known as a stratified society. Modern
stratification fundamentally differs from stratification of primitive societies. Social
stratification involves two phenomena (i) differentiation of individuals or groups
on the basis of possession of certain characteristics whereby some individuals or
groups come to rank higher than others, (ii) the ranking of individuals according to
some basis of evaluation.

Sociologists are concerned not merely with the facts of social differences but also
with their social evaluation.
Definitions:
1. Ogburn and Nimkoff:
‘The process by which individuals and groups are ranked in more or less enduring
hierarchy of status is known as stratification”

2. Lundberg:
“A stratified society is one marked by inequality, by differences among people that
are evaluated by them as being “lower” and “higher”.

3. Gisbert:
“Social stratification is the division of society into permanent groups of categories
linked with each other by the relationship of superiority and subordinations”.

4. Williams:

Social Stratification refers to “The ranking of individuals on a scale of superiority-

inferiority-equality, according to some commonly accepted basis of valuation.

5. Raymond W. Murray:
Social stratification is horizontal division of society into “higher” and “lower”
social units.”

6. Melvin M Tumin:
“Social stratification refers to “arrangement of any social group or society into
hierarchy of positions that are unequal with regard to power, property, social
evaluation and psychic gratification”.

Origin of Stratification:
Regarding the origin of stratification many views have been given.
(i) According to Davis, social stratification has come into being due to the
functional necessity of the social system.

(ii) Professor Sorokin attributed social stratification mainly to inherited difference

in environmental conditions.

(iii) According to Karl Mrax, social factors are responsible for the emergence of
different social strata, i.e. social stratification.

(iv) Gumplowioz and other contended that the origin of social stratification is to be
found in the conquest of one group by another.

(v) According to Spengler, social stratification is founded upon scarcity which is

created whenever society differentiates positive in terms of functions and powers.

(vi) Racial differences accompanied by dissimilarity also leads to stratification.

Types of Social Stratification:

Social stratification is based upon a variety of principles. So we find different type
of stratification.

The major types of stratification are

(i) Caste

(ii) Class

(iii) Estate

(iv) Slavery
(i) Caste is a hereditary endogamous social group in which a person’s rank and its
accompanying rights and obligations are ascribed on the basis of his birth into a
particular group. For example-Brahmins, Kshyatryas, Vaishyas and Sudra Caste.

(ii) Class-Stratification on the basis of class is dominant in modern society. In this,

a person’s position depends to a very great extent upon achievement and his ability
to use to advantage the inborn characteristics and wealth that he may possess.

(iii) Estate system of medieval Europe provides another system of stratification

which gave much emphasis to birth as well as to wealth and possessions. Each
estate had a state.

(iv) Slavery had economic basis. In slavery, every slave had his master to whom he
was subjected. The master’s power over the slave was unlimited.

Characteristics of Social Stratification:

On the basis of the analysis of the different definitions given by eminent scholars,
social stratification may have the following characteristics.

(a) Social stratification is universal:

There is no society on this world which is free from stratification. Modern
stratification differs from stratification of primitive societies. It is a worldwide
phenomenon. According to Sorokin “all permanently organized groups are
stratified.”

(b) Stratification is social:

It is true that biological qualities do not determine one’s superiority and inferiority.
Factors like age, sex, intelligence as well as strength often contribute as the basis
on which statues are distinguished. But one’s education, property, power,
experience, character, personality etc. are found to be more important than
biological qualities. Hence, stratification is social by nature.

(c) It is ancient:
Stratification system is very old. It was present even in the small wondering bonds.
In almost all the ancient civilizations, the differences between the rich and poor,
humble andpowerful existed. During the period of Plato and Kautilya even
emphasis was given to political, social and economic inequalities.

(d) It is in diverse forms:

The forms of stratification is not uniform in all the societies. In the modern world
class, caste and estate are the general forms of stratification. In India a special type
of stratification in the form of caste is found. The ancient Aryas were divided into
four varnas: the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Sudras. The ancient Greeks
were divided into freemen and slaves and the ancient Romans were divided into
the particians and the plebians. So every society, past or present, big or small is
characterized by diversed forms of social stratification.

(e) Social stratification is Consequential:

Social stratification has two important consequences one is “life chances” and the
other one is “life style”. A class system not only affects the “life- chances” of the
individuals but also their “life style”.

The members of a class have similar social chances but the social chances vary in
every society. It includes chances of survival and of good physical and mental
health, opportunities for education, chances of obtaining justice, marital conflict,
separation and divorce etc.
Life style denotes a style of life which is distinctive of a particular social status.
Life-styles include such matters like the residential areas in every community
which have gradations of prestige-ranking, mode of housing, means of recreation,
the kinds of dress, the kinds of books, TV shows to which one is exposed and so
on. Life-style may be viewed as a sub-culture in which one stratum differs from
another within the frame work of a commonly shared over-all culture.

Social Stratification and Social Mobility:

Social mobility refers to the movement within the social structure, from one social
position to another. It means a change in social status. All societies provide some
opportunity for social mobility. But the societies differ from each other to extent in
which individuals can move from one class or status level to another.

It is said that the greater the amount of social mobility, the more open the class
structure. The concept of social mobility has fundamental importance in
ascertaining the relative “openness” of a social structure. The nature, forms,
direction and magnitude of social mobility depends on the nature and types of
social stratification. Sociologists study social mobility in order to find out the
relative ‘openness’ of a social structure.

Any group that improves its standard will also improve its social status. But the
rate of social mobility is not uniform in all the countries. It differs from society to
society from time to time. In India the rate of mobility is naturally low because of
agriculture being the predominant occupation and the continuity of caste system as
compared to the other countries of the world.

Types of Social Mobility:

In social stratification the movement occurs in three directions.
(a) From lower to higher

(b) From higher to lower

(c) Between two positions at the same level.

Social mobility is of two types:

(i) Vertical mobility

(ii) Horizontal mobility

(i) Vertical mobility:

It refers to the movement of people from one stratum to another or from one status
to another. It brings changes in class, occupation and power. It involves movement
fromlower to higher or higher to lower. There are two types of vertical mobility.
One is upward and other is downward mobility.

When an individual moves from lower status to higher status, it is called upward
mobility. For example, if the son of a peon joins a bank as an officer, it is said to
be upward social mobility but if he loses the job due to any other reason or
inefficiency, he is downwardly mobile from his previous job. So downward
mobility takes place when a person moves down from one position to another and
change his status.
(ii) Horizontal Mobility:
It refers to the movement of people from one social group to another situated on
the same level. It means that the ranks of these two groups are not different. It
indicates change in position without the change in status. For example, if a teacher
leaves one school and joins another school or a bank officer leaves one branch to
work in another or change of residence are the horizontal mobility.

Horizontal mobility

Apart from the above two broad types of social stratification, there are two other
types of social stratification in terms of dimension of time. They are:

(i) Inter-generational mobility:

When changes in status occur from one generation to another, it is called
intergenerational mobility. For example, if the son changes his status either by
taking upon occupation of higher or lower rank with that of his father, there inter-
generational mobility takes place.

(ii) Intra-generational mobility:

When changes in status occur within one generation, it is called intra-generational
mobility. For example, the rise and fall in the occupational structure of a family
which leads to change in its social status within one generation is called intra-
generational mobility.

Stratification and Caste:

Under the caste system status is hereditary. It is based on birth, it is purely an
ascribed status. Once such positions are assigned, they can not advance and
improve their social status in any way. Hence, caste as a major type of social
stratification does not facilitate vertical social mobility.

Social Stratification and Class:

Class is an “open” system. Under this system vertical mobility is absolutely free.
Movement from one status to another has no barrier. Status is based on
achievement. It is determined by the talents, wealth, money, intelligence, power,
education, income, etc. of a person. There is no inheritance of parental status.

Gender:
Like caste and class gender is another kind of social stratification system. Gender,
perhaps is the oldest and permanent source of social differentiation. But within the
broad hierarchy of caste and class, gender cuts across caste and class. In present
day Indian society caste, class and gender are dynamic phenomena which vary
between groups, communities and regions. Recent years have witnessed a thorough
and widespread discussion on gender. It has claimed critical address within ender
as a concept and as a set of practices has occurred during the last three decades.

The origin of the concept gender can be traced to the 19th century women’s
movement and in Marxism. But it seems to have first appeared among American
Feminists who wanted to reject biological determinism. Feminists prefer the term
gender than sex.

But the term gender means much more than sex and more inclusive than sex. It is a
socially constructed category rather than biologically determined. The gender of a
man is masculine and a woman is feminine. Neither a man nor a woman is sex
alone. Gender refers to the socially constructed and culturally determined role that
men and women play in their day-to-day lives. Gender is the most potent
significant and enormously useful analytical concept used by the feminists.

It is a matter of social ascription, a socio-cultural construction and provided a

deeper analysis of inequalities existing between male and female. It refers to the
social institutionalization of sexual difference. In feminist literature gender is not a
value free concept rather a value loaded term and has acquired new dimensions. It
is a conceptual tool for analysis and is used to highlight different structural
relationships of inequality between men and women. As a socially constructed
differences and relations between males and females it very from time to time and
from place to place.

Gender is defined as the social construction of relations between women and men
and among various groups of women and men. Feminist consider gender as the
socio-cultural manifestation of being a man or a woman.

(1) According to N. Kabeer “Gender is seen as the process by which individuals

who are born into biological categories of male or female become the social
categories of men and women through the acquisition of locally defined attributes
of masculinity and feminity.”

(2) According to A. Masefield—”Gender can be defined as a notion that offers a

set of frameworks within which the social and ideological construction and
representation of differences between sexes are explained.”

(3) According to ILO, “Gender refers to the social differences and relations
between men and women, which are learned, which vary widely among societies
and cultures and change over time.”
Thus, gender involves power structure and economic relationships. It is used to
analyze the role, responsibilities, constraints, needs of men and women in all areas.
It encompasses the social division and cultural distinctions between women and
men. It plays an important role in shaping institutions and practices in every
society.

Gender and Sex:

The term gender does not replace the term sex. It is necessary to distinguish
between sex and gender. The distinction between sex and gender is fundamental,
since many differences between males and females are not biological in origin. Sex
refers to the physical differences of body where as gender refers to social, cultural
and psychological differences between males and females.

Sex refers to biological differences between male and female which are much more
the same over time and space where as gender refers to socially and culturally
constructed differences and relations between males and females which vary from
place to place and from time to time. Sex refers to male and female where as
gender refers to masculinity and feminity. Gender is a structural feature of a
society.

As explained and defined by Uwe Kievelitz (has presented a paper at a seminar on

Ethnicity and Nation-Building), ethnicity is a collective identity formation. It is
such group identity formation which refers to relationships between groups- above
the family level- which consider themselves, or are considered,
as culturally distinctive from other groups with whom they have minimum of
interaction. He, again, argues that such ethnic groups can be defined as
endogamous collectivities which follow a distinctive identity through selected
traditions.

Origin of the word ‘Ethnicity’ and emergence of its Application

The term ‘ethnicity’ first appeared in the 1950s in the English language and it is
first recorded in a dictionary in the Oxford English Dictionary of 1953. However,
the term is a derivative of the much older term and more commonly used adjective
‘ethnic’, which in the English language goes back to the Middle Ages. The English
adjective ‘ethnic’ in turn derives from the ancient Greek term ethnos and it was
used as a synonym of gentile, that is, non-Christian and non-Jewish pagan in New
Testament Greek. As the English language has no concrete noun for ethnos or
ethnie, the French term is used here to denote an ‘ethnic community’ or ‘ethnic
group’.
Erikson has pointed out the characteristics of ethnicity which are common to
the Nationalismare given below:
1. Ethnicity is social process and social relations rather than static cultural
phenomena.
2. It is based on the idea of fictive kinship between the members of the
respective group (ethnic group).
3. It is the creation of such relations through everyday interactions.
4. Ethnicity is significantly based on the postulate of
unity and homogeneity and common belief in shared culture and origins
as the basis for the collectivity.
5. Ethnicity is the relational concept, including the drawing of clear boundaries,
i.e., a cognitive division between a homogenous ‘us’ and a differentiated
‘them’.
6. The concept relates to forms of social organization and active social
construction which means that the phenomenon is not ‘natural’, but created
by social groups.
7. The form of social organization has effects on people’s consciousness in as
much as they produce a sense of ‘difference’ with regard to certain others.

Ethnicity in Nepal:
Nepal exhibits a complex case of ethnicity. The following attributes are more
considerable to mention for the Nepalese ethnic phenomenon.

1. It is a multiethnic state which can be differentiated on linguistic and ethnic

grounds.
 2. The country exhibits, like Britain and other European countries, a
combination of dynastic principles of social organization with emerging
ethnic and nationalist ideologies.
3. Its limited natural and political resources are quite unequally divided between
different collectivities of people.
4. Ethnicity has been based upon the practice of under representation and severe
social discrimination.
5. Ethnicity has greatly been the concern of seeking of social and political right
in Nepal. And it has taken the shape of political conflict and political identity.
6. The social reality is that the ethnic groups as developed due to ethnicity, a
process of forming collective identity, has been greatly dominated by main
stream groups- Brahman, chhetry and thakuri- in various aspects of socio-
political life.
7. Ethnicity and state restructuring have been the hot concern or agenda in the
socio-political aspects in the aftermath of second Jana Andolan in Nepal.
More importantly, the issue is closely connected with federalism,

Gender based stratification

The word gender is being used sociologically and has been one of the major
agendas of discourse, including the socio-political, intellectual and disciplinary
discussion and debates. In Nepal, it has been the hot issue before and after the
2nd Jana Andolan. Gender issues likewoman’s violence, the concern of property
right, the question of proportionate representative in NGOs and GOs, attitudes and
belief system towards woman, religious and cultural based discrimination, etc. are
making the hot debate among the various group of people, including political
parties, feminists, social worker, etc.
Meaning:
According to Kamala Bhasin, an Indian scholar and feminist, defined gender as- in
its new incarnation gender refers to the socio-cultural definition of man and
woman, the way societies distinguish man and woman and assign them social
roles.
Whereas sex is the biological predisposition of man and woman, gender is the
socio- cultural and political manifestation of man and woman. As elsewhere,
gender is the key locus of the cultural structure in Nepal. The construction of
gender and gender relations may very from society to society in terms of age, life
related positions within family, caste, ethnicity, class, region, etc. Gender based
discrimination is highly experienced with the patrilineality and patrilocality which
contribute to an extremely unequal level of life opportunities between man and
woman.

How the gender based discrimination is expressed?

1. The high rituals and other values (especially, Hindu based rituals in Nepal)
attached to son as against daughters make emphasis on gender specific
socialization.

2. Highly gender based access to household productive resources, income and

household decision making and schooling are the issues greatly discussed and
these are the specific concern of gender based discrimination in Nepal.

Unpaid economic participation, unequal access to public decision making

structures and low public facilities, a

Barriers and mal practices to gender equity and gender based Relation in
Nepal
• Patriarchal society- That means the authority of family and society lie on
male head of the family.
• Patrilineal Society- That means descent and property transforms from male
head of family to offspring
• Belief, Values and norms are as against to woman’s welfare and justice-
Chaupadi and Dewaki in far western region of Nepal, for instance, provide
evidence of how woman’s dignity , justice and their basic right are threatened
and violated
• Non sense practices prevailing in society- The popular non-sense practices
like witchcrafts and dowry system in many parts of Nepal, especially in the
middle Terai, are as against the practices of woman’s justice and welfare.
• Category of work and burden- Women in developing countries like ours have
to shoulder 3 burdens at a time- reproduction, house hold chores and outside
work (in underdeveloped societies reproduction is taken as burden, since
many of the women can not get proper care and health facilities during the
gestation period and in the post delivery period).
 • Lack of implementation of woman related law- Due to the deeply rooted
social values, woman’s law like property right bill and abortion bill are not
being effectively implemented.
• Domestic violence and sexual abuses- Domestic violence is on increasing and
sexual abuses are rampant. But the law related to these problems are either
not effective or are ambiguous in meaning and interpretation, giving the
defendant or culprit more chances to get free.
• Religion and social beliefs- Some religions like Hindu and Islam, in its
extreme form, are barriers for the uplift and equity of women (many aspects
mentioned in their religious books are against the welfare of woman)
• Maternal mortality rate- As compared to other SAARC countries and
developed countries, the maternal and neo-natal mortality rate in Nepal is
high. It is due to the lack of proper health care and health facilities provided
to the many of rural women in Nepal.
Some Efforts on the Part of Government and Non-Government Body
• Resolution of Property right and abortion bill by the parliament
• Ensuring the proportionate reprehensive of women in governmental body
by mentioning it in the interim constitution of Nepal
• Proportionate representative of women in constitution assembly.
• Various awareness and advocacy program launched by number of woman
related NGos/INGos like WOREC.
• Woman’s organization under different political parties for the cause of
woman’s right and gender equity (though very few political parties’ sister
organization are active and strong in this regard)
• Beijing conference (an International conference for right of woman) held
in Beijing in 1995.(See website for some detail).
• March 8, being celebrated world wide to commemorate for the liberation
of labor women and ensuring of their right (for the commemoration o
woman’s movement launched years back, please see website to know some
detail)
• Received voting right in America and UK due to their movement years
back among others, are the manifestation of this disparity.

Social Stratification
Meaning:
Men have long dreamed of an egalitarian society, a society in which all members
are equal. Obviously the egalitarian society remains as dream. The term social
inequality, here, refers to the existence of socially created inequalities. Social
stratification is a particular form of social inequality. It refers to the presence of a
social groups which are ranked one above the other, usually in terms of the
amount of power, prestige and wealth their members possess. Those who belong
to a particular group or stratum have some awareness of common interest and
common identity. They share a similar life style and on the basis of which they are
distinguished from members of other social strata. The Nepalese caste system is
the example of social stratification system.
Definition:
Ogburn and Nimkoff defines social stratification as, “The process by which
individuals and groups are ranked in a more or less enduring hierarchy of status.”

Social Class
Social class has been a principal type of stratification since the emergence of class

based society, especially with the end of primitive communism in the evolutionary

Process of society which was explained and analyzed by Karl Marx and Engles in
the later part of the 19th century. The term, therefore, has taken an important place
in sociological literature.
Scholarly Analysis
1. Aristotle, an ancient philosopher, explained about two millennia ago that
population tented to be divided into three groups: the very rich, the very poor, and
those in between.
2. Adam Smith, an economist and social scientist, divided society into those
who live on the rent of the land, wages of labor, and the profits of trade.
3. Thorstein Veblen divided society into the workers, who struggle for
subsistence, and leisure class so wealthy that its main concern is “conspicuous
consumption” to show how rich they are.
4. Karl Marx, a champion in class based society and class conflict analysis
divided society into wage worker (he termed it as proletariat), capitalists (the
bourgeoisie), and middle group (the petty bourgeoisie).
5. Similarly, Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1937 gave a vivid picture of lower- class
life.

Definition
Horton and Hunt, the authors of the work, ‘Sociology’, defines social class as,
“a stratum of people of similar position in the social status continuum.”
Marx attempted to reduce all forms of inequality to economic class and argued
that classes formed the only significant social groups in society.
Max Weber’s analysis, a deviation from Marx’s analysis, is on the importance of
status groups. The fact is that in certain situations status rather than class provides
the basis for the formation of social groups whose members perceive common
interest and group identity.
Moreover, like Marx and Weber, many modern sociologists use economic factors
as the basic criteria for differentiating social classes. In this regard, the British
sociologist Anthony Giddens identifies three major classes in advanced capitalist
society. They are: an upper class based on the ‘ownership of property in the means
of production’, a middle class based on the ‘ possession of educational or
technical qualifications’ and a lower or working class based on the ‘ possession of
manual labor power’.
Nature and Characteristics of Social Class

C.N. Shankar Rao in his book ‘Sociology’ has described the characteristics of
social class, the important of which are given below:

1. Class is a status group: Class is related to status. Different statuses arise in a

society as people do different things, engage in different activities and pursue
different goals.
2. Mode of feeling: Class system exhibits three modes of feeling. They are: a
feeling of equality in relation to the members of one’s own class; a feeling of
inferiority in relation to those who occupy the higher status in the socio-
economic continuum; a feeling of superiority in relation to those who occupy
the lower status in the hierarchy.
3. Element of Prestige: Each social class has its own status in society. Status is
associated with prestige.
 4. Mode of living: A social class is distinguished from other classes by its
customary modes of behavior. This is mostly referred to as ‘life styles’ which
include such matters as the mode of dress, the kind of houses and neighbor on
lives in, the cultural products one enjoys, the kind of books, magazines and
TV shows to which one is exposed, one’s way of spending money and so on.
5. Social Class is an open group: An open class is one in which vertical
mobility is possible
6. Social class is an Economic Group: The basis of social class is mostly
economic.
7. Class consciousness: It is the consciousness which makes the members
of the same class aware on the socio-economic status of their own class. In
Marx’s analysis, class consciousness creates an atmosphere for the working class
people to seek their right go against the capitalist class in order to seize the power
for their own sake.
8. Class consciousness and Class struggle: Karl Marx laid great emphasis on
class consciousness among the working class and it leads to their class
identification, class solidarity and finally to class struggle.

What is Caste?
Caste and class are the two main forms of social stratification. However, the caste
system is greatly confined within Indian sub-continent, especially in Nepal and
India. Broadly speaking, the caste system, the joint family system and village life
are still the three basic pillars of Indian and Nepalese life, even after the Jana
Andolan II in Nepal. Caste is closely connected with Hindu philosophy and
religion. The philosophy of Hinduism has a greater influence over the various
aspects of the life of the people: customs and tradition, marriage and family,
morals and manners, food and dress habits, occupations and hobbies. Caste system
is immensely supported by rituals and ceremonies and it is believed to have had
a divine origin and sanction. More significantly, caste system is a barrier for social
mobility in caste ridden society. Social mobility, here, is the act of moving from
one social position to another, especially the class based position. An open
class society is one in which mobility high whereas a closed classsociety is one in
which there is little mobility. Caste system, in this regard, is closed society in
which people are confined to the occupations and statuses of their statuses of their
ancestors and it is the most extreme example of closed class society.
The origin of the Word Caste and System
The term ‘Caste’ is derived from Spanish word ‘casta’ meaning breed or ‘lineage’.
The Portuguese used the term caste first to denote the divisions in the Indian caste
system. The Sanskrit word for caste is Varna which means color. Color in the
original form caste signifies the basis of divisions along with occupation.
The origin of this caste system in Nepalese and Indian society relates with the
‘Chaturvarna’ system of Hindu philosophy. Chaturvarna doctrine explains the
Hindu society was divided into four main varnas, namely, Brahmins,
the kashtriyas, the Vaishyas and the Shudras. The Varna system which was
prevalent during Vedic period was mainly based on the division of occupation and
labor. The caste system, therefore, has its origin to the Varna system. The present
caste system is the modified form of the original.
Definitions
Maciver and Page argues that when status is wholly predetermined, so that men
are born to their lot in life without any hope of changing it, then class takes the
extreme form of caste. Quoting the Report of Indian Statutory Commission, they
mention, “Every Hindu necessarily belongs to the caste of his parents and in that
caste he inevitably remains. No accumulation of wealth and no exercise of talents
can alter his caste status; and marriage outside his caste is prohibited or severely
discouraged.”
C.H.Cooley defines caste as, “when a class is somewhat strictly hereditary, we
may call it a caste.”
D.N. Majumdar and T.N. Madan argued that caste is ‘closed group’
Social Stratification and Caste System
The social stratification is the particular form of social inequality. It refers to the
presence of social groups which are ranked one above other, usually in terms of
amount of power,prestige, and wealth their members possess. In this regard, the
Indian and the Nepalese caste system provide an example of social stratification.
Hindu society in traditional India was divided into five main strata: four Varnas or
castes, and a fifth group, the outcaste, whose members were known
as untouchables. The emergence of caste system in Nepalese society dates back to
ancient period when, the legendary says, Gopal dynasty accompanied with the lord
Krishna entered Kathmandu valley and imposed Hindu rules- regulations.
Historians argue that the Hindu Aryan entered Nepal at three different time
periods:
1. At 1st century A.D. through Kathmandu Valley,
2. At about 12th century A.D. through Karnali basin,
3. From 16th century onwards through different Nepal- India boarders,
especially to terai of Nepal.
All of these arrival of Hindu people has ensured the influence of Hinduism, so the
influence of Caste system. In a more concrete way and in a state level, the
king Jayasthiti Malla at around 14th century A.D. divided the then Newari society
into four castes and sixty four sub-castes. Later in the second part of the
19th century, in 1854 A.D., the then Rana Prime Minister Jang Bahadur Rana,
divided whole Nepalese society into four different castes in his promulgated legal
code. This later division has consolidated the Nepalese caste system and has sown
the seed of conflict among the people of privileged and underprivileged castes with
a deeply rooted casteism into Nepalese society.
Characteristics of Caste system
C.N. Shankar Rao in his work, ‘sociology’ has described the characteristics of
casteism. The important of which are given below:

1. Caste is taken as a hierarchical division of society. A sense of ‘highness’ and

‘lowness’ or ‘superiority’ and ‘inferiority’ is associated with caste ranking.
2. The caste system has imposed certain restrictions on food habits of the
members and they differ from caste to caste.
3. The caste system puts restriction on the range of social relations too. The
idea of ‘pollution’ and ‘purity’ have explained and defined the boundary of
social relations between different castes with the preordained touchability and
untouchability.
4. Social and religious disabilities of certain castes are clearly exhibited in the
orthodox caste system. Generally, the so called impure castes are forced to
live on the outskirts of the city or village.
5. Restriction on occupational choice is another feature of orthodox caste
system.
6. Caste system imposes restriction on marriage too. Endogamy is a rule of
marriage according to which an individual has to marry within his or her
group only.
Difference between caste and class
Following are the main differences between class and caste systems:
1. Castes are found in Indian sub-continent only, especially in India, while
classes are found almost everywhere. Classes are especially the
characteristic of industrial societies of Europe and America. According to
Dumont and Leach, caste is a unique phenomenon found only in India.
2. Classes depend mainly on economic differences between groupings of
individuals—inequalities in possession and control of material resources—
whereas in caste system non-economic factors such as influence of religion
[theory of karma, rebirth and ritual (purity-pollution)] are most important.
3. Unlike castes or other types of strata, classes are not established by legal
or religious provisions; membership is not based on inherited position as
specified either legally or by custom. On the other hand, the membership is
inherited in the caste system.
4. Class system is typically more fluid than the caste system or the other
types of stratification and the boundaries between classes are never clear-cut.
Caste system is static whereas the class system is dynamic.
5. In the class system, there are no formal restrictions on inter-dining and
inter-marriage between people from different classes as is found in the caste
system. Endogamy is the essence of caste system which is perpetuating it.
6. Social classes are based on the principle of achievement, i.e., on one’s
own efforts, not simply given at birth as is common in the caste system and
other types of stratification system. As such social mobility (movement
upwards and downwards) is much more common in the class structure than
in the caste system or in other types. In the caste system, individual mobility
from one caste to another is impossible.
7.This is why, castes are known as closed classes (D.N. Majumdar). It is a
closed system of stratification in which almost all sons end up in precisely
the same stratum their fathers occupied. The system of stratification in
which there is high rate of upward mobility, such as that in the Britain and
United States is known as open class system. The view that castes are closed
classes is not accepted by M.N. Srinivas (1962) and Andre Beteille (1965).
8. In the caste system and in other types of stratification system, inequalities
are expressed primarily in personal relationships of duty or obligation—
between lower- and higher-caste individuals, between serf and lord, between
slave and master. On the other hand, the nature of class system is
impersonal. Class system operates mainly through large-scale connections of
an impersonal kind.
9. Caste system is characterised by ‘cumulative inequality’ but class system
is characterised by ‘dispersed inequality.’
10. Caste system is an organic system but class has a segmentary character
where various segments are motivated by competition (Leach, 1960).
11. Caste works as an active political force in a village (Beteille, 1966) but
class does not work so.