Chapter 19

Network Layer:
Logical Addressing

19.1 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 19--1 IPv
19 IPv44 ADDRESSES

An IPv4
IPv4 address is a 32
32--bit address that uniquely and
universally defines the connection of a device (for
example, a computer or a router) to the Internet
Internet..

Topics discussed in this section:

Address Space
p
Notations
Classful Addressing
Cl l Add
Classless Addressing
i
Network Address Translation (NAT)

19.2
 Note

A IP
An IPv4
4 address
dd is
i 32 bits
bit long.
l

19.3
 Note

The IPv4 addresses are unique

and
d universal.
i l

19.4
 Note

The address space of IPv4 is

232 or 4,294,967,296.
4 294 967 296

19.5
Figure 19.1 Dotted-decimal notation and binary notation for an IPv4 address

19.6
 Note

Numbering systems are reviewed in

A
Appendix
di B.
B

19.7
 Example 19.1

Change the following IPv4 addresses from binary

notation to dotted-decimal notation.

Solution
We replace each group of 8 bits with its equivalent
decimal number (see Appendix B) and add dots for
separation.
separation

19.8
 Example 19.2

Change the following IPv4 addresses from dotted-decimal

notation to binary notation.

Solution
S l i
We replace each decimal number with its binary
equivalent
i l ( Appendix
(see A di B).
B)

19.9
 Example 19.3

Find the error, if any, in the following IPv4 addresses.

Solution
a. There
Th mustt be
b no leading
l di zero (045).
(045)
b. There can be no more than four numbers.
c. Each
E h numberb needs d tto be
b less
l than
th or equall to
t 255.
255
d. A mixture of binary notation and dotted-decimal
notation
t ti isi nott allowed.
ll d
19.10
 Note

In classful addressing, the address

space is
i divided
di id d into
i t five
fi classes:
l
A, B, C, D, and E.

19.11
 Figure 19.2 Finding the classes in binary and dotted-decimal notation

19.12
 Example 19.4

Find the class of each address.

a. 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
c. 14.23.120.8
d. 252.5.15.111

Solution
a. The
Th first
fi t bit is
i 0.
0 This
Thi isi a class
l A address.
dd
b. The first 2 bits are 1; the third bit is 0. This is a class C
address.
dd
c. The first byte is 14; the class is A.
d The
d. Th first
fi t byte
b t isi 252;
252 the
th class
l is
i E.
E
19.13
 Table 19.1 Number of blocks and block size in classful IPv4 addressing

19.14
 Note

In classful addressing, a large part of the

available
il bl addresses
dd were wasted.
t d

19.15
 Table 19.2 Default
f masks for
f classful
f addressing
g

19.16
 Note

Classful addressing, which is almost

obsolete,
b l t isi replaced
l d with
ith classless
l l
addressing.

19.17
 Example 19.5

Figure 19.3 shows a block of addresses, in both binary

and dotted-decimal notation, granted to a small business
that needs 16 addresses.

We can see that the restrictions are applied to this block.

The
h addresses
dd are contiguous.
i The
h number b off addresses
dd
is a power of 2 (16 = 24), and the first address is divisible
b 16.
by 16 The
Th first
fi address,
dd when
h convertedd to a decimal
d i l
number, is 3,440,387,360, which when divided by 16
results
l in
i 215,024,210.
215 024 210

19.18
 Figure 19.3 A block of 16 addresses granted to a small organization

19.19
 Note

In IPv4 addressing, a block of

addresses
dd can bbe ddefined
fi d as
x.y.z.t /n
in which x.y.z.t defines one of the
addresses and the /n defines the mask.

19.20
 Note

The first address in the block can be

f
found d by
b setting
tti the
th rightmost
i ht t
32 − n bits to 0s.

19.21
 Example 19.6

A block of addresses is granted to a small organization.

We know that one of the addresses is 205.16.37.39/28.
What is the first address in the block?

Solution
The
h binary
bi representation
i off theh given
i address
dd i
is
11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111
If we set 32−28
32 28 rightmost
i h bi
bits to 0,
0 we get
11001101 00010000 00100101 0010000
or
205.16.37.32.
Thi iis actually
This ll the
h bl
block
k shown
h iin Fi
Figure 19.3.
19 3
19.22
 Note

The last address in the block can be

f
foundd by
b setting
tti the
th rightmost
i ht t
32 − n bits to 1s.

19.23
 Example 19.7

Find the last address for the block in Example 19.6.

Solution
Theh bi
binary representation
i off the
h given
i address
dd is
i
11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111
Iff we set 32 − 28 rightmost
i h bi
bits to 1,
1 we get
11001101 00010000 00100101 00101111
or
205.16.37.47
Thi iis actually
This ll the
h bl
block
k shown
h iin Fi
Figure 19.3.
19 3

19.24
 Note

The number of addresses in the block

can be
b found
f d by
b using
i the
th formula
f l
232−n.

19.25
 Example 19.8

Find the number of addresses in Example 19.6.

Solution
The value of n is 28, which means that number
of addresses is 2 32−28 or 16.

19.26
 Example 19.9

Another way to find the first address, the last address, and
the number of addresses is to represent the mask as a 32 32-
bit binary (or 8-digit hexadecimal) number. This is
particularly useful when we are writing a program to find
these pieces of information. In Example 19.5 the /28 can
be represented as
11111111 11111111 11111111 11110000
(twenty-eight
(twenty eight 1s and four 0s).

Find
a. The first address
b. Thee last add
address
ess
c. The number of addresses.
19.27
 Example 19.9 (continued)

Solution
a. The first address can be found by ANDing the given
addresses with the mask. ANDingg here is done bit byy
bit. The result of ANDing 2 bits is 1 if both bits are 1s;
the result is 0 otherwise.

19.28
 Example 19.9 (continued)

b. The last address can be found by ORing the given

addresses with the complement of the mask. ORing
here is done bit by bit. The result of ORing 2 bits is 0 if
b h bits
both bi are 0s; the h result l is
i 1 otherwise.
h i The
h
complement of a number is found by changing each 1
to 0 andd each
h 0 to 1.
1

19.29
 Example 19.9 (continued)

c. The number off addresses can be ffound byy

complementing the mask, interpreting it as a decimal
number,, and addingg 1 to it.

19.30
 Figure 19.4 A network configuration for the block 205.16.37.32/28

19.31
 Note

The first address in a block is

normally ll nott assigned
i d to
t any device;
d i
it is used as the network address that
represents the organization
to the rest of the world.

19.32
 Figure 19.5 Two levels of hierarchy in an IPv4 address

19.33
 Figure 19.6 A frame in a character-oriented protocol

19.34
 Note

Each address in the block can be

considered as a two-level
hierarchical str
structure:
ct re
the leftmost n bits (prefix) define
the network;
g
the rightmost 32 − n bits define
the host.

19.35
 Figure 19.7 Configuration and addresses in a subnetted network

19.36
 Figure 19.8 Three-level hierarchy in an IPv4 address

19.37
 Example 19.10

An ISP is granted a block of addresses starting with

190.100.0.0/16 (65,536 addresses). The ISP needs to
distribute these addresses to three groups of customers as
f ll
follows:
a. The first group has 64 customers; each needs 256
addresses.
dd
b. The second group has 128 customers; each needs 128
addresses.
dd
c. The third group has 128 customers; each needs 64
addresses.
dd
Design the subblocks and find out how many addresses
are still
ill available
il bl after
f these
h allocations.
ll i
19.38
 Example 19.10 (continued)

Solution
Figure 19.9 shows the situation.
Group 1
For this group, each customer needs 256 addresses. This
means that 8 (log2 256) bits are needed to define each
host. The prefix length is then 32 − 8 = 24. The addresses
are

19.39
 Example 19.10 (continued)

Groupp 2
For this group, each customer needs 128 addresses. This
means that 7 ((log2
g 128)) bits are needed to define
f each
host. The prefix length is then 32 − 7 = 25. The addresses
are

19.40
 Example 19.10 (continued)
Group 3
For this ggroup,
p each customer needs 64 addresses. This
means that 6 (log264) bits are needed to each host. The
prefix
p f length
g is then 32 − 6 = 26. The addresses are

Number of granted addresses to the ISP: 65,536

65 536
Number of allocated addresses by the ISP: 40,960
Number of available addresses: 24,576
24 576
19.41
 Figure 19.9 An example of address allocation and distribution by an ISP

19.42
 Table 19.3 Addresses for private networks

19.43
 Figure 19.10 A NAT implementation

19.44
 Figure 19.11 Addresses in a NAT

19.45
 Figure 19.12 NAT address translation

19.46
 Table 19.4 Five-column translation table

19.47
 Figure 19.13 An ISP and NAT

19.48
 19--2 IPv
19 IPv66 ADDRESSES

D it all
Despite ll short-
short
h t-term
t solutions,
l ti address
dd d l ti
depletion i
is
still a long
long--term problem for the Internet
Internet.. This and
other
th problems
bl i the
in th IP protocol
t l itself
it lf have
h b
been th
the
motivation for IPv
IPv66.

Topics discussed in this section:

Structure
Address Space
p

19.49
 Note

An IPv6 address is 128 bits long.

19.50
 Figure 19.14 IPv6 address in binary and hexadecimal colon notation

19.51
 Figure 19.15 Abbreviated IPv6 addresses

19.52
 Example 19.11

Expand the address 0:15::1:12:1213 to its original.

Solution
We fi
first
st need
eed to alig
align tthee left side of tthee double colo
colon to
the left of the original pattern and the right side of the
double colon to the right
g off the original
g ppattern to ffind
how many 0s we need to replace the double colon.

This means that the original address is.

19.53
 Table 19.5 Type prefixes for IPv6 addresses

19.54
 Table 19.5 Type prefixes for IPv6 addresses (continued)

19.55
 Figure 19.16 Prefixes for provider-based unicast address

19.56
 Figure 19.17 Multicast address in IPv6

19.57
 Figure 19.18 Reserved addresses in IPv6

19.58
 Figure 19.19 Local addresses in IPv6

19.59