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FLEXIBLE WORK SCHEDULES: A CRITICAL REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Omondi, A. A., & K’Obonyo, P.

Vol. 5, Iss. 4, pp 2069 - 2086, November 23, 2018. www.strategicjournals.com, ©Strategic Journals
FLEXIBLE WORK SCHEDULES: A CRITICAL REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Omondi, A. A., & K’Obonyo, P.
Ph.D Candidate, Department of Business Administration, University of Nairobi [UoN], Nairobi, Kenya
Prof., Department of Business Administration, University of Nairobi [UoN], Nairobi, Kenya
Accepted: November 20, 2018
ABSTRACT
The business case for the provision of flexible work schedules relies on their ability to enhance recruitment and
retention, job satisfaction and commitment and reduction of work-life conflict among employees. It makes
intuitive sense that offering work-life balance practices would attract individuals to an organization, and that
using these practices would result in improved employee attitudes and behaviours within the organization.
However, the critical literature review on flexible work schedule revealed that despite the provision of these
schedules, employee take-up may be low due to concerns that using work-life practices will result in reduced
advancement opportunities or perceptions of the employee as being less committed to the organization. The
need for supportive organizational culture, team work, proper communication and training of managers may be
at the fore front in addressing this issue. The article offered a critical review of the literature on flexible work
schedules through examining the types of flexible work schedules and supporting theoretical foundations. It also
examined the conditions necessary for the success of flexible work schedules and the possible outcomes. There
was further evaluation of the challenges involved and recommendation therefore.
Key word: Flexible Work Schedules, Work-Life Practices, Employee Commitment & Satisfaction
CITATION: Omondi, A. A., K’Obonyo, P. (2018). Flexible work schedules: A critical review of literature. The
Strategic Journal of Business & Change Management, 5(4), 2069 - 2086.
- 2069 - The Strategic Journal of Business & Change Management. ISSN 2312-9492 (Online) 2414-8970 (Print). www.strategicjournals.com
INTRODUCTION informal teleworking often combined with nonstandard
working time. Under a telework or flexplace schedule,
Flexible work schedules is a significant issues in this
employees work from a location outside of their
21st C. Nevertheless, it is not until in the recent past
physical organizational setting. Telework or flexplace is
that these practices came to be perceived as
defined as a flexible work schedule that allows
beneficial for both employees and employers
employees to work in varied locations, typically using
(Clutterbuck, 2003). Studies supporting the benefits
technologies transmitting communication and
of flexible work schedules recognize the positive
information (Pérez, Sánchez, & de Luis Carnicer, 2002).
although indirect contribution of these practices to
Although there are many forms of telework or
organizational profit (Morgan, 2009). Organizations
flexplace, there are four defining types that capture
and employees have realized the potential
most of these: telecommuting, satellite offices,
advantages of the practices as far as creating a
neighborhood work centers, and mobile workers
satisfied workforce, promotion of employee well-
(Kurland & Bailey, 1999). Telecommuters work from
being, reducing the rate of absenteeism, employee
home on a regular basis and may or may not use
commitment and improvement in organization
technology in their work. Employees at satellite and
citizenship behaviour is concerned (White, Hill,
neighborhood work offices work outside the home and
McGovern, Mills & Smeaton, 2003).
organization. However, employees at satellite offices
Flexible work schedules refer to practices that allow are from a single organization; while employees at
individuals to decide and manage their work schedules neighborhood work centers can be from multiple
(Maxwell, Rankine, Bell & MacVicar, 2006). On the organizations that share office space in a local
other hand, Gardiner & Tomlinson (2009) observe with suburban area rather than commute to a downtown
regards to hours of work, based on these schedules, center. Such opportunities allow employees to engage
the employee is allowed to have some control over in regular interactions with work colleagues, while
their job and can decide on the timing as well as the reducing the commuting time and the need to
place where the job should be done (Lambert, Marler, purchase urban office space.
& Gueutal, 2008). Flexible work practices are perceived
On flexibility in the number of days employees work,
by organizations as a strategy for obtaining and
this type of flexibility is most often associated with the
retaining high quality staff (Cole 2006). This has been a
idea of the compressed workweek. It involves the
major basis for achieving a competitive advantage
relocation of time worked into fewer and longer blocks
given the unique contributions of the highly satisfied
during the week. In a compressed workweek,
and committed workforce (Nadeem & Henry 2003).
employees may work for longer hours for a few days,
On forms of flexible work schedules, flexible work for example, four 10-hours days instead of the normal
schedules occur in many forms for example five 8-hour days. Employees who have access to and
teleworking, flexitime, compressed work week, leave, use this type of flexibility gain an extra day each week
job share, phased retirement, contract work, part time to spend in life pursuits outside of the workplace.
jobs and term time working but the most common Employers who implement such a workplace approach
forms of flexible working have been categorized as across the organization can realize substantial cost
follows: savings as well as higher employee performance
On flexibility at the place of work, a common form of (Baltes, Briggs, Huff, Wright & Neuman, 1999). In
flexible work schedule relates to the location or place addition, environmentally-conscious organizations can
of work. These consist of telework or flexplace, and also produce less pollutants and contaminants by
moving to this type of work schedule. Besides this, jobs also have less access than jobs in other industries
there is increased productivity due to decreased (Kossek and Distelberg, 2009).
absenteeism and turnover; it provides an inexpensive
On flexibility to allow for short-term breaks in
way to improve employee morale and creative
employment or time off, receiving considerable less
opportunity to retain staff.
attention than other flexible work schedules are part-
On flexibility in the number of hours employees work year work, sabbaticals, vacations, and leaves. These
or amount of work, this refers to flexibility in terms of flexible work arrangements allow for short-term
the amount of workload or the amount of working time breaks in employment without losing one’s job. These
using some methods such as: Reduced time or are increasingly important flexible work schedule
workload which is any reduction in the total number of forms as they enable individuals to maintain their
working hours for 40 hours/week in exchange for lower relationships with their employers, yet have a break
pay (Kossek and Michel, 2011). It includes: Part time from work responsibilities. These breaks help
jobs under which employees are required to work for individuals to engage in renewal, undergo new skill
less than 35 hours in week (Christensen and Staines, development, travel, and attend to care giving, health
1990); secondly there is job sharing under which two demands, or prevent burnout. Under a flexible work
employees voluntarily share work responsibilities arrangement that allows sabbaticals, employees take
where each works less than full-time (Christensen & a prolonged paid time away from work and expect to
Staines, 1990). return to their same jobs at the end of the sabbatical
(Etzion, 2003). Sabbaticals are traditionally linked to
On flexibility in timing of work, the most common
universities and academic positions as a means to
method used here is flexi-time; others include shift
allow for skill enhancement or renewal after heavy
work and contingent work. Flextime is defined as
teaching loads or administrative work. Although less
flexible hour’s schedules that allow workers to alter
available in the private sector and they are often
workday start and finish times. Here, employees have
distributed.
the discretion to vary the times they arrive and leave
work, within management parameters, to meet their On drivers for the growth of flexible work schedules,
personal needs (Avery & Zabel, 2001). Flextime the growth and expansion in the use of flexible work
schedules have a predetermined range of times in schedules can be viewed from macro- organizational
which employees can arrive and leave, with a core perspective, such factors as demographic labor market
band in between work starting and stopping times shift, cost saving, environmental and technological
when all employees must be present. The need for the forces are the driving force for flexible work schedule
core hours is to help managers with the coordination of growth, making them vital for employer adoption.
meetings and supervision (Van Dyne, Kossek & Lobel, Demographic labor market shifts has created a
2008). Flextime policies sometimes incorporate daily workforce that increasingly needs and values flexibility.
carryover, where employees can vary their work Statistics have shown an expansive growth in the
schedules in regards to daily time spent at work, as number of individuals who must ensure family
long as they spend a predetermined set amount of responsibilities are managed while they are at work.
weekly time at work. This is in contrast to traditional For instance, today’s fathers play a greater role in care
work arrangements that require employees to work a giving and value flexibility more than those of previous
standard time daily. Flexitime is mostly applicable to generations (Pleck, 1997). The current generation of
professional and higher level employees than lower workers entering the workforce, the millennials take a
level employees. Workers in service and manufacturing
more balanced approach to work than previous This therefore means that in cases of an adult who is
generations (Deal, 2007). working, the emotions, behaviors and attitudes can
easily be carried from work to their family and vice-
versa. Spillover can be either negative or positive
THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS spillover (Greenhaus, Collins & Shaw, 2003). Negative
Border Theory spillover can be illustrated with the type of conflicts it
results into. According to Haar & Bardoel (2000)
The work/family border theory was developed by
work-life conflict can be typified into three
Clark (2000). The theory tries to explain how people
categories, time based, strain based and behavior
manage to draw negotiation between their life within
based conflict. All these conflicts generally sum up
their families and responsibilities at the workplace
the problems that employees undergo as they try to
and the boundaries between these spheres as they
negotiate between work and family. Strain conflict
try to strike a balance. The key aspect of this theory is
can for instance be exhibited by the divisions caused
the idea that work and family make up two distinct
as one exhibits different behavior within each domain
domains or spheres which however have a bearing on
or role. On the other hand, failure to adequately find
each other. Clarke (2009) observes that this is so due
time to attend to roles in both one’s family and at
to the fact that there are generally different cultures
work elaborates time conflict.
both at family level and work level which thus means
an individual has to transit between these two Social Exchange Theory
cultures on a daily basis. Whereas the transition could Social exchange theory can be explained by the
be slight in cases where acceptable behavior in both concept of reciprocity. Korsgaard, Meglino, Lester &
cases is more or less similar, there are cases where Jeong (2010) observe that there are two forms of
there is massive contrast between the two spheres of reciprocity. The first form is the obligation to
an employee’s life (Othman, 2009). This could be due reciprocate, which is the belief that someone will
to the fact that individuals are motivated by different return a favor or engage in a behavior because they
things in both spheres like income and feel obligated to pay someone back. The second form
accomplishment at work and close relationships and of reciprocity is expected reciprocity. Expected
happiness in family (Clark, 2000). For this reason, reciprocity is the belief that if a person does something
between work and home, there exist borders which for another person, he or she should get some sort of
might be temporal, physical or psychological. Clark benefit in return, in the near future. Beham (2011)
(2000) observes that these borders might be agree that employees will act in accordance with social
temporal given the differences in time an individual exchange theory. Blau (1964) argues that employees
cross to another domain or physical as elaborated by are continually participating in a give-and take
the walls of a workplace or home. Similarly, a border relationship with their employer whereby one party
can be psychological in terms of the difference in gives socio-emotional resources that are desired by the
thoughts, behavior patterns or emotions one has other in exchange for others that they desire. This
when in a given domain (Othman, 2009). exchange relationship is maintained through principles
Spill over Theory of mutual reciprocity or gains, that is, if you scratch my
back, I will scratch yours, and of trust and respect.
Spillover theory states that general behavior,
emotions, attitudes as well as stress can be carried
over from life domain to another (Wilensky, 1960).
Signaling Theory psychological contract theory is an exchange of
individual employee commitment, motivation and
According to Grover & Crooker (1995) Signaling
task performance beyond expected outcomes by the
theory has been used to explain how flexible work
organization. According to Lam (2001) these actions
schedules can lead to positive perceptions. By
which are beyond formally prescribed roles and job
offering flexible work schedules, organizations show
descriptions that is extra role behaviour rather than
that they support employee’s well-being by allowing
role behaviour is what is called employee
them to attend to their personal needs such as child
productivity. The provision of flexible work schedules
care or elder care, attendance to health matters like
is therefore perceived by employees as a favour that
exercise and professional development. In feeling
deserves to be reciprocated.
supported by their organizations, employees may
experience more control to cope with work–family
demands. This will in turn yield into job satisfaction
NECESSARY CONDITIONS FOR FLEXIBLE WORK
and commitment among the employees and hence
SCHEDULES
higher productivity). Randel, and Stevens (2006)
explained that the availability of flexible work Quality Communication
schedules may lead to perceptions of control over There should be continuous and advanced
work–family matters and positive effect, which can communication between employees, clients,
help employees cope with work–family conflict. colleagues, teams and management. The
Psychological Contract Theory management should also maintain proper
communication with employees on the available work
The psychological contract theory explains a two-way
schedules, work locations, work progress, and
exchange process of perceived promises and
expected dates for completion of work. Lack of
obligations between employees and their employers.
Proper communication of the availability of these
According to Armstrong (2006) it is an open ended
practices both to employees and their supervisors
agreement about what the individual and the
may hinder their use and consequently their intended
organization expect to give and receive in return in
influence on organizational effectiveness. An issue
the employment relationship. The contract
frequently cited in accounts of flexible work
represents a dynamic and reciprocal deal. Armstrong
schedules implementation is lack of use. Research
(2006) posits that the theory holds that employees
conducted amongst organizations in the United
expect to be treated fairly as human beings, to be
Kingdom suggests that employees often remain
provided with work that utilizes their abilities, to be
unaware of their entitlement to flexible work
rewarded equitably according to their contribution,
schedules (Kodz, Harper, & Dench, 2002). Even when
to be able to display competence, to have
employees are fully informed of the practices
opportunities for further growth, to know what is
available to them, many display a reluctance to use
expected of them and to be given feedback on how
them. Relative to female employees, few men make
well they are doing. On the other hand, employers
use of family leave, choosing instead to take vacation
expect employees to do their best on behalf of the
or other discretionary days off upon the birth of a
organization, to be fully committed to its values, to be
child or other family-related event (Pleck, 1993).
compliant and loyal and to enhance the image of the
organization to its customers and suppliers. Bratton
and Gold (2007) contend that at the heart of the
Supportive Organization Culture and ending their days. Smaller businesses may not have
sufficient staffing to allow workers discretion in work
For effective introduction and implementation of
scheduling.
flexible work schedules there must be a work place
organization culture that supports and values such Supportive Legislation
practices. Flexible work schedules must be valued and
Legislation can dictate whether or not an employer can
appreciated both at the management level and
offer employees a flexible schedule. Some state
employee level. The notion that using flexible work
legislation establishes the minimum and maximum
schedules will have a negative impact on their career
number of hours an employee can work within a seven-
prospects appears to be a powerful demotivator for
day period (Olmsted & Smith, 1994). At the federal
employees’ use of these practices (Kodz et al., 2002).
level, the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 currently
The study by Kirby and Krone (2002) found that
precludes offering private sector employees any
working part-time is incompatible with promotion
flexible schedule that involves working more than 40
and access to a range of higher status male-
hours per week without overtime compensation. This
dominated occupations, and Junor (1998) study
restriction was amended for government workers in
revealed that the proportion of female part-time
the Federal Employees Flexible and Compressed Work
employees categorized as unprompted was 96.7
Schedules Act of 1978. Consequently, federal
percent and this data was similar for male part-time
government employees should have greater access to
employees. This perception is reinforced by
flexible work schedules as compared to state and local
organizational cultures unsupportive of the
government or private sector employees. According to
schedules.
the Kenyan Employment Act, Cap 226, every employee
Favourable Job Characteristics is entitled to at least one rest day in every period of
seven days. After every twelve consecutive months of
Part-time workers and small business owners report
service with his or her employer, an employee is
greater schedule flexibility than do wage and salaried
entitled to not less than twenty-one working days of
employees (Golden 2001). Many studies have found
leave with full pay; others include maternity leave and
that workers who have access to flexible schedule tend
paternity leave.
to be exempted from overtime regulation and to hold
jobs characterized by high status, high earnings, and Employee Involvement
opportunities for advancement (Bond and Galinsky,
When employees have input into decision-making
2006). The nature of occupation and organization
processes in their organization, initiatives are more
determine whether or which schedule is feasible. For
likely to have their intended effect (Grawitch, Ledford,
example, assembly line workers must be present on a
Ballard, & Barber, 2009). Employee involvement early
given shift to produce products. Flextime is not a
in the process can also help to build ownership over
practical option for these workers; however, other
new initiatives, leading to a desire to utilize new
types of alternative work schedules such as
programs and less resistance during implementation.
compressed workweeks are possible (Christensen &
Finally, encouraging employees to provide feedback on
Staines, 1990). In contrast, employers who handle
evaluation and refinement instead of merely
customer calls from a variety of time zones may use
communicating results and potential changes, sustains
flextime to staff extended work hours. Management or
feelings of ownership throughout the change process.
professional workers generally have greater job
autonomy than other types of workers in beginning
Employee Demographic Characteristics
The employee characteristics determine the need for Job satisfaction and organizational commitment are
and the use of flexible work schedules among the among the most commonly studied outcomes of
employees that would result into an improvement in flexibility. Scholars have defined job satisfaction as an
organization performance. The aspects of employee employee’s affective or emotional reaction to a job,
demographic characteristics that have been linked to based on comparing actual outcomes with desired
flexible work schedules include gender, age, education, outcomes (Cranny, Smith & Stone 1992).
and marital and family status. Balancing work and Organizational commitment is the relative strength of
family is often more difficult for women compared to an individual’s identification with and involvement in
men because of the disproportionate burden of the a particular organization (Mowday, Porter & Steers
family responsibilities (Bird, 2006). Women often face 1982). Employees with access to flexible work
uneven distribution of child care and other domestic schedules report high morale and job satisfaction
responsibilities which become a major challenge in (Baltes, Briggs, Huff, Wright, & Neuman, 1999), as
their work and a barrier in their career advancement well as high levels of company loyalty, discretionary
(Cross and Linehan, 2006). In many African societies effort, and organizational commitment (Bond and
women are expected to share the large responsibility Galinsky 2006). Flexible work schedules is likely
of family care. There is also a notion that work family attributable to employee perceptions that their
roles are largely shipped by stereo typical gender roles organizations value and have concern for them
(Gutek et. al. 1991) due to the traditionally held belief (McNall, Masuda, & Nicklin, 2010). It increases the
of men as bread-winners and women as house maker. employees control over their lives due to other
This social construction of gender makes motherhood opportunities to work during times more suitable to
therefore less negotiable as compared to fatherhood. personal needs. In addition to this it improves
These therefore imply that women rather than men are employee’s perception about their employer and the
inclined to use more of flexible work schedules in order overall positive feeling towards the employer which
to balance between work and family responsibilities. in turn imparts on organization commitment and
Although in the current generation men are employee job satisfaction. Although the provision of
increasingly appreciating the need for a more balanced flexible work schedule is perceived to enhance job
life in order to take up their parental responsibilities. satisfaction and commitment, it is possible that the
employee may derive satisfaction from other thing
such as compensation and promotion and not
OUTCOMES OF FLEXIBLE WORK SCHEDULES necessarily from these schedules.
Previously flexible work schedules were perceived to Previous studies have shown that flexible work
benefit only employees at the expense of the schedules availability is negatively related to turnover
organization; however, research has since proved that intentions (McNall et al., 2010). Grover and Crooker
these practices have a positive impact to both the (1995) found that individuals with access to family-
employer and employee. Such benefits include: Job responsive policies such as flexible hours and
satisfaction and organization commitment, lower community childcare services reported significantly
turnover intentions, reduced work–family conflict, lower turnover intentions than did employees without
organization performance, employee growth and access to these policies. Signaling theory (Casper &
development, improved employee health and safety Harris, 2008) and social exchange theory (Blau, 1964)
and employee job autonomy. have been used as explanations as to flexible work
schedules relate to attachment to the organization. flexible work schedules there is still likelihood of
Organizations offering flexible work schedules provide negative spillover from either side of the domains
a signal that they care about their employees’ well- especially for those employees who are not able to
being. Such signs promote greater psychological plan their time properly; they will still find their work
commitment and lower tendency to quit (Rhoades & encroaching into their family life as they try to meet
Eisenberger, 2002). These results suggest that the deadlines. Moreover, other forms of flexible work
availability of policies can influence turnover intentions schedules for example telework has resulted into work
when people perceive these policies as a sign that the being diffused over all hours of the day or week
organization cares for their well-being. Despite these extending later into the night and starting earlier in the
findings, it can be argued that not all the employees morning, and also spreading into vacations and
may perceive these policies as a signal for weekends (Hamermesh, 1999). Similarly, more and
organizations’ care of their welfare, others may feel more individuals are casually teleworking in planes,
that it is the obligation of the organization to provide trains, and automobiles, or in public places like coffee
them with these programme and thus they will have no shops and restaurants thereby enhancing work- family
impact on their intentions to leave the organization, conflict.
furthermore, it is difficult to predict whether the
Kelly, Kossek, Hammer, Durham, Bray, Chermack,
employees will perceive these schedules as priviledges
Murphy & Kaskubar (2008) posit that flexible work
or rights.
schedules like flexitime can have an impact on
Flexible work schedules were created to help organizational Performance through two processes:
employees cope with work–family conflict (Galinsky, firm revenues and firm costs. Flextime can increase
Bond, & Sakai, 2008). There are two types of work– firm revenues through attracting higher-quality
family conflict: Strain-based conflict, which occurs candidates and increasing the marginal productivity
when participating in one role produces stress that is of existing employees. Flextime can also decrease
carried into the other and time-based conflict, which costs through the reduction of turnover and
happens when participating in one role impedes time absenteeism. Flexible work arrangements when
spent in another role. This interference can occur from properly managed, create a win-win scenario for the
work-to-family and from family-to-work. Drawing on organization and employees (Rousseau, 2001). Thus,
the notion of domain specificity (Frone, 2003), organizational justice can be maintained without
predictors that reside in the work domain tend to be standardization by building trust among
more highly related to work–family conflict while organizational members, clarifying responsibilities
predictors that reside in the family domain tend to be and role requirements, and providing transparent and
more highly related to family-to-work. A previous concrete performance appraisals that inform the
meta-analysis examining the antecedents of work– provision as well as continued provision of those
family conflict showed that work practices were more work arrangements (Greenberg, Roberge, Ho, &
strongly related with work-to-family than with family- Rousseau, 2004). Moreover, publicly recognizing high
to-work (Byron, 2005). By offering flexible work performers with work flexibility may send a message
schedules, organizations show that they support to employees that such arrangements are a reward
employees’ well-being. In feeling supported by their for consistent high performance, are only continued
organizations, employees may experience more control given consistent performance results. On the
to cope with work–family demands (Wayne, Randel & contrary, the provision of these programmes alone is
Stevens, 2006). Nevertheless, even with availability of not a guarantee that there will be an improvement in
the performance of the organization, there must be hours of sleeping time which can be dangerous to their
Professional discipline among the employees. There is health.
also need for control and measurement; proper
A flexible work schedule enhances employee job
guidelines for managing the use of flexitime and for
autonomy. Autonomy is the degree to which the job
disciplining employees immediately and effectively
provides substantial freedom, independence, and
for misuse are necessary, measurements of outcomes
discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and
or outputs and productivity to control misuse are
in determining the procedures to be used in doing the
necessary and the programmes themselves must also
work. It is considered fundamental in building a sense
be tailed to the employee’s needs (Downes, &
of responsibility in employees. Although most
Koekemoer, 2011).
employees are willing to work within the broad
Work flexibility may also provide employees with constraints of an organization, employees want a
much-needed flexibility or time to engage in healthier certain degree of freedom. Autonomy has become very
lifestyles thereby resulting in improved health and important to people in the workplace. For example, a
safety. For example, there are strong empirical links salesperson is considered to be highly autonomous by
between flexible work schedules and physiological or scheduling his or her own work day and deciding on the
psychological health outcomes (Steenbergen & most effective approach to use for each customer
Ellemers, 2009). Perceived work flexibility predicts without supervision. As predicted by the job
better sleep behaviors, physical activity, and characteristic model, employee job autonomy is
participation in stress management practices significant as it enhances employee job satisfaction and
(Grzywacz, Carlson & Shulkin, 2008)). Moreover, motivation and consequently his or her performance
control over time away from work counteracts job on the job (Hackman and Oldham 1975). In as much as
stress and helps to maintain a person’s well-being. the employees would like to decide on where, when
Therefore, worker’s well-being significantly increases and how they want to carry out their jobs, the
with each additional day off from work. With management must provide proper guidance and
improvement in employee health the rate of establish proper measures and control to ensure that
absenteeism is likely to reduce and this is an added the employees do not abuse these priviledges and
advantage to the organization as it possible that the work towards achievement of the goals of the
employees will meet their production targets leading to organizations. This calls also for professional discipline
improved organization performance. On the contrary, among the employees to ensure that they meet their
the full implications of work-life initiatives on worker individual targets (Downes, & Koekemoer, 2011).
wellbeing have yet to be fully explored. For example, a
compressed workweek may have adverse health
outcomes due to long hours (Knauth, 2007), but many CHALLENGES OF FLEXIBLE WORK SCHEDULES
studies find no such health detriments and substantial Flexible work schedules have been observed to have
improvements in work-life balance (Bambra, a number of challenges. For instance, Grzywacz,
Whitehead, Sowden, Akers, & Petticrew, 2008). In Carlson & Shulkin (2008) argue that although it
addition to the fore mentioned, flexible work schedules enables organizations to extend working hours,
such as informal telework that forces employee to setting up and maintaining a time keeping systems
extend working hours even up to late in the night and will always come up with additional costs which might
double shifts raises health questions that need to be not necessarily be associated with remuneration. This
explored for examples employees rarely have regular may include power and water costs that are incurred
during the extended working hours. Furthermore,
measuring the productivity of those employees who
Besides the foregoing, the employees themselves
use flexible work schedules has always been
might also resist flexible work schedules, if a certain
considered a challenge. The success of these
kind of freedom and tolerance accompanies the
schedules will therefore require proper assessment
already existing system and if there are no proper
on the feasibility and sustainability of these
communication on the benefits in the use of such
programmes and proper budgeting in line with the
schedules (Podnar & Golob, 2010). Above this, is the
foreseeable costs. There is also need for proper
fact that even though, flexible work schedules have
training of the managers on areas to do with
been known to reduce the frequency of workplace
implementation, supervision and control measures of
conflicts, resentment might arise if the nature of work
these schedules to boost the managers’ competence
does not allow other employees to practice this
and skills in these related areas to enhance the
arrangement for the need of business continuity
achievement of the objectives in the use of these
especially with the customer service staff (Al-Rajudi,
schedules.
2012). For successful implementation of these
In addition to the above, managers are likely to be schedules, therefore there must be effective
burdened more with this kind of arrangement communication to the employees on the benefits that
especially, with regard to communication; supervision will be realized from using these programmes, for
and dealing with scheduling of employees working those whose nature of work may not allow for the
time (Towers-Perrin, 2001). This is occasioned by the use the available schedules, other alternatives should
fact that employees’ reporting and leaving time be provided in order to win their support for these
differs and therefore the management has to programmes.
organize for different schedules during which they
A part from the foregoing, there is possible stigma or
can supervise the workers. In fact, this is one of the
career penalties associated with using flexible work
reasons that make some managers not to embrace
schedules. A number of previous research support
this kind of work arrangement (Sweet, Pitt-
the notion that workers who make use of flexible
Catsouphes, & Besen, 2014). Furthermore, managers
work schedules suffer negative perceptions from
and organizational leaders may discourage flexible
colleagues and superiors (Allen, 2001). These
work schedules implicitly or explicitly because of their
employees are perceived by co-workers as having
reluctance to relinquish control (Dancaster, 2006).
lower levels of organizational commitment, which
The need for training of managers on the
was thought to affect the subsequent allocation of
implementation and supervision of employees’ using
organizational rewards such as career advancement
these schedules is therefore paramount for the
opportunities and salary. Participation in flexible work
success of these programmes. A part from this, there
schedules makes an employee less visible at work,
should be programmes specifying time periods where
which in turn, may form the obstacle for their career
all the employees are expected at work stations to
development and promotion prospects (Campbell &
make it easier for communication and supervision.
Clark, 2000). Furthermore, employees using flexible
There is also need for the management to find out
work schedules may be perceived as less committed
the type of jobs within the organization that will allow
to their organization and work (Allen, 2001), which
for flexibility since in most cases flexibility is easier to
may also jeopardize their career development. A
achieve in routine jobs as opposed to non-routine
study by Kirby & Krone (2002) found that working
ones.
part-time is incompatible with promotion and access
to a range of higher status male-dominated make executive and organizational leaders aware of
occupations. The negative career consequences make the importance of organizational culture in the
more employees reluctant to use these schedules implementation of flexible work schedules.
despite their availability. The success of flexible work Organization’ leaders can show their commitment to
arrangement will hence call for a change of attitude flexible work schedules by allocating the needed
of both the employees and management towards resources (Rayman, Bailyn, Dickert, Carre, Harvey &
those who opt for these schedules and supportive Read, 1999). At the same time, top management
relationships right from the management to the support can give employees the security they need to
employees. The culture of team work must be commit themselves to the effort since it encourages
inculcated in the employees and management for participation and input, and fosters the belief that
those organizations planning to offer flexible work risk-taking will be rewarded (Rayman et al., 1999).
schedules. Human resource managers may need to serve as
communication channel between users of the
The other challenge is on genders perceptions:
programs and top management (Nord, Fox, Phoenix
Perceptions that flexible work schedule is developed
& Viano, 2002). They should communicate with high-
only for women is a factor related to their use. A
level mangers about how the new programs are
review of men’s use of family friendly employment
affecting employees’ life and organizational
provisions argues that barriers to men’s use arise
performance, and encourage them to support more
from three major sources (Gutek et. Al. 1991). First
to the use of flexible work schedules.
the culture in many workplaces casts doubt on the
legitimacy of men’s claims to family responsibilities; Secondly, supervisors and line managers should be
secondly, the business environment is imposing cautioned that some of their traditional practices may
competitive pressures on business and firms to undermine the effectiveness of flexible work
maintain market share and increase earnings; and schedules (Nord et al., 2002). Human resource
thirdly, the domestic organization in employees’ own department should therefore offer new training for
homes often precludes men from taking up available them to accept the change in the workforce and the
flexible work schedules options. Some flexible work new job arrangement as a means of helping
provisions, such as paternity leave, are intended managers and supervisors overcome difficulties
specifically for men and aim to foster a greater involved in supervision and monitoring the
sharing of responsibilities between men and women. performance of employees utilizing these schedules
For the success of these schedules, therefore, there is and generally to change their attitudes towards the
need to encourage universality in the use of these different employees with gender, position and family
practices, this will see more men taking up these responsibility. It is only when organizational
opportunities for flexible work and more importantly management respects employees’ needs by balancing
there is need for a supportive work environment as their work and family, respect demands from all
well as change in attitudes and expectations in the employees (Glass & Finley, 2002), that these
wider community. schedules can achieve the effectiveness and
utilization. In addition, HR department should offer
In summary, for effective development and
Line managers some assistance in adapting their
implementation of flexible work schedules, there
managerial approaches to the new work
should be supportive organization culture that will
arrangements.
encourage employees to adapt these programs. In
line with this the human resource department should
Thirdly, new performance evaluation methods should organizations a competitive advantage in terms of
be established by human resource department. In recruitment, by enhancing perceptions of anticipated
order for the effective utilization of flexible work organizational support among job seekers (Casper &
schedules, the assumption that a worker out of sight Buffardi, 2004), particularly those who might require
is a worker out of control that prevails in many that support due to care giving responsibilities (Frone
organizations must be changed (Rayman et al., 1999), & Yardley, 1996). The availability of these practices
and this demands new performance evaluation may also increase positive job-related attitudes, work
methods. In other words, the organization should effort and contextual behaviours by enhancing social
establish the performance based assessment which exchange processes; as symbols of organizational
measure employees’ contribution and commitment concern for employees, flexible work schedules
by performance rather than face time (Glass & Finley, promote employee interest in and obligation to the
2002). Organization should therefore loosen organization. Having employees who make use of
managerial control while fostering high productivity available flexible work schedules may also incur cost
through outcome oriented evaluation for their savings for organizations via longer work hours and
employees (Glass & Finley, 2002). Furthermore, new enhanced productivity. Employees may work longer
evaluation procedures may be needed to reflect hours because flexible arrangements increase their
alterations among different kinds of contracts, availability for work and reduce their commuting
concerning not only the short-term evaluations of time, or because they are exchanging leisure time for
employees, but overall career paths as well (Nord et flexibility (Golden, 2001; Meyer et al., 2001). They
al, 2002). may choose to work during their peak hours in terms
of personal productivity or work extra hours during
Lastly, the human resource department should make
the organization’s peak times in exchange for
these programs to be perceived as fair by both users
flexibility at other times (McDonald et al., 2005). They
and non-users, consideration must be taken to avoid
may also increase their work effort to avoid losing a
subtle penalties with respect to task assignments,
job that offers them the flexibility they desire
compensation and promotion (Nord et al, 2001). In
(Shepard et al., 1996).
this regard, managers and supervisors should share
control and responsibility of flexible work schedules Despite these conclusions, the possibility that
with employees. Dialogue among employees in the successful organizations are more likely to offer work-
workplace is critical to overcoming both subtle life practices cannot be discounted and that the
resistance among supervisors and resentment of and schedules themselves may not be exerting a
to benefit acquired through the establishment of favourable effect on organizational performance is
flexible work schedules. Only by motivating also to be examined further through research.
employees in efforts to change the prevailing Equally, it may simply be that organizations offering
workplace culture, will fear of using flexible work work-life practices are more likely to engage in high-
options be overcome (Bailyn et al., 2001). quality management practices overall, generating
positive effects on employee and performance
outcomes. The review has also identified the
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION moderators of the link between flexible work
Flexible work practices are often associated with schedules and outcomes. For example, organizations
improved organizational performance. Making these are likely to reap the benefits of flexible work
practices available to employees appears to give schedules given particular demographic
characteristics of the employee that informs the anticipate negative repercussions arising from their
utilization of these practices and through the positive use, and career-oriented individuals of both sexes will
employee outcome that arises from the provision of continue to think twice before availing themselves of
such schedules such as job satisfaction, commitment the practices on offer. This would be a considerable
and reduced turnover among the employees. Still, step backwards for all concerned, and lessen the
there is need to examine whether there is direct benefits to organizations derived from improved
positive association between flexible work schedules employee perceptions of current or anticipated
and organizational performance, it is generally agreed organizational support. Similarly, flexible work
that many flexible work practices, such as flexi time, schedule should be designed and implemented in
telework, and informational assistance with such a way that both the organization and employees
dependent care services, have low financial costs that can derive the greatest possible benefits from them.
are associated primarily with program administration More research has been focused on gender and
and do not require an extensive initial outlay of family status, there is need to examine such
resources. demographic characteristics such as age and
education in relation to the use of flexible work
In addition to this the principle of universality of
schedules and particularly with respect to particular
these practices needs to be addressed; it should be a
schedules like compressed work and flexi place. The
common phenomenon in the organization that these
fact that most studies have not linked flexible work
practices are meant both for men and women.
schedules directly to organization performance leaves
Without necessary changes being made, users of
a gap in this area that needs to be fulfilled in order to
flexible work schedules will continue to be
be conclusive on whether flexible work schedules can
predominantly women, men will continue to
have a direct effect on organization performance.
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