Open Journal of Social Sciences, 2019, 7, 180-190

http://www.scirp.org/journal/jss
ISSN Online: 2327-5960
ISSN Print: 2327-5952

A Literature Review into Leadership Styles

Discussed in the Past Five Years

Anne Kleefstra

Research Centre for Employability, Zuyd University of Applied Sciences, Sittard, The Netherlands

How to cite this paper: Kleefstra, A. Abstract

(2019) A Literature Review into Leadership
Styles Discussed in the Past Five Years. Leadership is one of the most discussed topics in literature across all different
Open Journal of Social Sciences, 7, 180-190. industries and sciences. There is a need for clarification and overview on the
https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2019.76015
different types of leadership discussed in literature. This explorative research
Received: May 22, 2019 describes a systematic literature review to give a general overview of the types
Accepted: June 23, 2019 of leadership discussed in the literature in the time period between March
Published: June 26, 2019 2013 and March 2018. In total 658 different types of leadership were men-
tioned in 380 analyzed articles. Of that transformational leadership was men-
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc. tioned 200 times, effective leadership was mentioned 118 times, transactional
This work is licensed under the Creative leadership 110 times, participative leadership was mentioned 89 times and
Commons Attribution International ethical leadership was mentioned 72 times. Often these types of leadership
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ were also mentioned together and a great overlap on the different leadership
Open Access styles was mentioned. Further research on leadership should therefore focus
less on explorative research and more on developmental research of a new
full range scientific leadership model including the different leadership styles
discussed most often in the past five year.

Keywords
Transformational Leadership, Effective Leadership, Leadership Style,
Systematic Literature Review

1. Introduction
Suddaby [1] wrote about the need for more construct clarity in management re-
search and the need to “create precise and parsimonious categorical distinctions
between concepts” and to “show their semantic relationship to other related
constructs” ([1], p. 347). Nowhere is this need more apparent than in the
enormous amount of literature on leadership styles [2]. Leadership is one of the
most discussed topics in literature across all different industries and sciences.

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 A. Kleefstra

Three theories of leadership are discussed most in literature. The most dis-
cussed model of leadership is the theory of Bass [3] who describes transforma-
tional, transactional and laissez-faire leadership in a model. Transforming and
transactional leadership were first discussed by Burns [4] and a few years later
Bass [3] extended the theory of Burns [4]. Bass [3] introduced the term trans-
formational leadership and combined this leadership style with transactional
leadership and laissez-faire leadership.
Transformational leadership consists of four elements according to Bass [3]:
individualized consideration, intellectual stimulation, inspirational motivation
and idealized influence. Yukl [5] defines transformational leaders as leaders with
an appealing vision for their team and they intellectually stimulate others in a
way that is demanding and appreciative of the individual needs of the team
members, incorporating the four elements of Bass [3] in the definition. Transac-
tional leaders exert influence on followers based on exchanging benefits, this can
be internal or external motivators, and respond to their self-interests when they
achieve defined goals [3]. Transactional leadership included two components:
contingent reward and management-by-extinction [3]. Often the transactional
leadership style is contrasted to the transformational leadership style [2]. Trans-
actional leaders are task-oriented. In contrary to transformational and transac-
tional leadership, Bass [3] defined leaders who do not take charge of their lea-
dership as passive or laissez-faire leaders. As the laissez-faire leader believes
people are unpredictable and uncontrollable and understanding people is a
waste of time, this leader maintains a low profile and works with whatever
structure is available without any suggestions or criticism [6] [7] [8].
The leadership model of Bass [3] shows a lot of similarities with two other
well-known models of leadership. First of all, the model of Ha-Vikström [9] based
on the theory of Blake, Shepard, and Mouton [10] shows three basic paths to think
about leadership; relation-oriented or people-oriented leadership, task-oriented
or goal-oriented leadership and laissez-faire leadership. And second, the leader-
ship model of Lewin, Lippit and White [11], describes autocratic, democratic
and laissez-faire leadership.
Finally, shared leadership can be seen as a meta-theory of leadership, as all
leadership is shared leadership, it is simply a matter of degree according to
Pearce, Wassenaar and Manz [12]. Shared leadership builds on the philosophical
assumption that every person is capable of sharing the burden and responsibility
of leading to some extent [13]. Shared leadership encompasses other leadership
styles and provides a way of organizing them [12]. An overview of these leader-
ship theories is mentioned in Table 1.
A lot of research is based on the research done before and many different
types of leadership are discussed in literature, as Suddaby [1] stresses. This re-
search aims to bring clarification to the most discussed types of leadership in the
past five years. There for the research question is: What types of leadership have
been described in scientific literature between March 2013 and March 2018?

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A. Kleefstra

Table 1. Overview three leadership theories.

Bass [3], Burns [4], Lewin, Lippit & White [11], Vroom Blake, Shepard & Mouton [10],
Yukl [5] & Yetton [14], Yukl [15] Ha-Vikström [9], Hersey & Blanchard [15]

Transactional Autocratic Task/goal-oriented

Transformational Democratic Relation/people-oriented

Laissez-faire Laissez-faire Laissez-faire

2. Methodology
This study is an explorative study into the different types of leadership described
in literature in the past five years. As the research question is broad, this is an
explorative study, which is a starting point from which other research can be
build [16].
The research method is a systematic literature review. Systematic literature re-
views started in the medical sciences and were developed because of a need to
describe objective, generalizable and reliable data from literature on the applica-
tion of medicine and treatment methods [17]. However, systematic literature re-
search is also widely used in social sciences [18].
“A systematic literature review is the process of systematically locating, va-
luing and synthesizing research results, obtained with scientific research, to ob-
tain a reliable analysis and overview” ([17], p. 178). The systematic review
process generally comprises five steps: the development of a protocol to guide
the review, screening or inclusion criteria, quality appraisal, data extraction, and
synthesis [19]. In this research it is to get an overview of types of leadership de-
scribed in literature in the last five years. The studies selected meet the inclusion
criteria, but the quality of the articles is not further appraised.
A type of leadership is defined in this research when a definition could be
given to clarify what is meant and the noun leadership is combined with an ad-
jective which says something about the noun leadership.
A range of electronic databases was accessed across December 2017 to March
2018 to find the articles as can be seen in Table 2. The only selection criteria for
the articles is that leadership is mentioned in the title. The articles are selected
from the first options the catalogue gave and so on. The selection criteria in the
search engines is: a time period between March 2013 and March 2018, full text
articles and scientific journals. The only search term in de search engines is lea-
dership; no synonyms and the word leadership should be present in the title.
The broad and explorative nature of this study makes the precision of the
found articles great. Of the 380 articles analyzed, 370 add adjectives to leadership
and there for talk about different types of leadership, the other 10 articles write
about leadership in general and not about a specific leadership style, there for
these are not included in the research. The precision is 97% [20].
The research synthesis involves the effort to discover patterns, consistencies,
differences and explanations for this analysis and overview, with the aim of ge-
neralizing [17]. In this study the different types of leadership were collected,

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 A. Kleefstra

Table 2. Databases.

Databases Number of articles found in database

Business Source Complete 159
ERIC 42
Academic Search Complete 38
Psychology & Behavioral Sciences Collection 21
Google Scholar 7
Science direct 7
Directory of Open Access Journals 5
CINAHL Plus 5
Complementary Index 3
Hospitality & Tourism Complete 3
EBSCOhost 2
Social Sciences Citation Index 2
Supplemental Index 1
BioOne Complete 1
Arts & Humanities Citation Index 1
NARCIS 1
Springer 1
Science Citation Index 1
Missing values 1

showing how often the different types of leadership were mentioned together
and how often the types of leadership were mentioned.
A systematic literature review is a time-consuming and work intensive re-
search method and as in all qualitative research processes, subjectivity plays an
important role. The literature reviewed can be interpreted differently.

3. Results & Discussion

The journals in which the articles are placed are very diverse. However, a few
journals were mentioned more often, namely the “Journal of Business Ethics”
(32), “Social Behavior and Personality” (16), and “New Directions for Student
Leadership” (8).
Of the authors 524 (58%) are male and 354 (39%) are female, with a total of 22
missing values. Finally, the region in which the authors worked is analyzed. As can
be seen in Table 3 most of the articles came from North America, Asia/Pacific and
Europe. The reason for this Western focus of the region the authors are located,
are assumptions. It for example can be, because in Western countries there are
more resources to publish, or there is a greater importance for publishing.
Another reason can be that curiosity and the need for knowledge about leader-
ship is greater in the Western countries. What the reason may be, it remains
speculation.

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A. Kleefstra

Table 3. Region authors articles.

Region Number Percentage

Europe 88 23

North America 140 37

South America 3 1

Africa 28 7

Asia/Pacific 92 24

Middle East 26 7

Missing values 3 1

In total 658 different types of leadership were mentioned in the 380 analyzed
articles. Of that, transformational leadership was mentioned 200 times, effective
leadership was mentioned 118 times, transactional leadership 110 times, parti-
cipative leadership was mentioned 89 times and ethical leadership was men-
tioned 72 times. In the table in Appendix 1 the types of leadership mentioned
more than 15 times are described.
Most mentioned type of leadership is transformational leadership, mostly in
combination with transactional (104), effective (75), ethical (48), authentic (47),
servant (44), laissez-faire leadership (38) and charismatic leadership (35). Transac-
tional leadership is also most often mentioned with transformational leadership
(104), effective (50) laissez-faire (36), charismatic (27) and servant leadership
(27).
Laissez-faire leadership is also often named with passive (6), avoidant (2) or
passive-avoidant leadership (3), which in most articles is discussed as being the
same leadership style only with different adjectives. Also, in the models as dis-
cussed in the introduction, the names are mixed up depending on the article. So,
some articles will talk about laissez-faire leadership as others talk about passive
or avoidant leadership.
Transformational leadership is mentioned most often in the literature ana-
lyzed, however, there are also synonyms of transformational leadership men-
tioned, for example the transformative leadership (5) as Burns [4] mentioned it,
transforming leadership (2) or transformation leadership (4).
Transformational is also combined with other adjectives to describe leader-
ship, for example creative (1), CEO (1), team (1), shared (1) and transforma-
tional school leadership (2).
Shared leadership (37) was most often mentioned in combination with trans-
formational leadership (20), servant leadership (12), distributed leadership (18)
and effective leadership (13).
Effective leadership is the type of leadership mentioned most after transfor-
mational leadership. This is not so much a leadership style, but more as a desired
outcome of leadership. However, Gandolfi and Stone [21] define five key
attributes of leadership from the literature of Kouzes and Posner [22]: 1) to

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 A. Kleefstra

model the way, 2) to inspire a shared vision, 3) to challenge the process, 4) to

enable others to act, and 5) to encourage the heart [22].
As effective leadership can be seen as a type of leadership one wishes to reach,
this is the same for outstanding leadership and successful leadership.
Another notable result is the number of times leadership specific to the educa-
tional industry is mentioned, for example school leadership (26), principal lea-
dership (6), university leadership (13), student leadership (17), and teacher lea-
dership (57).
In the articles analyzed, leadership combined with the adjective female was
mentioned 22 times and women’s as adjective to leadership was mentioned 12
times, as can be seen in Table 4. These articles are mostly written by women,
especially the ones on women’s leadership, female leadership is more often dis-
cussed as well by men, but almost always in the combination with a female au-
thor as can be seen in the table below.
As mentioned in the introduction, in the literature there are three major theo-
ries on leadership, the theory of Bass [3] with transformational, transactional
and laissez-faire leadership, the theory of Ha-Vikström [9] shows three basic
paths to think about leadership; relation-oriented or people-oriented leadership,
task-oriented or goal-oriented leadership and laissez-faire leadership and the
leadership model of Lewin, Lippit and White [11], which describes autocratic,
democratic and laissez-faire leadership.
In the results the model of Bass [3] is mentioned the most by far. The devel-
oped scale of Bass [3], the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire, is also an of-
ten-used scale to measure leadership.
Even though Bass [3] is mentioned often in the literature, the model of Lewin,
Lippit and White [11], which describes autocratic (18), democratic (26) and
laissez-faire leadership (36) is mentioned less often. Of the 18 times autocratic
leadership is mentioned, 15 times it is mentioned in combination with demo-
cratic leadership and 10 times in combination with laissez-faire leadership.
Democratic leadership is mentioned 15 times in combination with laissez-faire
leadership of the total of 26 times it is mentioned. This also shows the model is
not often discussed as a complete model in the articles, but more often as sepa-
rate types of leadership.
The same goes for the leadership model of Ha-Vikström [9] and the model of
Lewin, Lippit and White [11] are not mentioned that often. The three basic paths

Table 4. Female and women’s leadership and the gender of the authors.

Number of male authors Number of

Leadership Number of only Number of female authors
in combination with only male
style female authors in combination with men
women authors

Female
18 women 16 women 21 men 2 men
leadership

Women’s
18 women 5 women 6 men -
leadership

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A. Kleefstra

of Ha-Vikström [9] also know a lot of variations, but relation-oriented (11) or

people-oriented leadership (8), task-oriented (17) or goal-oriented leadership (2)
and laissez-faire leadership (36) are not mentioned that often for a well-known
leadership theory. Task-oriented leadership and people-oriented leadership are
mentioned 7 times together, task-oriented leadership and laissez-faire leadership
are mentioned 5 times together and people-oriented leadership and laissez-faire
leadership are mentioned 3 times together. This shows the model is not often
discussed as a complete model in the articles, but more often as separate types of
leadership. There is a large overlap in the different leadership styles, as can be
seen from the model of Ha-Vikström [9] with for example people-oriented or
relation-oriented leadership, also mentioned as employee-oriented leadership.
The same goes for shared and distributed leadership, which share a lot of com-
mon points in their definitions. Or the different leadership styles that can be
mentioned as part of the transformational leadership style, for example charis-
matic, motivational or visionary leadership.

4. Conclusions
In total 658 different types of leadership were mentioned in the 380 analyzed ar-
ticles. Transformational, effective, transactional, participative and ethical lea-
dership is the most discussed type of leadership in the literature analyzed. The
model of Bass [3] is the most discussed theory in the leadership literature in the
past five years. Next the model of Lewin, Lippit and White [11] is also men-
tioned often, however, it does not come close to the popularity of the model of
Bass [3].
Effective leadership is the type of leadership mentioned most after transfor-
mational leadership. However, it can be discussed if this really is a style of lea-
dership or more a desired outcome of the leadership process. In the articles ana-
lyzed female leadership was mentioned 22 times and women’s leadership was
mentioned 12 times. These articles are mostly written by women, especially the
ones on women’s leadership.
As in total 658 different types of leadership are discussed in only half of the
articles, it is safe to say that Suddaby [1] and Anderson and Sun [2] have a fair
point. The extensive overlap and the wide diversity in the types of leadership
discussed ask for more focus and precision in defining different types of leader-
ship. Further research on leadership should therefore be focused less on explora-
tive research and more on developmental research of a new full range scientific
leadership model including the different leadership styles discussed most often.
As for example the model of Bass [3] leaves shared leadership or servant leader-
ship aside, these are leadership styles often discussed in the literature in the past
five years. This shows the need for an updated and transformed model.
One of the characteristics of the study is that it is explorative and a large range
of articles have been included in the study. Therefore the selection was broad
and inclusive. For further research it is advisable to narrow this down and be

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 A. Kleefstra

more focused, for example on specific journals, the journal of leadership studies
of the university of Phoenix. The journals can for example also be selected be-
cause they are known to include either empirical studies or literature surveys,
and to be used as sources for other systematic literature reviews related to lea-
dership. Also, the search process and assessment of quality of the articles should
be more precise and defined in further research.
Another limitation is that the correlation between the different leadership
styles does not say that much. As leadership styles mean (almost) the same, it
can be that both styles will be mentioned and only one will remain to be men-
tioned in the article, for example with laissez-faire leadership and passive lea-
dership. It can also be that only one of the types of leadership is mentioned, in
this case the different types of leadership discussed will be not mentioned together
in articles, where other articles would do so, for example with people-oriented and
relation-oriented leadership.

Conflicts of Interest
The author declares no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this
paper.

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Appendix 1
Type of leadership Number of times mentioned

Transformational leadership 200

Effective leadership 118

Transactional leadership 110

Participative leadership 89

Ethical leadership 72

Authentic leadership 61

Servant leadership 59

Charismatic leadership 53

Organisational leadership 45

Laissez-faire leadership 39

Shared leadership 37

Distributed leadership 35

Educational leadership 35

Team leadership 32

Successful leadership 29

Spiritual leadership 27

Democratic leadership 26

School leadership 26

Senior leadership 24

Visionary leadership 23

Business leadership 23

Female leadership 22

Empowering leadership 20

Authoritarian leadership 20

Individual leadership 20

Directive leadership 19

Moral leadership 19

Good leadership 19

Autocratic leadership 18

Political leadership 18

Values-based leadership 18

Task-oriented leadership 17

Instructional leadership 17

Self-leadership 17

Strategic leadership 17

Student leadership 17

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A. Kleefstra

Continued

Situational leadership 16

Formal leadership 16

Positive leadership 16

Male leadership 16

*The choice of 15 times resides in the extensiveness of the types of leadership mentioned in the literature
and to protect the readability of the table and article. However, this leads to the exclusion of the other lea-
dership styles, for example emerging leadership styles or leadership styles with a very specific focus or a
specific industry the leadership style focuses on.

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