SEd Math 314 Number Theory

Chapter 1: Integers and Its Properties

At the end of this chapter, the reader should be able to:

discuss the basic concepts of integers, divisors, divisibility and linear combination,
deduce properties and related facts on integers and divisors,
apply the properties of integers, divisibility, divisors, linear combination, in solving problems
and proving statements,
discuss and prove the Euclidean Algorithm,
discuss and prove the fundamental theorem of arithmetic,
solve problems involving linear Diophantine equations
determine whether a given a positive integer is prime or not using definition and Sieve of
Erathosthenes,
discuss twine primes, Fermat’s primes and Mersenne Primes.
deduce and prove properties of primes

INTEGERS

Definition 1.1 Integers

The set of integers consist of the set {…, -3,-2,-1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}. We shall denote this set by Z. This set
consists of 3 subsets.

Z+ = the set of positive integers or non-negative integers

= {1, 2, 3,…}

Set containing Zero = { 0 }

Z- = the set of negative integers

= {-1, -2, -3,…}

Hence, the set Z is the union of positive integers, zero number and the negative integers.

PROPERTIES OF INTEGERS

Two Basic Properties of Integers

1. Well Ordering Principle

2. Principle of Induction/Mathematical Induction (Peano’s Postulate on N)

Well-Ordering Principle

Every non-empty subset of Z+ has a least element.

Illustration 1.1 Consider the set defined by,

A= {2, 4, 6, 8}. Clearly the least element is 2

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Illustration 1.2 The set of all counting numbers greater than 2 has 3 as the least element. Why do
you think so?

Principle of Mathematical Induction

Let P(n) be a statement involving the positive integers (counting numbers). If we can prove that

1. P(1) is true, that is, P(n) is true for n = 1.

2. If P(n) is true for n = k, where k is an arbitrary
3. For every positive integer n, it is also true for n = k + 1, then the statement is true for all
positive integers.

The mathematical induction can be used to prove some statements and its proof has two parts,
namely:

1. Verification
2. Proof of induction

Example 1.1 The sum of the first n integers is given by

1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + = n (n + 1)/2 for all positive integers.

Suppose we let P(n) = 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + = n (n + 1)/2 and verify this sum

for n = 1, n = 2, n = 3.

For n = 1, 1 = 1(1+1)/2 = 1(2)/2 = 2/2 = 1

n = 2, 2 = 1+2 = 2(2+1)/2 = 2(3)/2 = 6/2 = 3
n = 3, 3 = 1+2+3 = 3(3+1)/2 = 3(4)/2 =12/2 = 6

Therefore, P(n) is true for n = 1, n = 2 and n = 3.

Proofs of statements using mathematical induction will be discussed in Chapter 2.

Exercise 1.1

A. Give at least 5 sets and determine the corresponding least element.

B. Verify the following statements for few cases, n = 1, n = 2 and n = 3.

a. 1 + 3 + 5 + . . . + (2n 1) = n 2.

b. 2 + 4 + 6 + . . . + 2n = n 2 + n

n(n  1)(2n  1)
c. 12 + 22 + 32 + . . . + n 2 = .
6

n(2n  1)(2n  1)
d. 12 + 32 + 52 + . . . + (2n 1)2 = .
3

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n(n  1)(n  2)
e. 1.2 + 2.3 + 3.4 + . . . + n(n+1) =
3

DIVISIBILITY

Theorem 1.1 The Division Algorithm

Given any two positive integers, a and b, there exist unique two integers q and r (0  r  b and
0  q), called respectively quotient and remainder, such that

a = b .q + r

Illustrations 1.1

1. Consider a = 870 and b = 84. Now, if we divide 870 by 84, we get 10 and a remainder of 30,
Hence, 870 = 84 (10) + 30 where q = 10 and r = 30.

2. Let a = 836 and b = 25. Dividing 836 by 25 gives 33 and a remainder of 11. Therefore,
836 = 25(33) + 11.

Exercise 1.2

Verify the Division Algorithm using the following values of a and b.

1. a = 329 and b = 16
2. a = 768 and b = 253
3. a = 480 and b = 60
4. a = 2905 and b = 117
5. a = 5237 and b = 125

Illustration 1.2 Let a = 280 and b = 70, then 280 = 70(4) + 0.

In this case, 70 is an exact divisor of 280. Notice that if the remainder is 0, b divides a exactly but
this is not the case as we can see in illustrations 1 and 2, if the remainder is not 0.

The above idea about a number being divisible by exactly by another number is given by the
following definition.

Definition 1.2 Divisors

An integer a  0 is called a divisor or factor of an integer b if there exists another integer c such
that b = ac. The integer b is called an integral multiple of a.

In symbols, we can state definition as follows:

If a  0  Z, then a b iff  c  Z s. t. b = ac.

a b is read as “a divides b”
iff is read as “if and only if”
 is read as “there is/there exists”

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s.t. is read as “such that”

Illustrations 1.3

1. 2 6 (read as 2 divides 6) since there is a 3  Z such that 6 = 2(3). Also, 3 6 (3 divides 6)

since 6 = 3(2).

2. 4 12 since –3  Z and ( 4)( 3) = 12. Clearly, 3 12.

3. For any a  Z, a 0 since 0 = a(0). However, it is not the case that 0 a since there is no
integer x such that 0(x) = a, unless a is also zero and in which case x could be any integer,
and, therefore, can’t be unique. Hence, if a  0, then
0 a is meaningless. We say that a  0 is undefined.

4. Show that 4 does not divide 10, i.e. 4 10.

Suppose that 4 10 (4 divides 10). Then, there must be x  Z such that 4(x) = 10.

Let us look for x if such integer exists.

Let x = 1, then 4(x) = 4(1) = 4

x = 2, then 4(x) = 4(2) = 8
x = 3, then 4(x) = 4(3) = 12

Now, we know that 10 is between 8 and 12 but there is no integer x between 2 and 3. Hence, there
is no way we can get the 10 in 4(x). Therefore, it is not true that

4 10 (4 divides 10). Thus, 4 10 (4 does not divide 10).

Exercise 1.3

1. Prove that 6 18 (6 divides 18) but 6 14 (6 does not divide 14).

2. Prove that 7 21 (7 divides 210 but 7 30 (7 does not divide 30).

Some Applications of the Definition of Divisor

1. Prove that the product of two even integers is even.

Proof. Let m and n be two even integers. By definition of even integers, m and n can be written as
follows:
m = 2s, s  Z
n = 2t, t  Z

Consider, the product of m and n,

mn = 2s(2t)
= 2 (2st) by associative property on product of integers.
mn = 2r, r = 2st  Z (by closure property)

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By the definition of divisor, 2 divides mn or mn is divisible by 2. This implies that mn is even.

Therefore, the product of any two positive integers is even.

Exercise 1.4

Prove the following:

1. The sum of two even integers is even.

2. The sum of two odd integers is even
3. The product of two odd integers is odd.
4. The sum of odd and even is odd.
5. The product of odd and even is even.

Definition 1.3 Linear Combination

If a, b, x, y  Z, then the expression ax + by is called a linear combination of a and b.

Illustrations 1.4

1. If a = 2, b = 5 and x, y  Z, then the expression 2x + 5y is a linear combination of 2 & 5.

2. Let a = 3, b = 7 and x, y  Z, then the expression 3x + 7y is a linear combination of 3 & 7.

Exercise 1.5

1. If a = 3, b = 8 and x, y  Z, then what is the expression for which a and b is a linear combination
of 2 and 3?

2. If a = 5, b = 11 and x, y  Z, then what is the expression for which a and b is a linear

combination of 5 and 11?

3. Is x + 4y a linear combination of two integers? If yes, for what two integers will x +4y a linear
combination of?

4. How about 3x? Is it a linear combination of two integers? If yes, what are the two integers?

5. How about -8y? Is it a linear combination of two integers? If yes, what are the two integers?

The consequences of the above definition are the following properties.

Some Basic Properties of Divisors

1. If a b, then a bx  x  Z. (multiple)

2. If a b, b c, then a c. (transitive)
3. If a b, a c, then a (bx + cy)  x, y  Z.
4. If a b, b a, then a =  b.

Property 3. If a b, a c, then a (bx + cy) for all x, y  Z.

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Illustrations 1.

1. Since 2 6 and 2 8, then 2 (6x + 8y). This can be shown using definition 1.1.

Note that we can express 6x + 8y as

6x + 8y = 2(3x) + 2(4y) where x, y  Z

= 2(3x + 4y)
= 2(s + t), s = 3x and t = 4y where s, t  Z
= 2p, p = s + t and p  Z

The above shows that 2 (6x + 8y).

Proof of Property 3:

Given: c a and c b

Statement to be proven: c (ax + by)

Since c a and c b, then there exist integers m and n such that a = mc and b = nc.

Then,

ax + by = mcx + ncy = c(mx + ny). This shows that c (ax + by) by definition 1.1

As a consequence of Property 3, we have the following corollary.

Corollary 1.1

If a number c divides a sum of two numbers, m and n, and if it divides one of the two numbers,
then it also divides the other. In other words, if c (m + n) where m, n  Z and c m, then c n.

Illustrations 1.5:

Suppose 3 divides the sum of x + 9, since it divides 9, the corollary says that it must also divide x.
Let us verify this by few examples.

If x = 1, x + 9 = 1 + 9 = 10. But 10 is not divisible by 3. Hence, we disregard x = 1.

If x = 2, x + 9 = 2 + 9 = 11. But 11 is not divisible by 3. Hence, we disregard x = 2.
If x = 3, x + 9 = 3 + 9 = 12. Here 12 is divisible by 3 and so with x = 3.
If x = 4, x + 9 = 4 + 9 = 13. But 13 is not divisible by 3. Hence, we disregard x = 4.
If x = 5, x + 9 = 5 + 9 = 14. But 14 is not divisible by 3. Hence, we disregard x = 5.
If x = 6, x +9 = 6 + 9 = 15 which is divisible by 3 and so with x = 6.

We have noticed from values of x that only for those divisible by 3 is the expression x + 9 also
divisible by 3.

Common Divisors

Common divisors of a and b are divisors common to a and b.

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Divisors of 12: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12

Remarks 1.1

1) We shall consider only positive divisors of an integer.

2) An integer has a finite number of divisors.
3) Set of divisors of a and b is finite.

The above remarks show the existence of the greatest common divisor.

Definition 1.4 Greatest Common Factor (GCF/GCD)

Let a and b be two integers,

g is the gcd of a and b iff the ff. are true:

1. g a and g b (g divides a and g divides b).

2. If d a (d divides a) and d b (b divides b), then g  d.
3. g  1.

Illustration 1.6

Consider 18 and 42 as two integers. We say that 6 is the gcd of 18 and 42 since

1. 6 18 and 6 42

2. 3 18 and 3 42 but 6 > 3
3. 6 > 1.

We shall denote the symbol, g = (a, b) or (a, b) = g the greatest common divisor of a and b is g. In
other words, the symbol g = (a, b) or (a, b) = g is read as “the greatest common divisor of a and b is equal
to d.

How to Find the gcd (Greatest Common Divisor)?

1. By listing the factors  brute force method

2. Euclidean Algorithm  repeated division algorithm
3. Division Algorithm

Euclidean Algorithm

The Euclidean Algorithm is a process for finding the greatest common divisor (gcd) of two
integers with repeated application of the Division Algorithm.

Theorem 1.2

Let a, b  Z. by repeated application of Division Algorithm

b = aq1 + r1 0  r1  a
a = r1q2 + r2 0  r2  r1

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r1 = r2q3 + r3 0  r3  r2
.
.
.
rk-2 = rk-1qk + rk 0  rk  rk-1
rk-1 = rk qk+1 + 0

Then, gcd of a and b is g(a, b) = rk.

The above theorem implies that the last nonzero remainder gives the gcd of a and b.

Example 1.2

What is the gcd of 243 and 96?

Let a = 243 and b = 96. Applying the Division Algorithm repeatedly,

243 = 96(2) + 51
96 = 51(1) + 45
51 = 45(1) + 6
45 = 6(8) + 3
6 = 3(2) + 0

Thus, the gcd of 243 and 96 is 3.

Using continuous division we obtain the same gcd of 3 for 243 and 96 as shown below.

2
96 243
192
51 96 1
51
45 51 1
45
6 45 7
42
3 6 2
6
0

Therefore, the gcd of 243 and 96 is 3.

Example 1.3

Find the gcd if a = 657 and b = 963.

Using the Division Algorithm (DA) we can express,

963 = 657(1) + 306

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Applying the Division Algorithm repeatedly we have,

657 = 306(2) + 45
306 = 45(6) + 36
45 = 36(1) + 9
36 = 4(9) + 0

Since the last nonzero remainder is 9, hence, the gcd (963, 657) = 9.

The above process can also be performed using the continuous division as shown below.
1
657 963
657
306 657 2
306
45 306 6
270
36 45 1
36
9 36 4
36
0

Exercise 1.6.

1. Find the gcd(39, 91), gcd(153, 201), gcd(132, 231), gcd(264, 824), gcd(217, 1484).
2. Use the Euclidean Algorithm to find integers x and y satisfying the following:
(a) gcd(7, 84) = 7x + 84y
(b) gcd(16, 92) = 16x + 92y
(c) gcd(26, 182) = 26x + 182y
(d) gcd(54, 81)=54x + 81y
(e) gcd(117, 2107) = 117x + 2107y

Some Divisibility Rules

1. An integer N is divisible by 3 if and only if 3ai (3 divides the summation of ai’s) where ai’s are
digits of the decimal expansion of N.

The polynomial form of an equation of an integer N:

N = a0 + a1(10) + a2(102) + a3(103) + . . . + an(10n)

Illustrations 1.7:

a. Let N = 123. Then a0 = 3, a1 = 2 and a2 = 1

ai = 1 + 2 + 3 = 6
Since 36, therefore, 3 N or 3123.

b. Let N = 5901. Then, a0 = 1, a1 = 0, a2 = 9 and a3 = 5

ai = 5 + 9 + 0 + 1 = 15, 315, hence, 35901.

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2. An integer N is divisible by 9 if and only if 9 ai (9 divides the summation of ai’s) where ai’s
are digits of the decimal expansion of N.

Illustrations 1.8:

a. Consider N = 234. Then, a0 = 4, a1 = 3 and a2 = 2

ai = 4 + 3 + 2 = 9. Note that 9 9, hence, 9 234

b. N = 9288, a0 = 8, a1 = 8 a2 = 2 and a3 = 9.
ai = 8 + 8 + 2 + 9 = 27. Since 9 27, therefore, 9 9288.

3. An integer N is divisible by 4 if and only if M is divisible by 4 where M is formed by the last 2

digits of N.

Illustrations 1.9:

a. N = 3572, M = 72. Clearly 4 72, and 4 3572 or 3572 is divisible 4.

b. N = 41414, M = 14. In this case, 4 does not divide 14. Hence, 41414 is not divisible by 4.

4. An integer N is divisible by 8 if and only if M is divisible by 8 where M is formed by the last 3

digits of N.

Illustrations:

a. Let N = 10016. Then M = 016 and is divisible by 8. Thus, 10016 is divisible by 8.

b. Suppose N = 50112, M = 112. Observe that 8 112. Therefore 50112 is divisible by 8.

5. If an integer N is divisible by 2k if and only if 2k M, where M is the number formed by the last k
digits of N. This means that if the last k digits of N is divisible by 2k, then N is divisible by 2k.

For 21 = 2: N is divisible by 2, so we only test last digit.

For 22 = 4: N is divisible by 4, so we only test the last two digits.
For 23 = 8: N is divisible by 8, so we only test the last three digits.
For 24 = 16 N is divisible by 16, so we only test the last four digits.
.
.
.
For 2k N is divisible by 2k, so we only test the last k digits.

6. An integer N is divisible by 11 if and only if M is divisible by 11, where M is the difference

between the sum of the digits of N in the even places and the sum of the digits in the odd places.

Illustrations 1.10:

a. Let N = 3157892.

The sum of odd places = 3 + 5 + 8 + 2 = 18

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The sum of even places = 1 + 7 + 9 = 17

Since the difference between 18 and 17 is 1 and 1 is not divisible by 11, hence, 3157892
is not divisible by 11.

b. Let N = 3156802.

The sum of odd places = 3 + 5 + 8 + 2 = 18

The sum of even places = 1 + 6 + 0 = 7

The difference between 18 and 7 is 11 and 11 is divisible by 11, hence, 3156802 is

divisible by 11.

c. Let N = 509190.

The sum of odd places = 5 + 9 + 9 = 23

The sum of even places = 0 + 1 + 0 = 1

Clearly, 509190 is divisible by 11 since the difference between 23 and 1 is 22 which is

divisible by 11.

7. A number is divisible by 7 if the difference between twice the units digit and the number formed
by the remaining digits after truncating the units digit is a multiple of 7.

Illustration 1.11

Is 343 divisible by 7? Following the rule as follows:

a) Truncate the units digit, 3.

b) Twice the units digit is 2(3) = 6.
c) Subtracting 6 from the remaining digits 34 (after truncating the units digit, 3) gives 34 – 6 = 28
which is divisible by 7.

Hence 343 is divisible by 7.

Illustration 1.12

Verify whether 8050 is divisible by 7. Following the rule we have,

a) Truncate the units digit, 0.

b) Twice the units digit is 2 (0) = 0.
c) Subtracting 0 from the remaining digits 805 (after truncating the units digit, 0) gives 805 – 0
= 805 is still a big number.
d) Repeat the process, that is, truncate the units digit, 5.
e) Twice the units digits is 2(5) = 10.
f) Subtracting 10 from the remaining digits 80 (after truncating 5) gives 70 which is a multiple
of 7 (divisible by 7)

Hence, 8,043 is divisible by 7.

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Note: The process may be repeated thereafter if the difference between the remaining digits and
twice the last digit is still a big number.

Exercise 1.7.

A. Without performing the division operation for the following integers together with corresponding
divisor, determine whether the divisibility holds true or not. If not, explain why.

1. 207 by 3 6. 246600 by 9
2. 12016 by 4 7. 216910 by 3
3. 122345 by 6 8. 4010022 by 4
4. 123110 by 8 9. 2301200 by 8
5. 289905 by 11 10. 2505801 by 11

B. State/Discuss/Explain the rule for divisibility by 13.

C. State/Discuss/Explain the rule in determining whether an integer is divisible by 7, 11 and 13.

Linear Diophantine Equations: ax + by = c, where a, b and c are integers

Historical Notes:

Linear Diophantine Equations is an honor of Diophantus. His life comes from an epigram found in a
collection called the Greek Anthology: “Diophantus passed one sixth of his life in childhood, one twelfth
in youth, and one-seventh as a bachelor. Five years after his marriage was born a son who died four years
before his father, at half his father’s age”. From this the reader can infer that Diophantus lived to age of
____.

ax + by = c

Note: The equation describing this line has infinitely many solutions.

Definition 1.5 Linear Diophantine Equation

The equation ax + by = c is a Linear Diophantine Equation if and only if the solutions are
restricted to integers only.

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Example 1.4 : 4x + 3y = 5

. (0, 5/3) is not a solution

.
. . . .
. 1 2
. (2, -1) is a solution

Observe that the above equation has a solution x = 2 and y = 1 which are integers.

Example 1.5. The linear Diophantine equation, 4x + 10y = 11 has no solution which are integers or
integral solution. Why do you think so?

What did you observe in the above two equations?

What is the gcd of a and b in equation 1? How about the gcd of a and b in equation 2?

Does the gcd of a and b in equation 1 divide c? What about in equation 2?

How to Determine if a Linear Diophantine Equation has Solution?

Theorem 1.3

The equation ax + by = c has a solution (integral solution) if the greatest common divisor of a and b
divides c or c is divisible by the gcd of a and b.

Observed that Example 1.4 (4x + 3y = 5) has an integral solution because (4, 3) = 1 (gcd of 4 and 3 is 1)
and it divides 5. On the other hand, Example 1.5, 4x + 10y = 11 has no integral solution since (4, 10) = 2
does not divide 11.

Theorem 1.4

If x0, y0 are particular solutions to ax + by = c, then the general solution are given by

x = x0 + bt/d, t  Z

y = y0 – at/d, t  Z
d = (a, b)

Solution of Linear Diophantine Equation Using the Euclidean Algorithm.

Example 1.6

Let us consider the equation 33x + 14y = 319. What are the integral solutions of this equation?

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We begin by examining whether the equation has solution(s). The greatest common divisor of 33
and 14 is 1 and it divides 319 or (33, 14)319. Hence, the equation has a solution.

By the Division Algorithm, a = 33 and b = 14 can be written as,

33 = 14(2) + 5

Using the Euclidean Algorithm or repeated application of the Division Algorithm, the above
equation can be expressed as follows:

14 = 5(2) + 4
5 = 4(1) + 1 1 = 5 – 4(1)
= 5 + 4(-1)
4 = 1(4) + 0 = 5 + [14 –5(2)]( 1)
= 5 + 14( 1) + 5(2)
= 5(3) + 14 ( 1)
= [33 – 14(2)](3) + 14 ( 1)
= 33(3) – 14(6) + 14( 1)
= 33(3) + 14( 6) + 14( 1)
1 = 33(3) + 14( 7)

We see that using backward approach as shown in the right side of the above, the g(33, 14) = 1 is
a linear combination of 33 and 14.

Now with the given equation, 33x + 14y = 319 and

33(3) + 14( 7) = 1. (*)

What do we do to equation (*) so that the right side of this equation will become 319?

Hence, we have

[33(3) + 14( 7) = 1] 319

33(3)(319) + 14( 7)(319) = 1 (319)
33(957) + 14( 2233) = 319

Therefore, x = 957 and y = 2233 are solutions of the equation.

Let us denote x0 = 957 and y0 = 2233 be the particular solutions of the equation 33x + 14y = 319

Recall that the general solutions of the equation are of the form,

X = x0 + bt/d and Y = y0 – at/d, t  Z.

So we have,
X = 957 + 14t/1 and Y = -2233 – 33t/1

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Hence, the general solutions of the equation 33x + 14y = 319 are expressed in the following:

X = 957 + 14t and Y = 2233 – 33t.

Thus, for every t  Z, the solutions for 33x + 14y = 319 can be obtained using the above general
solutions.

If t = 0, x = 957 and y = 2233

If t = 1, x = 971 and y = 2266

Exercise 1.8

Determine whether each of the following linear Diophantine equations has solutions. If yes
determine all the solutions, otherwise, explain why.

1. 8x + 13y = 17 4. 54x + 81y = 18

2. 25x + 95y = 970 5. 14x + 98y = 17
3. 9x + 51y = 23 6. 13x + 65y = 26

Applications of linear Diophantine Equation

The famous application of the Linear Diophantine Equation is the problem on “The Spider and the
Beetle”. The problem is stated this way,

Example 1.7

How many spiders and beetles are there in cage if there are 46 legs?

If you have not heard what we call the Diophantine Equation, you might do it by trial and error.
This is to consider the number of legs both a spider and a beetle have and to assume possible
number of spiders to determine the number of beetles. However, this involves tedious work. The
Euclidean Algorithm and above two theorems can be used to solve the problem.

Solution:

If we let x be the number of spiders and y be the number of beetles. The equation would be

8x + 6y = 46

Do you think the above equation describes the given problem? Why

Now we evaluate whether the above equation has a solution. Notice that
(6, 8) = 2 or the gcd of 6 and 8 is 2 divides 46, we say that the equation has solution.

By the Division Algorithm, a = 6 and b = 8 can be written as,

8 = 6 (1) + 2

Using Euclidean Algorithm, we have

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6 = 2(3) + 0

Hence, the greatest common divisor can be expressed as linear combination of 8 and 6 as follows:

2 = 8 – 6(1)
2 = 8(1) + 6( 1) (*)

Note that the given equation is 6x + 8y = 46, so we multiple (*) by 23 to make the quantity in the
left side of the equation equal to 46 and to obtain the desired solutions of this equation as shown below.

[8(1) + 6( 1) = 2] 23
8(23) + 6( 23) = 46

Therefore, the particular solutions are x = 23 and y = – 23. However, we cannot say that there are
23 spiders and – 23 beetles. Hence, we need to consider the general solutions of the equation. Based on
these particular solutions, the general solutions can be obtained from the following equations:

X = 23 + 6t/2 and Y = 23 – 8t/2

X = 23 + 3t and Y = 23 – 4t

The values of X and Y must be positive, that is, x > 0 and y > 0. Why do you think so?

Consider,

23 + 3t >0 and –23 – 4t >0

3t > 23 4t > 23
t > 23/3 t < 23/3
t > 7.67 t < 5.75

In the Number Line, the solutions of the two inequalities can be obtained.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

What is the solution set of the above two inequalities?

If t = 6, then X = 5 and Y = 1. This means that there are 5 spiders and 1 beetle. The other
possible solutions of t will give corresponding number of spiders and beetles.

Exercise 1.9

1. How many 25-centavo and 10-centavo coins are there if the total amount is
P1.75?
2. A grocer orders apples and oranges at a total cost of P241.20. If apples cost him P7.50 each and
oranges cost him P5.40 each, how many of each type of fruit did he order?
3. A theater charges P180 for adult admission and P75 for children. If the total receipts were
P36,375 on a particular day, how many people attended the show. Assume that more adults than
children were present.
4.

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 SEd Math 314 Number Theory

Definition 1.6. Prime

An integer p is prime iff (if and only if) p > 1 and the only positive divisors of p are p and 1.

Alternative Definition of Prime

An integer p is prime iff (if and only if) p > 1 and there exist no divisors d such that
1 < d < p.

Canonical Form of Integers

Theorem 1.5 The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic (Unique Factorization Theorem)

Every integer n > 1 is a product of primes in one and only one way, a part from the order of
factors.

Illustrations 1.13:

1. 12 = 2.2.3 = 2.3.2 = 3.2.2 = 22.3

2. 28 = 2.2.7 = 2.7.2 = 7.2.2 = 22.7
3. 56 = 2.2.2.7 = 2.2.7.2 = 2.7.2.2 = 7.2.2.2 = 2 3.7
4. 90 = 2.3.3.5 = 2.3.5.3 = 3.5.2.3 = 3.5.3.2 = ….. = 2.3 2.5
5. 150 = 2.3.5.5 = 2.5.5.3 = 5.5.3.2 = 5.5.2.3 = 2.3.52

Let n an integer, then

n = p1 p2 p3. . . pk where pi is a prime.

HOW TO DETERMINE IF AN INTEGER IS PRIME?

A. By definition
B. Sieve of Eratosthenes

A. Determine if N is prime using the theorem:

Theorem 1.6

If no prime less than the N (square root of N) divides N then N is prime.

Given any integer N, we can start by approximating N to the nearest integer.

Example 1.8. Suppose N = 91

The (square root of 91) 91  10.

Test if a prime which is less than 91  10 is a divisor of 91.

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 SEd Math 314 Number Theory

The prime numbers 2, 3, 5, 7 are less 10.

Notice that 2 does not divide 91 and so with 3 and 5 but 7 divides 91.

Therefore, 91 is not a prime number since there is a p = 7 which is prime such that it divides 91.

Example 1.9. Consider the integer 211.

N= 211 and 211  15

The prime numbers which are less than 15 are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11 and 13.

Now, we observed that 2, 3, 5, 7, 11 and 13 does not divide 211.

Hence, 211 is a prime number.

Exercise 1.10

Determine whether each of the following is prime or not prime. Explain your answer.

1. 701
2. 977
3. 1009
4. 2119
5. 3023

B. Sieve of Eratosthenes

Eratosthenes is a Greek scholar who discovered a convenient procedure to determine the prime numbers.
This method is called Sieve of Eratosthenes and it is done in the following manner.

1. List all the numbers you wish to test.

2. Cross out every number which is divisible by 2, except 2 itself.
3. Next, cross out all multiples of 3, except 3 itself
4. Ignore 4 since it is already crossed out
5. Cross out all multiples of 5, except 5 itself.
6. Six is already crossed out so cross out all multiples of 7, except 7 itself.

After performing the above procedures, the prime can now be determined given the first 50, 100,
1000, 2000, etc. positive integers.

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 SEd Math 314 Number Theory

Let us consider the first 50 positive integers,

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

9 10 11 12 13 14 15

16 17 18 19 20 21 22

23 24 2 26 27 28 29
5
30 31 32 33 34 3 36
5
37 38 39 40 41 42 43

44 45 46 47 48 49 50

Legend: multiples of 2 is crossed out

multiples of 3 not crossed out by 2 is crossed out
multiples of 5 not crossed out by 2 or 3 is crossed out
X multiples of 7 not crossed out by 2, 3 or 5 is crossed out

Thus, the prime numbers in the set of the first 50 integers are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31,
37, 41, 43, and 47.

Exercise 1.11.

Use the Sieve of Eratosthenes to determine the prime numbers from the first

1. 100 integers
2. 150 integers
3. 200 integers
4. 250 integers
5. 300 integers

Definition 1.7 Twin Primes

Two primes are said to be twin primes if they are separated by just a single composite number.

Example 1.10

The prime numbers, 17 and 19 are separated by only the composite number 18. Hence, they are
twin primes.

Conjectures of Mersenne and Fermat on Prime Numbers

Let us investigate the conjectures of Mersenne and Fermat concerning prime numbers.

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 SEd Math 314 Number Theory

Definition 1.8 Mersenne’s Prime

The set of numbers of the form

2n – 1 where n ≥ 1

are called Mersenne numbers.

This set of numbers is invented by Father Marin Mersenne (1588-1648), a French monk. A subset
of this set which are primes is said to be Mersenne primes. He asserted that

2n – 1 is prime if n is prime.

For n =2, 22 1 = 3 is a prime

n = 3, 23 1 = 7 is a prime

n = 5, 25 1 = 31is a prime

n = 7, 27 1 = 127 is prime

n = 11, 211 1 = 2047 is not a prime

n = 13, 213 1 = 8191 is a prime

Noticed that his assertion is false when n = 11.

He found out that and 2n – 1 is prime if n = 17, 19, 31, 67, 127 and 257 and composite for all
other primes p < 257.

Thus, the assertion of Mersenne in general is not valid.

The list of Mersenne prime numbers is given in the next page.

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 SEd Math 314 Number Theory

Table 1. List of 38 Mersenne Prime Numbers.

Mersenne Number Number of Digits Date of Discovery

______________________________________________________________
1 22 - 1 1 unknown
3
2 2 –1 1 unknown
3 25 – 1 2 unknown
4 27 – 1 3 unknown
5 213 - 1 4 1456
6 217 – 1 6 1588
7 219 – 1 6 1588
8 2 –1
31
10 1772
9 261 – 1 19 1883
10 289 – 1 27 1911
11 2107 – 1 33 1914
12 2127 – 1 39 1876
13 2521 – 1 157 1952
14 2 –1
607
183 1952
15 21279 – 1 386 1952
16 22203 – 1 664 1952
17 22281 – 1 687 1952
18 23217 – 1 969 1957
19 24253 – 1 1281 1961
20 2 4423
–1 1332 1961
21 29689 – 1 2917 1963
22 29941 – 1 2993 1963
23 211213 – 1 3376 1963
24 219937 – 1 6002 1971
25 221701 – 1 6533 1978
26 2 23209
–1 6987 1978
27 244497 – 1 13395 1979
28 286243 – 1 25962 1983
29 2110503 – 1 33265 1989
30 2132049 – 1 39751 1983
31 2216091 – 1 65050 1985
32 2756839 – 1 227832 1992
33 2 859433
–1 258716 1994
34 21257787 – 1 378632 1996
35 21398269 – 1 420921 1996
36 22976221 – 1 895932 1996
37 23021377 – 1 909526 1998
38 26972593 – 1 2098960 1999
__________________________________________________________

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 SEd Math 314 Number Theory

Source: Introduction to Number Theory by David Burton

Explore and discover the next Mersenne primes! Who knows you will discover the next Mersenne
primes!!!

Definition 1.9 Fermat’s Prime

Any number of the form 2n +1, n ≥ 0 is called Fermat numbers. This is denoted Fn. In symbol, we
write the set of all Fermat Numbers,

Fn = 2n + 1 where n ≥ 0.

Fermat observed that

F0 = 21 +1 = 3
F1 = 22 + 1 = 5
F2 = 24 + 1 = 17
F3 = 28 + 1 = 257
F4 = 216 + 1 = 65,537
.
.
.
He claimed that

2n + 1 is prime if n is a power of 2.

Is his conjecture correct?

In 1732, Euler disproved his conjecture and found out that

F5 = 232 +1 = 4,294,967,297 is divisible by 641.

Hence, 2n + 1 is not prime for all n, where n is a power of 2.

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 SEd Math 314 Number Theory

Exercise 1.12 (Project to be submitted before the midterm examination)

1. On the table below, indicate the number of primes and the proportions of primes between the two
ranges.

Range Number of Proportion Range Number of Proportion

Primes Primes
1 – 100 25 25/100 1 – 100
1 – 200 100 – 200
1 – 300 200 – 300
1 – 400 300 – 400
1 – 500 400 – 500
1 – 1000 500 – 1000
1 – 2000 1000 -2000
1 – 4000 2000 – 4000

What do you observe about the set of prime numbers?

2. Observing the last digits of prime numbers, answer each of the following:

2.1 What numbers appear as the last digits of prime numbers? List them
down.

2.2 Are some last digits appear often than others in the first 100 primes? What about the
first 200 Primes?

3. Consider the possible remainders when primes are divided by a particular number.

3.1 What remainders occur when prime numbers are divisible by 2?

3.2 How about if you divide them by 3. Do some remainders occur more frequently than
others?

3.3 Try dividing by 4 or 6

3.4 Try some other divisors

4. Investigate the separation of primes by different composites.

4.1 Which primes are consecutive, i.e., no composite separates them?

4.2 What separations are possible?

4.3 What do you observe about the frequencies of various separations as you proceed through
the set of primes?

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