Course: Citizenship Education and Community Engagement (8606)

Semester: Spring, 2021

ASSIGNMENT No. 1
Q.1 Explain the concept of social interaction. How can a teacher help in promoting social intteraction
among students?
Social structure, in sociology, the distinctive, stable arrangement of institutions whereby human beings in a
society interact and live together. Social structure is often treated together with the concept of social change,
which deals with the forces that change the social structure and the organization of society.
Although it is generally agreed that the term social structure refers to regularities in social life, its application is
inconsistent. For example, the term is sometimes wrongly applied when other concepts such as custom,
tradition, role, or norm would be more accurate.
Studies of social structure attempt to explain such matters as integration and trends in inequality. In the study of
these phenomena, sociologists analyze organizations, social categories (such as age groups), or rates (such as
of crime or birth). This approach, sometimes called formal sociology, does not refer directly to individual
behaviour or interpersonal interaction. Therefore, the study of social structure is not considered a behavioral
science; at this level, the analysis is too abstract. It is a step removed from the consideration of concrete human
behaviour, even though the phenomena studied in social structure result from humans responding to each other
and to their environments. Those who study social structure do, however, follow an empirical (observational)
approach to research, methodology, and epistemology.
Social structure is sometimes defined simply as patterned social relations—those regular and repetitive aspects
of the interactions between the members of a given social entity. Even on this descriptive level, the concept is
highly abstract: it selects only certain elements from ongoing social activities. The larger the social entity
considered, the more abstract the concept tends to be. For this reason, the social structure of a small group is
generally more closely related to the daily activities of its individual members than is the social structure of a
larger society. In the study of larger social groups, the problem of selection is acute: much depends on what is
included as components of the social structure. Various theories offer different solutions to this problem of
determining the primary characteristics of a social group. Before these different theoretical views can be
discussed, however, some remarks must be made on the general aspects of the social structure of any
society. Social life is structured along the dimensions of time and space. Specific social activities take place at
specific times, and time is divided into periods that are connected with the rhythms of social life—the routines
of the day, the month, and the year. Specific social activities are also organized at specific places; particular
places, for instance, are designated for such activities as working, worshiping, eating, and sleeping. Territorial
boundaries delineate these places and are defined by rules of property that determine the use and possession of
scarce goods. Additionally, in any society there is a more or less regular division of labour. Yet another
universal structural characteristic of human societies is the regulation of violence. All violence is a potentially
disruptive force; at the same time, it is a means of coercion and coordination of activities. Human beings have

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 Course: Citizenship Education and Community Engagement (8606)
Semester: Spring, 2021
formed political units, such as nations, within which the use of violence is strictly regulated and which, at the
same time, are organized for the use of violence against outside groups. Furthermore, in any society there are
arrangements within the structure for sexual reproduction and the care and education of the young. These
arrangements take the form partly of kinship and marriage relations. Finally, systems of
symbolic communication, particularly language, structure the interactions between the members of any society.
The term structure has been applied to human societies since the 19th century. Before that time, its use was
more common in other fields such as construction or biology.
Karl Marx used construction as a metaphor when he spoke of “the economic structure [Struktur] of society, the
real basis on which is erected a legal and political superstructure [Überbau] and to which definite forms of
social consciousness correspond.” Thus, according to Marx, the basic structure of society is economic, or
material, and this structure influences the rest of social life, which is defined as nonmaterial, spiritual, or
ideological.
The biological connotations of the term structure are evident in the work of British philosopher Herbert
Spencer. He and other social theorists of the 19th and early 20th centuries conceived of society as an
organism comprising interdependent parts that form a structure similar to the anatomy of a living body.
Although social scientists since Spencer and Marx have disagreed on the concept of social structure, their
definitions share common elements. In the most general way, social structure is identified by those features of a
social entity (a society or a group within a society) that persist over time, are interrelated, and influence both the
functioning of the entity as a whole and the activities of its individual members.
The origin of contemporary sociological references to social structure can be traced to Émile Durkheim, who
argued that parts of society are interdependent and that this interdependency imposes structure on the behaviour
of institutions and their members. In other words, Durkheim believed that individual human behaviour is shaped
by external forces. Similarly, American anthropologist George P. Murdock, in his book Social Structure (1949),
examined kinship systems in preliterate societies and used social structure as a taxonomic device for classifying,
comparing, and correlating various aspects of kinship systems.
Several ideas are implicit in the notion of social structure. First, human beings form social relations that are not
arbitrary and coincidental but exhibit some regularity and continuity. Second, social life is not chaotic and
formless but is, in fact, differentiated into certain groups, positions, and institutions that are interdependent or
functionally interrelated. Third, individual choices are shaped and circumscribed by the social environment,
because social groups, although constituted by the social activities of individuals, are not a direct result of the
wishes and intentions of the individual members. The notion of social structure implies, in other words, that
human beings are not completely free and autonomous in their choices and actions but are instead constrained
by the social world they inhabit and the social relations they form with one another. Within the broad
framework of these and other general features of human society, there is an enormous variety of social forms
between and within societies. Some social scientists use the concept of social structure as a device for creating

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 Course: Citizenship Education and Community Engagement (8606)
Semester: Spring, 2021
an order for the various aspects of social life. In other studies, the concept is of greater theoretical importance; it
is regarded as an explanatory concept, a key to the understanding of human social life. Several theories have
been developed to account for both the similarities and the varieties. In these theories, certain aspects of social
life are regarded as basic and, therefore, central components of the social structure. Some of the more prominent
of these theories are reviewed here.
Q. 2 Discuss the importance of cultural diversity in a society. Highlight the role of cultural diversity in
Pakistani Society.
When a child born in society he becomes the part of our society. Culture is the main aspect of any society that
teaches to live with a mutual corporation with each other. Culture is the social behavior of any society which
has their own trends and values. Every society has its own way of living life and lifestyle. Culture focus on the
knowledge of ethics, norms, traditions etc. The success of any culture is based on modern inventions of the
society. It plays a very important role in the development of the culture; both inter connected with each other.
Education teaches about the social and cultural values.
Education helps in the establishment of the schools, colleges, and universities. Education prepares the students
for deals with cultural ethics and norms. There are many institutes and best education sites in India, which are
focusing on culture development of education. Various elements of culture help the individual in adopting
natural and social environment in a positive way. Each person of the society has his or her own behavior attitude
qualities and mentality to perceive the world around. Education changes the perspective of the individual
toward different modes of community.
Purpose of Culture:
● Culture always being used at a wide range in any society by the group of different people.
● Culture always tell about to live the life happily without any fear.
● Culture progress when the time change and keep forward with the passage of the time.
● Culture always try to fulfill the needs of all people.
● Culture give equal chance and opportunities for all the member of the society.
Change in Culture:
Culture is the social change of any character in society. When the child is born in any society after his birth, he
learns the teachings of his parents and adopts it with the passage of time. Culture is transmitted from one
generation to another generation because a child always learns the behavior of their elders. Culture is one of the
most authentic that is learned in society.
Advancement of Culture Development:
After the advancement of modern inventions and technology, day-by-day new scientific methods are being used
in the transmission of culture. Being the part of culture people need machinery, good clothes, transport for going
one place to another.

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 Course: Citizenship Education and Community Engagement (8606)
Semester: Spring, 2021
Culture also includes art music, customs, values, and the old tradition of our elders. And because of this
advancement and invention, culture is changing and adopting new ideas to survive in the society. Culture also
increase the economy and growth of the country.
Important principles of group dynamics can be quite repetitive in nature if the establishment of a solid
differentiation does not exist. However, here is an in-depth analysis of the important principles of group
dynamics. Some of the most critical principles of group dynamics are as follows:
The Principle of Belongingness
An essential group dynamic is for the group members to have a strong sense of togetherness. Moreover, a group
will not be able to function to its fullest without the coordination and belongingness that the members feel.  It is
very important for the group members to feel like they belong to the right group.
Moreover, this feeling of belongingness is what drives the group to perform their best, in turn boosting the
group morale. Therefore, the principle of belongingness is a rather important principle of group dynamics.
The Principle of Perception
This principle focuses on the prestige of group members and how the group members perceive this prestige. It is
very similar to the principle of status. However, this principle of group dynamic states that the greater the
prestige, the greater is the influence.
In addition, the principle of perception throws light on the importance of group perception. Moreover, this
ensures coordination, a common direction and the successful completion of the objectives.
The Principle of Conformity
This principle of conformity states the importance of the group members to conform to the general group
norms. However, this principle is one of the most essential rules which is the most difficult to achieve.
The Principle of Change
The principle of change is one such important principles of group dynamics that state the significance of the
change. Every decision in a group is bound to change at a specific point in time.
A well-balanced and coordinated group would not suffer from this change. Moreover, this group dynamic
principle stresses the importance of handling a change well.
The Principle of Readjustment
This principle is a result of the principle of change. Due to changes made in a group, the group norms, the group
objectives or the group member delegation, readjustment of the entire group dynamics is crucial.
Therefore, this principle of readjustment emphasizes on the essentiality of readjusting the group dynamics after
implementing a change. The readjustment should be in sync with the achievement of the group goal.
The Principle of Common Motives
The main purpose behind the creation of groups is to aid the process of goal achievement. The group members
have a common motive which involves the successful attainment of the pre-determined goal. To know more
about the various aspects of group decision making, click here.

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 Course: Citizenship Education and Community Engagement (8606)
Semester: Spring, 2021
The Goal Orientation
Every group is created with the aim to achieve the goal with the help of their common motive. The primary
principle of the group is that they are goal oriented and focus all their activities towards the successful
completion of the task.
The Principle of Power
Being a part of a group can let a group member believe that they have powers vested in them. One of the more
critical principles of group dynamics is the existence of power among the group members.
The Continuous Process Principle
Last but not least, group functioning is a continuous process. This principle states that every group so formed
and every member who is a part of such a group is responsible for the continuous functioning of the same
group.
Groups adjourn only upon the completion of the task or the achievement of the goal. Until then, the principle of
the continuous process is widely applied to group dynamics.
Q. 3 Discuss the impact of institutional rules on the behavior of an individual.
When a child born in society he becomes the part of our society. Culture is the main aspect of any society that
teaches to live with a mutual corporation with each other. Culture is the social behavior of any society which
has their own trends and values. Every society has its own way of living life and lifestyle. Culture focus on the
knowledge of ethics, norms, traditions etc. The success of any culture is based on modern inventions of the
society. It plays a very important role in the development of the culture; both inter connected with each other.
Education teaches about the social and cultural values.
Education helps in the establishment of the schools, colleges, and universities. Education prepares the students
for deals with cultural ethics and norms. There are many institutes and best education sites in India, which are
focusing on culture development of education. Various elements of culture help the individual in adopting
natural and social environment in a positive way. Each person of the society has his or her own behavior attitude
qualities and mentality to perceive the world around. Education changes the perspective of the individual
toward different modes of community.
● Culture always being used at a wide range in any society by the group of different people.
● Culture always tell about to live the life happily without any fear.
● Culture progress when the time change and keep forward with the passage of the time.
● Culture always try to fulfill the needs of all people.
● Culture give equal chance and opportunities for all the member of the society.
Culture is the social change of any character in society. When the child is born in any society after his birth, he
learns the teachings of his parents and adopts it with the passage of time. Culture is transmitted from one
generation to another generation because a child always learns the behavior of their elders. Culture is one of the
most authentic that is learned in society. After the advancement of modern inventions and technology,

5
 Course: Citizenship Education and Community Engagement (8606)
Semester: Spring, 2021
day-by-day new scientific methods are being used in the transmission of culture. Being the part of culture
people need machinery, good clothes, transport for going one place to another.
Culture also includes art music, customs, values, and the old tradition of our elders. And because of this
advancement and invention, culture is changing and adopting new ideas to survive in the society. Culture also
increase the economy and growth of the country.
The term, “social institution” is somewhat unclear both in ordinary language and in the philosophical literature
(see below). However, contemporary sociology is somewhat more consistent in its use of the term. Typically,
contemporary sociologists use the term to refer to complex social forms that reproduce themselves such as
governments, the family, human languages, universities, hospitals, business corporations, and legal systems. A
typical definition is that proffered by Jonathan Turner (1997: 6): “a complex of positions, roles, norms and
values lodged in particular types of social structures and organising relatively stable patterns of human activity
with respect to fundamental problems in producing life-sustaining resources, in reproducing individuals, and in
sustaining viable societal structures within a given environment.” Again, Anthony Giddens (1984: 24) says:
“Institutions by definition are the more enduring features of social life.” He (Giddens 1984: 31) goes on to list
as institutional orders, modes of discourse, political institutions, economic institutions and legal institutions.
The contemporary philosopher of social science, Rom Harre follows the theoretical sociologists in offering this
kind of definition (Harre 1979: 98): “An institution was defined as an interlocking double-structure of
persons-as-role-holders or office-bearers and the like, and of social practices involving both expressive and
practical aims and outcomes.” He gives as examples (Harre 1979: 97) schools, shops, post offices, police forces,
asylums and the British monarchy. In this entry the above-noted contemporary sociological usage will be
followed. Doing so has the virtue of grounding philosophical theory in the most salient empirical discipline,
namely, sociology.
In the not so recent past it might have been asked why a theory of social institutions has, or ought to have, any
philosophical interest; why not simply leave theories of institutions to the theoretical sociologists? However, in
recent years philosophers have addressed a variety of ontological, explanatory, normative and other theoretical
issues concerning social institutions (Searle 1995, 2007 and 2010; Tuomela 2002; Miller 2010; Epstein 2015;
Guala 2016; Ludwig 2017). Of particular importance is the work of John Searle (1995; 2010). One source of the
impetus for this has been recent philosophical work on social action and social forms more generally (Gilbert
1989; Searle 1990); Tuomela 2007; Schmid 2009; Miller 2001; Bratman 2014; Tollefsen 2015; Ludwig 2016).
Another source is the recognition that a good deal of normative work on social justice, political philosophy and
the like presupposes an understanding of social institutions. For instance, philosophers, such as John Rawls
(1972), have developed elaborate normative theories concerning the principles of justice that ought to govern
social institutions. Yet they have done so in the absence of a developed theory of the nature and point of the
very entities (social institutions) to which the principles of justice in question are supposed to apply. Surely the
adequacy of one’s normative account of the justice or otherwise of any given social institution, or system of

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 Course: Citizenship Education and Community Engagement (8606)
Semester: Spring, 2021
social institutions, will depend at least in part on the nature and point of that social institution or system. Thus
distributive justice is an important aspect of most, if not all, social institutions; the role occupants of most
institutions are the recipients and providers of benefits, e.g. wages, consumer products, and the bearers of
burdens, e.g. allocated tasks and, accordingly, are subject to principles of distributive justice. Moreover,
arguably some institutions, perhaps governments, have as one of their defining ends or functions, to ensure
conformity to principles of distributive justice in the wider society. However, distributive justice does not
appear to be a defining feature, end or function of all social institutions. By this I do not mean that some social
institutions are unjust and, for instance, exist in practice to serve narrow economic or other special interests
(Marx 1867; Habermas 1978; Honneth 1995); though clearly many are. Rather I am referring to the fact that a
number of social institutions, such as the so-called Fourth Estate and the university, are arguably
not defined—normatively speaking—in terms of justice, but rather by some other moral value(s), e.g. truth
(Ostrom 2005; Miller 2010).
The entry has five sections. An overview of various salient accounts of social institutions and their main points
of theoretical difference is provided. Accounts emanating from sociological theory as well as philosophy are
mentioned. Here, as elsewhere, the boundaries between philosophy and non-philosophical theorizing in relation
to an empirical science are vague. Hence, it is important to mention theories such as those of Emile Durkheim
and Talcott Parsons, as well as those of John Searle and David Lewis. Moreover, it is also important to highlight
some of the theoretical differences, notably those of an ontological character.
Q. 4 Explain the functions of different agencies in socialization. Determine the role and responsibilities of
teacher in socialization.
Socialization is a process that introduces people to social norms and customs. This process helps individuals
function well in society, and, in turn, helps society run smoothly. Family members, teachers, religious leaders,
and peers all play roles in a person's socialization.
This process typically occurs in two stages: Primary socialization takes place from birth through adolescence,
and secondary socialization continues throughout one's life. Adult socialization may occur whenever people
find themselves in new circumstances, especially those in which they interact with individuals whose norms or
customs differ from theirs.
The Purpose of Socialization
During socialization, a person learns to become a member of a group, community, or society. This process not
only accustoms people to social groups but also results in such groups sustaining themselves. For example, a
new sorority member gets an insider's look at the customs and traditions of a Greek organization. As the years
pass, the member can apply the information she's learned about the sorority when newcomers join, allowing the
group to carry on its traditions.

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 Course: Citizenship Education and Community Engagement (8606)
Semester: Spring, 2021
On a macro level, socialization ensures that we have a process through which the norms and customs of society
are transmitted. Socialization teaches people what is expected of them in a particular group or situation; it is
a form of social control.
Socialization has numerous goals for youth and adults alike. It teaches children to control their biological
impulses, such as using a toilet instead of wetting their pants or bed. The socialization process also helps
individuals develop a conscience aligned with social norms and prepares them to perform various roles.
The Socialization Process in Three Parts
Socialization involves both social structure and interpersonal relations. It contains three key parts: context,
content and process, and results. Context, perhaps, defines socialization the most, as it refers to culture,
language, social structures and one’s rank within them. It also includes history and the roles people and
institutions played in the past. One's life context will significantly affect the socialization process. For example,
a family's economic class may have a huge impact on how parents socialize their children.
Research has found that parents emphasize the values and behaviors most likely to help children succeed given
their station in life. Parents who expect their children to work blue-collar jobs are more likely to emphasize
conformity and respect for authority, while those who expect their children to pursue artistic, managerial, or
entrepreneurial professions are more likely to emphasize creativity and independence.
Gender stereotypes also exert a strong influence on socialization processes. Cultural expectations for gender
roles and gendered behavior are imparted to children through color-coded clothes and types of play. Girls
usually receive toys that emphasize physical appearance and domesticity such as dolls or dollhouses, while boys
receive playthings that involve thinking skills or call to mind traditionally male professions such as Legos, toy
soldiers, or race cars. Additionally, research has shown that girls with brothers are socialized to understand that
household labor is expected of them but not of their male siblings. Driving the message home is that girls tend
not to receive pay for doing chores, while their brothers do.
Race also plays a factor in socialization. Since white people don't disproportionately experience police
violence, they can encourage their children to know their rights and defend them when the authorities try to
violate them. In contrast, parents of color must have what's known as "the talk" with their children, instructing
them to remain calm, compliant, and safe in the presence of law enforcement.
While context sets the stage for socialization, the content and process constitute the work of this undertaking.
How parents assign chores or tell their kids to interact with police are examples of content and process, which
are also defined by the duration of socialization, those involved, the methods used, and the type of experience.
School is an important source of socialization for students of all ages. In class, young people receive guidelines
related to behavior, authority, schedules, tasks, and deadlines. Teaching this content requires social interaction
between educators and students. Typically, rules and expectations are both written and spoken, and student
conduct is either rewarded or penalized. As this occurs, students learn behavioral norms suitable for school.

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 Course: Citizenship Education and Community Engagement (8606)
Semester: Spring, 2021
In the classroom, students also learn what sociologists describe as "hidden curricula." In her book "Dude, You're
a Fag," sociologist C.J. Pasco revealed the hidden curriculum of gender and sexuality in U.S. high schools.
Through in-depth research at a large California school, Pascoe revealed how faculty members and events like
pep rallies and dances reinforce rigid gender roles and heterosexism. In particular, the school sent the message
that aggressive and hypersexual behaviors are generally acceptable in white boys but threatening in Black ones.
Though not an "official" part of the schooling experience, this hidden curriculum tells students what society
expects of them based on their gender, race, or class background.
Results are the outcome of socialization and refer to the way a person thinks and behaves after undergoing this
process. For example, with small children, socialization tends to focus on control of biological and emotional
impulses, such as drinking from a cup rather than from a bottle or asking permission before picking something
up. As children mature, the results of socialization include knowing how to wait their turn, obey rules, or
organize their days around a school or work schedule. We can see the results of socialization in just about
everything, from men shaving their faces to women shaving their legs and armpits.
Stages and Forms of Socialization
Sociologists recognize two stages of socialization: primary and secondary. Primary socialization occurs from
birth through adolescence. Caregivers, teachers, coaches, religious figures, and peers guide this process.
Secondary socialization occurs throughout our lives as we encounter groups and situations that were not part
of our primary socialization experience. This might include a college experience, where many people interact
with members of different populations and learn new norms, values, and behaviors. Secondary socialization also
takes place in the workplace or while traveling somewhere new. As we learn about unfamiliar places and adapt
to them, we experience secondary socialization.
Meanwhile, group socialization occurs throughout all stages of life. For example, peer groups influence how
one speaks and dresses. During childhood and adolescence, this tends to break down along gender lines. It is
common to see groups of children of either gender wearing the same hair and clothing styles.
Organizational socialization occurs within an institution or organization to familiarize a person with its norms,
values, and practices. This process often unfolds in nonprofits and companies. New employees in a workplace
have to learn how to collaborate, meet management's goals, and take breaks in a manner suitable for the
company. At a nonprofit, individuals may learn how to speak about social causes in a way that reflects the
organization's mission.
Many people also experience anticipatory socialization at some point. This form of socialization is
largely self-directed and refers to the steps one takes to prepare for a new role, position, or occupation. This
may involve seeking guidance from people who've previously served in the role, observing others currently in
these roles, or training for the new position during an apprenticeship. In short, anticipatory socialization
transitions people into new roles so they know what to expect when they officially step into them.

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 Course: Citizenship Education and Community Engagement (8606)
Semester: Spring, 2021
Finally, forced socialization takes place in institutions such as prisons, mental hospitals, military units, and
some boarding schools. In these settings, coercion is used to re-socialize people into individuals who behave in
a manner fitting of the norms, values, and customs of the institution. In prisons and psychiatric hospitals, this
process may be framed as rehabilitation. In the military, however, forced socialization aims to create an entirely
new identity for the individual.
Q. 5 Discuss the role of religious groups in influencing social behavior. Explain the importance of
economic, political and educational institutions in the society.
Religion is probably the strongest belief system that has existed for thousands of years. In many ways, it is a
code of conduct, a rule book that allows believers to function in a non-primitive or cultured manner. The earliest
forms of religion were established to facilitate social bonding. In fact, it is also believed that religious practices
are adaptive and have emerged to sustain survival and reproductive advantages through gene selection or
gene-culture coevolution dynamics.
 
It is no surprise then, that this system is crucial to thinking patterns and plays a vital role in formation of
self-identity and a collective identity of a community, which then shapes attitudes, cultural norms and
influences individual and group behaviour. Children are particularly perceptive to religious beliefs and the
concepts of Gods and other supernatural agents, which leads to a teleological bias of accepting explanations of
phenomenon, based on the purpose they serve rather than their postulated causes, which persist into adulthood
(Kelemen, 2004). These attitudes are contingent upon factors such as beliefs about God's existence, immortality
and omnipresence; attributions about psychological characteristics such as fairness, compassion and harshness;
and attributions about God's causal involvement and motives in one's life events.   
 
Most, if not all religions, have some thematic principles that make them similar to one another, namely concepts
of god and love, honesty, altruism, miracle workings and peacekeeping. However, every religion has elements
and ideologies that set them apart from the other. These ideological differences may not be overt and easy to
discern, but they are present and account for a lot of disharmony and discord at times. This is mainly due to
irrational and distorted deductions of religious scriptures by some followers which go against the fundamental
principles. Moreover, coexistence of diverse religions in a single community or nation is a comparatively recent
trend. Sacrifices and wars in the name of religion are not unheard of, with some of the significant examples
being The Crusades, Sati System, Buddhist Burma, Jihadists and the Witch Hunt, which ended thousands of
lives. What is even more mind-boggling is the dichotomous function that religion seems to serve, where it
imbibes compassion and kindness towards all, but also instigates religious hatred, violence and religious
martyrdoms, especially in radical believers.
Most religions enforce moral behaviour through positive and negative reinforcement by infusing ‘god-fearing’
elements in scriptures, such as the concept of karma and reincarnation in Hinduism, heaven-hell and salvation in

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 Course: Citizenship Education and Community Engagement (8606)
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Christianity, paradise and hell in Islamism, peaceful afterlife and reincarnation in indigenous Chinese folk
religions, and release from the cycle of reincarnations and reaching enlightenment in Buddhism. This was
further reiterated through Shariff and Norenzayan’s (2011) study where they found that individuals are more
likely to behave in a moral or honest manner when they believe in fearsome and punishing supernatural agents.
In their subsequent studies, they concluded that the concept of hell exists to make people act in a moral and
ethical manner, whereas the concept of heaven (or its equivalent in other religions) exists to make people feel
good, and has a direct and positive relation with happiness. However, another possible explanation for this
suggests that it may have nothing to do with religious beliefs. Rather, the religious scriptures or rituals act as a
moral reminder, through priming, and impel us to act in a moral and honest manner.
 
It is important to note here that although, religious beliefs may play a causal role in some of the actions, it is not
the only factor that influences behaviour. Rather, it's an important factor in a pool of other factors like genetics,
environment, parenting, drives, and needs that determine our behaviour.
Research supports that there is a correlation between religious beliefs and behaviour, but does this necessarily
mean that there is a causality? It doesn’t really matter whether one believes that people form these belief
systems in order to adapt and function, or if existing beliefs influence religious attitudes. What is important is
how we use (or misuse) such a powerful instrument, and to what extent we let it influence our behaviour.
Social institutions are usually conceived of as the basic focuses of social organization, common to all societies
and dealing with some of the basic universal problems of ordered social life. Three basic aspects of institutions
are emphasized. First, the patterns of behavior which are regulated by institutions ( “institutionalized") deal with
some perennial, basic problems of any society. Second, institutions involve the regulation of behavior of
individuals in society according to some definite, continuous, and organized patterns. Finally, these patterns
involve a definite normative ordering and regulation; that is, regulation is upheld by norms and by sanctions
which are legitimized by these norms.
These elements of institutions have been emphasized, in varied fashion, by most of the existing definitions (see,
for instance, Gouldner & Gouldneh 1963). Therefore, it is tentatively suggested that institutions or patterns of
institutionalization can be defined here as regulative principles which organize most of the activities of
individuals in a society into definite organizational patterns from the point of view of some of the perennial,
basic problems of any society or ordered social life.
Major institutional spheres
It is the basic “points of view” discussed above which have delineated the major institutional spheres or
activities in all societies. Again, in the literature there seems to be a relatively high degree of consensus as to the
nature of these spheres.
There is the sphere of family and kinship, which focuses on the regulation of the procreative and biological
relations between individuals in a society and on the initial socialization of the new members of each

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 Course: Citizenship Education and Community Engagement (8606)
Semester: Spring, 2021
generation. The sphere of education extends from the family and kin relationships and deals with the
socialization of the young into adults and the differential transmission of the cultural heritage of a society from
generation to generation. The sphere of economics regulates the production, distribution, and consumption of
goods and services within any society. The political sphere deals with the control of the use of force within a
society and the maintenance of internal and external peace of the boundaries of the society, as well as control of
the mobilization of resources for the implementation of various goals and the articulation and setting up of
certain goals for the collectivity. The sphere of cultural institutions deals with the provision of conditions which
facilitate the creation and conservation of cultural (religious, scientific, artistic) artifacts and with their
differential distribution among the various groups of a society. Last, there is the sphere of stratification, which
regulates the differential distribution of positions, rewards, and resources and the access to them by the various
individuals and groups within a society.
Institutional principles
Institutions are very close to, but not identical with, groups or roles that are organized around special societal
goals or functions. Thus, not only are the principles of political regulation effective with regard to those groups
whose major function is some kind of political activity—be it administration or mobilization of power—but
they also regulate various aspects of groups whose predominant goal or function is economic, cultural, or
educational. Similarly, principles of economic regulation also organize various aspects of groups or roles that
are predominantly cultural or political. The same applies to any institutional sphere with regard to any other
group or role within the society.
Institutional units and resources
However, there exist in each society definite groups and roles which deal predominantly with one of the major
institutional problem areas. These groups tend to have some structural “core” characteristics, which are
explainable in terms of their major institutional function or placement. Thus, for instance, small
kinship-structured domestic groups with reproductive, sex-regulating, and socialization functions (which are not
necessarily any particular type of the nuclear family) seem to constitute the basic units of the familial
institutional sphere (see Levy & Fallers 1959). Similarly, each such institutional sphere has its own specific
resources, such as labor, commodities, or money in the economic sphere or support and identification in
The political sphere (Parsons & Smelser 1956; Parsons 1964).
It is thus one of the major concerns of the comparative study of institutions to analyze the extent to which
different societal goals or functions are performed by the same or by different groups.

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