Gas Turb 11

GasTurb 11
Joachim Kurzke
GasTurb 11
Design and Off-Design Performance of Gas Turbines
by Joachim Kurzke
GasTurb 11
Copyright (C) 2007 by Joachim Kurzke
All rights reserved. No parts of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means - graphic, electronic, or
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respective owners. The publisher and the author make no claim to these trademarks.
While every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this document, the publisher and the author assume no
responsibility for errors or omissions, or for damages resulting from the use of information contained in this document
or from the use of programs and source code that may accompany it. In no event shall the publisher and the author be
liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damage caused or alleged to have been caused directly or
indirectly by this document.
Printed in Germany
Contents 5
Table of Contents
Foreword
Part I Getting Started 2

1 Introduction
................................................................................................................................... 2
Program Requirements
.........................................................................................................................................................
and Installation 2
Getting Help
......................................................................................................................................................... 3
What's New .........................................................................................................................................................
in GasTurb 11 3
Program Scope.................................................................................................................................................. 4
Compatibility..................................................................................................................................................
with Previous GasTurb Versions 5
2 First Steps................................................................................................................................... 6
Engine Configurations
......................................................................................................................................................... 6
Starting the
.........................................................................................................................................................
Calculation 7
Define Composed
.........................................................................................................................................................
Values 8
Define Iterations
......................................................................................................................................................... 9
Switching.........................................................................................................................................................
Between SI and Imperial Units 10
3 More Cycle
...................................................................................................................................
Design Calculations 10
Parametric.........................................................................................................................................................
Studies 11
Optimization
......................................................................................................................................................... 12
Effects of.........................................................................................................................................................
Small Changes 13
Monte Carlo
.........................................................................................................................................................
Study 15
4 Off-Design
...................................................................................................................................
Calculations 16
Input Data.........................................................................................................................................................
For Off-Design Simulations 16
Variable Compressor
.........................................................................................................................................................
Geometry 18
Maximum.........................................................................................................................................................
and Minimum Limiters 18
Single Operating
.........................................................................................................................................................
Line 19
Multiple Operating
.........................................................................................................................................................
Lines 20
Automatic.........................................................................................................................................................
Bleed 21
Off-Design.........................................................................................................................................................
Parametric Study 21
Mission Calculations
......................................................................................................................................................... 21
Effect of Small
.........................................................................................................................................................
Changes in Off-Design 22
Flight Envelope
......................................................................................................................................................... 22
Off-Design.........................................................................................................................................................
Monte Carlo Study 23
Transient ......................................................................................................................................................... 23
Test Analysis
.........................................................................................................................................................
by Synthesis 25
5 More than
...................................................................................................................................
Performance 25
Thermodynamic
.........................................................................................................................................................
Stations 26
Preliminary
.........................................................................................................................................................
Engine Design 26
Part II The Cycle Design Point 30

1 Input Data
................................................................................................................................... 30
Basic Data
......................................................................................................................................................... 30
Secondary.........................................................................................................................................................
Air System 31
Mass Flow......................................................................................................................................................... 32
Compressor
.........................................................................................................................................................
Efficiency 33
Turbine Efficiency
......................................................................................................................................................... 33
Conventional
.........................................................................................................................................................
Test Analysis 34
Test Analysis
.........................................................................................................................................................
Example 35
Reheat ......................................................................................................................................................... 36
Nozzle ......................................................................................................................................................... 36
Convergent ..................................................................................................................................................
Nozzle 37
Convergent ..................................................................................................................................................
Divergent Nozzle 37

6 GasTurb 11
Nozzle Calculation
..................................................................................................................................................
Switch 38
2 Parametric
...................................................................................................................................
Studies 38
Parametric.........................................................................................................................................................
Study with Iteration 38
Parametric.........................................................................................................................................................
Study with Several Carpet Plots 39
Parametric.........................................................................................................................................................
Study with Many Contour Lines in One Graph 40
Parametric.........................................................................................................................................................
Study with Contour Lines for Off-Design Properties 40
Difference.........................................................................................................................................................
between the Results from two Parametric Studies 41
Parametric.........................................................................................................................................................
Study with Turbine Design 42
3 Cycle Optimization
................................................................................................................................... 43
Optimization
.........................................................................................................................................................
Variables 44
Constraints
......................................................................................................................................................... 44
Off-Design.........................................................................................................................................................
Constraints 45
Figure of .........................................................................................................................................................
Merit 45
4 Effects ................................................................................................................................... 45
5 Monte Carlo
...................................................................................................................................
Study 45
Engine Design
.........................................................................................................................................................
Uncertainty 45
Test Analysis
.........................................................................................................................................................
Uncertainty 46
Part III Off-Design Performance 48

1 General ................................................................................................................................... 48
Data Files......................................................................................................................................................... 48
Standard..................................................................................................................................................
Data Files 48
Engine Model ..................................................................................................................................................
Files 48
Map Scaling ..................................................................................................................................................
File 49
Compressor .........................................................................................................................................................
Maps 49
Map Scaling ..................................................................................................................................................
Procedure 49
Standard..................................................................................................................................................
Maps 49
Special Maps .................................................................................................................................................. 49
Efficiency..................................................................................................................................................
Scaling 50
Map Scaling ..................................................................................................................................................
Example 51
Another Map ..................................................................................................................................................
Scaling Example 52
Use of Unscaled
..................................................................................................................................................
Compressor Maps 53
Turbine Maps
......................................................................................................................................................... 54
2 Input Data
...................................................................................................................................
for Steady State 55
ZXN or T4.........................................................................................................................................................
Given 56
Con/Di Nozzle
.........................................................................................................................................................
Area Schedule 56
Iteration Variables
......................................................................................................................................................... 57
Inlet Flow.........................................................................................................................................................
Distortion 57
Off-Design.........................................................................................................................................................
HPT Tip Clearance Correction 58
Modifiers......................................................................................................................................................... 58
Variable Geometry
.........................................................................................................................................................
(Compressor) 58
3 Simulating
...................................................................................................................................
the Control System 60
Single Limiter
.........................................................................................................................................................
Settings 60
Automatic.........................................................................................................................................................
Bleed 61
Control Schedules
......................................................................................................................................................... 61
Limiter Codes
......................................................................................................................................................... 62
4 Operating...................................................................................................................................
Line 63
Dry Operating
.........................................................................................................................................................
Line 63
Single Spool
.........................................................................................................................................................
Turboshaft 63
Operation..................................................................................................................................................
with Variable Spool Speed 63
Operation..................................................................................................................................................
with Constant Spool Speed 64
Reheat ......................................................................................................................................................... 64
Comparing.........................................................................................................................................................
Simulations 65
Off-Design
.........................................................................................................................................................
Parametric Study 66

Contents 7
5 Calculating
...................................................................................................................................
a Series of Points (Mission) 67
Mission List
.........................................................................................................................................................
Output 67
Export of .........................................................................................................................................................
Results 68
6 Effect of ...................................................................................................................................
Small Changes 68
7 Flight Envelope
................................................................................................................................... 69
Flight Envelope
.........................................................................................................................................................
Definition 69
Flight Envelope
.........................................................................................................................................................
Result 70
8 Monte Carlo
...................................................................................................................................
Simulations 72
Manufacturing
.........................................................................................................................................................
Tolerance 72
Engine Test
.........................................................................................................................................................
with Control System Interaction 72
9 Model Based
...................................................................................................................................
Test Analysis 72
Turbojet Testbed
......................................................................................................................................................... 73
Turboshaft.........................................................................................................................................................
Testbed 73
Compressor.........................................................................................................................................................
Performance Analysis 74
Single Point
.........................................................................................................................................................
Data Input 75
Turbine Capacity
......................................................................................................................................................... 75
Test Vehicle
.........................................................................................................................................................
Air System 76
Flow Analysis
.........................................................................................................................................................
Method 76
Deviations.........................................................................................................................................................
from Model 76
Multiple Point
.........................................................................................................................................................
Data Input 77
Sensor Checking
......................................................................................................................................................... 77
ISA Correction
......................................................................................................................................................... 78
Schedule .........................................................................................................................................................
Correction 79
Effect of Measurement
.........................................................................................................................................................
Errors 80
Comparing .........................................................................................................................................................
a Model with Measured Data 80
Data Export
......................................................................................................................................................... 80
Data Output ..................................................................................................................................................
to File 80
Export To..................................................................................................................................................
Excel 81
Performance
.........................................................................................................................................................
Monitoring 81
10 Transient................................................................................................................................... 82
Introduction
......................................................................................................................................................... 82
Transient..................................................................................................................................................
Engine Model 82
PID Control .................................................................................................................................................. 83
Limiter Codes
.................................................................................................................................................. 84
Input Data.........................................................................................................................................................
for Transient 85
Power Lever ..................................................................................................................................................
Definition 85
Control Constants
.................................................................................................................................................. 86
100% Power ..................................................................................................................................................
Offtake and Bleed 86
Acceleration..................................................................................................................................................
and Deceleration Control 86
Temperature ..................................................................................................................................................
Sensor Time Constant 86
Burner Time ..................................................................................................................................................
Constant 87
Max Limiter ..................................................................................................................................................
Gain Modifier 87
Time Dependant
.........................................................................................................................................................
Input 87
Power Lever ..................................................................................................................................................
Movement 87
Spool Speed .................................................................................................................................................. 87
Fuel Flow.................................................................................................................................................. 88
Running a.........................................................................................................................................................
Transient 88
11 Batch Mode
................................................................................................................................... 89
Batch Job.........................................................................................................................................................
Nomenclature 89
Batch Job.........................................................................................................................................................
Editing 90
Running a.........................................................................................................................................................
Batch Job 91
Part IV Component Modeling 94

1 Gas Properties
................................................................................................................................... 94
Air and Combustion
.........................................................................................................................................................
Gases 94

8 GasTurb 11
Fuel ......................................................................................................................................................... 94
Humidity ......................................................................................................................................................... 94
Inlet Fogging
......................................................................................................................................................... 95
Water and.........................................................................................................................................................
Steam Injection 95
Standard .........................................................................................................................................................
Atmosphere 96
2 Component
...................................................................................................................................
Map Format 97
Intake Map ......................................................................................................................................................... 98
Compressor .........................................................................................................................................................
Map 98
Reynolds .........................................................................................................................................................
Correction 99
Reynolds..................................................................................................................................................
Number Index 99
Efficiency ..................................................................................................................................................
and Mass Flow Correction 101
Propeller.........................................................................................................................................................
Map 102
Turbine Map
......................................................................................................................................................... 102
Smooth .........................................................................................................................................................
C and Smooth T 103
3 Intake ................................................................................................................................... 103
Flight, Test
.........................................................................................................................................................
Bed and Power Generation Input Mode 103
Pressure.........................................................................................................................................................
Loss 103
Altitude .........................................................................................................................................................
Test Facility 104
Inlet and.........................................................................................................................................................
Exhaust Pressure Losses for Power Generation 105
4 Compressor
................................................................................................................................... 105
Compressor
.........................................................................................................................................................
Design 105
Compressor
.........................................................................................................................................................
Calculation 106
Compressor
.........................................................................................................................................................
Efficiency Estimates 107
Recirculating
.........................................................................................................................................................
Bleed 108
Wet Compression
......................................................................................................................................................... 108
Work done
.........................................................................................................................................................
on Liquid Water 109
5 Gearbox................................................................................................................................... 110
6 Duct Pressure
...................................................................................................................................
Losses 110
7 Intercooler
................................................................................................................................... 110
8 Heat Exchanger
................................................................................................................................... 111
Simulation
.........................................................................................................................................................
Options 111
Bypass Valve
......................................................................................................................................................... 112
9 Combustor
................................................................................................................................... 112
Temperature
.........................................................................................................................................................
Rise 112
Off-Design
.........................................................................................................................................................
Efficiency 112
Pressure.........................................................................................................................................................
Losses 114
Sequential
.........................................................................................................................................................
Combustion 114
Emissions
......................................................................................................................................................... 114
NOx .................................................................................................................................................. 115
CO and ..................................................................................................................................................
HC 115
10 Turbine...................................................................................................................................
Design 115
Turbine Design
......................................................................................................................................................... 115
Blade Metal
.........................................................................................................................................................
Temperature 116
Turbine Tip
.........................................................................................................................................................
Clearance Correction 117
Blade Root
.........................................................................................................................................................
Stress 117
11 Turbine...................................................................................................................................
Performance Calculation 118
Un-Cooled
.........................................................................................................................................................
Turbine 119
Cooled Turbine
......................................................................................................................................................... 119
Thermodynamic
.........................................................................................................................................................
Turbine Efficiency 120
Turbine Interduct
.........................................................................................................................................................
Pressure Loss 121
12 Exhaust...................................................................................................................................
Duct Pressure Loss 122
13 Mixer ................................................................................................................................... 122
14 Reheat (Afterburner)
................................................................................................................................... 123

Contents 9
Reheat Efficiency
......................................................................................................................................................... 124
Reheat Pressure
.........................................................................................................................................................
Loss 124
15 Nozzle ................................................................................................................................... 125
Convergent
.........................................................................................................................................................
Nozzle 125
Convergent-Divergent
.........................................................................................................................................................
Nozzle 125
Thrust Coefficient
......................................................................................................................................................... 126
16 Thermodynamic
...................................................................................................................................
Stations 126
17 Internal ...................................................................................................................................
Air System 127
18 Propeller
................................................................................................................................... 128
Ideal Propeller
......................................................................................................................................................... 128
Real Propeller
......................................................................................................................................................... 129
19 Component
...................................................................................................................................
Maps 130
Intake Map
......................................................................................................................................................... 130
Compressor
.........................................................................................................................................................
Maps 131
Compressor ..................................................................................................................................................
Map 131
Fan Map.................................................................................................................................................. 132
Beta Value .................................................................................................................................................. 133
Surge Margin
.................................................................................................................................................. 134
Propeller.........................................................................................................................................................
Map 134
Turbine Map
......................................................................................................................................................... 135
20 Inlet Flow
...................................................................................................................................
Distortion 136
Parallel Compressor
.........................................................................................................................................................
Theory 136
Compressor
.........................................................................................................................................................
Coupling 138
Pressure.........................................................................................................................................................
Distortion 139
Temperature
.........................................................................................................................................................
Distortion 139
21 External...................................................................................................................................
Load 140
Power Offtake
.........................................................................................................................................................
from Any Spool 140
Lift Fan ......................................................................................................................................................... 140
Load Compressor
......................................................................................................................................................... 141
Part V Engine Dimensions 144

1 Engine Inlet
................................................................................................................................... 145
2 Compressor
................................................................................................................................... 145
Axial Compressor
......................................................................................................................................................... 145
HP Compressor
..................................................................................................................................................
Design Example 147
Fan ......................................................................................................................................................... 147
Fan and..................................................................................................................................................
Booster Design Example 148
Radial Compressor
......................................................................................................................................................... 148
3 Burner ................................................................................................................................... 148
Burner Design
.........................................................................................................................................................
Example 149
4 Turbine................................................................................................................................... 149
HP Turbine
.........................................................................................................................................................
Design Example 150
LP Turbine
.........................................................................................................................................................
Design Examples 151
5 Inter-duct
................................................................................................................................... 152
6 Exhaust...................................................................................................................................
Duct 153
7 Bypass ................................................................................................................................... 153
8 Mixer ................................................................................................................................... 154
9 Reheat ................................................................................................................................... 154
10 Exhaust................................................................................................................................... 154
11 Intercooler
...................................................................................................................................
and Heat Exchanger 156

10 GasTurb 11
12 Gearbox................................................................................................................................... 156
13 Disk Design
...................................................................................................................................
Methodology 157
Geometry
......................................................................................................................................................... 157
Temperature
......................................................................................................................................................... 158
Design Options
......................................................................................................................................................... 158
Design Criteria
......................................................................................................................................................... 159
14 Shaft ................................................................................................................................... 160
15 Geometrical
...................................................................................................................................
Engine Design 160
Flow Annulus
......................................................................................................................................................... 160
Compressors
.................................................................................................................................................. 160
Turbines.................................................................................................................................................. 161
Other Components
.................................................................................................................................................. 162
Disk Design
......................................................................................................................................................... 162
Part VI General Options 166

1 Range Checking
................................................................................................................................... 166
2 Composed
...................................................................................................................................
Values 166
Definition
......................................................................................................................................................... 166
General .........................................................................................................................................................
Tables 167
Pre-Defined
.........................................................................................................................................................
Functions 168
Input Parameter
......................................................................................................................................................... 168
3 Iterations
................................................................................................................................... 169
Definition
......................................................................................................................................................... 169
Design ......................................................................................................................................................... 169
Off-Design
......................................................................................................................................................... 170
4 Export of
...................................................................................................................................
Data 170
Export to.........................................................................................................................................................
Excel 170
User Defined
.........................................................................................................................................................
File Content 171
Maps ......................................................................................................................................................... 172
5 Graphics
................................................................................................................................... 172
General ......................................................................................................................................................... 172
Several y-Axes
......................................................................................................................................................... 174
Copy to .........................................................................................................................................................
Clipboard 175
Contour .........................................................................................................................................................
Lines 175
Picture Catalog
......................................................................................................................................................... 175
Part VII Mathematics 178

1 Iteration...................................................................................................................................
Algorithms 178
General .........................................................................................................................................................
Iteration Technique 178
Numerical.........................................................................................................................................................
Example 179
Convergence
.........................................................................................................................................................
Problems 179
Convergence
.........................................................................................................................................................
Monitor 180
Iteration.........................................................................................................................................................
Setup Examples 182
Single Spool
..................................................................................................................................................
Turbojet 182
Two Spool ..................................................................................................................................................
Turboshaft, Turboprop 183
Boosted..................................................................................................................................................
Turboshaft, Turboprop 184
Unmixed..................................................................................................................................................
Flow Turbofan 185
Mixed Flow..................................................................................................................................................
Turbofan 186
Geared ..................................................................................................................................................
Turbofan 186
Variable..................................................................................................................................................
Cycle Engine 187
2 Monte Carlo
...................................................................................................................................
Simulations 188
Overview ......................................................................................................................................................... 188
Statistical
.........................................................................................................................................................
Background 188

Contents 11
Symmetrical
.........................................................................................................................................................
Distributions 189
Asymmetric
.........................................................................................................................................................
(Trapezoid) Distribution 190
3 Optimization
...................................................................................................................................
Strategies 190
Gradient.........................................................................................................................................................
Search 191
Random.........................................................................................................................................................
Search 193
Part VIII How to ... 196

1 ... Adjust
...................................................................................................................................
the Cycle Design Point 196
2 ... Adjust
...................................................................................................................................
the Off-Design Model 196
3 ... Modify
...................................................................................................................................
the Efficiency Distribution in a Compressor Map 197
4 ... Re-Label
...................................................................................................................................
the Speed Lines in a Compressor Map 198
5 ... Set the
...................................................................................................................................
Design Points in the Component Maps 199
6 ... Model...................................................................................................................................
a Derivative Engine 200
7 ... Achieve
...................................................................................................................................
Thrust Rating 202
8 ... Compare
...................................................................................................................................
Data with GasTurb Results 203
9 ... Calculate
...................................................................................................................................
Off-Design Performance for Specified Thrust or Fuel Flow 203
10 ... Modify
...................................................................................................................................
Reynolds Number Corrections 203
11 ... Increase
...................................................................................................................................
Surge Margin 204
12 ... Use a...................................................................................................................................
Booster Map with an Unmixed Turbofan 204
13 ... Select...................................................................................................................................
the Optimum Fan Pressure Ratio for Turbofan Engines 205
14 ... Make ...................................................................................................................................
a Turbine Temperature Schedule 205
15 ... Make ...................................................................................................................................
Nozzle Area a Function of Corrected Speed 206
16 ... Estimate
...................................................................................................................................
the Confidence of Achieving the Development Target 206
17 ... Analyse
...................................................................................................................................
a Transient Test 206
18 ... Simulate
...................................................................................................................................
Water Injection into a Turbofan 206
19 ... Generate
...................................................................................................................................
Data for Input to Aircraft Performance Calculation Programs 208
20 ... Recover
...................................................................................................................................
from a "General Error" 208
21 ... Design
...................................................................................................................................
an Engine for a Supersonic Aircraft 208
22 ... Investigate
...................................................................................................................................
a Variable Cycle Engine 210
23 ... Speed...................................................................................................................................
up the Calculation 211
24 ... Compare
...................................................................................................................................
Temperature-Entropy and Enthalpy-Entropy Diagrams 211
25 ... Compile
...................................................................................................................................
the Program 212
Part IX Nomenclature and Units 214

1 File Nomenclature
................................................................................................................................... 215
2 Station Designation
................................................................................................................................... 215
3 Symbols................................................................................................................................... 216
4 Short and
...................................................................................................................................
Long Names 217
5 Units ................................................................................................................................... 217
6 Total Pressure
................................................................................................................................... 218
7 Total Temperature
................................................................................................................................... 218
8 Further ...................................................................................................................................
Definitions 219
Heat Rate
......................................................................................................................................................... 219
Stator Outlet
.........................................................................................................................................................
Temperature 219

12 GasTurb 11
Rotor Inlet
.........................................................................................................................................................
Temperature 219
Standard.........................................................................................................................................................
Day Conditions 219
Spool Speed
......................................................................................................................................................... 219
Corrected.........................................................................................................................................................
Flow 220
Aircraft Speed
......................................................................................................................................................... 221
Entropy .........................................................................................................................................................
Function 221
Relative .........................................................................................................................................................
Enthalpy Rise 222
Equivalent
.........................................................................................................................................................
Shaft Power 222
Turbine Flow
.........................................................................................................................................................
Capacity 223
AnSyn Factor
......................................................................................................................................................... 223
Propulsive
.........................................................................................................................................................
Efficiency 223
Thermal .........................................................................................................................................................
Efficiency 224
Core Efficiency
......................................................................................................................................................... 224
Transmission
.........................................................................................................................................................
Efficiency 224
Overall Efficiency
......................................................................................................................................................... 224
Peak Efficiency
......................................................................................................................................................... 225
Part X References 228
Index 231

Foreword
The development of GasTurb has begun in the early 90's when I was invited to be a co-author of a book
about gas turbine performance. MTU gave me the permission to participate in the project, many thanks for
that. At that time modern books with technical content were often accompanied by a disk with some software.
Therefore I began to write a Turbo Pascal cycle code.
The years before I had designed and - together with colleagues - also written the MTU in-house performance
program MOPS (MOdular Performance Synthesis). This program is still in use today and even being further
developed; however, it requires quite some time to get fully acquainted with it. With MOPS one has first to
define which of the various program modules (compressor, burner, turbine, nozzle etc.) are to be used and
how they are connected through the primary and secondary air flow paths and spools. On one side this
approach yields tremendous flexibility for the simulation of nearly every engine configuration, on the other side
it leaves the user with the problem of setting up the iteration algorithm, for example. Moreover, the number of
input data required for the many options that MOPS offers is overwhelming.
In many companies, universities and research organisations similar programs have been developed and they
all have the same problem: they are difficult to apply. The need for an easy to use performance program
which limits itself to the really important parameters, uses pre-defined engine configurations and presents its
results in easy to understand lists as well as graphically is obvious. From the beginning, the main objective of
the GasTurb development was an attractive user interface which makes the tasks that performance
engineers encounter most frequently as simple as possible.
The first publication about GasTurb was presented at the ASME Gas Turbine Conference in 1995. Since that
time the program became over the years - in parallel with the development of the PC - more powerful and
also more colorful. It is famous for its ease of use and the attractive graphical output options.
Over the years I got many emails with questions about the program capabilities and also wishes for future
versions. This feedback did help me a lot for the development of GasTurb 11. Certainly the program is not
perfect, but it is better than ever.
Special thanks to Dr. Reinhold Schaber and Helmut Klingels from MTU Aero Engines for their valuable
comments to the disk stress calculations and the preliminary design options new in GasTurb 11. Franklin van
den Hout from Thomassen Turbine Systems in The Netherlands has given comments from his experience
with GasTurb in power generation industry while Dr. Sven Kopp of EADS Military Air Systems in Munich has
sent me a wishlist from an aircraft manufactures view.
Thanks also to my son Tobias who helped me a lot with all sorts of computer problems. Last but not least I
have to thank my wife Christel who had to endure not seldom a husband thinking too much about gas turbine
performance.
Joachim Kurzke
2007

Getting Started
I
2 GasTurb 11
1 Getting Started
1.1 Introduction
Welcome to the gas turbine performance program GasTurb 11 which makes it easy to evaluate
the thermodynamic cycle of the most common gas turbine architectures, both for engine design
and off-design. It was written by a gas turbine performance specialist who has worked for more
than 30 years in the field of gas turbine simulation and development, both at the university and in
industry. In its 11th version GasTurb is not only a very user friendly performance program for cycle
design and off-design simulations, it now covers also the preliminary geometrical design of
engines including disk stress calculations.
In this first section you get advice on how to install the program, how you can get help as well as
hints about using data created with previous versions of GasTurb.
1.1.1 Program Requirements and Installation
Requirements
Operating system Windows 2000, Windows XP
Processor Pentium III (or AMD equivalent) or better
RAM Memory 256 MB or more
Resolution SVGA 1024x768 @ 256+ colors
Installation
Run setup for installing the program. A wizard will lead you through the details of the installation. It
is strongly recommended that you exit all Windows programs before running the setup program.
Install GasTurb 11 in its own, new directory and do not install it in the directory of any previous
program version you may have. Some of the files delivered with GasTurb 11 have the same file
name as those of previous versions, but different file contents. Mixing the files from different
versions of GasTurb will cause a program crash.
Installation on a Network
On a network you can store the program in a directory which everybody can access. The different
users should store their private data in their own directories for data and component maps. Note
that the component maps delivered with the program must reside in the same directory as the
program. You can store a copy of these files in a private component map directory. The
component map collection which is part of GasTurb 11 Laboratory need not be in the program
directory, it can reside in any directory.
A Microsoft security patch now prevents HTML Help .CHM files from being opened on network
drives. When you call help, "Action canceled!" will be displayed instead of the topic text. This will
happen with all HTML Help files that you open over a network connection (note, that local HTML
Help files will not be affected).
The reason for this error is a new and more strict security policy for Microsoft Internet Explorer.
Microsoft is permanently updating MSIE to fix potential or real security threats. In case of this error,
the Microsoft Security Bulletin MS05-026 disables HTML Help files opened from a network drive.
Learn more about the security threat in the Microsoft Knowledgebase Article KB896358.
When you install the program on a network, please ensure that the help file (file extension .CHM)
gets installed on the local C: drive (this is recommended by Microsoft). If this is not possible or not
desirable, you can explicitly register individual help files and folders to allow viewing them over the

Getting Started 3
network or edit the Windows registry to make the security settings less strict in general. Microsoft
describes the necessary steps in detail in the knowledge base article KB 896054.
Using Data and Component Map Directories
If you want to store your data files and component map files in directories different from the
program directory, you need to start GasTurb 11 with two command line parameters. Add after
the program call (separated by a space) first the path to your data (this will be the standard data
directory) and second the path to your component maps, the standard map directory. The
working directory which you specify from Windows Program Manager as a program item property
must be the directory in which the program resides.
If you have stored the program in directory C:\Programs\GasTurb (your program directory), and
want your data stored in directory C:\GasTurb\Data (your standard data directory) and your
component maps in C:\GasTurb\Maps (your standard map directory) then you must start the
program by the following command sequence:
C:\Programs\GasTurb10.exe C:\GasTurb\Data C:\GasTurb\Maps
When your file names or directory names contain blanks, then you must include the path names in
double quotes:
"C:\Program Files\GasTurb10.exe" "C:\My Data\GasTurb\Data" "C:\My Data\GasTurb\Maps"
About GasTurb Files
There are some ASCII files with the extension NMS delivered with the program, one for each
engine type. Do not modify these files because they are essential for the correct interpretation of
the data. Note that the *.NMS files are not compatible between the different program versions.
There are many graphic files that contain engine configuration schemes and other pictures. They
are stored as Windows meta files with the extension WMF. Many other programs can read this file
format. You may use these files for illustrations in reports, for example. If you do that, you must
refer to the source of the graphics and include the GasTurb 11 program as a reference.
1.1.2 Getting Help
Help can be selected from many menus. Use the help Contents list to find structured information,
look at the Index or use Find when you need help for a specific topic.
For a short info about the meaning of a button hold your mouse pointer on it and you will get a hint
about which action will be initiated by pressing this button. Note that - depending on the context of
the simulation task - some of the buttons can be temporarily dimmed which indicates that they are
disabled.
If you should have any questions about the software feel free to send an email to the author of the
program.
1.1.3 What's New in GasTurb 11
There are many improvements compared to previous versions of GasTurb, both in the user
interface and the technical content.
The most important content change is, that there are now three scopes of the program (three
levels of detail) as compared to only two operating modes (Novice and Expert) in GasTurb 10 and
before.
The Geared Mixed Flow Turbofan is a new engine configuration which is similar to the frequently
4 GasTurb 11
used Geared Unmixed Flow Turbofan configuration.
Recirculating compressor bleed air is a new option with the secondary air system
For modeling engine deterioration, modifiers for duct and burner pressure ratios have been
introduced.
Limiters for controlling minimum values are available now.
Highlights of the new user interface are:
 Input and output property selection was made simpler by introducing tree like structures in all
places where one might search for a special quantity.
 The increased size of many windows allows presenting information more clearly.
 Range checking for data input and output has been introduced.
 In many places sliders have been introduced which are selected by clicking . You can assign
an arbitrary input variable to this slider and immediately see what the effect of changing this
variable has on numbers or on graphically presented results, see for example the enthalpy-
entropy diagram comparison.
Composed values have been made again more powerful: now you have access to gas properties
and many pre-defined functions that are typically employed within gas turbine performance
simulations.
This list is only a selection of the many enhancements made since GasTurb 10. Now explore
GasTurb 11 and see yourself that the program is more powerful, more easy to use and the
presentation of the results is more impressive than ever.
1.1.3.1 Program Scope
Three program scopes with different degrees of simulation detail are offered. Select Basics if you
have only fundamental questions, decide for Performance when you want to study gas turbine
cycles and off-design behavior in more detail and chose More if you want to do preliminary engine
design. Note that the scope selection is only possible in the program opening window:
Basic Was called Novice Mode in previous versions of the program
If you are interested only in the basic gas turbine cycle analysis as described in
many textbooks then select this scope. Then the input data are limited to the
really important properties like pressure ratio, burner inlet temperature and the
component efficiencies. All sophisticated details of the other two scopes are
set to default values and are hidden. For example, all component inter-duct
pressure losses are set to zero and the complex turbine cooling air system is
excluded from the simulation. Thus the program input for the Basics scope is
very easy to take in at a glance.

Getting Started 5
Performance Dubbed Expert Mode previously
This is the normal operating mode for the gas turbine performance specialist.
This scope adds the detail required for professional gas turbine performance
simulations. You get more data input options including the simulation of the
internal air system and turbine cooling. Furthermore, there are more
calculation options like cycle optimization and Monte Carlo studies, for
example. Some preliminary design tasks can be solved while Performance is
selected as scope of the simulations.
Since more details like the secondary air system are considered and the
results differ from those of the Basic scope.
More More than performance...
For the Performance scope only a few dimensions of the engine are required
as, for example, the nozzle area of a turbojet engine. In most of the
thermodynamic stations the static pressures and temperatures are not needed
for this sort of simulation tasks. If you select More as scope then the flow area
at all the thermodynamic stations will be calculated during cycle design and
from that the static quantities are determined during both cycle design and
off-design simulations.
Additionally the dimensions of the flow annulus are derived, compressors and
turbine disks designed and a cross section of the engine is shown. Thus much
detail is added to the simulation and the quality of the preliminary design
results is significantly improved. You will get some insight into the interaction
between thermodynamics, component aerodynamics and the mechanical
design of gas turbines
After reading the input data from file, and if you have selected More as scope of your work with the
program, you can in the cycle design input window choose to calculate the geometry of your
engine, including the stresses in the disks by clicking .
These calculations require considerable computer power and therefore they are not pre-selected.
For accessing the input data of the engine geometry select .
In the single cycle output window you can select provided you have
selected More as scope.
1.1.3.2 Compatibility with Previous GasTurb Versions
Simulation Detail
When you read a data file which has been created with a previous version of GasTurb then you will
get some warning messages. These messages regard input properties that did not exist in the
previous program version or that have been renamed. In many cases the missing data can be set
to reasonable default values, however, in some cases no generally applicable default value exists
and then the dummy value 111111 is introduced.
Old files for the turbojet engine configuration produce many warning messages. The reason for
that is that since GasTurb 10 the single spool turboshaft engine is a separate engine configuration
and no longer a special case of the turbojet.
You will be prompted to enter a suitable number for the missing data that are indicated by the
dummy number 111111. Commencing the calculation while one or more properties have the
dummy value 111111 will result in an error message.

6 GasTurb 11
Storing an old data file on disk by GasTurb 11 will make the data set compatible with the new
version.
Reading a data set from a previous version of GasTurb and calculating the geometry of the engine
with the default settings which the program uses for the missing data most often does not yield a
reasonable engine geometry. This applies also to the demo data sets from previous GasTurb
versions; therefore new demo data sets have been created that yield nice and meaningful engine
cross-sections.
Technical Simulation Differences
GasTurb 11 will not exactly reproduce the numbers from program versions prior to GasTurb 9
because the gas properties are now modeled slightly different.
There will also be differences between GasTurb 10 and GasTurb 11:
 In the Reynolds number corrections applied during off-design simulations there was a bug: the
Reynolds Number Index was calculated incorrectly. This bug has been removed and
consequently in some cases the Reynolds number correction factors have changed a bit.
 Inlet flow distortion simulation is now more rigorously simulated, small differences to previous
results are normal. The Coupling Factor described in ASME GT2006-90419 has been
introduced and the simulation option for radial distortion has been deleted.
 With mixed flow engines, P8/P64 is in off-design simulations now a function of corrected flow W
64R
1.2 First Steps

The quickest way to introduce yourself to GasTurb 11 is to go through this Getting Started section
which guides you through the basics of the program using simple examples. Select as program
scope Performance for this tutorial.
After completion of the tutorial you have only used a small part of the options built into GasTurb 11.
Read the manual and make use of the extensive on-line help. Open the little books in the table of
contents of the on-line help to see how it is organized. Note that the on-line help and the manual
have identical contents.
1.2.1 Engine Configurations
Before you actually begin with calculations you must decide which type of gas turbine you want to
study. The basic configuration of the engine can be selected either from the Configuration List or
from the Configuration Tree View in the program main window:

Getting Started 7
If you use the engine configuration tree for selecting the basic engine type click the little boxes with
a + sign to expand the tree. The selected engine configuration is shown as a figure to the right of
the selection tree. While the selection is not yet concise enough you will see the figure of an
aircraft or a windmill.
The engine configuration will be automatically selected if you drag a file from the Windows
Explorer and drop it on the GasTurb 11 icon or the program main window.
Once the basic configuration is fixed, you have additional configuration options that can be
selected during engine design. For some engines you can add an afterburner (augmentor) and
select between a convergent and a convergent-divergent nozzle, for example. The final selection
of heat exchangers (recuperators) and intercoolers is also made in the design point input window.
For your first tour through the program select in the Configuration List the first entry, the Turbojet.
Select as Scope Performance, as Calculation Mode Design and then click
to proceed. From the file dialog window which opens then select the
file Demo_jet.CYJ .
1.2.2 Starting the Calculation
The cycle input data are presented in tabbed notebooks. The input data shown on the pages of the
notebook are the only those that you need for the selected switch position. You will not see any
input quantities that are not needed for the type of calculation you have chosen. Data you have
entered for a switch position not selected at the moment will not be deleted; it will just not be
shown. When you write a set of data to disk, all quantities will be stored, regardless of the switch
positions.
You can get help for the nomenclature from View | Nomenclature in the menu or by clicking
.
Select as task and then click in the Design

Point Input window and the input data will be checked and the thermodynamic cycle calculation will
commences. If the result is valid, then the data will be saved automatically. For that purpose
GasTurb 11 uses an automatically generated filename which depends on the selected engine
configuration. Automatically saved Turbojet data files are called Last_1_Jet.CYJ, Last_2_Jet.CYJ,

8 GasTurb 11
and Last_3_Jet.CYJ. Backup file names of other engine configurations also begin also with the
four letters "Last".
Cycle Design Output Example
If the program fails to calculate a cycle for a specific data set, check your data for typing errors,
incorrect units or wrong orders of magnitude. The program can never calculate a cycle with a
burner pressure ratio of 0.04, for example. You may have entered this number because you were
thinking of a burner pressure loss of 4%. GasTurb 11 tries to avoid errors caused by wrong
magnitudes of input values by checking whether the value is within reasonable limits. Thus, if you
really enter 0.04 as burner pressure ratio you will get a range warning.
As a newcomer to the program you should play around with the input data of the turbojet and
calculate several cycles. Have a look at the cycle output window, thereby getting accustomed to
the nomenclature and the units used. Note that you can get explanations for the terms used by
clicking after the first letter of the name.
Use also the slider for your experiments (click for assigning a variable
to the slider). You can see immediately the influence of the slider variable on the cycle data.
You can mark part or all of the data, copy and paste them to your word processor or to your
presentation program. If you paste the data into a Word document or to Power Point then it might
happen that the text is formatted with a variable pitch font of too big a size and the printout looks
like a mess. Select "Courier New" or any other fixed spaced font in appropriate size to get the data
nicely arranged.
Besides transferring data with copy and paste you can also export them to Excel.
You may be interested in a quantity which is not shown in the standard output window, such as the
temperature ratio across the compressor, T3/T2 for example. You can get the desired value by
defining a composed value, click for doing that.
1.2.3 Define Composed Values
The composed value definition window is a powerful formula editor which allows you to add your
own correlations to the standard GasTurb 11 calculations. In the definition of composed values

Getting Started 9
you can use any input or output property and also plain numbers. The availability of property
names depends on the position of the switches. If Turbine Design is switched off, for example,
then you cannot use the geometrical data of the turbine in composed values, since they will not be
calculated.
A total of 99 composed values can be defined. The mathematical operations available include +, -,
* , / as well as ^ for exponential expressions. Moreover, the natural logarithm ln(x), the absolute
value abs(x) and the trigonometric functions sin(x), cos(x), tan(x), arcsin(x), arccos(x) and
arctan(x) can be used in the formulae. Furthermore you can use parenthesis in your formula
definitions.
An example for a complex composed value is shown in line 2 of the composed value formula
editor. For composed values you can use any previously defined composed value as you see in
line 3 where the result of the formula in the second line is employed in the definition of the third
composed value cp_val3.
You can give composed values a name consisting of letters, numbers and underscores that are
followed by the = sign as shown in line 3. In this example the name power will be used for the text
output and in the graphics. You can use the name you have introduced in further formulae as
shown for example in line 4 of the screen shot above. Note that using the name power in lines 1
and 2 is not permitted because the value of this property will not yet be known when cp_val1 and
cp_val2 are calculated.
Note that user defined names must be different to the names that are already used as short name
by the program. User defined names must begin with two letters and they should consist of about 4
to 8 characters. Actually, there is no restriction for the length of a user defined name, however,
long names are impractical if used within other formulae. Blanks in user defined names will be
eliminated by the program.
The result of an invalid operation like the square root of a negative number will be set to zero or to
999999.
1.2.4 Define Iterations
Besides using additional correlations (composed values) you can influence the calculation result by
adding iterations to the standard GasTurb 11 calculation. Select this option from the menu or by
clicking if you want an output quantity to have a specific value. In the
turbojet cycle you can, for example, iterate the compressor pressure ratio in such a way that the
turbine pressure ratio will be exactly 4.0 (this could be a reasonable limit for a single stage turbine).
Whether the iteration converges or not depends very much on the problem being investigated. If
there is a solution, the program will find it. Thus, check your data if you do not get convergence.
Note, that you can select up to twenty variables, thus specifying values for up to twenty output

10 GasTurb 11
quantities. In addition to keeping the turbine pressure ratio constant, you can iterate burner exit
temperature as a second variable such that the turbine exit temperature is equal to 1200K. With a
third iteration you could keep the thrust constant at 40kN by iterating the engine inlet corrected
flow, for example.
For each of the variables a reasonable range must be specified by setting min and max values. If
the range is too narrow, then by accident the solution could be excluded and the iteration would fail
to converge. A very wide range causes also problems, since the cycle cannot be evaluated with
extreme combinations of pressure ratio and turbine inlet temperature. Moreover, a large range for
the iteration variables leads to an inaccurate result.
Before closing the iteration window you must activate the individual iterations in the check boxes
that are arranged along the right border of the window and in addition to that the iteration setup in
general by selecting File|Iteration on/off from the menu or by clicking the little bulb above the
table.
1.2.5 Switching Between SI and Imperial Units
In the cycle design input window click the button to convert your input
data from SI units to Imperial units. The button will convert the data
from Imperial to SI units.
After having chosen the general system of units you can select the units for temperature from the
Units page in the Options Window which opens when clicking the menu item Options...
1.3 More Cycle Design Calculations

In this section of the tutorial we deal with engine design which means, that each cycle represents
a new machine. In a cycle design parametric study, for example, each calculated case represents
an engine with a different geometry.

Getting Started 11
1.3.1 Parametric Studies
Parametric variations of one or two variables are easy with GasTurb 11. For reproducing the
following example go back to the program main window and select the Two Spool Unmixed Flow
Turbofan from the engine configuration list. Load the data from the file Demo_tf.CYF, and then c
lick to calculate a single cycle as a reference point.
Next click or select Task|Parametric from the menu and then click
to go to the parameter selection window. Select the parameters from
the tree view on the left and enter your numbers for the Start Value, the Number of Values and the
Step Size.
Start the parametric study by clicking or Run|Run in the menu. After a short time the
calculation will be completed and you can choose what you want to plot:
Play around with the options you have with the graphical output, test different plot parameter
selections with or without contour lines. Then repeat the parametric study with only one parameter:
now you can select viewing the results in a graphic with up to four y-axes plotted over a common
x-axis parameter.

12 GasTurb 11
Note that after the calculation is finished the program checks which values remained unchanged
during the parametric variation. For example, the engine inlet temperature will not change while
the HP Compressor Pressure Ratio and the Burner Exit Temperature are varied. Since it does not
make sense to plot constant values, the program will not show them in the plot parameter selection
list.
1.3.2 Optimization
Instead of making parametric studies for finding the best cycle you can employ numerical
optimization. For the next example stay with the Two Spool Unmixed Flow Turbofan
configuration, re-load the file Demo_tf.CYF, click and run the
calculation. Note the number for the thrust specific fuel consumption which is 19.0077 in SI units.
Close the single point output window and click and then
in the Design Point Input window. The optimization input window will
open:
Now the variables of the optimization are selected: Take as the first variable the Outer Fan
Pressure Ratio, enter for the minimum value 1.1 and for the maximum limit 4 in the first line of the
table. Chose HP Compressor Pressure Ratio as the second variable with a lower limit of 5 and an
upper limit of 20. As the third variable select Burner Exit Temperature and limit it to the range from
1000K to 2000K.
Finally the intent of the optimization has to be formulated. Click the tab Figure of Merit and pick
Sp. Fuel Consumption from the list of output variables. Do not forget to chose Minimize -
maximizing fuel consumption does not make sense.
After clicking Run the optimization window opens. There are three bars that represent the ranges
of the three optimization variables that we have specified. Click Run to begin the numerical
optimization; It will end after a short while with a result similar to that shown in the next figure.
The specific fuel consumption has been reduced by not less than 10% (from 19.0077 to 17.0855).
After closing the message box select Optimum from the menu to get all the details of the best
cycle found. You will see, for example, that the ideal jet velocity ratio V18/V8,id is around 0.74
which is near to the theoretically postulated optimum.
However, there might be a problem with the solution found: the HP Compressor Pressure Ratio is
at its upper limit of 20. This might be a true technical limit or just an error in the specification of the
range for this optimization variable. Further scrutinizing the optimum cycle output you will find that
the HP turbine pressure ratio is 5.6. If you are looking for engines with single stage high pressure
turbines then this value is much too high.
Getting Started 13
How can we find a more realistic optimal solution which takes into account that we are looking for
engines with single stage HP turbines? Close the optimization window and answer the question
Restore old data? with yes. Click Run again to reopen the optimization input window. Next click
on the Constraints tab and select HP Turbine Pressure Ratio as a constrained value for the
optimization with a lower limit 0 and an upper limit of 4. Finally click Run and you will get the figure
below which includes now a red bar for the newly introduced design constraint.
Running this optimization example yields a solution in which the HP Compressor Pressure Ratio is
no longer at its limit. The HP Turbine Pressure Ratio is exactly 4 and the specific fuel consumption
is 17.66 which is still 7% below the initial value. Note also that again the ideal jet velocity ratio V18/
V8,id is around 0.74.
1.3.3 Effects of Small Changes
You may want to know how important one or the other input quantity is for a certain cycle; To learn
this click and then . In the window that
opens select the items you are interested in; you need not enter step sizes since they will be
preselected automatically. If you wish you can adapt these step sizes to your needs.

14 GasTurb 11
Click on Show the Effect of... respectively on the Result for... to switch between input and output
quantities. While the blue arrows in the middle of the window are pointing to the right, clicking them
will transfer the selected item from the list on the left side to the appropriate selection list. Clicking
on an item in the selection list activates the arrows pointing to the left. Clicking a left pointing arrow
removes the highlighted property from the selection list.
Select Run from the menu and you will get immediately a table with exchange rates:
In the table the short names are used to save space. You will get explanations for these
abbreviated names when you choose the menu option View|Explanations. or when you click the
button with the little hand.

Getting Started 15
Be careful when interpreting the results of sensitivity studies. The changes are presented in terms
of percentages and in degrees K (or R if you are using Imperial units). A 1% increase in efficiency
with the basic efficiency equal to 0.8 means that the efficiency has changed from 0.8 to 0.808. You
might have expected erroneously, that the efficiency increase would be from 0.8 to 0.81.
1.3.4 Monte Carlo Study
In a Monte Carlo simulation many cycles with some randomly distributed cycle input parameters
are calculated. Normal distributions with specified standard deviation will be created for the
selected input parameters. The cycle output quantities will consequently also be randomly
distributed. The results are presented graphically as bar charts together with a corresponding
Gaussian distribution.
A typical application of the Monte Carlo method is the evaluation of the uncertainty of a quantity
which is derived from the actual measurements. We use here as an example again the Two
Spool Unmixed Flow Turbofan configuration with the data from the file Demo_tf.CYF. Click the
Test Analysis tab and switch the test analysis mode on:
The measured values for the fuel flow, all the total pressures and temperatures in the compressor
section, and the total pressures in the turbine section are input data for this special cycle
calculation mode which yields the component efficiencies and other cycle parameters.

16 GasTurb 11
Each of the measured parameters has an uncertainty which is described with the standard
deviation of the measured parameter. These standard deviations are input values for the Monte
Carlo method. Before you actually start the Monte Carlo simulation you can select one of the
measured parameters from a list. While the Monte Carlo simulation is running you can observe
how the distribution of this parameter develops.
After starting the Monte Carlo simulation the program will run until you stop it. The first 2500 data
sets will be stored in memory; these data can be shown graphically in various formats. The figure
below shows that the in our example the Isentropic LPT Efficiency is better than 0.8725 with a
probability of 97.5% (mean value minus 2*standard deviation).
1.4 Off-Design Calculations
Use the Turbojet engine configuration, select as calculation mode , and

after clicking load the file Demo_jet.CYJ. Calculate now the cycle
design point which yields the geometry of the engine.
Go back to the program main window and click in the Calculation

Mode selection box. In the Maps box stay with the default Standard Maps option selected and
then click . In the background the standard component maps will be
scaled in such a way that they are consistent with the cycle design point and then the Off-Design
Input window opens.
1.4.1 Input Data For Off-Design Simulations
In the Off-Design Input window there are on the Steady State page two options for specifying the
engine inlet and exhaust conditions:

Getting Started 17
This input mode is intended for aircraft engines; altitude, the deviation from ISA
standard day ambient temperature at that altitude, relative humidity and the flight
Mach number are the input quantities.
Ground input mode is recommended if gas turbines for power generation are
simulated; in this mode inlet total pressure and temperature, relative humidity and
ambient pressure can be specified.
In the line ZXN given (1) or ZT4 given (2) there is a 1 which means that the engine operating
condition is specified by the relative high-pressure spool speed ZXN. Do some experiments with
various values of HPC Spool Speed ZXN in the range of 0.6...1.1 calculated as Single Cycles.
Then switch to ZXN given (1) or ZT4 given (2) = 2 which makes Burner Temperature ZT4 an input
quantity and do some more Single Cycle calculations. If you specify Burner Temperatures ZT4
below 850K then the iteration which is required for finding the solution may fail to converge. The
variables listed on the Iteration page can have values that are not suited as start value for a new
calculation in such a case. To recover from that situation you can edit the iteration variables and
set them to the design point values, for example:
Alternatively you can load one of the backup files Last_1_jet.CYJ, Last_2_jet.CYJ or Last_3_jet.CYJ which contain
the data of the last three converged calculations.
The group of data on the Modifiers page allows you to study changes of turbine flow capacity and
nozzle area for the simulation of engines with variable geometry. If you want to study engine
deterioration, apply Modifiers to the flow flow capacity and efficiency of the components and to duct

18 GasTurb 11
and burner pressure ratios, for example.
During off-design calculations the number of input data parameters is small because the basic
behavior of the engine is fixed with the engine cycle design point. Duct pressure losses, for
example, are specified for the cycle design point and will vary with corrected flow at part load.
Therefore you normally need not enter any data for duct pressure losses during off-design
calculations, and you will not find the duct pressure losses among the off-design input data.
However, you might be interested in modifying cycle design input data not listed on the standard
input page. You can make these data visible after clicking or after
choosing from the menu Define | Input Quantities.
1.4.2 Variable Compressor Geometry
On the Variable Geometry page you can select one of the compressors having variable geometry.
However, for most compressors that have variable guide vanes in reality it is not necessary to
choose the Variable Compressor Geometry option in GasTurb for the simulation.
When to select Variable Geometry?
For a rigorous performance model of a compressor with variable geometry one needs many maps.
Each of these maps is valid for a given position of the variable guide vanes. While evaluating such
a set of compressor maps within a simulation, the data must be interpolated between the
appropriate maps as a function of the guide vane angle.
In nearly all real compressors that have several rows of variable guide vanes there is a mechanical
link between the rows of guide vanes which enforces, that all vanes change their position
simultaneously. A single actuator is sufficient to set all vanes accordingly to the demand of a
controller. For fully describing the performance of a compressor with linked guide vanes one needs
much less maps compared to the case in which the vane rows would be controlled independently
from each other.
With most compressors the linked vane rows are controlled as a function of corrected compressor
speed, the vane positions follow a simple schedule. This makes it possible to show the
performance of the compressor in one one single map which is a combination of the speed lines
from the various maps that are valid for the corresponding vane positions. Thus there is for the
simulation no difference between compressors with fixed geometry and those which have their
variable geometry position controlled as a function of corrected compressor speed because only
one compressor map is needed.
In GasTurb you need to apply the variable compressor geometry option only if you want to study
effects of deviations from the nominal geometry schedule of the map or in cases in which the vane
position is deliberately not controlled as a function of corrected speed. The latter is the case with
single spool gas turbines used for power generation, for example.
More about Variable Geometry...
1.4.3 Maximum and Minimum Limiters
The maximum power available from a given engine depends on several limits such as the
maximum spool speed, maximum temperature and maximum pressure. Which of the limiters is
active depends, among other things, on the flight condition, the amount of power offtake and bleed
air offtake. Besides the maximum limits for any gas turbine there are also minimum limits like gas
generator spool speed at idle or minimum fuel flow, for example.
The program can observe several maximum and minimum limiters simultaneously. You can
choose to run the engine at its maximum power (click the button with the arrow pointing upwards
or choose Limiters|Max from the menu) or at its minimum power (Limiters|Min) or in between the
Getting Started 19
defined limits (Limiters|Both Max and Min).
Besides the pre-defined limiters you can employ up to three composed values as additional
maximum and minimum limiters. Note that the drop-down lists with the composed values will
appear only when composed values are defined.
The data in the table above have been created with the Turbojet example data file Demo_Jet.CYJ.
One of the four activated limiters is T5 with a setting of 1100K. If you increase the T5 setting to
1150K then you will get an operating point with T5=1107K only. This is because the Spool Speed
Limiter setting of 101 prevents achieving a higher temperature. The rules of the game are "Lowest
Maximum Limiter Wins" and "Highest Minimum Limiter Wins".
If you switch on only Max Limiters then the program will run to one of the maximum limits and
similarly if only Min Limiters are switched on then the solution will be at a minimum limit. If both Min
and Max Limiters are specified then the solution will be within the limits, but not necessarily at a
Min or Max limiter. In special cases it can happen that the operation at the minimum limit violates a
maximum limit. Then the minimum limit is ignored and the maximum limit dictates the operation of
the engine.
1.4.4 Single Operating Line
An operating line is a series of points which begins with the last calculated single off-design point.
Click and then to open the Operating Line
window. In the lower left corner you can specify the step size for the gas generator spool speed
and the number of points to be calculated:
Furthermore you can decide to run the operating line as a series of points with increasing or
decreasing spool speed. If the operating condition which you have calculated before switching to
the operating line calculation mode is a low load case, then you should click the button with the
arrow pointing upwards before commencing with the simulation.
Not always will the specified number of points be achieved; if the operating line in one of the
component maps is far outside the valid region or when the iteration does not converge for other
reasons then the calculation will stop prematurely.

20 GasTurb 11
As mentioned above, consecutive points are obtained by changing the relative high-pressure spool
speed in steps of 0.025 (the default step size). An exception is the load variation with a single
spool turboshaft as used for power generation which runs with constant spool speed.
A series of reheat part load points can also be an operating line. If reheat is switched on, then the
reheat exit temperature is decreased in steps of 100K. Note that the operating point in the
turbomachinery component maps is the same for all points of a reheat operating line.
The operating line calculation ends with the question Another Operating Line ?
Answer No and examine the graphical output which includes the operating points in the
component maps. On the page Y=f(x) - after having clicked - you can
select any of the calculated points by double-clicking and then check the detailed output.
1.4.5 Multiple Operating Lines
If you answer to the question Another operating line ? with yes then a window opens in which
you can modify data before running the next operating line. The heading of the first operating line
is shown in the upper right box (the default heading is Reference) and the heading for the next
operating line is shown below that box. You can edit both of these headings; they will describe the
operating lines in the graphical output.
After preparing the input data for the next operating line select Run | Run Next OL from the menu.
If you come back to this window because you have selected to run more operating lines then you
will find the list with the stored operating lines updated. The list with stored operating lines can also
be filled as follows:
1. set the input data as required
2. enter in the middle box a new headline
3. select Operating Line | Store Input from the menu
Each of the new operating lines shows up in the list of stored operating lines. You can select the
check boxes of all or a few operating lines and then run all of them in one go by clicking
. This option is handy if you need repeatedly to calculate the same set
of operating lines.
From the list with Stored operating lines you can click a headline and then choose Operating Line
| Restore Selected for transferring the input data to the data input grid.

Getting Started 21
1.4.6 Automatic Bleed
To control the compressor surge margin you can select an automatic handling bleed. This bleed
discharges some of the compressed air into the bypass duct or overboard. You can thus lower the
operating line of the compressor and avoid a surge. The automatic handling bleed will be
modulated between the two switch-points that you specify.
Test this feature by calculating two operating lines for the turbojet, one with and the other without
automatic handling bleed. Check the operating lines in the compressor map to see the gain in
surge margin you are getting with the handling bleed.
1.4.7 Off-Design Parametric Study
Instead of creating an operating line with several values for the high-pressure spool speed you can
also produce a series of points with different amounts of power offtake and customer bleed air
extraction, for example, by running an off-design parametric study. Click
before to open the same input window as
for as for design point parametric studies.
The operating points from a parametric study are shown in the component maps. The efficiencies
calculated in the cycle may be not consistent with the graphical representation of the map because
of Reynolds number corrections. So do not be surprised if you fail to find the same efficiency along
the operating line in the HPC map and in a graphic in which HPC Efficiency is plotted over HPC
Mass Flow.
1.4.8 Mission Calculations
Often one has to look in detail at many different off-design conditions of a gas turbine. To do this
easily, you may define a mission. You can combine up to 49 different operating conditions in a list
of mission points. Such a list of points is also called a Design Table.

22 GasTurb 11
At the end of the mission input table there are the limiters listed. As on the limiter input page in the
Off-Design Input window you can switch on several limiters for a mission point simultaneously. You
can edit the limiter settings after clicking or selecting Edit | Limiters from the menu:
Note that you can not modify or switch on/off scheduled limiters in a mission input file.
In a mission both Min and Max Limiters are specified and the solution will be checked whether it is
within the specified limits.
After starting the calculation all points in the list will be calculated in one run. As output you can get
besides a summary table also detailed information for every single point. Click in the column of
interest to select it and then choose View|Selected from the menu. Furthermore, all points of a
mission may be looked at in the component maps and other graphics, try in the menu View|Graph
for that. Finally the table can also be exported to Excel or to an ASCII file with the extension OUM
by selecting File|Export
1.4.9 Effect of Small Changes in Off-Design
Before you begin off-design sensitivity studies you must decide about the operating condition. Do
you look for effects at constant thrust or at constant turbine inlet temperature? Go to the Limiters
page first and set a single maximum limit and then click while the
button is down.
There can be a big difference in the results found for small changes in compressor efficiency
between cycle design point calculations and those for off-design. In the latter case all the operating
points are moving around in their component maps and it even might happen that decreasing the
quality of a component improves thrust!
1.4.10 Flight Envelope
After activating one or several maximum limiters or control schedulesyou can calculate a series of
points with different altitudes and Mach numbers throughout a flight envelope. A flight envelope
always starts at sea level and extends to the specified altitude. Two limiting speed values are
entered as equivalent air speed EAS. This is the speed at which the airplane must fly at some
altitude other than sea level to produce the same dynamic pressure as at sea level. EAS is
traditionally measured in knots and differs from the true airspeed by the square root of the density
ratio /0.

Getting Started 23
There are four speed limits that define the flight envelope. For altitudes lower than 3048 m (10000
ft) the flight envelope extends to zero speed. Above this altitude the limit of the flight envelope is
the minimum Equivalent Air Speed. The maximum speed is described by both a maximum EAS
and by a maximum Mach number (lowest is used). A simplified definition of the flight envelope
yields the engine performance for equal steps in altitude and Mach number.
The first point calculated is always sea level static. This point must converge; otherwise, the
calculation will stop with a corresponding message. As the first graph you are offered a plot of the
flight envelope in which you can see which limiter is active at any altitude and Mach number
combination.
1.4.11 Off-Design Monte Carlo Study
With the Monte Carlo method - which was already introduced for cycle design - you can simulate
the off-design performance variations that result from random changes of the component
behaviour due to manufacturing and assembly tolerances in a series production of engines. See
which component production and control system tolerances you can afford without getting an
excessive scatter in pass-off thrust or specific fuel consumption.
The random distributions for all input data are all independent of each other. There is one
exception to this rule: you can choose that flow and efficiency scatter of compressors are
correlated. This is because a compressor with an efficiency level lower than the mean value will
most probably also have a corrected flow at a given speed, which is lower than average.
1.4.12 Transient
Before actually starting transient simulations you need to initialize this calculation mode by
calculating a reference operating line. The actual transient simulation begins with steady state
operation at the operating point which has been calculated as a single cycle before selecting
. Therefore, If you want to study the acceleration of an engine, you
need to calculate the steady state idle operating condition before initializing the transient mode.

24 GasTurb 11
The results of the initialization are used for setting the scales in the overview plot of the transient
simulation. The reference operating line points (which are all steady state operating points) are
shown for comparison together with the transient data in the graphic output.
For your first experiments with transient simulations use the Turbojet with the data from the file
Demo_jet.CYC again. Run a single cycle with ZXN=1 as steady state operating point before
initializing transient. After having closed the window with the reference operating line click
and then to open the transient simulation
window.
You can select between several alternatives for the time dependant input, stay with the
pre-selected for now and click . Control the
thrust of the engine with the slider on the right border of the window which is your Power Lever.
Move it quickly to the Min stop and when the simulation time is approximately 8 seconds then
move the slider rapidly to the Max position. As a result you will get a picture similar to this one:
In GasTurb 11 the Power Lever Angle PLA is directly correlated with the mechanical spool speed
for thrust producing engine types. In the case of a turbojet, for example, there is a linear
relationship between PLA and the compressor spool speed. This relationship is defined by the
input data on the Transient page in the Off-Design Input window.
After the transient maneuver is completed, you can look at the operating points in the component
maps and also at any other graphical output.
You can also observe in real time how the operating point moves in a component map when you
select it before clicking . Note, however, that in this operating mode no
overview graphic will be created.

Getting Started 25
1.4.13 Test Analysis by Synthesis
The conventional test analysis makes no use of information that is available from component rig
tests, for example. It will give no information about the reason why a component behaves badly. A
low efficiency for the fan may be either the result of operating the fan at aerodynamic over-speed
or a poor blade design. To improve the analysis quality in this respect is the aim of the Analysis by
Synthesis (AnSyn). This method is also used for model based engine performance monitoring.
When doing analysis by synthesis a model of the engine is automatically matched to the test data.
Applying scaling factors to the component models so that the measured values and the model
values come into agreement achieves this. An efficiency scaling factor greater than one indicates,
that the component performs better than predicted, for example. In case of the example above a
compressor efficiency factor of 0.986 is found which means, that compressor efficiency is 1.4%
lower than postulated by the model.
From the screen shot of the AnSyn main window above you see that there are many options
available. Most of them need detailed explanations and are therefore not suited for newcomers to
the program. If you are interested in this topic please search for the topic Model Based Test
Analysis in the section dealing with the details of off-design simulations.
1.5 More than Performance

Until now you have done gas turbine performance simulations without thinking about the detailed
geometry of the components. No static pressures, temperatures or flow velocities inside the
compressors, burners, ducts or turbines were considered, only the total pressures and the total
temperatures were employed for the cycle calculations.
However, if you want to know more about the internals of your engine, then you have to consider
local Mach numbers, flow areas, densities, velocities etc. Select in the program main window
as Scope of the simulation and you can study these details. Choose

26 GasTurb 11
the Turbojet configuration again, make sure that is selected and then
click . Use the data from the Demo_jet.CYJ for the following exercises.
1.5.1 Thermodynamic Stations
On the Design Point Input page there is now an additional page with the title Stations:
For each thermodynamic station, except station 2, you can either specify the Design Mach number
or the Design Area. The properties of station 2 are no input because Compressor Design is
selected in this example.
Calculate a single cycle with these settings and you will get a table with much detail at the
thermodynamic stations on an additional output page:
Note that all the station properties can be addressed in composed values and special iterations.
Moreover, you can plot how selected properties vary along the flow path from station to station
after clicking in the single point output window.
1.5.2 Preliminary Engine Design
While the program scope is More, the geometry of the engine can be calculated from the cycle
results employing the flow areas at the thermodynamic stations. These calculations can require
considerable computer power and therefore they are disabled at program start. Activate them by
clicking and then click to open the engine
geometry editor. You will immediately see the turbojet cross section which is consistent with the
cycle data.

Getting Started 27
The input and output data for the geometry and the disks are grouped for each component. Have a
quick look at them to get a first impression about the detail which GasTurb 11 can consider for
preliminary engine design tasks. For a more detailed view about the program capabilities and
limitations read the section about Engine Dimensions.
To end the Getting Started tour through the program let's have a little fun: Click and assign
the HPC Annulus Shape Descriptor to the slider. You find this parameter in the subsection
Compressor of the Component Geometry section. See how the shape of the compressor annulus
affects all the rest of the engine; try also other input data with the slider, for example the cycle input
data.
This ends the Getting Started section, for more information about the capabilities of GasTurb 11
go through the rest of the help system section by section or use the index for searching a specific
topic. If you have difficulties understanding one or the other explanation - or if you find a bug in the
manual or in the program - feel free to send a message about the problem to the author.

The Cycle Design Point
II
30 GasTurb 11
2 The Cycle Design Point

Before a new gas turbine can be designed many possible thermodynamic cycles are evaluated. In
the end, a cycle is selected which constitutes the cycle design point (cycle reference point) of the
gas turbine. For this design point all the mass flows, the total pressures and total temperatures at
the inlet and exit of all components of the engine are given. Moreover, the flow area at the exhaust
is already determined.
When appropriate Mach numbers at the component boundaries are selected, then all
aero-thermodynamic important dimensions of the gas turbine are fixed. Thus selecting a cycle
design point defines the geometry of the gas turbine. Keep always in mind:
Cycle design point studies compare gas turbines of different geometry.
Off-design studies deal with the behavior of a gas turbine with known
geometry.
Prior to off-design simulations you must run a single cycle design point. This will be done
automatically if you select in the program main window after starting the
program and directly go to the Off-Design Input window.
2.1 Input Data

You create a new input data set by modifying an existing data set; there is no option available to
create it from scratch. The following sections describe the data input for cycle design calculations
for the example of the Geared Unmixed Flow Turbofan configuration if not otherwise noted.
You can use any editor to look at the data, they are pure ASCII files. However, it is strongly
recommended not to modify data sets in your editor if you are not absolutely sure about the
meaning of the data groups and the terms employed in the data file.
2.1.1 Basic Data
On the page Basic Data you will find miscellaneous input properties. The first table contains the
input for the ambient conditions in two variants: the Flight Mode which is suited for aircraft
propulsion simulations and the Ground Mode which is best for power generation applications.
Note that modification of the data in Flight Mode will not change the input data for the Ground
Mode and vice versa.
In Flight Mode one of the input properties is Delta T from ISA which is the temperature difference
to the International Standard Atmosphere. Use 999 to get the ambient temperature for a Hot Day
and -999 for a Cold Day.

The Cycle Design Point 31
There are several options for describing the intake pressure loss. The burner part load constant is
relevant for off-design simulations only, ignore it if you do only cycle design studies. If you intend to
do off-design simulations after having decided for a cycle design point and you have no idea about
its magnitude then use the default value 1.6.
You can select between several different fuel types from the list to the right of the notebook. Each
fuel type has its nominal Fuel Heating Value FHV. You can modify the default FHV which makes
sense especially if you want to simulate the use of Natural Gas with a slightly different chemical
composition compared to that assumed by GasTurb 11.
The engine configurations with several turbines have inter-ducts between these turbines that
cause pressure losses. If you do not select the Turbine Design option for the turbine upstream of
the inter-duct then the input value for Turb. Interd. Ref. Press. Ratio will be the actual turbine
inter-duct pressure ratio.
With Turbine Design selected, the given Turb. Interd. Ref. Press. Ratio is valid for the inter-duct
Reference Mach No. which is an input on the Turbine Design page. If the exit Mach number of the
upstream turbine deviates from the inter-duct Reference Mach number, then the calculated
inter-duct pressure ratio will deviate correspondingly from the Reference Pressure Ratio.
2.1.2 Secondary Air System
An enlarged version of the nomenclature figure opens after a double-click on the engine picture
and after clicking . After modifying a mass flow ratio a click on the
nomenclature window will update the numbers in the figure. You can print the figure with the
station nomenclature and the secondary air system paths from the cycle result sheet.
A handling bleed is used for lowering the operating line in a compressor and thus protecting the
engine from surge. The handling bleed may be downstream of the compressor or it can be an
inter-stage bleed. When studying a mixed flow turbofan then you must specify the handling bleed
location: For high bypass engines usually you need a handling bleed valve downstream of the
booster and for low bypass engines you might need a handling bleed for the HP compressor.
The overboard bleed is for cabin air ventilation in an aircraft, for example. According to Reference
1 around 0.01kg/s per passenger is required. In industrial engines the required amount of
overboard bleed is usually less than 1% while with marine engines up to 10% of the engine mass
flow is used.

32 GasTurb 11
The location of an inter-stage bleed within a compressor is specified by the relative enthalpy rise.
2.1.3 Mass Flow
GasTurb 11 provides special input options that simplify the design of turbofan engine families. On
the turbofan Mass Flow Input page there are three alternatives for defining the engine mass flow
offered:
Select option 1 and you can enter the standard day corrected fan inlet flow W2Rstd. If you select
option 2 you can enter the core inlet corrected flow to the high pressure compressor W25Rstd.
The fan flow will be calculated on the basis of the bypass ratio in this case.
The third option also serves to specify the core flow; it allows you to use a HPC map during design
calculations. You specify on the mass flow input page for option number 3 the Auxiliary Coordinate

Beta and the speed value rel NH/sqrt(T25/Tstd) in the HP compressor map. The map is read with
these coordinates which yields mass flow, pressure ratio and efficiency of the HP compressor. The
flow capacities of the turbines will be calculated in such a way, that the compressor operates at the
specified point in the map.
How to use option 3 is described in detail on the page "How to Model a Derivative Engine"
2.1.4 Compressor Efficiency
Compressor efficiency can be specified as isentropic or as polytropic value during cycle design
point calculations; for off-design calculations the isentropic efficiency is employed. Alternatively the
design point efficiency can be estimated based on pressure ratio, number of stages, corrected inlet
mass flow and a loss correction factor as described in Reference 3.
2.1.5 Turbine Efficiency
The efficiency of an uncooled turbine can be specified as isentropic or polytropic efficiency in an

equivalent manner as for compressors. Furthermore, turbine efficiency can be evaluated based on
a preliminary Turbine Design calculation.
If the turbine is cooled, the efficiency definition gets more complicated. GasTurb 11 follows
common practice in aero-engine industry and makes the following assumptions. The cooling air for
the inlet guide vane is mixed to the mainstream without any losses. This reduces the burner exit
temperature T4 to the stator exit temperature ( SOT) T41 and increases the mass flow through the
turbine rotor(s). The mainstream is expanded with the specified efficiency and does the work
required for driving the compressor. This results in the turbine exit total pressure P44 and the
provisional exit total temperature T43. The rotor cooling air as well as the liner leakage air etc. are
assumed to do no work. This air is mixed to the mainstream at the turbine exit without pressure
loss. The final turbine exit conditions are P44 and T44.
Another way of defining the efficiency of a cooled turbine is described with the following formula:

34 GasTurb 11
PWSD Shaft power delivered
PWPump Power to accelerate the blade cooling air to mean blade circumferential speed
W4 Turbine inlet main gas stream
 His Specific work for an isentropic expansion of the main stream from turbine inlet total
pressure to turbine exit total pressure
H Specific work for an expansion of a cooling air stream from the cooling air pressure to the
is,cooling turbine exit total pressure
This sort of turbine efficiency is called the thermodynamic efficiency of a cooled turbine
Note that both the efficiency and the amount of cooling air have an effect on the thermodynamic
cycle. Be careful when comparing efficiency numbers for cooled turbines because of possible
differences in efficiency definition. For getting a feeling for the numbers examine the various
efficiency definitions for cooled turbines with GasTurb Details 5.
2.1.6 Conventional Test Analysis
While a turbofan engine is on the testbed, many measurements are performed. Usually the total
engine mass flow W2 is derived from pressure measurements in a bellmouth or in a venturi. The
inlet and exit total temperatures and pressures for the compressors are measured which allows to
calculate compressor pressure ratios and efficiencies.
There are two different test analysis methodologies implemented in GasTurb 11. Here the
conventional test analysis is described and in the off-design simulation section the model based
test analysis is introduced.
One part of the total mass flow goes into the core engine while, the other part goes into the bypass
duct. It is not possible to measure the core or bypass mass flow directly. One has to rely on
indirect methods to find the flow split. The analysis can be based on the measured exhaust gas
temperature T5 and the fuel flow, for example. Then the following iteration can be started in case
of a simple Two Spool Unmixed Flow Turbofan:
Estimate for the bypass ratio and calculate from the measured W2 the core inlet flow. Let us
assume that we know the secondary air system, i.e. the amount of bleed and cooling air as a
percentage of W25. The air mass flow W3 enters the burner. Then the burner exit temperature T4
can be calculated on the basis of the measured fuel flow. The turbine inlet pressure P4 is derived
from the measured value of the compressor exit pressure P3 using standard theory. All necessary
information for calculating HP Turbine corrected flow W4*sqrt(T4)/P4 is available now.
The power required to drive the high-pressure compressor can be derived from the compressor
mass flow and the measured total temperatures T25 and T3. This makes it possible to calculate the
high-pressure turbine exit temperature T45. The low-pressure turbine exit temperature T5 can be
determined on the basis of the power balance with the compressors it drives.

For the analysis of the turbine efficiencies the measured pressures P44 and P5 are employed. The
power delivered by the turbines can be calculated from the measurements around the
compressors and the core flow.
Now iterate bypass ratio in such a way that the calculated HP turbine flow capacity W4*sqrt(T4)/P4
equals to a known value. This analysis method is called a HP Turbine Flow Capacity method. If
you iterate bypass ratio such that the calculated temperature T5 matches a measured value for T5,
then you apply the so-called Heat Balance method. Similarly you could use the LPT Flow Capacity
W45*sqrt(T45)/P45 for finding the core flow.
2.1.7 Test Analysis Example
The conventional test analysis method is in GasTurb 11 implemented as an option for cycle design
point calculations:
On the Test Analysis page in the Design Point Input window you can enter measured

36 GasTurb 11
temperatures, pressures and fuel flow. Other data, like engine inlet conditions, bypass ratio, air
system constants and total mass flow W2, are entered as usual on the respective pages.
When you run the cycle in the test analysis mode the compressor pressure ratios and efficiencies
will be calculated from the measured data. Furthermore, burner exit temperature T4, the turbine
temperatures T45 and T5 as well as the turbine flow capacities and efficiencies are found as
described in the previous section.
For finding the core flow you need to iterate bypass ratio in such a way that the calculated T5
matches a measured T5 or that a calculated turbine flow capacity is equal to a value known from a
turbine rig test, for example.
Input quantities that are calculated during test analysis are marked as no input while the test
analysis option is selected. By checking the checkbox Overwrite P/P, Eff and T4 input you can
transfer the calculated data to the normal input and go for off-design simulations with the test
derived model of the engine. If you leave the box unchecked, then you dismiss the test analysis
result when switching back to normal cycle design calculations.
2.1.8 Reheat
Reheat systems of aircraft gas turbines are also called Afterburners or Augmentors. They can
produce a very high specific thrust (thrust per unit mass flow) at the expense of a high fuel
consumption.
Reheat input page for a Turbojet
The Reheat Exit Temperature is the temperature before the Nozzle Cooling Air is mixed with the
main stream.
If you intend to do only cycle design calculations then you can ignore the input for the Reheat
Partload Constant. Reheat efficiency at off-design is calculated using the same algorithm as for
the main combustor. Since the design point reheat efficiency is usually much lower than the
efficiency of the main combustor, the reheat part load constant will also be lower than the burner
part load constant.
For the Reheat Design Inlet Mach number you should use a rather low value; otherwise the
pressure losses due to heat addition become excessive, your reheat exit will choke and the cycle
calculation will end with an error message.
2.1.9 Nozzle
Most of the engine configurations have convergent nozzles, but for some engines you can select
between a convergent and a convergent-divergent nozzle.

For both types of nozzles you can select between the standard modelling approach (for a detailed
description follow the links above) and a user defined empirical model. In the second case you can
input values for the gross thrust coefficient and the discharge coefficient. Select these properties
as iteration variables and use as target for these iterations composed values for employing your
special nozzle simulation methodology with GasTurb 11.
2.1.9.1 Convergent Nozzle
The input data for a convergent nozzle are the Nozzle Gross Thrust Coefficient and the Design
Petal Angle which has an influence on the nozzle discharge coefficient.
2.1.9.2 Convergent Divergent Nozzle
The geometry of a convergent divergent nozzle is described with the primary petal angle
(measured against the nozzle axis) and the area ratio A9/A8.
The figure shows a nozzle design in which the throat area A8 and the area ratio A9/A8 change
simultaneously when the actuator ring moves. With such a nozzle design only one set of actuators
is required, while the independent control of A8 and A9/A8 requires two separately controlled sets
of actuators.
To describe a convergent-divergent nozzle with only one set of actuators during off-design
simulations the area ratio A9/A8 can be made a quadratic function of A8.
A9/A8 = a + b*A8/A8ds + c*A8/A8ds²
If you want to do cycle design point calculations only, then set a to the desired nozzle area ratio
and set both b and c to zero.

38 GasTurb 11
The gross thrust coefficient may be used to correct the calculated thrust value.
2.1.9.3 Nozzle Calculation Switch
With the default setting of the Nozzle Calculation Switch (Option 1) the nozzle discharge coefficient
is calculated from the nozzle petal angle  and the pressure ratio P8/Ps,8 (convergent nozzles)
respectively from the nozzle petal angle  alone (convergent-divergent nozzles).
If you are not happy with the model implemented in GasTurb 11 then you should set the Nozzle
Calculation Switch to 2. Build your own model with the help of composed values and iterate the
specified values for the discharge and thrust coefficients in such a way that they are equal to the
respective composed value.
The thrust coefficient which is applied with the default nozzle calculation option is normally an
invisible input quantity during off-design simulations. However, you can make it visible in the
Off-Design Input window after selecting Define|Input Quantities from the menu.
2.2 Parametric Studies

The results of parametric studies are presented as graphics which can be composed from all
calculated quantities. The single cycle design point which was calculated before the parametric
study was selected is shown in the graphs as a reference point. If this point is not consistent with
your parametric study then you should hide it. This can be achieved by unchecking the menu
option View|Reference or by clicking .
When you select Labels|Rearrange from the menu or click then the
numbers describing the parameter values will be placed differently. Repeated selection of this
option will cycle through all possible arrangements including a graph without numbers. This will
allow you to find the best position for the text.
Parametric variations with up to 50 steps of one or two variables are possible. For the second
parameter you can choose instead of a cycle input property also two or more different types of fuel
like JP-4 or Natural Gas. In such a parametric study for each fuel the nominal fuel heating value
(that is the one which you get if you enter zero as fuel heating value in the single point input) is
employed.
To a plot with two parameters you can add so-called contour lines, i.e. lines along which a selected
output property is constant. While you are performing cycle design studies you can select
properties from the cycle design calculation or from an off-design calculation, provided this was
defined as a mission point before initiating the parametric study.
You can show also several carpet plots (optionally with the same contour lines) in one single graph
or several different contour lines in one single carpet plot. A further option is to plot the difference
between the results from two parametric studies.
Selected input and output properties can be written to a file. If your parametric study includes a
turbine design calculation then you will get a special output which shows how the velocity triangle
shape varies with the parameter values and where the turbine design is located in the Smith
diagram.
2.2.1 Parametric Study with Iteration
With a Two Spool Unmixed Flow Turbofan you may perform a parametric study with HP
Compressor Pressure Ratio and Burner Exit Temperature as parameters. Since in such an
exercise the Outer Fan Pressure Ratio remains constant one does not get the best possible

relation between the core and bypass nozzle exit velocities.
To correct that deficiency of the parametric study you can iterate the Outer Fan Pressure Ratio in
such a way that the two nozzle jet velocities are in a fixed relation with each other. Select as
iteration variable the Outer Fan Pressure Ratio (min=1.1, max=4 ) and as iteration target that the
Ideal Jet Velocity Ratio Vid,18/Vid,8 shall be equal to 0.8 which is near to the thermodynamic
optimum.
If you encounter convergence problems then it might help to exchange the parameter sequence or
you can begin the parametric with the highest value and then decrease it successively with
negative steps.
2.2.2 Parametric Study with Several Carpet Plots
In the graphical output window of a cycle design point parametric study with two parameters you
can store a carpet plot by selecting Carpet|Store Black Carpet from the menu or by clicking
.
After having stored the first carpet go back to the data input window. Change one (or more) input
property (the Flight Mach Number, for example), and repeat the parametric study without modifying
the plot parameter selection. In the graphical output window you will now get the second carpet. To
add a description for the second carpet, click again.
You can show up to four carpets to one single graph. Note that the optional contour line property is
the same in all carpets. Note that you can drag the carpet description box with your mouse to a
suitable place.

40 GasTurb 11
2.2.3 Parametric Study with Many Contour Lines in One Graph
If you want contour lines for several different quantities in the same graph then click
or select Carpet|Add Contour Lines from the menu. You will come
back to the plot parameter selection for making your choice. Click and the contour
lines for the additional property will be added to the carpet. You can choose up to four different
contour line parameters to be shown in the same carpet. The example below shows three sorts of
contour lines in the same carpet plot.
2.2.4 Parametric Study with Contour Lines for Off-Design Properties
The sizing of an engine for a subsonic transport aircraft is generally done for an aerodynamic
design point at high altitude. For such a flight condition one gets normally medium to high Mach
numbers at the compressor inlet, but rather moderate turbine inlet temperatures. The maximum
turbine inlet temperature will occur at hot day take-off conditions. From a cycle design point of view
this is an off-design case.
During a cycle design parametric study you can consider the properties from one off-design point
into account. To do that, go to the Off-Design Input window and define a mission with one single
point for that purpose. Then go back to the Cycle Design Input window and run the parametric
study. Now you get the choice to plot contour lines for properties from the design point or from the
off-design point as contour lines into your carpet plot.

Thus you can plot lines of constant hot day take-off turbine inlet temperature into a graph from a
parametric cycle design point study for cruise conditions at altitude.
2.2.5 Difference between the Results from two Parametric Studies
For comparing the results from two parametric studies with the same parameter selection perform
first a baseline parametric study.
Then go back to the Design Point Input window, adapt the input data, and then run the parametric
study again. Do not modify any data in the parameter selection window because this would erase
the reference data that were stored before.

42 GasTurb 11
When the parametric run is completed, the plot parameter selection window opens again, but now
with buttons left to the parameter selection boxes. When these buttons are selected, then
instead of the result from the last parametric study the difference between the last result and the
baseline is shown in the graphic. Check Show differences in % if you prefer percentage values
over absolute differences.
2.2.6 Parametric Study with Turbine Design
You can do parametric studies while for one or more turbines Turbine Design is selected. This
works fine if the range of the parameters is not too big because with inappropriate input values the
turbine exit will choke and you will get no valid solution for the velocity triangles.
If a parametric study includes a turbine design calculation for one or more turbines then a special
graphical output is available. After selecting View|Show Carpets you will see in the top left corner
a small grid in which all successfully calculated cycles of the parametric study are marked. You
can move through this grid with the arrow keys or by clicking a point. While moving through the
selection grid you will see how the turbine design point is moving in the Smith diagram.
If you have done turbine design calculations for more than one turbine then you can switch
between the different turbines (click the appropriate point in the Triangles menu. For each point in
the grid you can get the fully detailed output by selecting View|Detailed Output. Clicking will
toggle between the standard graphical output and the velocity diagrams.

2.3 Cycle Optimization

For a cycle optimization you can select up to seven optimization variables and set up to seven
constraints on output quantities. Any cycle output parameter including the composed values can
be selected as a figure of merit that you can either maximize (specific thrust, for example) or
minimize (such as specific fuel consumption). You can also combine optimization with iteration.
In addition to the properties of the cycle design point you can consider one off-design operating
point which is defined as a single point mission. The data from this off-design point can be
constraints and they can be employed as figure of merit.
Search strategies
The optimization process starts with the adaptive random search strategy. In the upper part of the
optimization window you see, on the left side, gauges that indicate the values for the variables, and
on the right side, gauges for the constraints. A chart below the gauges shows the progress of the
optimization with respect to the figure of merit. The buttons above the progress indicator allow you
to change the scale. If you don't see any points in the chart, then click the left and then the middle
button.
As soon as the optimization run is finished, you should check whether the optimum is local or
global. Select Restart, which starts a random search moving away from the present optimum,
followed by a new search for the optimum. In the figure above the optimization was automatically
restarting after finding an optimum, this happens if you select Strategy|Endless.
Alternatively to the random search strategy, you can select a gradient search strategy. Try both
methods to be sure that you have found the global optimum.

44 GasTurb 11
2.3.1 Optimization Variables
The numerical optimization allows you to define up to seven optimization variables. Be careful with
the input data for the optimization: both the lower and the upper limits for the optimization variables
have to be selected properly. If you restrain the range too much the solution will be found on the
limits and you will have to reset them. If the range for the optimization variables is too broad, many
variable combinations will be physically meaningless.
The start values of the optimization variables should be within the specified range and the cycle
results should fulfill all constraints. When your starting point is outside of the feasible region then
the program will try to find a valid cycle. This attempt, however, is not always successful.
2.3.2 Constraints
The numerical optimization allows you to define up to seven constraints for any of the output
variables. You can answer with optimization questions like the following:
Optimize pressure ratio and burner exit temperature of a turbojet in such a way, that the specific
fuel consumption is minimized with the constraints:
 the design turbine pressure ratio must be lower than 4.
 the turbine exit temperature must be not higher than 1000K.
Note that the composed values can also be employed as constraints. Use them to describe
specific design limits that are applicable to your special example.

2.3.3 Off-Design Constraints
The sizing of an engine for a subsonic transport aircraft is generally done for an aerodynamic
design point at high altitude. For such a flight condition one gets usually high Mach numbers at the
compressor inlet, but rather moderate turbine inlet temperatures.
The maximum turbine inlet temperature will occur at hot day take-off conditions. From a cycle
design point of view this is an off-design case.
During a cycle design optimization exercise you can take constraints from one off-design point into
account. Define a mission with one single point for that purpose before initiating the optimization.
Then you will have for each of the seven constraints the choice, whether it applies to the design
point or to the off-design point.
2.3.4 Figure of Merit
The figure of merit can be a single property (like the specific fuel consumption which shall be
minimized) or a composed value which takes more than one property into account. If in addition to
the cycle design point an off-design point is considered as part of the optimization exercise then
the figure of merit can be either a design point property, an off-design property or the sum of a
design and an off-design property.
2.4 Effects
You may often want to know how important one of the input quantities is for a certain cycle. This
option has already been described in the Getting Started section. Remember that you can use the
pre-defined step sizes or enter your own numbers for each input variable step. Remember also
that you can combine also this type of calculation with the iteration option and look at the changes
of any composed value you have defined. In this way, you can produce a table with concise
information about the most important parameters in your problem.
Do not mix up the results from cycle design calculations with those from off-design simulations, the
effects of small changes of the same variable can be quite different.
2.5 Monte Carlo Study

The Monte Carlo simulation method calculates many cycles in which some selected cycle input
parameters are randomly distributed. The cycle output quantities will consequently also be
randomly distributed. Normal distributions with specified standard deviation or asymmetric
distributions will be created for the selected input parameters. The results are presented
graphically as bar charts together with points that indicate the shape of a corresponding Gaussian
distribution.
You can export the results from a Monte Carlo simulation to Excel and do there more statistical
analysis, for example.
2.5.1 Engine Design Uncertainty
Uncertainty during engine development accounts for the possibility that the designer will not exactly
achieve the design intent. There is a distribution of possible performance levels associated with a
component's performance rather than a discrete value. The distribution is not symmetrical – not a
Gaussian distribution – and therefore the use of the Root-Sum-Squared method is not adequate.

46 GasTurb 11
Uncertainty in component technology can be modeled in a probabilistic fashion. The data on

variability can be collected by asking the component design experts three simple questions:
What is the predicted value?
Assume that the predicted value is also the most likely value.
What are the one-chance-in-a-thousand best and worst possible values?

Most people can relate to this as unlikely chance, but a chance nonetheless
For modeling purposes, these values can be used as the 0% respectively 100% probability
values.
If you did ten such designs, how many of them would fall within an interval of the width x?
Provides additional confidence information.
GasTurb 11 must be operated in cycle design mode while doing simulations with the aim of finding
a number for the development risk.
2.5.2 Test Analysis Uncertainty
The evaluation of the component efficiencies from an engine test is an indirect process. The
uncertainty of the result depends on the uncertainty of the measured quantities like pressures,
temperatures, fuel flow and spool speeds.
The uncertainty of the test analysis process can be evaluated with a Monte Carlo simulation. For
each of the probes, and the engine build measurements like turbine flow capacities and nozzle
areas, there are tolerances. The same is true for the secondary air system which is employed
during the test analysis process.
For a proper uncertainty analysis all the elements that influence the test result shall be listed. For
each item on the list the uncertainty must be quantified and agreed on with the specialists. In many
cases the uncertainty can be expressed with the standard deviation of a Gaussian distribution.
However, there are exceptions: measuring a pressure on the high side is less probable than
measuring it on the low side because a small leak in the pipe between the rake and the actual
sensor will always decrease the indicated value.
The items in the list constitute the input for the Monte Carlo study into the test analysis program.
Once the uncertainty of all elements has been agreed on between all stake holders the Monte
Carlo study can be run. The result will be the standard deviation for the properties of interest like
the component efficiencies.
Since the analysis results depend not only on the measurement uncertainty but also on the core
flow analysis method a Monte Carlo study will also yield information for the selection of the method
with the least uncertainty in the result.

Off-Design Performance
III
48 GasTurb 11
3 Off-Design Performance
3.1 General
Off-design studies deal with the behavior of a gas turbine with given geometry. This geometry is
found by running a single cycle design point.
The cycle design calculation is done in the background automatically when you - after starting the
program - directly go for off-design simulations or when you drag an Engine Model file from the
Windows Explorer and drop it on the GasTurb 11 icon on your desktop.
Note that you can select reheat during off-design only when you have set up your cycle design
point with an afterburner. Similar restrictions apply for the use of recuperators, propellers and
nozzle types.
To prepare for an off-design simulation at first the component design points must be correlated
with the component maps. This can be done automatically using Standard Maps and standard
design point settings in these maps. The maps will be scaled before the off-design calculation
commences in such a way, that they are consistent with the cycle design point. This approach
works well if you are interested mainly in the basic off-design behavior of an engine type. However,
if you want to do a more accurate simulation for a specific engine then you should select the
option Special Maps.
Engine Model files contain - besides the cycle design point data - all component map information
needed for off-design simulations.
3.1.1 Data Files

3.1.1.1 Standard Data Files
A Standard Data File contains all input data, the definition of the composed values, the iterations
defined for the design point and for off-design and so on. If you want you can look at a data file
generated with GasTurb 11 with your favorite ASCII editor to see exactly what is stored.
Click to open an editor which allows you adding comments to your

data. Make use of this option to document the background of your input data and the changes that
you have made later.
Standard Data Files do not contain any information about the component maps to be used for
off-design simulations.
3.1.1.2 Engine Model Files
If you want to do more accurate off-design simulations, then you will use a modified scaling of the
standard maps or special maps. Selecting the appropriate component maps and correlating the
cycle design point with these maps needs some effort. You can store the map scaling information
in a special Map Scaling File or you can combine it with a Standard Data File which results in an
Engine Model File.
You can create Engine Model Files from the Off-Design Input window while all input data on the
Steady State page are identical to those from the cycle design point.
After an Engine Model File is read the cycle design point is calculated in the background, all maps
are restored from file and properly scaled.

Off-Design Performance 49
3.1.1.3 Map Scaling File
When you click or select the option Maps|Special in the Off-Design

Input window then you must decide for each compressor and each turbine before the off-design
simulations:
 which map should be read from file
 how to correlate the cycle reference point with the map
 what Reynolds corrections shall be applied
You can save your settings in a Map Scaling File in which the following information will be stored:
 the paths to the component maps
 the coordinates of the cycle reference point in the map ßds and N/sqrt(T)ds)
 the Reynolds correction data
 the map reference speeds
Note that the map scaling information is also stored in an Engine Model File.
3.1.2 Compressor Maps

3.1.2.1 Map Scaling Procedure
After having calculated a single cycle in design mode, you can go on to do off-design calculations.
Before you actually can do that the cycle design point must be correlated with the compressor and
the turbine maps. The component maps need to be scaled in such a way that the design point is in
line with a specific point in the map, the Map Scaling Point. If you select the Standard Maps in the
program opening window this is done automatically.
If you have got compressor maps that are better suited for your machine than the Standard Maps
then you should use them as Special Maps. For good simulations you should always use the best
maps available. Scaling a single-stage fan map to a pressure ratio of 10 would certainly not be a
reasonable approach.
3.1.2.2 Standard Maps
For each of the compressors and turbines there is one map delivered together with the program.
All these maps are taken from open literature and they are all from axial through flow turbo
machines except the last compressor for the two configurations with axial-radial high pressure
compressors.
All the maps are physically sound representations of real turbo machines. They may be scaled
within certain limits to represent the behavior of similar engine designs. However, if the
compressor design pressure ratio deviates significantly from that of the original map then
particularly the speed-flow relationship will be represented incorrectly. For accurate simulations
high quality maps especially for the compressors are needed.
All maps will be scaled before the off-design calculation commences in such a way, that they are
consistent with the cycle design point. For checking the map scaling point select Maps|Special in
the Off-design Input window.
3.1.2.3 Special Maps
If you have better maps than the Standard Maps of GasTurb 11 for the engine to be simulated
then you can should use them. Select the menu option Maps|Special or click
in the Off-Design Input window for that purpose . The map scaling
window will open and show the presently loaded component maps. If you open this window for the
first time (and you are not using an Engine Model File) then you will see the standard component

50 GasTurb 11
maps.
In the figure above you see the unscaled Standard Map employed for most high pressure
compressors with the standard cycle design point setting which is on the speed line marked N=1
and at the auxiliary coordinate ß=0.5. This Map Scaling Point - which is connected to the cycle
design point - is marked as a yellow square and the coordinates of this points are shown in the
table above the map.
If the preselected map scaling point is not in the right place because it results in less surge margin
than needed for your application, for example, then you can reset it. Click on the yellow square and
drag it to a better place. Instead of using the mouse you can also specify the position of the design
point in the map by editing its coordinates N/sqrt(T),ds and Beta,ds in the table. This option is of
advantage if you want to repeat exactly what you have done before.
Note, however, the consequence of moving the design point around in the map: The values for all
efficiency contours – and especially the peak efficiency of the scaled map - will change. If you
move the design point to a map region with low efficiency, then the peak efficiency of the scaled
map will increase because the efficiency of the cycle reference point remains constant. Check the
consistency of the scaled map with your cycle design point data. Normally, you cannot have a very
high compressor surge margin and good efficiency at the same time.
If you have the true map of the compressor and the corrected mass flow is given in the map in the
units which GasTurb 11 uses then you can apply the procedure that is explained in detail with an
example for the turbojet engine. For the use of un-scaled component maps with GasTurb 11, there
is a further, more direct, option available.
3.1.2.4 Efficiency Scaling
The following three efficiency terms play a role in efficiency scaling:

 The cycle design point efficiency E23ds.
 From the pressures and temperatures at the cycle design point the Reynolds Number Index RNI

can be calculated and that yields the Reynolds number correction for efficiency. When the
Reynolds correction is removed from the cycle design point efficiency one gets E23ds,RC which
is equal to E23ds (if no Reynolds correction is applied) or higher than E23ds.
 In the unscaled map the efficiency at the map scaling point is E23ds,M.
The map scaling is done by multiplying all numbers in the efficiency table of the unscaled map with
the factor f E23 = E23ds,RC / E23ds,M. This yields at the map scaling point during off-design
simulations exactly the cycle design point efficiency if the Reynolds number index is the same as in
the cycle design point.
The peak efficiency in a map is the highest efficiency value within the scaled component map.
This efficiency will be read from the map when the operating line passes through the point with the
peak efficiency and the Reynolds Number Index RNI is so high that no Reynolds correction is
applicable.
Note that the map scaling point (representing the cycle design point) is normally not at the location
of the peak efficiency.
3.1.2.5 Map Scaling Example
Let us take the compressor map of a turbojet with the following cycle design point data:
Corrected Mass Flow (WR)dp 90.0
Pressure Ratio (P3/P2)dp 9.0
Efficiency dp 0.85
The corrected spool speed of the design point is taken as a reference in all off-design calculations.
It holds by definition:
Corrected Speed (NR)dp 1.000

52 GasTurb 11
For off-design calculations, the design point must be correlated with the map. This means that one
point in the map - the map scaling point - serves as a reference point (subscript R,map) with which
the design point (subscript dp) is matched. As a default, the map scaling point is at ßR,map=0.5
and NR,map=1.0. Using ßR,map=0.5 and NR,map=1.0 along with the standard map
HPC01.MAP yields
Corrected Mass Flow (WR)R,map 33.48423
Pressure Ratio (P3/P2)R,map 8.311415
Efficiency R,map 0.860100
Note that for reading these values from the map tables a linear interpolation between ß=0.47368
and ß=0.52632 is required.
The value read from the map tables needs to be corrected for Reynolds number effects with the
terms f,RNI and fW,RNI to be comparable with the design point efficiency dp:
Now, the map scaling factors can be calculated (assuming f,RNI I= 0.99 and fW,RNI =0.995):
These map scaling factors are applied to all the numbers in the efficiency table of the map. After
applying the scaling procedure the map will be in line with the cycle design point.
3.1.2.6 Another Map Scaling Example
Select the Turbojet configuration, load the file Demo_jet.CYC and modify the input for the cycle
design point as follows:

Inlet Corrected Flow W2Rstd 32 kg/s
Pressure Ratio 8.0
Efficiency 0.86575
In the Off-Design Input window select from the menu Maps|Special to open the Map Scaling
window; the standard map for the compressor will be shown.
Let us now assume for this example, that the map on the screen is correctly describing the
compressor, we want to use the map unscaled. This requires that the map coordinates of the
design point are adjusted in such a way that both scaling factors (for mass flow and pressure ratio)
are equal to 1:
Move the yellow square with your mouse or edit the numbers for Beta,ds and N/sqrt(T),ds in the
last two columns of the table above. Make sure that you have selected the correct units for the
mass flow numbers from the drop down selection list in the top right corner of the window.
If you want to use a map unscaled there is one problem with this approach: If you set the scaling
factors for mass flow and pressure ratio to 1.0, you can end up with an efficiency scaling factor that
is not equal to 1. In this case you must go back to the cycle design point and modify your efficiency
number in such a way that you get also for the efficiency scaling factor a value of 1. Have a look at
the other option to use unscaled maps which does not have this problem.
3.1.2.7 Use of Unscaled Compressor Maps
In an alternative way to use unscaled maps with GasTurb 11 the Beta value of the operating point
will be found from Pressure Ratio and Mass Flow during the iteration for an off-design operating
point. To make that feasible the units for the mass flow must be known: In GasTurb 11 they must
54 GasTurb 11
be given as standard corrected values in kg/s even if the simulation is done with other units.
For locating the speed line in the map two quantities must be known, the Map Reference Speed N
MR and the Map Reference Corrected Speed (N/)MR. This is because GasTurb employs
relative speeds in component maps, not absolute speeds.
While scaled maps are used, during the map scaling process the speed values are scaled in such
a way that the cycle design point CDP gets the corrected speed value of 1:
Also the relative spool speed is per definition equal to 1.0:
A map which is to be used unscaled employs relative corrected speed values as any map in
GasTurb and the relative corrected speed in the map is defined as
Thus both NMR and (N/)MR must be known for locating the speed line in an unscaled map.
NMR and (N/)MR can be stored with the map on a separate line after the Reynolds correction
data. The keywords "MAP REFERENCE SPEED =" and "MAP REFERENCE CORR SPEED ="
must be used and both values must be given in rpm. You can also enter the Map Reference
Speed and the Map Reference Corrected Speed in the Map Scaling window. As soon as you
uncheck the "Scale the Map" checkbox in the Map Scaling Window the following data input grid
shows up:
To avoid confusion it is required, that the map reference speed NMR for all components on the
same spool is the same. If a gearbox connects the components, then the gear ratio will be taken
into account in this requirement. An Engine Model can use a mix of scaled and unscaled maps.
3.1.3 Turbine Maps
Turbine map scaling is similar to compressor map scaling. Select in the Map Scaling Window from
the component submenu a turbine and you will get the following presentation of the map:

In this view on the turbine map there is no information about the corrected flow and therefore no
number for the flow scaler is shown in the table. Setting the map scaling point is possible with the
mouse and also by entering numbers for the map speed value N/sqrt(T),ds and Beta,ds in the
single line table above the graphic.
Moving the Map Scaling Point around does not influence the performance at the cycle reference
point, however, doing that influences how efficiency behaves at part load. If the map scaling point
is positioned at the peak efficiency point, for example, then the part load efficiency will be worse
than the design point efficiency at all other operating points (Reynolds corrections ignored).
The position of the map scaling point has not only an effect on efficiency but also on corrected flow
at part load if the turbine pressure ratio decreases:
 If the map scaling point is at a high map pressure ratio then the corrected flow will remain
constant or decrease only little.
 If the map scaling point is at a low map pressure ratio then the corrected flow will decrease with
pressure ratio.
How big the decrease of the corrected flow is depends only to a minor extend on the map speed
value.
3.2 Input Data for Steady State

Most of the input quantities for steady state off-design simulations need no further explanations.
However, there are exceptions and therefore some comments to special off-design input quantities
are following in the next sections. Limiter settings and automatic handling bleed schedules are
described in the section Simulating the Control System.
During off-design calculations the cycle design point input quantities are normally not accessible.
However, you can add some of them to the list of off-design input data after selecting Define|Input
Quantities from the menu:

56 GasTurb 11
Take for example the Burner Design Efficiency. After having made it visible, you can modify it.
Note, however, that the input value of Burner Design Efficiency is used together with the burner
partload constant for the efficiency calculation. Therefore the calculated burner efficiency will be
equal to the Burner Design Efficiency only if the Burner Partload Constant is zero.
3.2.1 ZXN or T4 Given
You can select the engine operating condition either by specifying the relative high-pressure spool
speed ZXN or by setting the burner exit temperature ZT4.
 If you enter in the line ZXN given (1) or ZT4 given (2) the value 1 then ZXN will be a prescribed
value and the Burner Temperature ZT4 will be a variable in the standard off-design iteration
scheme.
 If you enter in the line ZXN given (1) or ZT4 given (2) the value 2 then ZT4 will be a prescribed
value and the relative HPC Spool Speed ZXN will be a variable in the standard off-design
iteration scheme.
If one or more limiters are defined, then both ZXN and ZT4 are iteration variables.
Single spool turboshafts that drive a generator or a propeller operate at constant mechanical spool
speed ZXN. In this case the iteration variable for finding the maximum load is the load constant C
in the formula
PWSD=C*PSWD_ds*Na
This formula is explained in more detail in the section dealing with the operating line of a single
spool turboshaft.
3.2.2 Con/Di Nozzle Area Schedule
To describe the geometry of a convergent-divergent nozzle with only one set of actuators during
off-design simulations the area ratio A9/A8 can be made a quadratic function of A8:
A9/A8 = a + b*A8/A8ds + c*A8/A8ds²

Usually you enter the coefficients a, b and c already while calculating the cycle design point and
therefore these quantities are not visible in the Off-Design Input window. However, you can make
them visible by selecting Define|Input Quantities from the menu.
The typical shape of A9/A8 = f(A8) of a round convergent-divergent nozzle looks like shown in the
figure below.
3.2.3 Iteration Variables
Each off-design simulation requires a multidimensional iteration in which several variables are
unknown. Normally you need not bother about the values that estimated quantities have because
they are only starting values for the off-design iteration.
If the iteration does not converge, you can try to modify the estimated values to get better starting
values for the iteration. This may lead to convergence if a solution exists.
3.2.4 Inlet Flow Distortion
Inlet flow distortion simulations employ the parallel compressor theory. A special calculation mode
is initiated when you enter a number greater than zero for the pressure distortion coefficent or for
the temperature distortion coefficient.
For a compressor with distorted inlet flow we get two operating points. To describe them both for
each compressor an additional auxiliary coordinate ß is needed. Furthermore, the bypass ratio in
the spoiled sector of a two-stream engine is an extra iteration variable. The additional iteration
errors are the differences in the static pressures downstream of the compressors.
Be careful when inputting values for the distortion coefficients. It is important to begin with low
numbers, especially for the temperature distortion coefficient. Start your experiments with values
around 0.5 for the pressure distortion coefficient and with 0.02 for the temperature distortion

58 GasTurb 11
coefficient, for example. The iteration will not converge if the solution implies operating conditions
in the spoiled sector well above the surge line or if the operating point of the distorted sector is in a
map region in which, at constant speed, the pressure ratio increases with flow.
In the compressor maps you will see the operating points in the spoiled sector and also the mean
operating point; the type of distortion will be indicated. Note that the compressors downstream of
the first compressor will encounter temperature distortion even if just a pressure distortion is
specified.
You can do simulations with inlet flow distortion only if you have calculated the flow area of the
aerodynamic interface plane (AIP) during the cycle design calculation because the pressure
distortion coefficient is defined on the basis of the dynamic head in the AIP.
3.2.5 Off-Design HPT Tip Clearance Correction
In off-design simulations the high-pressure turbine efficiency can be corrected for changes in tip
clearance due to changes in mechanical spool speed.
The input property which controls this correction is the influence factor d_HPT Efficiency / d_XN.
Setting this factor to 0.15 will create at 80% spool speed a delta HPT efficiency of ( 1 - 0.8) * 0.15 =
0.03, for example. If you set the influence factor to zero then no tip clearance correction will be
applied.
3.2.6 Modifiers
Modifiers are properties that model changes of the engine geometry or the component
performance. They can be used to model variable turbine and nozzle geometry, components of
derivative engines, or engine deterioration, for example.
Efficiency modifiers are adders to the value read from the component map while other modifiers
are factors applied to the relevant quantity. Thus an efficiency modifier of +1% will increase the
efficiency by 0.01 (i.e. by one point) while a turbine capacity modifier of the same magnitude is
factors the turbine flow capacity by 1.01.
Compressor capacity changes are simultaneous changes of pressure ratio and mass flow along a
line of beta=constant. Changing the compressor capacity by +1% will increase the mass flow by
+1% and at the same time increase the pressure ratio according to the local gradient of the
auxiliary map coordinate beta.
Turbine capacity changes are just a factor on the corrected flow read from the turbine map, no
other turbine property is affected.
Modifiers for duct pressure losses are applied as factors to the cycle design point pressure ratio of
the relevant duct. Remember that the actual pressure ratio of a duct depends not only on the
design point pressure ratio but also on the corrected flow. Because the latter will change with the
operating condition the respective duct pressure ratio will not change exactly by the value entered
as pressure ratio Modifier.
Note: If you want to be fully consistent with the cycle design point, then all modifiers must be zero.
3.2.7 Variable Geometry (Compressor)
In the majority of cases you need not select the variable compressor geometry option in GasTurb
for performance simulations as explained in the Getting Started section. One spool turboshafts
running at constant speed for driving a propeller or a generator are an exception.

At the cycle design point the setting of the variable geometry is by definition 0°. Any deviation from
this setting will affect mass flow, pressure ratio and efficiency. You have to decide on the
magnitude of the following influence coefficients before simulating variable geometry for a
compressor in an approximate way:
The mass flow and the term (P/P - 1) will vary proportionally to the variable geometry setting VG,
which is the input quantity Compressor Delta VG Setting [°]. GasTurb uses as a default for +1°
change in variable guide vane setting +1% change in mass flow and +1% change in (P/P - 1) at
constant spool speed.
Here is an example of a measured relationship between mass flow and VGV position which shows
that the correlation is essentially linear:
Ref.: S.M.Savic, M.A.Micheli: Redesign of a multistage axial compressor for a heavy duty industrial Gas turbine
(GT11NMC), ASME GT2005-68315
The efficiency correction in GasTurb 11 is done using a quadratic function. The program will
correct the efficiency according to the following formula:
This formula allows to describe perfectly the measurements reported in the paper referenced
above as can be concluded from the following picture:

60 GasTurb 11
With the default influence coefficient of 0.01 you get for +/-10° off-nominal VGV setting an
efficiency decrement of 0.01 and +/- 15° deviation in VGV setting yields an efficiency loss of
0.0225
3.3 Simulating the Control System

3.3.1 Single Limiter Settings
The maximum power available from a given engine depends on several limits such as the
maximum spool speed, maximum temperature or maximum pressure. Which limiter is active
depends, among other things, on the flight condition, the amount of power and bleed air offtake.
The program can apply several limiters simultaneously. The solution found by iteration will be a
cycle with one of the quantities being just at its limit. No other limiter will be violated.
Maximum limiters can be single values as shown in the Settings column of the figure above or
read from a control schedule while minimum limiters are always single values. You can switch
on/off the single valued limiters by double-clicking in the Settings column. Note that all mechanical
and aerodynamic speed limits are percentages of the design point data. While setting individual
limiter values you can test your input with the Refresh button.
If you choose the menu option Limiters|Both Max and Min then first the operating point is
calculated as if all limiters would be inactive. This first solution is checked whether it is within the
min and max limits; if that is the case then the calculation is finished. If a minimum limiter is
violated with the first solution, then the operating point is recalculated with the minimum limiters
active and the maximum limiters inactive; this yields a second solution which replaces the first one.
Now it is checked if the solution is violating a maximum limit; if that is not the case the calculation

is finished. Otherwise the cycle is again recalculated, now with the minimum limiters inactive and
the maximum limiters active and this yields the final solution. Note that it can happen that this final
solution violates a minimum limit.
Besides the pre-defined limiters - provided you have defined composed values - you can use up to
three of them as additional limiters. Note that drop-down lists with composed values (on the bottom
left side) will appear only if at least one composed value is defined. There is a minor restriction with
that feature of the program: general tables used within composed values will not appear in the drop
down lists.
It is a good idea to place the definition of the composed values that are employed as limiters (or as
iteration targets) at the top of the composed value definition list. This is not a stringent
requirement, however, it will speed up the calculation a bit.
There is a code for the active limiter among the output data which is shown in the mission output
list, for example.
Humidity in the air has an effect on the limiters for the corrected spool speeds of compressors. The
observed limiter values are calculated from the mechanical spool speed and the inlet temperature
only. The compressor maps, however, are read with the fully corrected spool speed which takes
into account the gas constant and thus the effect of humidity. This causes a change in corrected
flow with humidity at a constant setting of a corrected spool speed limiter.
3.3.2 Automatic Bleed
For controlling the compressor surge margin you can select an automatic handling bleed. This
bleed discharges some of the compressed air into the bypass duct or overboard. You can thus
lower the operating line of the compressor and avoid a surge. The automatic handling bleed will be
modulated between the two switch points that you can specify as described already in the Getting
Started section.
Have a look at the engine configuration (select Nomenclature from the menu) for the handling
bleed offtake location in your specific example.
3.3.3 Control Schedules
For a better approximation of real engine control systems you can introduce control schedules into
your simulation. With a control schedule you can make maximum limiters dependent from the flight
condition. In many engine control systems the low pressure turbine inlet temperature T45 is a
function of inlet temperature T2, for example.
When you want to define a control schedule then first select the parameter you want to control
from the upper list. In the example below the parameter to be controlled is LPT Inlet Temp T45[K],
for example. Second select the input parameter for reading the schedule, in the example below
this is the Inlet Temperature T2 [K].
If you need a control schedule in which T45 is not only a function of T2, but also a function of Mach
number, for example, then you must employ a general table. Select Edit|Table from the menu to
go to the table editor. If one or more general tables are defined then they will be offered for
selection in the list with schedule input parameters.
Another way to consider two (or even more) input parameters for a control schedule is to employ
composed values. For example, define any composed value to yield T5/T5_sched and use it as a
single valued maximum limiter with 1.0 as setting. Similarly you can define a composed value as
XN_HPC/N_idle and employ it as minimum limiter with 1.0 as setting.

62 GasTurb 11
Besides maximum limiter schedules you can also define other control schedules. For example, a
nozzle area trim can be made a function of corrected spool speed. The permissible parameter
combinations depend on the engine configuration.
3.3.4 Limiter Codes
During steady state simulations the following limiter codes are used:
-5 cp_val_min3 value of the third cp_val min limiter
-4 cp_val_min2 value of the second cp_val min limiter
-3 cp_val_min1 value of the first cp_val min limiter
-2 WF_min min fuel flow
-1 NH_min min gas generator spool speed
1 NL_max max low-pressure spool speed
2 NLR_max max corrected low-pressure spool speed
3 NH_max max high-pressure spool speed
4 NHR_max max corrected high-pressure spool speed
5 T3_max max burner inlet temperature
6 P3_max max burner inlet pressure
7 T41_max max stator outlet temperature (SOT)
8 T45_max max low-pressure turbine inlet temperature
9 T5_max max turbine exit temperature

10 TRQ_max max torque
11 cp_val_max1 value of the first cp_val max limiter
12 cp_val_max2 value of the second cp_val max limiter
13 cp_val_max3 value of the third cp_val max limiter
In transient simulations the active limiter codes are extended to include additional limits.
3.4 Operating Line

3.4.1 Dry Operating Line
An operating line (in some previous versions of GasTurb called a working line) is a series of points
with equidistant values of high pressure spool speed, starting with the speed of the last calculated
single off-design point. Operating lines of a single spool turboshaft and reheat operating lines are
special cases.
The input for running a single operating line has already been described in the Getting Started
section. You can also calculate many operating lines in one go. The results for all operating lines
will be shown together in the graphical output.
Note that you can also calculate several operating lines as an off-design parametric study.
The results of an operating line calculation can be easily compared with those from other sources.
Import your data and view them together with the GasTurb 11 results.
3.4.2 Single Spool Turboshaft
For a single spool turboshaft there are two basically different modes of operation. Engines used for
power generation or as turboprops need to operate at constant spool speed while in other
applications like ground vehicle or ship propulsion the spool speed varies with the shaft power
delivered. Of course during startup the spool speed varies in any case.
3.4.2.1 Operation with Variable Spool Speed
If you calculate an operating line of a single spool gas turbine, then the shaft power delivered
varies according to the following formula:
PWSD =C*PSWD_ds*Na
In this formula the quantity PWSD_ds is the shaft power which was calculated during cycle
design. N is the relative spool speed, i.e. a number in the range 0.5...1.1 (N=1 represents the
design point spool speed).
With normal ambient conditions the constant C is typically in the range from 0...1.2 and the
exponent a in the range from 3 to 5.
If you want to operate the gas turbine at constant turbine exit temperature for different values of
relative spool speed ZXN, then set on the Limiter page the T5 limit, use the option
Task|Parametric Study in the Off-Design Input window, and select HPC Spool Speed ZXN as
first parameter. Use the following input:
Start Value 1

64 GasTurb 11
Number of Values 11
Step Size - 0.05
Now the constant C will be adjusted automatically by the program in such a way, that the turbine
exit temperature T5 remains constant while the spool speed decreases.
3.4.2.2 Operation with Constant Spool Speed
For an application with constant spool speed you can vary the shaft power by modifying the
constant C in the formula PWSD=C*PSWD_ds*Na. Select ZXN given(1) on the Steady State input
page and enter the desired spool speed value as HPC Spool Speed ZXN. Calculate one or more
single points, do not use the operating line option for this special case.
When you want to run a series of points at constant spool speed automatically, then use the
option Task|Parametric Study in the Off-Design Input window. Select the constant C as first
parameter, use
Start Value 1
Number of Values 5
Step Size - 0.2
and you will get a power variation from full load down to no load while the relative spool speed ZXN
remains constant.
When you want to know the shaft power delivered with constant spool speed and constant turbine
inlet temperature T41 while ambient temperature varies proceed as follows:
Set a T41 limiter and switch it on. Now the constant C will be adjusted automatically by the program
in such a way, that T41 achieves the specified value while the spool speed remains constant in the
"Single Point" calculation mode. The shaft power delivered will vary with ambient conditions, for
example.
If the engine has got variable compressor geometry then the shaft power delivered at constant
spool speed and constant turbine temperature can be controlled with the variable guide vanes.
Select on the Var. Geometry page Compressor with variable guide vanes and on the Steady
State input page ZXN given(1) i.e. operation with constant spool speed. On the Limiter page set
the T5 limit to an appropriate value and switch the limiter on. Then use the option Task|Parametric
Study in the Off-Design Input window and employ as the first parameter Compressor Delta VG
Setting[°] in the range 0 ... -50°, for example.
3.4.3 Reheat
The operating point in the turbomachinery component maps is the same for all points of a reheat
operating line. Starting from the design point value of T7 the reheat exit temperature is decreased
in steps of 100K. You can influence the position of the reheat operating point in the map by
applying a modifier to the nozzle area A8.
Note that you can calculate reheat for off-design conditions only if your design point was calculated
with reheat switched on.

3.4.4 Comparing Simulations
You can compare data you have got from elsewhere with the calculated data from your GasTurb
11 model. Read the comparative figures from a file before calculating an operating line, and then
plot them together with the results from a single operating line.
After reading a file with comparative figures the short names will be checked for validity:
The file with the given data is an ASCII file which can be produced with any editor. The default file
name extension is tst (file name example: PassOff.tst).
The file format must be as follows:

 there are any number of blank lines allowed at the beginning of the file.
 a headline must follow. This text will be shown in graphics.
 the next non-blank line must contain the short names of the given quantities. Up to 21 quantities
are allowed, separated by at least one blank from each other. All names must be on the same
line.
 after the line with the short names the data lines must follow, separated by at least one blank
from each other. All data belonging together must be on the same line.
 before, between and after the data lines there are blank lines allowed.
 the sequence of the data lines is of no significance.
The short names - which are case sensitive - of the quantities must follow the GasTurb 11
nomenclature. All valid names for a specific engine configuration can be seen in the list of the
composed value definition window. This window is accessible from the Off-Design Input window,
for example.
Example file with given data from a turboshaft:

my test data
WF W2 P3 T3 PWSD
0.5073 57.21 561.3 467.0 0.0
0.6888 72.05 736.4 529.4 2927.2
0.8810 86.38 879.8 560.4 5854.7
0.9665 90.78 931.5 570.4 8782.2
1.0109 99.33 1035.0 588.7 11710
1.2388 106.08 1117.7 602.5 14637
1.3893 112.92 1201.8 614.8 17564
1.5515 119.37 1383.9 627.6 20492

66 GasTurb 11
1.7142 124.56 1456.3 639.4 23420
1.8402 128.33 1412.1 648.7 26347
1.9471 131.64 1457.6 656.5 29274
3.4.5 Off-Design Parametric Study
Instead of creating an operating line with several values for the high-pressure spool speed you can
produce a series of points with different amounts of power offtake and customer bleed air
extraction, for example. This is initiated with the same input scheme as for design point parametric
studies. Limiters may be switched on and control schedules may be active during such an
exercise. Also the automatic handling bleed will work.
The results of an off-design parametric study are also shown in the component maps. Note that
the efficiency contours in the maps are valid for RNI=1 and efficiency modifiers=0 only. The
efficiencies calculated in the cycle are often different because of Reynolds number corrections. So
do not be surprised if you fail to find the same efficiency along the operating line in the HPC map
and in the plot {HPC Efficiency, HPC Mass Flow}.
It might happen that the off-design iteration does not converge during a parametric study. The
reason for that is the sequence in which the operating points are being calculated. Iterations begin
with estimated values for the variables that are the result of the previously calculated operating
point. These estimated values will usually be near to the solution while a series of points is being
calculated. However, when the first series of points is finished and the next series commences
then the estimates might be quite far from the solution for that point.
Consider as an example a parametric study in which parameter 1 is the relative gas generator
spool speed being varied from 1.0 (Max Power) to 0.8 (Idle) in steps of -0.025 and the second
parameter is a  which varies from 0 to 0.02 in steps of 0.01. The first series of points is for 
=0. The calculation will commence with the relative spool speed of 1.0 and will end with the relative
spool speed of 0.8. The first point of the second series employs =0.01 and begins again with
relative spool speed equal to 1. This implies the big jump in compressor speed (from 0.8 to 1.0)
and therefore the estimates for the iteration variables will be far from the solution for this operating
condition. Consequently the iteration may fail to converge. The calculation sequence is indicated
by the black arrows in the figure below.
Calculation sequence in a parametric study

You can resolve the problem of this example easily by exchanging the parameters: Select the
speed as parameter 1 and  as parameter 2. With this alternate sequence of operating points -
which is marked with blue arrows in the figure - the estimates for the iteration variables will always
be near to the solution because the change from =0.02 to =0 has a much smaller impact on
the operating point position in the component maps than the speed change from 0.8 to 1.0.
Exchanging the parameters is easy: just click the button in the parameter input window.
3.5 Calculating a Series of Points (Mission)

Often one has to look in detail at many different off-design conditions of a gas turbine. This is
made easy with the definition of a mission in which you can combine many operating conditions in
a list. How to use the Mission option in general has already been described in the Getting Started
section.
A mission with only one operating point serves several purposes within GasTurb 11:
 The results may be used during a cycle design point optimization for the evaluation of
off-design constraints.
 They are offered for selection as contour lines in a carpet plot when doing a cycle design
parametric study.
 You will get the coordinates of the map scaling points of all components offered for selection
with an off-design parametric study.
If you are interested in the average value which a quantity has during the mission, then define a
composed value as MissionAvg(...). Similarly you can sum up all values of a mission with the
MissionSum(...) function. For calculating the fuel used within the mission, define the following two
composed values:
SegmentFuel=InpPar1*Wf
MissionSum(SegmentFuel)
The duration of each segment of the mission (each point in the mission input list) is given with the
input parameter InPar1 in this example.
3.5.1 Mission List Output

68 GasTurb 11
You may rearrange the sequence of the lines (drag-and-drop them) in the mission output table to
put those items first that are of most interest for your specific problem. The rearranged list may be
saved as a Layout File which will get the extension OUL.
Select from the menu View|Selected to get the detailed output for the column in which the cursor
is. View|Graph switches to the graphical output with all points in the component maps:
3.5.2 Export of Results
The results of a mission calculation can be exported directly to Excel or to a XLS file. This file can
be read by word processors or may be imported to any spreadsheet programs which can read
Excel files. These programs offer you a lot of formatting options and thus you can create
documents in any style.
3.6 Effect of Small Changes

You can study the effects of small changes in the input parameters on the off-design operating
point. Switch on exactly one limiter for that purpose.
Note that the magnitude of the effects depends on the flight condition and on the limiter selected.
Effects for constant thrust differ from those for constant burner exit temperature or constant spool
speed. You can define with the help of composed values arbitrary conditions for which you want to
know the effects of small changes.
Effects of compressor efficiency
During cycle design studies any delta efficiency is directly applied to the base compressor
efficiency value. During off-design simulations, there are two possibilities for applying a
compressor efficiency modifier:
1. Pressure ratio is not affected by the change in efficiency. Consequently the specific work will
change with compressor efficiency.
2. The efficiency modifier is applied in such a way that the specific work remains constant and
consequently the pressure ratio is affected by the efficiency modifier.
Remember that specific work is connected with the turning of the flow (Euler's equation) when
making your choice in the Options... menu which is accessible from the Off-Design input window.
Effects on surge margin
Be careful when looking at the results especially in case of surge margin. The differences are
presented as a percentage of the original value. Surge margin is already a value expressed in
terms of a percentage, typically 25%. When an effect causes a reduction in surge margin by 2.5%
then you will find in the table on the screen the value 10, since 2.5% is 10% of the original value.
3.7 Flight Envelope

3.7.1 Flight Envelope Definition
Switch on several maximum limiters (at least one) and calculate the engine performance
throughout the flight envelope. The first point calculated is always sea level static. This point must
converge; otherwise, the calculation will stop with a corresponding message.
A flight envelope always starts at sea level and extends to the specified maximum altitude. The
flight velocity can be defined as equal steps of equivalent airspeed EAS or Mach number. If you
choose EAS steps then there are four speed limits that define the flight envelope. For altitudes
lower than 3048 m (10000 ft) the flight envelope extends to zero speed. Above this altitude the limit
of the flight envelope is the minimum EAS. The maximum speed is described by both a maximum
EAS and by a maximum Mach number (lowest wins).

70 GasTurb 11
You can calculate up to 49 altitude levels and up to 49 speed values in a flight envelope. Select
many points if you are interested in the switch points between the different limiters in particular.
If you want to compare the data of two different simulations then check Store as Reference for the
first flight envelope calculation. When this is complete, go back to the Off-Design Input screen and
modify whatever you need to change. Then repeat the flight envelope calculation with Store as
Reference unchecked.
3.7.2 Flight Envelope Result
The result of a flight envelope calculation is presented graphically. The example is from a turbojet
engine with constant limiter settings.
Before calculating a flight envelope the control laws for the engine must be fixed. Define control
schedules or set the maximum limits for the various parameters on the Limiter input page. For the
turbojet demo example (file Demo_jet.CYC) you could use the following settings, for example:
The default plot parameter selection for the flight envelope shows where which limiter is active.
You can calculate up to 50 altitude levels and up to 50 speed values in a flight envelope. Select
many points if you are interested in the transition between the different limiters. Note that in the
graphs of flight envelope data the calculated points are connected linearly. This is because the
changeover from one limiter to another can result in sharp bends in the curves. If the program
were to use splines to connect the points there, which is done in other graphs produced by
GasTurb 11, the sharp bends would be hidden.
Find below the picture with the limiter symbols as an example a plot that shows differences in
specific fuel consumption between two turbojet engines with different map scaling point
coordinates. Creating such a plot requires that the flight envelope calculation is done twice: the first
run is with selected checkbox Store as Reference, the second run is with cleared checkbox.


72 GasTurb 11
3.8 Monte Carlo Simulations

In the following some typical examples for the application of the Monte Carlo method to engine
off-design problems are discussed. GasTurb 11 has a limited capability for statistically analyzing
the results which is, however, sufficient for most if not all performance problems. For a more
detailed analysis the output can be directed to Excel which has a wide range of statistical analysis
tools incorporated.
3.8.1 Manufacturing Tolerance
Gas turbine manufacturers typically quote engine performance with margins to account for
engine-to-engine variation, which is based on historical trending of production performance
experience. The production margins deal with parts and control tolerances and do not address
performance uncertainty in the design of the components. Therefore the performance program
employed for a production tolerance Monte Carlo simulation must be operated in off-design mode.
The results of a production tolerance study are - among others - statistical distributions for specific
fuel consumption, thrust, air flow and turbine temperature. All these performance metrics may be
presented as confidence levels.
The input for a Monte Carlo study about production tolerances are a model of the average engine
combined with statistically distributed modifiers of the component efficiencies and flow capacities.
Note that not all of these modifiers are independent from each other. A compressor with poor
efficiency will usually also show low flow capacity, for example. In GasTurb 11 this dependence
between compressor efficiency modifier and flow modifier is automatically taken into account.
Moreover, there is dependence between compressor flow and pressure ratio. The map of a
compressor with a low flow capacity can be approximated by scaling the nominal map both in flow
and pressure ratio downwards. Also this effect is automatically taken into account when using
GasTurb 11 for the production tolerance Monte Carlo study.
With turbines there is normally no correlation between flow capacity and efficiency. The statistical
distribution of the turbine flow capacity modifier is independent from the distribution of the
efficiency modifier.
3.8.2 Engine Test with Control System Interaction
There are cases in which the control system interferes with the pass-off test and limits one or more
of the engine parameters like the mechanical spool speed, for example.
Note that the statistical distribution of the parameter which is limited does not only depend on the
control sensor tolerance. The scheduled value may depend on measured parameters like T2 or
others and thus the tolerances of the schedule parameters have an influence on the resulting
spool speed scatter, for example.
Moreover, some engines from a production batch might be temperature limited, others spool
speed limited. In such a case there exists a highly non-linear correlation between the input
parameters and the result. Applying the Root-Sum-Squared method to such problems will definitely
yield an incorrect result. Only a Monte Carlo study employing a representative engine performance
model which includes the control schedules and the sensors can provide correct numbers for the
statistical distribution of the limited parameters.
3.9 Model Based Test Analysis

The conventional test analysis makes no use of information which is available from component rig
tests, for example. It will give no information about the reason, why a component behaves badly. A
low efficiency for the fan may be either the result of operating the fan at aerodynamic overspeed or
a poor blade design. To improve the analysis quality in this respect is the aim of „Analysis by
Synthesis" (AnSyn). This method is also known as model based engine test analysis.
When doing analysis by synthesis a model of the engine is automatically matched to the test data.
This is done with scaling factors applied to the mass flow and efficiency of the components that
close the gap between the measured data and the model. The deviations from the model are
described with the AnSyn Factors. A factor of 1.0 means perfect agreement between the model
and the measurement. An efficiency scaling factor greater than one indicates, that the component
performs better than predicted, for example.
For each engine configuration GasTurb 11 assumes that certain measurements are available, see
for example the turbojet and the turboshaft testbed.
3.9.1 Turbojet Testbed
The schematic below shows a turbojet engine installed in an altitude test facility. The
measurements which GasTurb 11 uses with the model based test analysis are marked. If not all of
these measurements are available then some assumptions about the test vehicle must be made.
3.9.2 Turboshaft Testbed
The schematic below shows a turboshaft engine installed in a test facility. The measurements
which GasTurb 11 uses with the model based test analysis are marked. If not all of these
measurements are available then some assumptions about the test vehicle must be made.

74 GasTurb 11
3.9.3 Compressor Performance Analysis
The model of the compressor is a calculated or measured map which contains pressure ratio over
corrected flow for many values of corrected spool speed N/sqrt(T). During the test analysis
process we obtain from the measurements the pressure ratio, the corrected mass flow, the
efficiency and the corrected spool speed. Normally we will find, that the point in the map defined by
the measured pressure ratio and the measured corrected flow (marked in the figure by the open
circle) will not be on the line for N/sqrt(T) in the original map.
We can shift the line marked N/T map in such a way, that it passes through the open circle. This is
done along a scaling line which connects the open circle with the solid circle. The distance
between the two circles can be described by the mass flow and the pressure ratio scaling factors.
The efficiency scaling factor compares the analyzed efficiency with the value read from the map at
the solid point.

There are many ways to select a scaling line. In GasTurb 11 the auxiliary map coordinate ß is used
as a scaling line because this makes the calculations simple. Along the scaling line there is a
correlation between the mass flow scaling factor and the pressure ratio scaling factor. Therefore it
is sufficient to use the mass flow scaling factor alone. The pressure ratio scaling factor is
calculated from the mass flow scaling factor from the rule ß=constant.
3.9.4 Single Point Data Input
Single point data input is placed on the first page of the notebook. Have a look at the example data
from a turboshaft:
You can play with these data, modify some of them and see what the consequences on the
analysis result - which is shown on the page "Deviations from Model" are. Try also a change to one
single value and run the sensor checking algorithm.
The measurement tolerance (last column on the test data page) is used for:
 checking the sensors.
 creating a file with fake measured data that follow a normal distribution with the standard
deviation equal to the measurement tolerance (menu option Help|Create Data File Example)
If you do not have sensors for a quantity which is on the single point data input page then you can
use an iteration to find an appropriate value. For example, if no T3 sensor is available, you can
iterate the measured value of T3 in such a way that the compressor efficiency AnSyn Factor is
equal to 1.0 (or 0.99 in case you know that the compressor is deficient, for example).
At the end of the list there are three measurements X1, X2 and X3 that may be used for quantities
that are not part of the list. Enter an additional measured value as Measurement X1. Employ a
composed value and write, for example, myValue=X1Mea. Now you can use myValue as iteration
target and any of the model input parameters as iteration variable.
3.9.5 Turbine Capacity
Turbine flow capacity can be specified in percent on the second notebook page in the test analysis
window. A flow capacity of 100% describes the value of the average engine.
76 GasTurb 11
3.9.6 Test Vehicle Air System
It might be known that the air system of the test vehicle differs from that of the nominal simulation
model. This can be taken into account by adapting the Air System data.
3.9.7 Flow Analysis Method
The mass flow through an engine can be directly measured or analyzed from various other
measurements. For a single spool turboshaft, for example, the compressor mass flow can be
calculated from the turbine flow capacity or from the measured exit temperature T5 when fuel flow
is known.
The following flow analysis methods are offered for two spool turboshaft engines:
GasTurb 11 offers for each engine configuration a selection of mass flow analysis methods. The
method which provides the most reasonable test analysis result depends on the accuracy of the
sensors. Check the effects of sensor errors on the analysis result with the menu option
Task|Effects.
3.9.8 Deviations from Model
Running a single point test analysis by synthesis yields the data shown in the table headed
Deviations from Model:

The factors in the table are the AnSyn Factors that describe the difference between the test vehicle
and the simulation model.
3.9.9 Multiple Point Data Input
Test data for multiple points can be read from a file with the extension .MEA. The file format is as
follows
ScanId humid! W2! XN_LP_A! XN_HP_A! T2! P2! ...
Tolerances
0 10 0.5 0.03 0.03 0.2 0.3 ...
Measured Data
10 60 182.5 100.0 100.0 288.15 14.696 ...
11 60 180.2 99.0 99.5 287.35 14.699 ...
13 60 172.5 96.0 99.1 289.75 14.655 ...
14 60 164.1 89.3 97.8 288.05 14.667 ...
The first line must begin with ScanId followed by the short names of all measured data that are
defined for the selected engine configuration. The next two lines (printed blue) are optional. They
give the tolerances for the measurements in percent of the actual value.
The key words Measured Data precede the lines with the measured data. The number of scans is
limited to 50. If more than 50 scans are in the file, then only the first 50 scans will be read.
After the last number of a scan you can optionally add a descriptive comment. This comment must
be preceded by //.
You can create an example file with 25 fake sets of measured data by selecting Help|Create Data
File Example from the menu in the Analysis by Synthesis window. The data in this example file will
be based on the measured data shown on the Test Data page. The numbers follow a normal
distribution with the standard deviation equal to the measurement tolerance.
After having read a file with measured data switch to the Test Data page and scroll through the file
by selecting the Scan Sequence Number of interest. Perform the model based test analysis point
by point, do ISA and Schedule corrections and have a look at the details of the cycle employing the
option View|Detailed Output. You can also select from the menu View|Model Comparison and
check graphically how much the measured data deviate from those of the model.
3.9.10 Sensor Checking
The interpretation of measurements poses always the question: is the sensor inaccurate or a
component of the gas turbine degraded? The option Check Sensors in GasTurb 11 tries to
answer this question with the help of AnSyn as described in the following.
It is assumed, that only one sensor is inaccurate. At first the sum of the absolute deviations of all

78 GasTurb 11
AnSyn factorsfrom 1 is calculated:
Next for each of the sensors an optimization is done in which the optimization variable is the
sensor reading and the figure of merit is:
Thus for sensor i a theoretical reading ri,opt is found together with the figure of merit fomi,opt. With
other words, if the sensor would indicate the reading ri,opt then the deviations of all health factors
from 1 would be minimal.
When all optimizations are finished, then the differences di,opt = q0 - fomi,opt are checked. A big
difference means that ignoring the reading of sensor i would improve the agreement between the
model and all the other sensor readings significantly. The hypothesis of the sensor checking
algorithm is that the sensor for which di,opt has the highest value is potentially indicating the wrong
value. Note, however, if the measured value ri deviates less than the measurement tolerance from
the theoretical reading ri,opt then no sensor error can be diagnosed.
Note that the magnitude of the AnSyn Factors depends on the flow analysis method. Therefore the
result of a sensor check depends also on the mass flow analysis method selected.
3.9.11 ISA Correction
The purpose of correcting measured data from a gas turbine test is to make the results
comparable with those from other engines or with acceptance test criteria, for example. The basic
question to be answered is: What would be the engine performance if the test would have been at
Standard Day conditions? This question applies not only to measurements taken on a normal test
bed where the local altitude and the weather conditions dictate the conditions of the incoming air
but also to experiments in an altitude test facility (ATF) if, due to facility limitations, the conditions
at the engine face are not as desired, for example.
Data correction algorithms are applied also when monitoring engine deterioration: it is essential to
compare data which has been corrected to the same ambient conditions.
The intent with the gas turbine parameter correction is maintaining the flow field similarity in terms
of Mach numbers everywhere in the engine which in turn requires invariant geometry. Due to the
variability of the isentropic exponent with temperature (and due to other reasons) strict Mach
number similarity is not feasible in any of the components of a gas turbine. The deviations from the
ideal case within each of the components cause the re-matching of the cycle which in turn moves
the operating points in each of the component maps a little bit and this modifies the shape of the
flow field.
The correction of the measured values to ISA Standard Day conditions is very easy if the AnSyn
approach is used. Select Task|Standard Correction from the menu for that. The scaling factors
found from the analysis of the test data are applied to the model and then the model is run at the
same corrected low-pressure spool speed and the ISA engine inlet conditions. Single spool
turboshaft engines used for power generation or driving a propeller are a special case: the model
is run at the same mechanical spool speed as tested because the generator (respectively
propeller) driven by the gas turbine always must run at constant mechanical spool speed.
The precise operating condition for the ISA correction is specified on the Nominal Conditions
page:

The operating points in the component maps of a turbofan engine will not be exactly the same for
both the test and the calculation of the ISA corrected performance. During the ISA correction the N
L/T will be held constant and the corrected high-pressure spool speed will be a result. It will be
only very near to (but not exactly the same as) the measured value. The reason for that are the
many small effects which do not allow strict Mach number similarity between the tested and the
ISA corrected cases like
 gearbox drag
 fuel, oil and hydraulic pump power
 changes in gas properties
 Reynolds number effects
 thermal expansion of rotors, blades and casings
3.9.12 Schedule Correction
With the AnSyn approach one can easily evaluate the rated performance by running the calibrated
model (the model with the scaling factors applied) at rated power. The rated power is defined by
the control schedules with T5=f(T2), for example. Therefore the correction to rated power is called
Schedule Correction.
If the test was done for checking the engine performance at Maximum Power, for example, then
after the ISA Correction a further parameter correction step is required. "Rated Power" is
implemented in the control system as a maximum permitted value for a property which is
calculated from control system inputs. The controlled parameter can be a temperature, a pressure
or a spool speed, and the value which defines the rating often is a function of T2, P2 and flight
Mach number.
During the test the control system might prevent that the same corrected spool speed as
achievable on a Standard Day. This is quite normal if the test is done while the ambient
temperature is higher than the Standard Day temperature and a turbine temperature limit is hit. To
derive from such a test the rated performance of an engine on a Standard Day is very simple and
straightforward with the model based parameter correction. The model, which was calibrated using
the measured data in step one of the procedure is run with Standard Day inlet and exhaust
conditions at rated power, and this yields the rated performance.
Select Task|Schedule Correction from the menu for running the model in such a way that it takes
all control system actions into account like scheduling the variable geometry, for example. Note
that this menu option is available only if you have defined maximum limiters before switching to
test analysis.
Of course all details that were during the test for some reason different from the nominal values
can be taken into account, like, for example, bleed air and power offtake or the power turbine spool
speed. If during a test in the altitude test facility the desired flight condition could not be simulated
due to facility limitations then this can also be corrected. Even emission data – which might be of
interest with water and steam injection - can be corrected provided the model includes such detail.

80 GasTurb 11
3.9.13 Effect of Measurement Errors
If a sensor is indicating a wrong value, then this will have consequences on the analysis result, i.e.
the calculated AnSyn Factors. The sensitivity of these factors to measurement errors depends on
the Flow Analysis Method.
The effects of the measurement scatter can be studied with the menu option Task|Effects which
produces a table with influence factors. The step size is given with the measurement tolerance.
Alternatively the effects of measurement errors can be evaluated with a Monte Carlo study (select
Task|Monte Carlo) which allows a statistical analysis of the scatter in the AnSyn Factors caused
by the scatter in the measurements.
In such a dedicated Monte Carlo simulation only the measured data are offered for applying a
statistical distribution which can be either a Gauss distribution or a asymmetric trapezoid
distribution. Have a look at the distributions of the AnSyn Factors to see what scatter in
measurements can do to the test analysis result.
3.9.14 Comparing a Model with Measured Data
After having read a set of measured data from a file you can do either test analysis by synthesis or
you can compare the measured data with the model.
When comparing measured data directly with a model, then the model will be run automatically in
such a way, that T2, P2, Pamb and the gas generator spool speed are as measured. All other
measured data will deviate more or less from the model because the model is never perfect. It is a
good idea to use Composed Values when comparing measured data with a model. Plotting the
ratio P25/P25! over W25Rstd is much more meaningful than plotting P25 over P25!, for example.
3.9.15 Data Export

3.9.15.1 Data Output to File
The results from the test analysis can be stored in a file. First you have to define which quantities
should be stored in that file, select Output|Define from the menu in the AnSyn window. Before
having defined the output parameter list all the other menu options are grayed out.
In the output parameter selection window you can pick one property after the other by clicking on a
list item or you can select Quantities|AnSyn Input and Quantities|AnSyn Output for transferring
whole groups of parameters to the selection list. Be sure to include all calculated data of interest in
your export list if you want to store ISA Corrected or Schedule Corrected data.

Finally, before closing the window, you must select a file name. Now you are ready to write the test
results to file. Store the results from a single scan to file or results from all the scans you have read
from file. All options from the menu shown above are available, try them!
Note that the calculated numbers that are exported to the file depend on your selection in the
menu: Task|Analysis will export the data as measured, Task|Standard Correction will write the
ISA corrected data to file and Task|Schedule Correction exports the rated performance.
3.9.15.2 Export To Excel
Initialize the export of test analysis results to Excel from the menu option Excel|Initialize as usual.
Be sure to include all calculated data of interest in your export list if you want to store ISA
Corrected or Schedule Corrected data.
After having initialized Excel - and if the menu option Excel|Export Data is checked - each time
you click your data selection will be exported to Excel. The data are as
tested, ISA Corrected or Schedule Corrected depending on your momentary Task selection.
3.9.16 Performance Monitoring
With this option you can do continuous model based engine performance monitoring.
When GasTurb 11 is started then it looks in the standard data directory for a file named
MonitoringGtb10.ini This file - if it exists - contains an Engine Type Indicator, a flag which indicates
whether the program will be used for continuous monitoring, a Transfer File Name and the name
of the Engine Model File which is employed for model based engine performance monitoring.
If the flag is indicating that continuous monitoring is intended then the Engine Type will be selected
automatically and the Engine Model File will be loaded. After a few mouse clicks you will be in the
engine monitoring window where you can start monitoring the performance of a running engine.

82 GasTurb 11
This requires that the transfer file is continuously being updated with new measured data. As soon
as GasTurb 11 finds new file contents it will do a test analysis by synthesis and show the AnSyn
factors on the screen. If no new file content is detected for 5 seconds then the monitoring process
will stop.
The transfer file consists of a single data line in which the measured data are listed in the same
sequence as in any file with measured data. In the transfer file there are no headlines and no
tolerance information allowed, it is only one line with numbers.
To set up continuous monitoring go to the off-design test analysis window and select from the
menu Task|Monitoring. From the menu in the Monitoring window which opens now you can
define the Transfer File Name and create the file MonitoringGtb10.ini. From there you can also set
the flag (menu options Deactivate/Reactivate INI File) which allows to start the program in
monitoring mode. Note that you must have read an Engine Model File before you can write the file
MonitoringGtb10.ini to disk.
3.10 Transient
A complete gas turbine performance model must also allow for the calculation of the transient
behavior. For such a model two things are required:
1. The thermodynamic description of the gas turbine needs to be expanded.
2. Some sort of control system to drive the model is required.
3.10.1 Introduction
3.10.1.1 Transient Engine Model
The most important addition to the steady state model for getting a transient engine model is a
term that takes the polar moment of inertia into account, resulting in a modification of the power
balance between compressors and turbines. During accelerations, for example, more turbine
power is needed than in a steady state operating point.
Other phenomena that are inherent in transients normally have only a limited influence on the
results. These phenomena are not described with GasTurb 11, since this would require a
significant amount of additional input data, and the program would no longer be easy to use. The
detailed thermodynamic modeling including volume dynamics, heat transfer, variable tip clearance,
etc. is left to larger, more specialized programs.
The simplifications in the transient model have the consequence that the calculated value for
certain parameters, especially fuel flow, are not realistic during transients. This is because the
considerable amount of heat that is exchanged between the gas and the engine parts is not
considered.
In addition to limiters such as maximum spool speeds, temperatures and pressures, which are
used for the definition of the steady state operating point there are additional limiters for the
transient operation. These are acceleration and deceleration rates, minimum and maximum
fuel-air-ratios in the burner, and/or limiters for pressure corrected fuel flow Wf/P3 as a function of
corrected spool speed.
The power required to accelerate the spool of a turbojet, for example, is

The spool speed NDesign will be calculated when you select Compressor Design during your cycle
design point calculation. Spool is the polar moment of inertia of the spool.
Accelerating a spool is similar to a performing a power offtake PWX during steady state operation,
with respect to the shift of the operating points in the turbomachinery maps. The effect of power
offtake is dependent on the engine inlet conditions. From similarity in Mach numbers one can
derive that PWacc/(R,2*2) is the relevant parameter. We can rewrite the above formula and get
for the corrected acceleration rate:
The shift of the turbomachinery operating points will be the same when the corrected acceleration
rate is held constant.
In GasTurb 11 you can enter limits for the acceleration and deceleration rates that are corrected
for engine inlet pressure. Thus you will automatically get a corresponding shift of the compressor
operating points for sea level static conditions and for high altitudes. During accelerations the
high-pressure compressor operating point will be above the steady state operating line and during
decelerations it will be below that line.
3.10.1.2 PID Control
In a real (fixed geometry) engine the only way to influence the operating point is to modulate fuel
flow. Sensors deliver signals to the control system which compares the power delivered with the
power demanded and the control limiters. According to the differences between actual and
demanded value the fuel flow is either increased or decreased. The very simple control system
included in GasTurb 11 is of the Proportional-Integral-Differential type.
The proportional term of the speed control loop, for example, modulates the fuel flow according to
while the integral term is calculated as
Finally the differential term is
You can define your control system by setting the constants CP (Proportional Control Constant), CI
(Integral Control Constant) and CD (Differential Control Constant). These constants are also called
the gains of the corresponding control loops. In many cases it is sufficient to use only CP and to
set the other two constants to zero. This type of control reacts quickly but will eventually not be
able to achieve the demanded value accurately.
Special cases are the two and three spool turboshaft engines. There you normally want to keep
the low-pressure spool speed constant, while the shaft power demand varies. A typical example of
such a control problem is the helicopter application. There the pilot pulls say, the collective pitch,
and this increases the power requirement of the rotor. The gas generator must then react quickly

84 GasTurb 11
in order to avoid rotor speed loss. In GasTurb 11 you specify the power requirement as a function
of time, and an equivalent moment of inertia for the low-pressure spool including all elements in
the drive train.
3.10.1.3 Limiter Codes
The transient limiters for acceleration and deceleration control are specified on the transient input
page. Additionally you can define schedules for WF/P3,min and WF/P3,max.
As with steady state simulations you can switch on several limiters. The program will satisfy all
steady state and transient limiters simultaneously. Which of the limiters is active is indicated by the
limiter code.
For single spool engines the limiter codes are

1 Control normal operation
2 N max spool speed
3 N,corr max corrected spool speed
4 T3 max burner inlet temperature
5 P3 max burner inlet pressure
6 T41 max stator outlet temperature (SOT)
7 T5 max turbine exit temperature
8 cp_val_max1 max composed value 1
11 N_dot_max max dN/dt (acceleration)
12 far_max max fuel-air-ratio (acceleration)
13 WF/P3 max max WF/P3 (acceleration)
14 N_dot_min min dN/dt (deceleration)
15 far_min min fuel-air-ratio (deceleration)
16 WF/P3 min min WF/P3 (deceleration)
17 Nmin min spool speed
18 WF min min fuel flow
19 cp_val_min1 min composed value 1
For engines with free power turbine the limiter codes are
2 NGG max gas generator spool speed
3 NGG,corr max corrected gas generator spool speed
7 T45 max power turbine inlet temperature
12 NGG_dot_max max dNGG/dt (acceleration)
15 NGG_dot_min min dNGG/dt (deceleration)
For turbofan engines the limiter codes are

2 NH max high-pressure spool speed
3 NH,corr max corrected high-pressure spool speed
7 T45 max power turbine inlet temperature
9 NL max low-pressure spool speed
10 NL,corr max corrected low-pressure spool speed
14 NH_dot_max max dNH/dt (acceleration)
17 NH_dot_min min dNH/dt (deceleration)
3.10.2 Input Data for Transient
For the simulation of the transient operation of a gas turbine some additional input data are needed
which are described in the following sections. How to use GasTurb 11 for transient simulations has
already been described in the "Getting Started" section.
3.10.2.1 Power Lever Definition
During transient simulations you can use a power lever to control the engine power. The Power
Lever Angle PLA is directly connected with the spool speed of the first compressor in case of jet
engines:

86 GasTurb 11
Nidle and Nmax power are input data.
With turboshaft engines the PLA is connected with the standard day corrected shaft power.
3.10.2.2 Control Constants
You define your control system by setting the Proportional, Integral and Differential Control
Constants. These constants are also called the gains of the corresponding control loops. In many
cases it is sufficient to use only the Proportional Control Constant and to set the other two
constants to zero. This type of control reacts quickly but might eventually not be able to achieve
the demanded value accurately.
If you use only the Integral Control Constant , then you can get exactly the demanded value.
However, this takes some time. Often it's better to use both the Proportional and the Integral
Control Constant. The Differential Control Constant makes the control system react very well to
changes in the demanded value and can thus contribute to the stability of the control system. It
should be used in combination with the other constants.
Note that the control system of GasTurb 11 can deal with many limiters simultaneously. The
control loop which requires the lowest fuel flow change sets the demand. On the transient output
screen you will see which limiter is active.
3.10.2.3 100% Power Offtake and Bleed
If you want to simulate the effect of variations in power offtake or customer bleed then the method
to enter the time dependent data is a transient control schedule in which power offtake respectively
bleed is given as a percentage value. Specify the power in kW (or hp if using Imperial units) and
the amount of bleed air in kg/s (lbm/s) which is equivalent to 100% on the transient data input
page.
3.10.2.4 Acceleration and Deceleration Control
The acceleration and deceleration are limited by single numbers for (dN/dt)/(P2/Pstd) of the
high-pressure spool. You can also use a schedule for the corrected fuel flow WF/P3 to limit the
excursions of the operating point in the HPC map.
3.10.2.5 Temperature Sensor Time Constant
Temperature sensors are modeled with a first order time lag for which you can specify a time
constant. This time constant is valid for all of the temperature limiters you select.

3.10.2.6 Burner Time Constant
The burning process can be modeled with a first order time lag for which you can specify a time
constant. This time constant takes into account delays in heat release like movement of the fuel
metering device and the time needed for evaporating the fuel.
3.10.2.7 Max Limiter Gain Modifier
If you get convergence problems during transient simulations you should first try to adjust the
control constants. The max limiter gain modifier is another tool to help with convergence problems.
3.10.3 Time Dependant Input

3.10.3.1 Power Lever Movement
Using the slider as power lever is nice for demonstrating purposes, however, it is not suited for
exactly repeating an exercise.
Select in the Transient window from the menu Input|Power Lever = f(Time) or click
The control schedule input window opens and allows you to select from
the parameter list the Power Lever Angle [%] as input property. In the table the first data are
already inserted: these are the time=0 and the steady state power lever angle with which the
transient simulation will begin.
Enter the time values in the left column and the corresponding power lever angles in the right
column of the table. Activate the table before closing the window and start the transient maneuver.
3.10.3.2 Spool Speed
If you have actual transient test data available, and you wish to compare the GasTurb 11 results
with the measured data, then you should use spool speed as a function of time as input. Click
, select Spool Speed [%] as parameter and enter the measured data. Be careful
with entering your data: if the N=f(Time) function implies unrealistic N/t values then this will
cause convergence problems in the simulation.

88 GasTurb 11
Certainly you will observe differences between measured and calculated data. The reason for this
is, that the transient simulation does not consider time dependent tip clearances, heat soakage,
volume dynamics and similar effects.
3.10.3.3 Fuel Flow
You can specify fuel flow as a function of time employing a transient input data schedule similar to
the PLA=f(Time) input described before.
It is often very useful when designing a control system to know the transfer function of some
engine parameters at different flight conditions. For that purpose use the menu option Input|Fuel
Step or click
Note that since GasTurb 11 does not consider heat soakage there can be a significant difference
between the calculated and the true fuel flow.
3.10.4 Running a Transient
As described already in the Getting Started section you need to calculate a reference operating
line before you can commence a transient simulation. In most of the plots created by the transient
simulations this steady state operating line will be shown for purposes of comparison. Information
from the operating line is also used for adjusting the different control loops.
The standard transient calculation begins after the input of PLA, power offtake and bleed as a
function of time. During the simulation the control system dictates the fuel flow and accelerates or
decelerates the engine. One can observe on the screen the behavior of some important
parameters like burner exit temperature, and thrust and spool speeds. The active limiter is
indicated at the bottom of the screen.
A transient calculation uses constant time steps that can be selected as 0.05, 0.1 or 0.2 seconds.
The iteration variables are fuel flow, acceleration rates for the rotors, and the auxiliary coordinates
of the component maps. As an example you find in the table below all the variables and the
corresponding errors for a very complex engine, the geared turbofan:
variable error
NL/t IPC flow error
NH/t HPC flow error
Wf Wf – Wf,Control System
BPR HPT flow error
ßHPT HPT work error
ßLPC LPT flow error
ßIPC LPT work error
ßHPC P8 required
ßLPT P18 required
After the calculation is finished, you will get a variety of graphs, including the transient operating
lines in the component maps, that show all of the results as a function of time, or in any other

combination. Thus it is very easy to get an insight into the transient behavior of gas turbine
engines.
3.11 Batch Mode

The Batch Mode is accessible from the Cycle Design Input window and from the Off-Design Input
window. Depending from which window the batch mode is called it will run in cycle design or in off-
design mode.
3.11.1 Batch Job Nomenclature
You can run the program in batch mode which means that you use a file with the input for running
many cycle points in sequence. In a batch input file - which you can create from within GasTurb 11
or with any text editor - the following conventions must be followed.
There are several different types of input data, and each type of data is described by its keyword.
Keywords are on dedicated lines and embraced by [ and ]. The following keywords are defined:
[Single Data]
 On each line which follows this keyword there is one input quantity.
 First item is the short name, followed by = and input value. Note that the short name is case
sensitive.
 After the value there might be an optional comment which begins with //
[Composed Values]
 On each line which follows there is the definition of a composed value
 Any previous definition of the composed value will be overwritten by the new input.
 After the short name of the composed value a colon must follow which separates the short name
from the formula
[Iterations]
 A single iteration is defined on two lines: the first line contains the variable information and the
second line the target information
 The variable name is a short name of an input quantity
 The values for the minimum and the maximum limit of the variable value must be separated by a
semicolon
 The target name is a short name of a calculated quantity
 The number of active iterations is given implicitly by the lines following the [Iteration] keyword. If
no iteration definition follows the keyword then all iterations are switched off. If you have four
iterations active in point n, for example, and want to switch off one of them for point n+1 then you
enter for this point all the three active iterations.
[Limiters]
 A limiter is defined and switched on/off on this line
 The single value limiter setting is the number following Setting= after the opening curly brace {
 After the number a semicolon must follow
 After the semicolon either the word on or the word off gives the status of the limiter
 Finally the closing curly brace } finishes the limiter input.
 Example for a limiter setting input line:
MAX Spool Speed NH [%] {Setting=97; On}
 If a control schedule is employed then the single value limiter setting input will be ignored.
[Calculate]
 This keyword concludes the input for a point.
 After this keyword the input for a next point may follow. If single data follow then the keyword
[Single Data] is not required.
90 GasTurb 11
For running the batch job there are several options.
3.11.2 Batch Job Editing
Creating a new batch job or editing an existing batch job is easy: Select in the Batch Processing
window Edit|Job Input from the menu or click the corresponding button and the editor window
(the window with the caption "Batch Job") will open.
Left to the editor you see a list with the valid keywords and input quantities. Double-clicking a line
in this list will introduce this line in the correct format into the editor window at the position above
the cursor. Do not forget to complete this line with the numbers of your case study.
You can print the list with all input quantities and produce your batch file with any standard text
editor. Be careful: the short names are case sensitive!
Note that the validity of many input data depends on the setting of a switch. You will get an error
message if you use input quantities that do not belong to the selected switch position. This
happens, for example, if you include in your batch file an input for polytropic efficiency while the
corresponding switch selects isentropic efficiency as input.
Composed value definitions employ a colon after the short name of the composed value. Do not
remove this colon!
Note that after closing the editor window all lines that contain the [Calculate] keyword will be
numbered automatically. After editing a batch file you should write it to file, otherwise you will lose it
as soon as you close the batch processing window.
Below is a short batch file listed which contains three cycle design points of a turbojet to be
calculated:
alt = 1000 // Altitude

XM = 0.0 // Mach Number
T4_D = 1400 // Burner Exit Temperature
ZP3q2 = 15 // Pressure Ratio
[Calculate] 1
alt = 0 // Altitude
[Composed Values]
cp_val4 : T4*5/9
[Calculate] 2
alt = 500 // Altitude
XM = 0.5 // Mach Number
[Iterations]
Variable3=ZP3q2 {min=5; max=100}

Target3 =T3 {Value=800}

[Single Data]
dtamb = 10 // Delta T from ISA
[Calculate] 3
For running the batch job there are several options.
3.11.3 Running a Batch Job
After closing the batch job editor you will see your batch job listed in the left part of the window.
Now you are ready to run the batch job, and you have three options:
 Run all points in one go, the output will be sent to an Excel sheet
This option is only available after Excel is initialized
 Run the job point by point with standard output
 Run to the point where the cursor in your batch file listing is, the standard output will be provided
As mentioned above: before you can select the first option you must have initialized Excel which
implies that you select the quantities that you want to see in the Excel sheet. Do not close Excel
before you are done with all your data export work.
After running the batch job you get a report which is shown to the right of the batch input list. Any
problems encountered during the calculation are listed there.
In case of problems with your batch job you can use the second or the third batch job running
option for looking more into the details. For diagnosing convergence problems select the
convergence monitor.

Component Modeling
IV
94 GasTurb 11
4 Component Modeling
4.1 Gas Properties
4.1.1 Air and Combustion Gases
Any accurate cycle calculation program must utilize a good description of the gas properties. In
GasTurb the working fluid is assumed to behave like a half-ideal gas. The gas properties specific
heat, enthalpy, entropy and gas constant are a function of temperature and gas composition only,
but not dependent from pressure. The temperature rise due to combustion is a function of entry
temperature, fuel-air-ratio, water-air-ratio and pressure.
The gas properties and the temperature rise due to combustion are stored in tables that are
created using the computer code described in References [12] and [13]. While specific heat,
enthalpy, entropy and gas constant are calculated, only the combustion products H2O and CO2
are considered. For the calculation of the temperature rise due to combustion, however, all sorts
of combustion products as well as the influence of pressure are taken into account. Thus the
effects of dissociation on the temperature increase due to combustion is allowed for while the
effects of CO, NOX and unburnt hydrocarbons on the gas properties is neglected.
4.1.2 Fuel
In gas turbines mostly hydrocarbons are used as fuel. Hydrocarbons with 86.08 mass% of carbon
and 13.92 mass% of hydrogen burn with air such that the molecular weight and therefore also the
gas constant of the combustion products is exactly that of the dry air {R=287.05 J/(kg K)}. The
lower heating value is 43.1 MJ/kg at T=288K. In GasTurb 11 this type of fuel is named Generic
Fuel.
Kerosene, JP-4 and other fuels used in aviation and for stationary gas turbines have a
composition, which comes close to that of the Generic fuel as described above. However, you can
also select other fuels like Diesel, natural gas or hydrogen for your cycle calculation. GasTurb 11
assumes that natural gas consists of 96% Methane and 4% Ethane. In reality there is a
considerable variability in natural gas composition which can be taken into account approximately
by adapting the fuel heating value. JP-10 (chemical composition C10H16 ) has been added to the
list of fuels since GasTurb 10. This type of fuel has more energy per volume and less energy per
mass compared to the standard fuels used in aviation.
All fuel names and and the corresponding gas property file names are stored in the file
FUELS.GTB. The gas property files must be in the same directory as the file FUELS.GTB. With
the program GasTurb Details 5 it is easy to create further gas property files for hydrocarbon fuels
and to add their names to the list of available fuels.
The program searches for the file FUELS.GTB in the standard data directory first. If the file is not
found there, it loads the default FUELS.GTB file from the program directory (where the exe file
resides). Any customized version of FUELS.GTB should be stored in the data directory and the
default version, which is copied to the program directory during installation, should remain
untouched.
4.1.3 Humidity
Besides the data for dry air there are also data for humid air with water-air-ratios (war) of 3% and
10% available. Note that war=0.03 can mean a relative humidity well in excess of 100%.
The dominating effect of gaseous water in the working fluid is the change in the gas constant.
Additionally there is a change in the isentropic exponent. While in GasTurb 11 corrected spool
speeds and corrected mass flows are calculated, only the change in the gas constant is taken into
account.

Component Modeling 95
4.1.4 Inlet Fogging
One of the most cost-effective ways to increase the shaft power output of a gas turbine when
ambient temperature is high is to reduce the air temperature by evaporating water in the inlet air
stream. Injecting water into the compressor or into the combustor are other means for increasing
the power of a gas turbine.
Traditional methods of evaporative cooling of the inlet air involve amounts of water spayed over
wetted media. A more efficient way to evaporate water is using a device that creates a fog of
micron sized droplets of water. These droplets can be made so small that they can achieve more
evaporative efficiency than traditional evaporative coolers. By this method one can cool the air
down to saturation temperature with minimal pressure losses.
For power generation gas turbines and also the two-spool mixed flow turbofan you can simulate
inlet fogging during off-design simulations. In the calculation it is assumed that all the water
evaporates before it enters the engine - i.e. between the thermodynamic stations 1 and 2. The
relative humidity is calculated on the basis of the stagnation temperature.
In GasTurb 11 you will get the maximum amount of water that can evaporate upstream of the
engine by specifying 100% Relative Humidity after Fogging. If you enter a number greater than 100
then the water in excess of that which can evaporate will enter the first compressor as liquid water
(this is called overspray) and you will get a wet compression process.
4.1.5 Water and Steam Injection
Power Enhancement and NOx Recduction
Water can be injected upstream of the engine (inlet fogging) or into the compressor (leading to wet
compression). Here we talk about water injection into the combustor. Water and steam injection
into the combustor are means to increase power and to reduce NOX emissions. The amount of
water respectively steam injected is described with the water-fuel-ratio wfr and the steam-fuel-ratio
sfr.
It is assumed in the calculation that the injected water has a temperature of 298.15K while the
steam temperature is an input quantity. If the input value for the steam temperature is lower than
the evaporation temperature at burner pressure P3 then the steam inlet temperature will be set to
the evaporation temperature.
Cooling with Steam
Steam can also be used to cool the high pressure turbine of a machine designated for power
generation. There are two options for such a feature: either the cooling steam is finally injected into
the main gas stream or it leaves the turbine immediately after cooling some hardware.
With the first option the input quantities are

 Cooling Steam Temperature
 Relative NGV Steam Flow W,steam/W,compressor
 Relative Rotor Steam Flow W,steam/W,compressor
The nozzle guide vane (NGV) cooling steam decreases the temperature T41 and increases the
mass flow W41 upstream of the first rotor. The rotor steam flow in the simulation decreases the
turbine exit temperature and increases the turbine exit mass flow. It has no effect on the work
done in the high pressure turbine, however, it influences the work potential of the downstream
turbine(s).
With the second option for steam cooling simulations the input quantities are:
 Cooling Steam Inlet Temperature
 Relative Vane 1 Cooling Steam Flow W,vane1/W,compressor
 Relative Vane 2 Cooling Steam Flow W,vane2/W,compressor

96 GasTurb 11
 Relative Temperature Drop Stage 1

 Vane 1 Cooling Effectiveness
 Vane 2 Cooling Effectiveness
In this simulation option the cooling steam is not injected into the main gas stream. Thus there is
only an effect on the main gas temperature, but no effect on the main gas mass flow. One can
simulate steam cooling of single and two stage turbines. From practicality considerations the
steam can only be used to cool the non-rotating vanes.
Note that with a two stage turbine which has a steam cooled second vane the work potential of the
second stage is affected by the energy extracted by the cooling. This effect is not simulated and
must be taken into account by adjusting the input for the turbine efficiency.
For both steam cooling options make sure to adjust your data on the "Air System" page when you
switch between air and steam cooling.
4.1.6 Standard Atmosphere
Ambient pressure and temperature of a standard day are described by the International Standard
Atmosphere ISA. Extreme conditions on cold respectively hot days are defined in the US Military
Standard 210 (MIL 210).
Given the flight altitude both static temperature and pressure are calculated using the international
standard atmosphere (ISA). Below 11 000m the ambient ISA temperature is
Ambient pressure in this altitude range is
Between 11 000m and 25 000m the temperature is constant and equals 216.65K. Ambient

pressure is there
Above 25 000m the temperature increases again according to
and ambient pressure there is
4.2 Component Map Format

One intake map, four compressor maps, one propeller map and two turbine maps are included
with the GasTurb 11 package. You can also use your own maps. For examples of map data files
look at the files delivered with the program. Note that the maps HPC01.MAP, HPA01.MAP,
IPC01.MAP, LPC01.MAP, LPC02.MAP, HPT01.MAP, IPT01.MAP and LPT01.MAP must reside in
the same directory as the program executable. You can store your own maps wherever you wish,
in your maps directory for example.
Format of a table
All component maps consist of one or several tables. The tables consist of numbers and contain
argument values (A), parameter values (P) and function values (F).
Key
A[1] A[2] A[3] A[4] A[5]
P[1] F[1,1] F[1,2] F[1,3] F[1,4] F[1,5]
P[2] F[2,1] F[2,2] F[2,3] F[2,4] F[2,5]
P[3] F[3,1] F[3,2] F[3,3] F[3,4] F[3,5]
The first number of the table is the table key which is composed of the number of rows and
columns of the table:
key = number of rows + (number of columns)/1000
The number of rows is one more than the number of parameter values, and the number of
columns is one more than the number of argument values in the table.
The key for the table above would be 4.006, for example. A table always starts on a new line and
begins with the key. The first four argument values follow the key, separated by at least one blank.
The rest of the argument values are on additional lines (five numbers per line). Only the last line of
argument values may have less than five numbers.
Parameter values must always begin with a new line, and the first four function values follow on the
same line. The rest of the function values are arranged as described above for the argument
values.
The data need not be in specific columns, but there must be at least one blank between each
number. The length of the lines must not exceed 79 columns.

98 GasTurb 11
4.2.1 Intake Map
An intake map consists of a single table with the relative corrected speed of the first compressor
as the argument and flight Mach number as the parameter. On principle the corrected flow of the
first compressor would be a better choice. However, the use of corrected speed makes the
calculation simpler and does not affect the accuracy of the result very much.
The file with an intake map must begin with a single line header which commences with "99". A
map title may follow after at least one blank on the same line. Have a look at the file
INTAKE01.MAP (this file was copied to the program directory during the installation process) with
your favorite ASCII editor to study an example intake map.
4.2.2 Compressor Map
The compressor map uses auxiliary coordinates called ß-lines. These are lines of pressure ratio
versus mass flow which result in unique intersections with the speed lines:
Mark the lowest ß-line as ß=0 and the highest ß-line as ß=1.0. All the other ß-lines must have
values between those of the limiting lines. GasTurb 11 provides up to 30 speed lines and 30
ß-lines.
The program Smooth C produces ß-lines that are equally spaced, and are straight lines or
parabolas in the {pressure ratio, mass flow} plane. GasTurb 11 works also with other types of
auxiliary coordinates. The numbers used for ß, however, must be equidistant and between 0 and
1.
The detailed compressor map format is as follows:
On the first line of a map data file there must be the number 99 followed by a blank. After that an
arbitrary text - the map header line - may follow on the same line.
On the second line the Reynolds number correction factors on efficiency are given in the following
form:
Reynolds: RNI=x1 f = y1 RNI = x2 f = y2
For the use of unscaled maps the Map Reference Speed and the Map Reference Corrected Speed
are needed. These values can optionally be stored with the map on a separate line after the
Reynolds correction data. The keywords "MAP REFERENCE SPEED =" and "MAP REFERENCE

CORR SPEED =" must be used and both values must be given in rpm. You can also enter the
Map Reference Speed and the Map Reference Corrected Speed in the Map Scaling window.
On the next line in the compressor map data file GasTurb expects the keyword Mass Flow. On the
line after this keyword the table for corrected mass flow has to begin. The first number on this line
is the table key derived from the number of speed lines and the number of ß-lines in the map:
key = (number of speed lines + 1) + (number of ß-lines +1)/1000
If there are 10 speed lines and 15 ß-lines, for example, the table key must be 11.016. After the
table key the first four ß-values must follow. On the next lines follow the rest of the ß-values, five
numbers on each line. The last line containing ß-values may have less than five numbers.
Remember that the ß-values must be equidistant and between 0 (first ß-value) and 1.0 (last
ß-value).
The speed value for the first speed line begins a new line. After that the first four mass flow
numbers follow. The rest of the mass flow data for the first speed line appear on the following
lines. Apart from the last line there must always be five numbers on each line. The rest of the
speed lines must follow in an ascending order of speed.
The keyword Efficiency marks the start of the second table which contains the isentropic efficiency
data. The sequence and the format of the data follow the same pattern as the one described for
the corrected mass flow.
Pressure Ratio is the keyword for the third table of a compressor map.
The Surge Line completes a compressor map file. The keyword for this table is Surge Line. The
surge pressure ratio is given as a function of the corrected mass flow. Note that you must store the
data (up to 30 data points) in an ascending order of mass flow.
4.2.3 Reynolds Correction
The format of compressor and turbine maps is based on Mach number similarity. That means that
for a given point in the map all Mach numbers in the flow field and consequently all losses which
are a function of Mach number are implicitly fixed. Viscous losses, however, depend on Reynolds
number and therefore the values read from the maps often need to be corrected. With high
Reynolds numbers, if the boundary layer is turbulent and the surface is hydraulically rough, the
Reynolds number has no effect on the losses. At low Reynolds numbers, however, viscous losses
are increasing and this can have a significant secondary order effect on engine performance.
4.2.3.1 Reynolds Number Index
The Reynolds number is defined as:
with
 = density
L = characteristic length
V = velocity
 = dynamic viscosity
In performance simulations it is convenient to use instead of the true Reynolds number the R
eynolds Number Index RNI which is the ratio of the actual Reynolds number and a reference
Reynolds number for constant Mach number:

100 GasTurb 11
There are no length changes between actual and reference conditions, therefore L = Lref. Density
is
with
Ts = static temperature
Ps = static pressure
R = gas constant
Introduced into the formula above yields
The Reynolds Number Index compares conditions at the same Mach number:
and this leads to
Introducing total pressure Pt and total temperature Tt yields:
The ratios of static and total pressures and temperatures are the same for actual and reference
conditions since the Mach number is the same (variability of the isentropic exponent ignored).
Thus the ratio of the actual and the reference Reynolds number becomes

Reference conditions in GasTurb are Pt,ref=101.325kPa, Tt,ref=288.15K and Rref=287J/(kg*K), thus

at ISA Sea Level conditions RNI equals 1. Note that normally in GasTurb total pressure and
temperature are not marked with the index t, this section is an exception.
4.2.3.2 Efficiency and Mass Flow Correction
In GasTurb 11 the Reynolds number corrections are correlated with log RNI:
In the figure the following numbers are used for illustration:

RNI = x1 = 0.1 f = y1 = 0.95
RNI = x2 = 1 f = y2 = 1
In the left part of the figure the efficiency correction factor is interpolated linearly versus the
logarithm of RNI. As RNI decreases the correlation is extrapolated, if required. For RNI>x2
(turbulent boundary layer, hydraulically rough surface) the efficiency correction factor remains
constant and equal to y2.
From the efficiency correction factor a mass flow correction factor is derived such that the mass
flow correction is half of the efficiency correction. For example, if efficiency is corrected using the
factor 0.96, then mass flow will be corrected with the factor 0.98.
Note that you can modify the Reynolds number correction algorithm in various ways and also
switch off the Reynolds correction in the Map Scaling window which will open when you select
Maps|Special in the Off-Design Input window.
Modifications you make here can be stored in an engine model file (an option in the Off-Design
Input window) and in a map scaling file (an option in the Map Scaling window). When you read an

102 GasTurb 11
engine model file then the Reynolds correction data from the engine model file will override the
Reynolds correction data read from the component map file.
4.2.4 Propeller Map
For the propeller maps also auxiliary coordinates ß are employed. These maps are defined in the
{power coefficient, advance ratio} plane. The map information is contained in two tables both with
ß being the argument and advance ratio being the parameter. The propeller efficiency is the
function value of the first table and the power coefficient is the function value of the second.
Instead of the Reynolds correction information there must be a blank line in the file. The ß-values
must be equidistant, beginning with ß=0 and ending with ß=1.0.
The static performance of the propeller completes the map. It is stored in the same format as a
surge line and gives the ratio of thrust coefficient as a function of power coefficient. The keyword
for this type of table is Static Performance.
4.2.5 Turbine Map
GasTurb uses for turbine maps as auxiliary coordinates ß-lines, similar to those in compressor
maps. They are defined in the {pressure ratio,corrected speed} plane. In two tables the pressure
ratios for =0 and =1 are tabulated as a function of corrected speed. In two further tables, mass
flow and efficiency are stored in the same way as the compressor maps, with corrected speed as
parameter and  as argument. The -values must be equidistant, beginning with =0 and ending
with =1.
The program Smooth T produces -lines that are equally spaced and composed of parabolas in
the {pressure ratio, corr speed} plane as shown in the figure above.

4.2.6 Smooth C and Smooth T
The programs Smooth C and Smooth T are tools that quickly produce high quality compressor
respectively turbine characteristics from measured data. Instead of genuine measured data - which
are seldom available outside industry and research facilities - one can also take data from figures
published in literature. Even relativized compressor and turbine map data can be used.
Both programs are also very helpful for checking maps with respect to consistency and agreement
with the laws of physics.
Smooth C is suited not only for normal compressor characteristics but also for special fan
characteristics that are needed for turbofan simulations. Pressure ratio and efficiency of these fans
are different for the inner (core) and outer (bypass) stream. For each data point there is one
number for the total mass flow, two pressure ratio and two efficiency numbers. You can get both
map preparation programs from the distributor from which you have got GasTurb 11.
4.3 Intake
4.3.1 Flight, Test Bed and Power Generation Input Mode
Flight Input Mode:
Input are altitude, flight Mach number and deviation from ISA temperature as well as humidity. This
input allows to calculate Pamb, P1, T2=T1 and the flight velocity V0.
Testbed Input Mode:
Input are P1, T1 and Pamb and humidity. From Pamb the altitude is derived. Tamb is found from T1
and P1/Pamb. The flight velocity V0 can be calculated from V0²/2=h(T1)-h(Tamb) with h=enthalpy.
The flight Mach number is equal to V0/sqrt(*R*Tamb).
This input mode was called Ground Input Mode in previous versions of GasTurb.
Power Generation Input Mode:
This mode is only offered for engine configurations that are suited for power generation. Input are
ambient pressure Ps0 and temperature Ts0, relative humidity of the ambient air and the relative
pressure losses in the inlet housing and exhaust ducts downstream of the gas turbine.
4.3.2 Pressure Loss
The intake pressure ratio can be specified in several ways. Any positive number is directly used as
P2/P1 with the exception of the value 2.0 which selects the intake map option.
Negative P2/P1 values are corrected for shock losses (supersonic flight only) according to
MIL-E-5007:
Turbofan engines:
If you want to model a radial pressure profile at the engine face then use the input property named
No (0) or Average (1) Core dP/P

104 GasTurb 11
Entering 0 for this property yields zero pressure loss in the core stream and such a pressure loss
in the bypass stream that the mass averaged pressure loss equals the input value for P2/P1.
The default value for this property is 1.0 which implies the same pressure loss in both the core and
the bypass stream. Note that you can apply any number between 0 and 1 for describing the radial
pressure loss distribution upstream of the engine.
Power Generation:
While the Power Generation input mode is active, the intake pressure loss input is not applied.
4.3.3 Altitude Test Facility
In an altitude test facility the following quantities are adjusted in such a way that the engine inlet
conditions and the static pressure downstream of the engine are the same as in the aircraft:
P2 Total pressure at engine inlet
T2=T1 Total temperature at engine inlet
Pamb ambient pressure
During test analysis from P2 and the aircraft intake pressure ratio P2/P1 the total pressure P1 is
calculated. From the static pressure Pamb the flight altitude is derived. Ambient temperature Tamb
follows from the total temperature T1 and the pressure ratio P1/Pamb. Knowing T1 and Tamb allows
to calculate the flight velocity V0 and the flight Mach number.
Note that for test analysis the intake pressure ratio P2/P1 must be a simple input quantity, it cannot
be read from the intake map because any error in the intake map would propagate to the
calculated flight Mach number, the flight velocity and finally to net thrust.

4.3.4 Inlet and Exhaust Pressure Losses for Power Generation
This figure shows a typical gas turbine installation as used for power generation:
The air enters the inlet house below a rainhood, passes through filters and silencers and finally
enters the gas turbine at the thermodynamic station 2. On the exhaust side there are two sources
of pressure losses:
 from station 5 (by definition exit of the last turbine) to station 8 (the end of the gas turbine)
 from downstream of station 8 to ambient.
The first source of exhaust pressure losses is internal of the gas turbine, the second is external.
During cycle design both the pressure ratios P8/P5 and P8/Pamb are input quantities. From this
information the power turbine pressure ratio is calculated as a total-total pressure ratio. The power
turbine should be designed together with the exhaust duct (which will be a diffusor) in such a way
that the maximum shaft power is gained for a given total-static pressure ratio and the geometry
restrictions that apply.
The inlet and exhaust pressure losses are valid for the corrected flow at the cycle reference point,
at off-design conditions they vary with the corrected flow squared. Therefore you will find the
pressure losses you have input also in the output only if you are in cycle design mode. In
off-design simulations, the numbers in the output will differ from those you have given as input.
4.4 Compressor
4.4.1 Compressor Design
The term Compressor Design in this program is used for some simple calculations: to find
compressor inlet dimensions and the rotational speed. Those quantities are needed for inlet flow
distortion and transient simulations as well as for turbine design calculations. If More is selected as
program scope then the inlet radius ratio used for the Compressor Design option will be also
employed in the engine geometry calculation.
Input data are mass flow W, total pressure P and temperature T. Furthermore tip speed uT, axial
Mach number Max and inlet radius ratio rh/rt are required. A minimum value for the hub diameter

106 GasTurb 11
can be specified. This option is useful when different fan versions for a family of engines based on
the same gas generator are to be studied.
From the Mach number Max the static data Ps and Ts are found and the given mass flow yields the
flow area. This area implies a tip diameter for the prescribed radius ratio. When the hub diameter
calculated with this procedure is lower than the prescribed value then the radius ratio is
recalculated based on the given hub diameter and the flow area. Angular velocity follows from
blade tip speed.
Note that selecting Compressor Design will define the properties in the compressor inlet
Thermodynamic Station.
The diameter of the engine inlet at the Aerodynamic Interface Plane AIP is derived from the
compressor tip diameter. From that diameter one can calculate the flow area at the interface
plane:
The AIP is greater (and the Mach number lower) than the flow area of the compressor inlet
Thermodynamic Station since the latter is the annulus area directly upfront the first rotor blades.
4.4.2 Compressor Calculation
For a given inlet temperature T1, pressure ratio P2/P1 and efficiency  (isentropic or polytropic) the
required specific work dH2,1 and the exit temperature T2 are calculated. First the entropy function
 for T1 is evaluated, and is added to the logarithm of the pressure ratio which yields the entropy
function for the isentropic exit temperature T2is:
The inverse of the entropy function gives T2,is. Then the isentropic enthalpy rise is divided by the
isentropic efficiency to give the effective specific work dH1,2.
Polytropic efficiency is calculated as

and isentropic efficiency as
During cycle design calculations you can specify either polytropic or isentropic efficiency.
Off-design calculations will always read isentropic efficiencies from the component maps.
4.4.3 Compressor Efficiency Estimates
Isentropic compressor efficiency may be estimated as a function of stage loading and corrected
flow.
The basis of this calculation are the formulae for advanced technology compressors from
Reference 3. The resulting efficiency level can be adjusted with the help of the loss correction
factor Kloss:
To simulate less advanced compressor stages you must set the loss correction factor to a number
greater than one. The value 1.2 means that the losses are 20% bigger than described by the
above reference.
In the reference the efficiency correction for compressor size is based on inlet corrected flow as
shown in the right part of the figure. Alternatively the efficiency correction can be based on the
relative tip clearance of the last rotor.

108 GasTurb 11
For evaluating the relative tip clearance (=tip clearance/blade height) at the exit of the last rotor,
the mass flow, Mach number, hub/tip radius ratio and the absolute running tip clearance are
employed. The efficiency decrement is calculated from the relative tip clearance and the exchange
rate between efficiency and relative tip clearance.
If you enter zero for the absolute tip clearance then the size correction term will be calculated
according to reference 3 mentioned above. Otherwise, the size correction from the report will be
replaced by the correlation with the relative tip clearance.
4.4.4 Recirculating Bleed
Bleed air taken from a compressor can be used for de-icing parts in the engine inlet. The injection
of the heated air leads to a temperature increase upstream of the first compressor. The amount of
this temperature increase can be found only by iteration.
Between the engine inlet and the bleed offtake the water-air-ratio may change (see wet
compression). Such a change in the composition of the recirculating air is not taken into account in
the GasTurb 11 simulation.
4.4.5 Wet Compression
Water injection at the first compressor entry can increase the power output of a gas turbine
significantly, up to 10% for an injection of only 1% water into the compressor air flow. The water
evaporates within the compressor and thus cools the air down. Less specific work is needed for
driving the compressor.
For increasing the shaft power delivered one can also inject water into the combustor or cool the
inlet air down by fogging
For power generation gas turbines and two-spool mixed flow turbofans you can simulate water
injection into a compressor with GasTurb 11 during off-design simulations. Since liquid water
enters the compressor we talk about wet compression.
The wet compression process is described with by the empirical constant Evaporation Rate d war /
d Temp. (here war = liquid water-air-ratio). In a first calculation step the overall compression
process is calculated as usual which yields the polytropic efficiency. Using this polytropic efficiency
the process is recalculated in 20 steps that each consist of a compression step followed by an
evaporation step. The amount of water evaporating is calculated from the temperature increase
during the compression step and the given Evaporation Rate d war / d Temp. Thus the amount of
gaseous water in the air is continuously increasing while the amount of liquid water is decreasing.
When no liquid water is left while the compression process is not yet finished then the rest of the
compression process is calculated with the then existing gaseous water-air-ratio.

If not all of the liquid water evaporates within the compressor then the rest of the liquid water is
transferred to the downstream compressor. If downstream there is an intercooler then it is
assumed that the liquid water will be drained and thus leave the engine. If downstream of the
compressor the burner follows then the liquid water will be evaporated before the burner
calculation commences. If another compressor follows then the liquid water will enter this
compressor and the evaporation process continues.
Water injected upstream of the first compressor cools the inlet air down. In this process - called
fogging - water is evaporated before it enters the compressor and the calculation method
described above does not apply.
Limitations:
In a real engine the liquid water will tend to concentrate along the compressor outer casing. This is
because the water droplets that hit the blades will be accelerated to blade speed and then move
along the blade surface outwards due to centrifugal force. Finally the droplets will leave the blades
and much of them will hit the casing and create a water film. Some of the water moving along the
casing will disappear in the offtakes that are located there.
As mentioned above GasTurb 11 assumes that the water is evenly distributed over the gas stream
and thus the effects of local water concentrations will not be taken into account.
Gas properties are stored for dry air, air with 3% gaseous water-air-ratio and 10% gaseous
water-air-ratio. Water flow rates caused by the incoming humidity, inlet fogging, water and steam
injection that yield together more than 10% water-air-ratio will lead to extrapolation of the gas
property data tables. It is up to the user to decide whether the error introduced by this extrapolation
of the gas property tables is acceptable or not.
4.4.6 Work done on Liquid Water
Some of the liquid water flowing through a compressor will hit the blades and attach to their
surface. This liquid water is accelerated to the circumferential speed of the blade and this requires
some power. The water then flows in a film along the surface of the blade until it reaches the
trailing edge or the blade tip. After leaving the blade many of the water droplets will hit the
downstream vanes or the casing and loose their circumferential speed. In the next stage the
droplets hitting the rotor need again some power to accelerate to blade speed.
According to Reference 1 the work done in each stage of an axial compressor is
PW = 0.5*WH2O*U²
WH2O Liquid water mass flow [kg/s]
U Circumferential speed of the blade [m/s]
PW Shaft power required per stage [kW]
The power required for the liquid water in a compressor is calculated from
PW = CPWH2Ol*WH2O*PWqH2Ol*N²rel
Nrel The relative spool speed (equal to 1.0 at the design point)
PWqH2Ol A value in the range from 0 to 1 which takes into account the decreasing
amount of liquid water in the later stages due to evaporation within the
compressor. This value is found automatically, it is not an input quantity.

110 GasTurb 11
WH2O Liquid water mass flow at the entry to the compressor in [kg/s]
respectively [lbm/s]
CPWH2Ol Power/WH2O,l @ Nom.Speed
CPWH2Ol is an input value in the units [kW/(kg/s)] respectively [hp/(lbm/s)] which takes into
account:
 the empirical constant 0.5 from Reference 1, see above
 the conversion of relative spool speed to the mean circumferential speed of the blades in m/s
 the number of compressor stages
 an unit conversion factor of 1/1000 which converts from W to kW
Example:
For a six stage compressor with a mean blade speed of 500m/s an appropriate value for CPWH2Ol
would be
CPWH2Ol = 0.5 * 500² * 6 /1000 = 750 kW/(kg/s)
4.5 Gearbox
Gearbox losses are modeled as mechanical efficiency of the spool to which the gearbox is
attached. With the help of composed values and an user defined iteration you can make the gear
box efficiency follow any correlation you want.
4.6 Duct Pressure Losses

The pressure losses in a duct are specified in cycle design calculations as a pressure ratio (P2/P1)
ds. During off-design simulations the pressure losses vary according to
Normally the design point pressure ratios are not visible during off-design simulations, however,
you may change that. If you input a duct pressure ratio during off-design simulations you will not
get this value as a result because the input does not specify the pressure ratio P2/P1 directly but
alters (P2/P1)ds in the formula above. Similarly the Modifiers for duct pressure losses do not affect
P2/P1, they affect (P2/P1)ds.
Note that the pressure losses in turbine inter-ducts and exhaust ducts are handled differently while
Turbine Design is selected for the upstream turbine.
4.7 Intercooler
An intercooler will cool the gases down to a specified temperature and create some pressure
losses. These will vary in the simulation as in any duct proportional to the square of the corrected
flow.

Liquid water entering the intercooler will be drained. Condensing of water resulting from the
gaseous humidity of the incoming air is not considered. With other words the gaseous humidity
does not change in the intercooler as simulated in GasTurb 11.
4.8 Heat Exchanger

4.8.1 Simulation Options
There are two methods implemented for the simulation of recuperators (also dubbed heat
exchanger or regenerator). Method 1 was the only option in GasTurb 9. Method 2 has been
introduced as additional option in GasTurb 10.
Method 1:
Input data are the effectiveness and the design pressure ratios on the cold and the hot side. The
pressure losses vary in off-design as a function of corrected inlet flow squared as in a normal duct.
Effectiveness is assumed to remain constant during off-design operation.
Method 2:
Input data are the design effectiveness and the design pressure ratios on the cold and the hot side.
In off-design the effectiveness increases at part power because the mass flow decreases while the
heat transfer surface remains constant. As stated in reference 1 the following formula is a good
first order accuracy:
This simple relationship holds because the downside flow capacity is essentially fixed by that of the
high pressure turbine.
The pressure losses on the cold side (air side) increase at part power due to increased heat
transfer while the exit corrected flow remains approximately constant. On the hot side (gas side)
the corrected flow at the inlet decreases significantly and thus also the pressure loss. The following
formulae are taken from reference 1:
Cold side:
Hot side:

112 GasTurb 11
4.8.2 Bypass Valve
In the two spool turboshaft a bypass valve for the heat exchanger can make sense if the engine is
used for vehicle propulsion. Ground vehicles like tanks operate over a long time at low part power
and need the maximum power rather seldom. In such an application one can use a comparatively
small heat exchanger to keep the volume of the engine within limits. An undersized heat
exchanger works fine at part power, however, it would create tremendous pressure losses at full
power. The heat exchanger bypass allows keeping the pressure loss of the heat exchanger at
maximum power within reasonable limits and thus increases the maximum power available.
Specific fuel consumption will increase, but that is not important due to the short duration for which
maximum power is needed.
The heat exchanger bypass is not implemented in the single spool turboshaft configuration.
4.9 Combustor
4.9.1 Temperature Rise
The temperature rise in a burner due to combustion of hydrocarbon fuel depends on the gas entry
temperature to the burner, the injected fuel-air-ratio, water-air-ratio, the static pressure in the
burner and the chemical composition of the fuel.
Numbers for the temperature rise due to combustion are stored in tables that are created using the
computer code described in References [12] and [13]. All sorts of combustion products as well as
the influence of pressure are taken into account. Thus the effects of dissociation on the
temperature rise in a combustor is allowed for.
4.9.2 Off-Design Efficiency
Modern combustion chambers have very high efficiency at design conditions. At part load near idle
and at very high altitude, however, the burner efficiency can deviate noticeable from 100%.
Burner efficiency can be correlated with burner loading which is defined as
with
W31 air mass flow
P3 pressure in bar
T3 inlet temperature in K
Vol burner volume in m³
For the cycle design point in GasTurb 11 the burner efficiency is an input and the burner loading is
by definition equal to 100%. For part load conditions the relative burner loading ,des can be
determined without knowing the burner volume because the volume is invariant.

The figure above is taken from Reference 10 and shows that the change in burner efficiency with
load can be approximated by
The constant a in this formula is correlated with the design point efficiency:
Thus it is possible to describe the burner part load efficiency trend with a single property, the
burner part load constant b.
During off-design the burner efficiency is a function of both the part load constant and cycle Design
Burner Efficiency. The effect of the part load constant on the burner efficiency at high burner
loading is shown in the first figure below for an example with cycle design point efficiency of 0.995.
The second figure shows off-design efficiencies with the burner part load of 1.6 (the default value)
in combination with various burner design point efficiencies.

114 GasTurb 11
If this simulation methodology is not appropriate for your type of burner then you can employ
Composed Values with a General Table to calculate burner efficiency. Iterate Burner Design
Efficiency such that the calculated burner efficiency is equal to the composed value. Note that
during off-design simulations the Burner Design Efficiency is selectable as iteration variable only
after it has been made an input quantity.
4.9.3 Pressure Losses
There are two reasons for pressure losses in combustion systems: friction and heat addition.
Pressure losses due to friction are given as pressure ratio P4/P3 in the cycle design point. During
off-design simulations the pressure losses vary proportional to corrected burner inlet flow squared
as in any duct.
Pressure losses due to heat addition are neglected in the main burner. In reheat systems the
pressure losses are calculated from the Rayleigh line, i.e., a constant area duct without friction is
assumed and from conservation of momentum the pressure loss is found.
4.9.4 Sequential Combustion
We talk of Sequential Combustion if after the high pressure turbine a second combustor reheats
the gas before it enters the low pressure turbine. The temperature increase in the second
combustor is described with the Degree of Reheat which is expressed in percent. If the Degree of
Reheat is 100%, then the exit temperature of the second burner will be equal to T4; 0% Degree of
Reheat means that the second burner is switched off.
If water and steam injection is selected then in GasTurb 11 all the water goes to the first
combustor because there most of the NOx is produced due to the high pressure. If steam is
injected for cooling the downstream turbines, then the input data are applied to both the high and
low pressure turbines.
4.9.5 Emissions
The combustion products of hydrocarbon fuel with air are mainly water and carbon dioxide. Thus
the emission of CO2 is directly coupled to the fuel consumption of a gas turbine. At full load
additionally nitrogen oxides NOx are produced while at part power carbon monoxide CO and
unburned hydrocarbons UHC are the problem.

4.9.5.1 NOx
The production of nitrogen oxides increases with pressure, temperature and residence time in the
combustor while water in the combustion air reduces the amount of nitrogen oxides. The NOx
Severity Parameter SNOx is in Reference 8 defined as
The NOx Emission Index EI [g/kg fuel] increases linearly with the NOx severity parameter. For
conventional combustors holds
EI ~ 32 * SNOx
while for dual annular combustors the NOx emission is approximately
EI ~ 23 * SNOx
Consequently, reduction techniques focus on just what latitude one has with these variables in
view of the engine cycle requirements. Not only is temperature the most sensitive of these, but
owing to the design of conventional burners, it also offers the greatest possibility for control. In the
conventional engine, fuel is initially burned at approximately stoichiometric conditions and
subsequently diluted to the desired leaner condition. The high temperatures in the primary
combustion zone result in rapid production of NOx during its residence time and set the value of
the final emission level. The advantages of this arrangement are that the hot, stoichiometric
primary zone provides good stability, ignition and relight, while the addition of dilution air allows
convenient cooling of the combustor liner.
The low-NOx burners are consequently designed to avoid the hot stoichiometric and dilution zones,
thereby reducing emissions, but at the expense of stability and cooling problems.
4.9.5.2 CO and HC
Incomplete combustion results in the production of carbon monoxide CO and unburned

hydrocarbons UHC. The amount of these species can be correlated with the combustion
(in)efficiency, see Reference 9:
with EI = Emission Index, gram emission per kilogram fuel.
There is a relationship between the two emission indices:
Data from an extensive measurement campaign with the CFM56 engine correlate well when C1 =
3.15 and C2 = - 4.3 are used in this formula.
4.10 Turbine Design

4.10.1 Turbine Design
A preliminary turbine design procedure may be selected during cycle design; on the Turbine
Efficiency page select "calculate it". It does turbine geometry and efficiency calculations for axial
turbines on a mean section basis assuming symmetrical diagrams for each stage (except the first

116 GasTurb 11
stage, which has axial inlet flow). The basic parameter for the efficiency estimation is the
aerodynamic loading parameter. Other factors affecting the efficiency level are the number of
stages, stator exit angle and average specific kinetic energy within the blade rows, Reynolds
number and turbine-exit axial component of velocity head.
The losses in the turbine stage are assumed to be proportional to the following:
 The tangent of the stator exit angle, measured against the turbine axis. This correlation reflects
the variation in the ratio of flow area to surface area
 The average specific kinetic energy within the blade rows based on entering and leaving
velocities. For rotors the losses of kinetic energy are assumed to be twice as big as for stators.
 Reynolds number to the -1/5 power. This assumption represents the normal manner which the
loss is assumed to vary with Reynolds number.
First input is the number of turbine stages, a maximum of 10 is the limit. Then the inlet radius ratio
(a number less than 1) has to be given. It is defined at the exit of the first rotor. For single-stage
turbines the exit radius ratio is the same as the inlet radius ratio. Inlet and exit mean diameters are
defined at the same location as the radius ratios. For single-stage turbines again both data are the
same. The next quantity is the axial velocity ratio which is the ratio of exit axial velocity over mean
axial velocity.
Efficiency calculated by the program can be adjusted to any technology level by adapting the loss
coefficient Kloss. The NASA report (Reference 11) - which is the basis of the calculation procedure
- proposes Kloss in the range of 0.35 to 0.4. Large uncooled turbines of modern engines can be
better described with values as low as 0.3.
Flow angles are measured relative to the turbine axis. Positive angles are in the direction of
rotation. You will get useful results for the efficiency from turbine design only for a limited range of
input data. The diameters needed for input can be estimated from compressor calculations: a good
first estimate for the mean high pressure turbine inlet diameter is the high pressure compressor
inlet tip diameter.
Optionally, a tip clearance correction can be applied to the calculated efficiency of high-pressure
turbines.
The Reference Mach number for calculating the turbine inter-duct loss between a high and a
low-pressure turbine is a further input. If it is set to zero, then the input value for the inter-duct
pressure ratio will be used. Otherwise, the Mach number downstream of the turbine will influence
the downstream duct pressure loss.
Note that selecting Turbine Design will also determine the properties at the turbine exit
Thermodynamic Station. When a parametric study includes the turbine design calculation for one
or more turbines then a special graphical output is available.
4.10.2 Blade Metal Temperature
The blade metal temperature determination is part of a turbine design calculation. First the cooling
effectiveness is evaluated from an empirical correlation:

The Cooling Air Constant must be adjusted to the application for getting reasonable results. Finally
the blade metal temperature is calculated from
4.10.3 Turbine Tip Clearance Correction
Turbine tip clearance has a strong effect on efficiency as can be seen from the figure below (taken
from Reference 7):
The results of an high pressure turbine design calculation can be modified with the turbine tip
clearance correction which uses the absolute tip clearance and the exchange rate of efficiency with
relative tip clearance (see figure above) as input.
4.10.4 Blade Root Stress
The centrifugal pull of a single turbine blade is several tons and this load must be transferred
uniformly through the attachment to the disk. The centrifugal stress  of a blade at its root can be
estimated as follows:

118 GasTurb 11
The blade cross-sectional area usually reduces with increasing radius which results in less stress
at the root. With a linear decrease of cross-sectional area it can be shown that the blade root
stress will not exceed for any hub/tip radius ratio the value
In this expression is
A common simplification ignores the effect of material density and blade taper (respectively
assumes that material density and blade taper are more or less the same for all the engines to be
studied) which leads to the simple stress criterion A*N². Since with multi-stage turbines the last
stage annulus area is the biggest, A*N² is evaluated at the last rotor blade mean annulus area.
In GasTurb 11 AN² is found from
In summary AN² is a measure of the disk rim stress and it is a key design parameter that links the
aerodynamic design to the mechanical limitations. Usually it is expressed as the product of the
turbine exit area in square inches and the maximum mechanical design speed in rpm. A typical
value for AN² might be 4.5*E10 in²rpm. The values of design limits are chosen according to the
density of the blade material and the level of technology assumed in a particular preliminary engine
design exercise.
4.11 Turbine Performance Calculation

Quoting numbers for the efficiency of a turbine is ambiguous if it is not known how this efficiency is
defined. This is especially true for a heavily cooled turbine where for the same machine the
efficiency may be quoted as 88% or 91%, for example. In aero-engine industry, several different
turbine efficiency bookkeeping systems are in use. Since nearly always a consortium of two or
more companies is involved into any new engine project it is important to understand the various
bookkeeping systems.
There are two basically different methodologies for defining the efficiency of a cooled turbine: One
can deal with the turbine as a sort of "black box" or go into the details of the expansion process. A
discussion about the merits of the different efficiency definitions can be found in Reference 2.
In GasTurb 11 cooled multistage turbines are simulated as equivalent single stage turbines. The
thermodynamic turbine efficiency is provided as an output property which can be employed as
iteration target.
In the chapter "Calculation Options" of the GasTurb Details 5 manual is described how to derive
input data for the methodology employed by GasTurb 11 from numbers for other efficiency
definitions and for more complex secondary air systems than those simulated in GasTurb 11.
4.11.1 Un-Cooled Turbine
For a given inlet temperature T1, specific work dH1,2 and efficiency  (isentropic or polytropic) the
pressure ratio P1/P2 and the exit temperature T2 are calculated. First the isentropic specific work is
found from specific work and isentropic efficiency. This gives the isentropic exit temperature T2,is:
The difference in the entropy functions for T1 and T2,is is equal to the logarithm of the pressure
ratio. From this it follows that
The exit temperature is found easily by using the enthalpy H2 = H1 - dH1,2. Polytropic and
isentropic efficiencies are calculated as
4.11.2 Cooled Turbine
The figure shows a cooled single-stage high pressure turbine with a typical cooling air supply
system. Compressor exit bleed is the source of the cooling air, and the control volume is identical
to the turbine annulus. The power created within the control volume must be bigger than the net
power available at the shaft because disk windage and accelerating the cooling air to blade
velocity requires some power.
With the most widely used efficiency definition, described for example in Reference 1 for each
cooling air stream it is considered whether it does work in the turbine or not. For example, all stator
(vane) cooling air is said to do work in the rotor. Thus the Rotor Inlet Temperature (RIT, also
called Stator Outlet Temperature SOT or T41) is calculated by mixing energetically the mass flow
W4 and the stator vane cooling air WA:

120 GasTurb 11
Platform cooling air Wc and disk rim sealing air Wd normally are not considered when T41 is
calculated since these parasitic flows do not have the potential to do work in the rotor because of
lack of momentum. Also the rotor cooling air WD and the liner cooling air Wa cannot do any useful
work in the rotor. Therefore these streams are not considered when calculating the expansion
process from station 41 to station 415. They are mixed energetically together with the above
mentioned parasitic flows downstream of the rotor between stations 415 and 45. The figure below
shows the calculation in the enthalpy-entropy diagram.
With this approach the expansion process in the rotor is the same as in an uncooled turbine, and
therefore the number used for the efficiency can be understood as that for an uncooled turbine.
4.11.3 Thermodynamic Turbine Efficiency
The second most used efficiency definition for a cooled turbine is called in literature the
thermodynamic efficiency. In this approach the turbine is dealt with as a black box which converts
thermal energy into shaft power. The input into this black box are the main stream energy flow W4
*h(T4) and many secondary air streams Wi *h(Ti). All of these energy streams have the work
potential which results from an isentropic expansion from their individual total pressure Pi to the
turbine exit pressure P45.
The thermodynamic efficiency is defined as

The cooled turbine process is shown in the enthalpy-entropy diagram below. Note that within this
definition no stator outlet temperature needs to be calculated. PWpump is the shaft power required
to accelerate the rotor cooling air to blade velocity (= Cooling Air Pumping Diameter*rotational
speed)
The advantage of this turbine efficiency definition is that no assumptions have to be made about
the work potential of the individual secondary streams. The work potential of these streams is
defined via their respective pressures and temperatures, which at least theoretically all can be
measured. Thus the thermodynamic turbine efficiency is less ambiguous than the equivalent single
stage efficiency. Moreover, the thermodynamic turbine efficiency accounts for the pressure of the
secondary streams while other definitions do not.
The thermodynamic turbine efficiency is calculated within GasTurb 11 as an output property.
4.11.4 Turbine Interduct Pressure Loss
In cycle design calculations the pressure ratio across a duct is usually an input value. For turbine
inter-ducts an additional option for the pressure loss calculation is applicable if Turbine Design is
selected which calculates among other data the downstream duct inlet Mach number. In this case
the data for the duct pressure ratio are valid for a reference Mach number. The actual pressure
ratio then depends on duct inlet Mach number M calculated by the Turbine Design routine.
The calculation employs the loss coefficient  which is defined as:
The actual pressure ratio for the duct inlet Mach number M is then

122 GasTurb 11
In off-design calculations duct pressure losses are proportional to the relative corrected flow
squared.
4.12 Exhaust Duct Pressure Loss

The exhaust duct pressure ratio is an input value during cycle design calculations. During
off-design simulations normally the exhaust duct pressure loss varies with corrected flow squared.
However, if Turbine Design is selected for the upstream turbine, the exhaust duct losses will be a
function of flow angle also. This improves the simulation quality for turboshaft engines in which the
last turbine operates at constant spool speed. In this case the incidence angle to the exhaust guide
vanes can vary over a very wide range.
The flow angle is calculated from the blade exit flow angle, the annulus area and the corrected
flow. If the flow direction is equal to the minimum loss flow angle , then the losses are a function
of corrected flow as in any normal duct. However, when the flow direction deviates from the
minimum loss direction, then there will be factor to the pressure ratio applied which is a function of
the incidence angle ß:
The magnitude of the incidence pressure loss factor can be controlled with the exponent c in the
formula above.
4.13 Mixer
In the mixing calculation the program uses the conservation of energy for finding T64. The mass
flow W64 is the sum of W6 and W163. P64 is calculated on the basis of conservation of momentum
in a constant area duct.

The mixer area A64 is equal to the sum of A63 and A163. A64 can be specified by input or
calculated from the mean mixer Mach number M64 during design calculations. In off-design the
static pressure balance between Ps63 and Ps163 is retained. The areas A63 and A163 are found
during the design point calculation from the equal static pressure condition Ps163=Ps63.
In off-design simulations you can apply modifiers to the core (dA63) and bypass (dA163) mixer
areas:
A63 = A63ds*(1+dA63)
A163 = A163ds*(1+dA163)
A64 = A63+A163
If you want to keep the total mixer area A64 constant while modulationg dA63 then define an
iteration with dA163 as variable and A64 as target.
The hot stream mixer pressure ratio P63/P6 is assumed to vary with the core exit corrected flow in
off-design simulations. The cold stream mixer pressure ratio P163/P16 is dependent from the
bypass exit corrected flow in off-design. Analogously the mixed stream pressure ratio depends on
the total corrected flow downstream of the mixer.
Note that the utility GasTurb Details 5 which comes with the GasTurb 11 package is excellently
suited to study the effects of mixing two streams.
4.14 Reheat (Afterburner)

A reheated cycle is calculated in off-design simulations in two steps:
 First, the program finds the dry operating point which is specified by the selection on the Steady
State input page in the line ZXN given (1) or ZT4 given (2). This calculation step yields the inlet
conditions to the reheat system.
 Second the necessary reheat fuel flow for the desired Reheat Exit Temperature will be
calculated. A new nozzle throat area follows from the revised nozzle inlet conditions.
There are thus two nozzle throat areas in a reheated cycle calculation: One is the Equivalent Dry
Nozzle Area, which is connected with the turbomachinery operating conditions. The other one is
the actual nozzle (throat) area.
Note that all the limiters act on the operating point of the basic engine (i.e. the turbomachinery).
Thus, if you employ a thrust limiter while reheat is on, then this will change the engine spool speed
in such a way that you get the desired thrust while the reheat exit temperature remains unchanged.
However, you may want that the turbomachines are running at full speed and the thrust should be

124 GasTurb 11
achieved by adjusting the Reheat Exit Temperature. In this case you must not use thrust as a
limiter, you need to define an iteration with Reheat Exit Temperature as a variable and the desired
thrust as iteration target.
4.14.1 Reheat Efficiency
Basically, the same algorithm is used for reheat efficiency as for the efficiency of combustors.
However, since the efficiency of afterburners is much lower than that of combustors, the numbers
to be used for the part load constant will be different.
If this simulation methodology is not appropriate for your type of afterburner then you can employ
Composed Values with a General Table to calculate reheat efficiency as a function of fuel-air-ratio
and pressure. Iterate Reheat Design Efficiency such that the calculated reheat efficiency is equal
to the composed value. Note that during off-design simulations the Reheat Design Efficiency is
selectable as iteration variable only after it has been made an input quantity.
4.14.2 Reheat Pressure Loss
Reheat systems (Afterburners) of aircraft engines are modeled in GasTurb 11 as ducts with
constant area. Selecting Reheat during cycle design will automatically make the area of the
downstream Thermodynamic Station the same as the inlet area which is calculated from the
Reheat Design Inlet Mach No. When you select the Special Reheat Calc methodology then you
can account for tapered jet pipes by setting the ratio of Effective Burning Area / A61 (respectively
Effective Burning Area / A64) to a value less than one. The Effective Burning Area is employed for
calculating the loss in total pressure due to heat addition. This loss is sometimes called a
fundamental pressure loss, while the line connecting different amounts of heat addition plotted in a
temperature-entropy diagram is called a Rayleigh Line. No more heat can be added after sonic
velocity at the duct exit is reached.
In the afterburner simulation the heat addition pressure loss is calculated as described above.
Note that high afterburner inlet Mach numbers which are caused by small Effective Burning Areas
cause significant total pressure losses. Use GasTurb Details 5 to get a feeling for the magnitude of
the numbers.

4.15 Nozzle
4.15.1 Convergent Nozzle
The convergent nozzle calculation is fairly simple. First an isentropic expansion to ambient
pressure is assumed. If the nozzle exit Mach number is subsonic, then the static conditions in the
nozzle exit plane have already been found. Otherwise the Mach number is set to 1.0 and for this
condition new values for Ts8 and Ps8 are calculated. The effective nozzle area is found from
The correlation between the effective flow area Aeff,8 and the geometric nozzle area A8 is
described by the nozzle discharge coefficient CD8 = Aeff,8/A8. The magnitude of this coefficient
depends on the nozzle petal angle and the nozzle pressure ratio P8/Ps8.
If the Nozzle Calculation Switch is set to Standard, then the discharge coefficient of convergent
nozzle will be taken from the empirical correlation shown in the figure below:
Nozzle Discharge Coefficient
4.15.2 Convergent-Divergent Nozzle
For the convergent-divergent nozzle the calculation from the inlet to the throat (station 8) is usually
an expansion to sonic conditions. From station 8 to station 9 the flow is expanded supersonically
according to the prescribed area ratio A9/A8. If the nozzle exit static pressure Ps9 comes out
higher than ambient pressure then the solution has been found and the calculation is finished.
Otherwise, a vertical shock is calculated with upstream Mach number M9. If the static pressure
downstream of the shock is lower than ambient pressure then there will be a shock inside the
divergent part of the nozzle. If not, then the pressure term in the thrust formula is negative,
however the result with Ps9 less than Pamb is valid.
At very low nozzle pressure ratios the flow will be completely subsonic. In such a case the nozzle
behaves like a venturi.

126 GasTurb 11
The nozzle discharge coefficient CD8= Aeff,8/A8 of a convergent divergent nozzle depends only on
the petal angle  (measured in °) of the convergent part of the nozzle:
CD8 = 1 - 0.002*
In contrary to the discharge coefficient of a convergent nozzle it is independent from the nozzle
pressure ratio.
For the cycle design point the primary petal angle is an input quantity if the Standard Nozzle
Calculation methodology is selected. If the engine has got a reheat system (an afterburner), then
the design petal angle is valid for the equivalent dry nozzle area. The true petal angle will be
smaller because the nozzle throat area is bigger when reheat is lit.
4.15.3 Thrust Coefficient
The thrust coefficient is a factor on the velocity term of the gross thrust. The net thrust of an
unmixed flow turbofan, for example, is calculated as
In this formula CFG8 is the thrust coefficient of the core nozzle and CFG18 is the thrust coefficient of
the bypass nozzle.
Do not mix up these two thrust coefficients with the ideal thrust coefficient CFG,id of a
convergent-divergent nozzle which is defined as
The term FG,id is the gross thrust for a full expansion to ambient pressure while FG is the gross
thrust of the convergent-divergent nozzle for an expansion to the nozzle exit area A9.
4.16 Thermodynamic Stations

The Thermodynamic Stations are marked for each engine configuration in the respective
Nomenclature window. The cycle calculation yields at these locations the mass flow, the total
pressure and the total temperature. The static pressures and temperatures are not explicitly
needed and only of secondary importance for the evaluation of the thermodynamic cycle with the
exception of the nozzle and the exhaust system.

However, for determining the size of the flow channel the flow velocity and the density are needed
and - together with other properties - make in GasTurb 11 a Thermodynamic Station. Only stations
that are relevant for finding the dimensions of the engine are considered as full thermodynamic
stations. For example, the stations 31 and 41 in the figure above are not employed for calculating
the dimensions and you therefore will not find them in the list of Thermodynamic Stations of the
Turbojet.
During cycle design for most of the Thermodynamic Stations you can either specify on the Stations
input page the Mach number or the flow area. One of these two quantities must be zero, the other
positive; supersonic Mach numbers are not permitted.
If you select Compressor Design then the properties of the inlet station of the compressor will be
calculated, while selecting Turbine Design yields those of the exit station.
Turbine Design implies a velocity diagram analysis in which the mass flow considered does not
include the rotor cooling air because this flow does not contribute to the work done. Note that the
flow area of the turbine exit Thermodynamic Station is calculated from the axial Mach number
which was found from the velocity triangle analysis and the mass flow and the total temperature
after adding the rotor cooling air to the mainstream.
Since the exit flow, its direction and the temperature at the turbine exit are different, the turbine exit
area found from the velocity triangle analysis is not the same as the area of the turbine exit
Thermodynamic Station.
Any afterburner of an aircraft engine is designed as constant area duct and thus the exit station
has the same area as the inlet to the afterburner.
4.17 Internal Air System

For cycle design calculations you will find all input data on the Air System page except the absolute
amount of the overboard bleed (customer bleed) which is on the Basic Data data page.
During off-design simulations you normally can only modify the absolute and relative amounts of
the overboard bleed. You can, however, make the other air system properties visible after
selecting the menu option Define|Input Quantities.
The term Rel.Enthalpy describes how much work is done on the bleed air relative to the total
compression work of the compressor from which the bleed is taken.

128 GasTurb 11
4.18 Propeller
From GasTurb 11 you will get information about an ideal propeller and a real propeller. For the real
propeller you can use a map and thus accurately describe the behavior of this device. The
terminology used is taken from Reference 17.
4.18.1 Ideal Propeller
Some interesting correlations for the ideal propeller can be derived from one dimensional theory. It
allows calculation of the ideal propeller efficiency which cannot be exceeded by the efficiency of a
real propeller. The ideal thrust coefficient is a measure of thrust per propeller disk area. Another
propeller performance indicator is the ideal power coefficient.
For finding the correlations for the ideal performance of a propeller we consider the small control
volume X which surrounds an "actuator disk" (with area A). There is a sudden rise in pressure, but
no change in the local velocity. The change in pressure follows from Bernoulli's formula:
The thrust of the propeller is
We can also apply the conservation of momentum to the large control volume Y, and then we get a
second expression for the ideal propeller thrust:
Combining both formulas for the thrust results in
That means that far downstream of the propeller the jet velocity Vid is twice the velocity in the

propeller plane. The Ideal Propeller Efficiency is
which can be transformed to
The Ideal Thrust Coefficient is a measure of thrust per unit of propeller disk area:
Another propeller performance indicator is the Ideal Power Coefficient, which is defined as
4.18.2 Real Propeller
In reality there are always losses like frictional drag on the blades, uneven velocity distribution over
the propeller disk area, swirl in the slip stream etc. Therefore, the performance of a real propeller
will always be worse than that of an ideal propeller. Traditionally the performance of real propellers
is described by some dimensionless parameters. The thrust coefficient CF relates the thrust to
ambient air density, propeller speed and diameter.
with n = rotational speed (in revolutions per second) and d = propeller diameter.
The quantity V0/(n*d) is known as Advance Ratio J. It is a measure of the forward movement of the
propeller per revolution.
The Power Coefficient CPW of a real propeller is defined as
and the Propeller Efficiency is

130 GasTurb 11
For static conditions (J=0) this definition leads to efficiency = 0. In this case the following definition
of the propeller quality is appropriate:
From the cycle calculation the shaft power delivered, PWSD, is known and the power coefficient of
the propeller can be calculated easily. The static thrust follows from
The ratio of thrust coefficient to power coefficient CF/CPW is another measure of static propeller
efficiency. From this ratio one can also calculate the static thrust:
When you do not use a propeller map, then the input value for the propeller efficiency is interpreted
as static efficiency if the flight velocity is zero.
4.19 Component Maps

4.19.1 Intake Map
An intake map consists of a single table with the relative corrected speed of the first compressor
as the argument and flight Mach number as the parameter. During cycle design calculations the
relative corrected speed of the first compressor is equal to 1.0 by definition.
On principle the corrected flow of the first compressor would be a better parameter. However, the
use of corrected speed makes the calculation simpler and does not affect the accuracy of the
result very much.
The file with an intake map must begin with a single line header which commences with "99". A
map title may follow after at least one "blank" on the same line. An example is given with the file
Intake01.map which is delivered together with the program.

4.19.2 Compressor Maps

4.19.2.1 Compressor Map
A compressor map shows pressure ratio P3/P2 over corrected flow Wcorr as a function of relative
corrected spool speed Ncorr with contour lines of constant isentropic efficiency . Fan and booster
maps employed with the Two Spool Mixed Flow Turbofan configuration are special cases.
For details about the data input of a compressor map have a look at the section Compressor Map
format.
Compressor maps (and also turbine maps) are shown by GasTurb 11 without Reynolds correction
and also without map modifiers applied. The operating points shown in the graphic are the values
read from the map tables, before any map modifiers or Reynolds corrections are applied.
Therefore the numerical values found on the output summary page - which show the
Reynolds-corrected data and with modifiers applied - are not necessarily in line with the picture of
the map.

132 GasTurb 11
When switching from cycle design to off-design simulations then the map is scaled in such a way
that it is in line with the cycle design point. During off-design simulations the map is read with
known values of relative corrected spool speed and beta. Corrections for Reynolds number
effects, variable geometry settings and map modifiers are applied before using pressure ratio,
efficiency and corrected flow in the cycle calculation.
4.19.2.2 Fan Map
Low and high bypass turbofan engines show significant differences in fan and booster geometry as
can be seen in the figure below. These differences can be accounted for with adequate simulation
models. For the Two Spool Mixed Flow Turbofan configuration there are three options for the fan
and booster performance simulation.
Select between the fan and booster simulation options with the Booster Map Type indicator:
0 No special booster map, the inner map data will be scaled from the outer map.
This option is most suited for high bypass engines without booster stages and for low
bypass engines as shown in the upper part of the figure
1 Independent booster map (only corrected speed common).
This option should be chosen for high bypass engines with booster stages as shown in
the lower part of the figure.
2 Split map: common corrected speed and corrected flow.
Use this option with low bypass turbofans for more accurate off-design simulations
With Booster Map Type=0 a conventional compressor map is employed. The corrected flow read
from this map is the total engine inlet corrected flow. Pressure ratio and efficiency tabulated in the
map are those of the bypass stream.
The pressure ratio of the core stream is calculated as:

The efficiency of the core stream is calculated as:
With Booster Map Type=1 two compressor maps are used: one for the core stream and the other
for the bypass stream. These two maps are connected through the corrected spool speed which is
obviously the same for both maps when running a simulation. Both maps are read with their own
beta value. Reading the maps yields two corrected mass flows, two pressure ratios and two
efficiencies. Note that the component matching and thus the operating points in both maps are
affected by the correlations between corrected flow and corrected speed in each of the maps.
Using Booster Map Type=2 requires again two maps, one for the core stream and one for the
bypass stream. The difference to the previous methodology is that both maps contain the total
corrected mass flow. Of course the maps are read during simulations with the same corrected
speed value. In contrary to the Booster Map Type 1 option the two maps are read with the same
beta value. This yields pressure ratio and efficiency for the core and the bypass stream.
4.19.2.3 Beta Value
Reading a compressor map with given corrected speed and mass flow leads to problems at high
speed because there the speed lines have vertical sections. Reading the map with given pressure
ratio can be ambiguous at low corrected speeds. To resolve the map reading problem auxiliary
coordinates, the so-called -lines, are introduced.
The use of  is just a mathematical trick and therefore  has no meaning in terms of physics.
Within a map the -values vary between 0 and 1 in GasTurb 11and therefore valid off-design
results must show -values between 0 and 1. Note that also in turbine maps -lines are used.
During off-design iterations the  values are iteration variables.

134 GasTurb 11
4.19.2.4 Surge Margin
For any operating condition within the flight envelope sufficient surge margin must remain to
guarantee the operability of the engine. There are several definitions of surge margin in use, so
beware if numbers are quoted:
The first formula is the internationally accepted SAE definition. The second - which is employed by
GasTurb 11 - takes into account that the operating pressure ratio usually does not drop below 1
and the third definition is oriented at a true surge process which happens with constant corrected
speed, not at constant corrected flow.
SMP/P can be calculated from SMP/P-1 with the help of a composed value. For a turbojet example
the composed value definition would be:
SM_PqP = SM_HPC * (1 - 1 / P3q2)
4.19.3 Propeller Map
A propeller map will give you the efficiency as a function of Advance Ratio and Power Coefficient.
For static conditions an additional correlation is stored in a separate table as CF/CPW = f (CPW).
The propeller map is difficult to read in the region of low Advance Ratios. There the thrust will be
linearly interpolated between the value derived from the propeller efficiency at Advance Ratio = 0.2
and the static thrust.
The propeller efficiency read from the map can be corrected for Mach number effects. Above the
critical Mach number efficiency will drop according to
If you do not have a map of the propeller which fits to your engine design point, then you can scale
the map delivered with the program.

4.19.4 Turbine Map
Turbine maps in GasTurb 11 come in three different formats, all of them with contour lines of
constant isentropic efficiency :

136 GasTurb 11
1. P4/P5 over relative corrected speed Ncorr

2. P4/P5 over corrected flow Wcorr
3. P4/P5 over the product of relative corrected speed Ncorr and corrected flow Wcorr
Plotting efficiency contour lines in a turbine map with corrected flow as x-axis (2nd format) is not
practical when the turbine inlet guide vane chokes because then all speed lines collapse for high
pressure ratios. Using the product of corrected speed and corrected flow spreads the map nicely
and allows to show lines of constant efficiency and operating lines.
Note that GasTurb 11 uses in compressor and turbine maps the relative corrected spool speed,
i.e. the corrected spool speed divided by the corrected spool speed at the cycle design point.
The full expression for Ncorr*Wcorr of a HP turbine map, for example, is:
NH/sqrt(R/Rstd*T41/Tstd)/{NH/sqrt(R/Rstd*T41/Tstd)}ds *
W sqrt(R/Rstd*T41/Tstd)/(P4/Pstd)
This text is very long and therefore in the graphic the following abbreviation is used:
NH/sqrt(T41) * W sqrt(T41)/(P4/Pstd)
In the abbreviation the potential differences in the gas constant are not shown. Note that in the
abbreviation Tstd does not show up because
NH/sqrt(T41/Tstd)*W*sqrt(T41/Tstd)/(P4/Pstd) = NH/sqrt(T41)*W*sqrt(T41)/(P4/Pstd)
Turbine maps (and also compressor maps) are shown by GasTurb 11 without Reynolds correction
and also without the map modifiers applied. The operating points shown in the graphic are the
values read from the map tables, before any map modifiers or Reynolds corrections are applied.
Therefore the numerical values found on the output summary page - which show the
Reynolds-corrected data and with modifiers applied - are not necessarily in line with the picture of
the map.
When switching from cycle design to off-design simulations then the map is scaled in such a way
that it is in line with the cycle design point. During off-design simulations the map is read with
known values of relative corrected spool speed and beta. Corrections for Reynolds number effects
and map modifiers are applied before using pressure ratio, efficiency and corrected flow in the
cycle calculation.
4.20 Inlet Flow Distortion

4.20.1 Parallel Compressor Theory
Only the first compressor of an engine can operate without inlet flow distortion - and that only while
the uninstalled engine is running on a testbed. Installed in an aircraft often there are more or less
severe pressure non-uniformities at the engine face. In some cases, during thrust reverser
operation, for example, the engine inlet temperature is also not uniform. In these cases the
downstream compressors see both pressure distortions and temperature distortions. GasTurb 11
allows you simulating the effects of both total pressure and total temperature distortion on
compressor system stability.
The most appropriate method to simulate flow distortion effects within performance synthesis
programs is the parallel compressor theory, see Reference 26. In its simplest application the
distorted flow field upstream of the compressor is characterized by two streams with different, but
uniform, total pressures. Each stream enters one of two imaginary compressors working in
parallel. Both compressors have the same map – the one measured on the rig with clean inlet flow
- except for the flow capacity. If the spoiled sector width is 60°, for example, the flow capacity of
the first imaginary compressor is 60°/360° = 1/6 (the spoiled sector). The second compressor
covers a 300° sector and has 300°/360° =5/6 of the real compressor's capacity:

The basic hypothesis of the parallel compressor theory suggests that both compressors discharge
to the same static pressure in the downstream duct. This condition allows calculating the position
of the operating points in the respective maps.
In the special case with distortion sectors of 180° the two compressor flow capacities are of equal
size. As can be seen in the upper part of the next figure (total pressure distortion), the compressor
dealing with the low inlet pressure operates with a higher than average pressure ratio and for the
other compressor the opposite holds true. Both operating points are on the same speed line
because both sectors have the same inlet total temperature. The two operating points move away
from each other when the distortion intensity increases. As soon as the point marked L reaches
the surge line, the stability boundary of the total compressor is reached according to the parallel
compressor theory. The compressor is predicted to surge in spite of the fact that the mean
operating point M is still far from the (clean) surge line.

138 GasTurb 11
The parallel compressor theory can be applied also to temperature distortion simulation. In this
case the pressure ratios of the two compressors are similar, but the operating points are on
different speed lines as shown in the lower part of the figure.
In its basic form the parallel compressor model gives the right tendencies but does not agree very
well with reality in terms of absolute numbers for small circumferential extent inlet distortion
patterns because it yields the highest loss in stall margin for zero width of the distorted sector:
Obviously the loss in stall margin must be zero when the distorted sector width is zero degree and
also when it is 360 degree. Somewhere between zero and 360 degree sector width - at the critical
sector angle - the loss of stability is maximum. Some corrections to the parallel compressor theory
are described in References 14 and 15.
4.20.2 Compressor Coupling
As mentioned above, the parallel compressor theory postulates that at the exit of the compressor
the static pressure is circumferentially uniform. Since the pressure ratio, however, is different, the
total temperature at the exit of the compressor will not be uniform. If there follows a further
compressor downstream of the first one, then the two operating points in the map of the second
compressor will no longer be on the same speed line. This has a more detrimental effect to the
stability than a pure pressure distortion.

The parallel compressor model as presented above can lead to serious errors in engine distortion
tolerance estimates and in the diagnosis of the "critical" compressor with multi-spool engines.
These compressors are connected either with no ducts in between or with short swan neck shaped
ducts that contain many vanes or struts. These reduce or even prevent the mass flow over the
sector boundaries which would be required for achieving the static pressure balance between the
sectors. Consequently the static pressure field of the downstream compressor affects the
upstream compressor: the compressors are close-coupled, see Reference 14.
Full coupling of compressors is taken into account by GasTurb 11 in such a way that in
inter-compressor ducts the condition of “equal static pressures” (no coupling) is replaced by the
condition “no mass flow between sectors”, see Reference 26.
For describing any sort of inter-compressor duct (short, long, with and without vanes) it is
convenient to introduce a Coupling Factor CF which allows using a linear combination of the
conditions “equal static pressures” (CF=0) and “no flow between sectors” (CF=1). With higher
values of the Coupling Factor, the two operating points for the upstream compressor are closer
together so there is a decreased loss in upstream compressor surge margin.
4.20.3 Pressure Distortion
In GasTurb 11 you can select either pressure or temperature distortion or a combination of both for
a given sector angle. Radial distortion can be specified for bypass engines also. Engine inlet flow
distortion is described by pressure and temperature distortion coefficients.
The pressure distortion coefficient for a 60° sector is defined as
This coefficient is defined in the aerodynamic interface plane. Reasonable numbers for the
pressure distortion coefficient are in the range 0 ... 1.5
In the compressor maps you will see the operating points in both sectors and the type of distortion
will be indicated. Note that the compressors downstream of the first compressor will encounter a
temperature distortion even in the case, where only a pressure distortion is specified.
4.20.4 Temperature Distortion
The temperature distortion coefficient for a 60° sector is defined as
Be careful with the input of values for the distortion coefficients. Begin with low numbers, especially
for temperature distortion. The iteration will not converge when the solution implies operating
conditions in the spoiled sector well above the surge line. Reasonable numbers for the
temperature distortion coefficient are in the range 0 ... 0.1
The total temperature in the spoiled sector T2, is

140 GasTurb 11
4.21 External Load

An external load can be connected with any spool for all engine configurations. The load may be a
single specified value, a lift fan or a load compressor.
The calculation sequence is such that the external load calculations are done before the gas
turbine cycle calculations. If you want that the load itself or a property which affects the load is in a
certain correlation with the properties of the gas turbine then you need an iteration. For example, if
the lift fan inlet temperature and pressure are the same as the engine inlet conditions then these
two properties must be variables in an iteration in which the target values are the engine inlet
pressure and temperature.
Transient simulations and test analysis by synthesis are not possible while an external load is
connected to the engine.
4.21.1 Power Offtake from Any Spool
The most simple case of an external load is connecting a constant load with an engine. The input
value for this load may be iterated in such a way that it is equal to the result of a composed value.
4.21.2 Lift Fan
The lift fan produces thrust which can be controlled by variable guide vanes and the variable lift fan
exhaust nozzle area.

A map for the lift fan must be loaded for the cycle design calculation with external load. You can
use an unscaled map or scale a map according to your requirements. Note that no Reynolds
corrections are applied to the lift fan map.
You must decide if you want to use the map unscaled or scaled. In the unscaled map you can
position the operating point by setting the Design Map Speed and Design Map Beta. The
corresponding values for mass flow, efficiency and pressure ratio are shown in the box on the
lower left side.
If you choose to scale the map, then you can input both the map coordinates and true values for
mass flow, efficiency and pressure ratio. The resulting map scaling factors are shown on the lower
left side:
4.21.3 Load Compressor
The load compressor model includes variable guide vanes but no nozzle simulation. Attach a load
compressor to a single or two spool turboshaft to simulate an aircraft auxiliary power unit (APU).

142 GasTurb 11
A map for the load compressor must be loaded for the cycle design calculation with external load.
You can use an un-scaled map or scale a map according to your requirements. Note that no
Reynolds corrections are applied to the load compressor map.
Initializing the load compressor map is similar to initializing the lift fan map as described in the
previous section.

Engine Dimensions
V
144 GasTurb 11
5 Engine Dimensions
Engine dimensions are calculated for each cycle design point if you select in the program opening
window the scope "More". Note that many details of a real engine are not modeled explicitly in
GasTurb 11; therefore the calculated mass (weight) numbers are always on the low side.
Drawing the engine cross section requires additional input data that are described in the following
sections component by component. For editing the geometry input data, select in the Cycle Design
Input window the menu option Edit|Geometry... This option will only be available after you have
enabled the geometry calculation by choosing Edit|Enable Geometry or by clicking
.
Local Mach numbers (or flow areas) are the design point input data for the main Thermodynamic
Stations. From the cycle data mass flow, total pressure and total temperature are known, a given
Mach number allows to calculate the flow area for each station if it is not given as input quantity.
When the cross section is on your screen then you can zoom in to see some details more clearly.
Zooming into an engine cross section behaves differently compared to zooming into other graphics
of GasTurb because for cross sections the scales of both x and y axes (length and radial axes)
must be the same.
During off-design simulations you can view the engine dimensions and the disk stresses at the
given operating condition, however, you can not modify the engine geometry in off-design mode.
Remember, when doing parametric cycle design studies or cycle optimization studies, you can
consider in addition to the design point properties also properties from one off-design operating
condition which is given as a single point mission. This might be the stress margin in the most
critical disk of your engine, for example.

Engine Dimensions 145
5.1 Engine Inlet

The dimensions of the engine inlet are derived from the inlet radii of the downstream compressor.
The engine inlet is a pipe with constant casing radius; it contains a cone and struts as front bearing
support. The struts are positioned upstream of the optional compressor inlet guide vanes which
are modeled as part of the compressor. If no struts are needed, then set the relative strut chord to
zero.
Inlet Geometry Nomenclature
Note that the cone length does not include the front cap. The minimum cone length is equal to the
sum of strut chord and gap width. For creating a short cone, use a high value for the cone angle
together with a moderate value for the length of the cone.
The mass (weight) of the inlet is composed of the masses of the casing, the struts and the cone.
 Casing mass is the product of casing surface area, mean casing thickness and the density of
the casing material.
 Struts are composed from two surfaces with the same thickness and the same material as the
casing.
 The cone is modeled as a shell with the same thickness and material as the casing.
For getting a reasonable inlet mass, select a representative material thickness which takes into
account flanges and any non axis-symmetric features which might exist. Note that no front engine
bearing is included in the inlet mass, even if the inlet has got struts which could support a bearing
housing.
5.2 Compressor
5.2.1 Axial Compressor
A detailed stage by stage calculation of the velocity triangles of a multistage axial compressor is
not within the scope of GasTurb 11; such calculations must be done with other programs.
For drawing the engine cross section only a few non-dimensional data like hub-tip ratios and blade
aspect ratio are required. Inlet hub-tip radius ratio is the same as the input value for the
Compressor Design option. Therefore - while Compressor Design is selected as part of the cycle

146 GasTurb 11
calculation - the Inlet Radius Ratio is dimmed.
In a true compressor design the aspect ratio will be different for each blade row and the pitch-
chord ratio as well. In GasTurb 11 average values for these quantities are employed for drawing
the cross section.
The dimensions of the axial compressor flow annulus are calculated stage by stage from the inlet
to the exit thermodynamic station. From the flow area at the inlet station and the inlet radius ratio
the inner and outer radii at the compressor inlet are found. Compressors with constant hub, mean
and tip diameters can be selected with corresponding values for the Annulus Shape Descriptor (a
number between zero and one).
If the compressor is followed by a burner, then downstream of the exit guide vane a diffusor
decelerates the flow from the compressor exit Mach number Mex to the Mach number at station 3
(burner inlet). The Mach number Mex is calculated from the conditions at station 3 and the diffusor
area ratio assuming 2% total pressure loss in the diffusor. The length of the exit diffusor is
calculated assuming seven degrees wall angle.
Stage pressure and temperature ratios are calculated postulating equal aerodynamic loading DH/u²
for each stage and employing the polytropic efficiency of the compressor in total. The axial Mach
number at any intermediate position is interpolated linearly from the Mach number at the
compressor inlet station and the exit Mach number Mex. With these assumptions the stage inlet
and exit flow areas as well as the blade and vane spans are found.

From the prescribed mean Aspect Ratio the chord length in axial direction can be calculated for all
blades and vanes. The gap between blades and vanes is a fraction of the chord of the first rotor
blade. Blade and vane numbers are calculated from the given Pitch/Chord Ratio. Note that instead
of the true blade respectively vane chord only its axial component is employed in the definitions of
Aspect Ratio, Pitch/Chord and Gap/Chord ratios.
The overall length of the compressor is the sum of all chords and gaps; it does not include the exit
diffusor.
The mass (weight) of the compressor is composed of the following elements:

 The casing mass which is the product of casing surface area, mean casing thickness and the
density of the casing material.
 Inlet Guide Vane mass (if there are any IGV's)
 As part of the disk stress calculation the rotating mass is determined
 The vane mass, which consists of the airfoils and inner vane platforms. Vanes are made of the
same material as blades.
 Finally, the mass of the exit diffusor
For getting a reasonable compressor mass result, select representative casing material thickness
which takes into account flanges, variable guide vane levers and rings, inter-stage bleed air off-
takes and any non axis-symmetric features which might exist.
5.2.1.1 HP Compressor Design Example
This compressor shows on the front stages variable guide vanes and a double outer casing. Inter-
stage bleed air off-takes are located after the third and forth stages.
5.2.2 Fan
Single stage fans and multiple stage fans are different with respect to the position of the exit guide
vane. The exit guide vanes of a multi-stage fan is upstream of the splitter while those from a single
stage fan are downstream of the splitter.

148 GasTurb 11
5.2.2.1 Fan and Booster Design Example
5.2.3 Radial Compressor
Radial compressors are not considered in the engine geometry design part of GasTurb 11
You may remember that there are two engine configurations with axial-radial compressors. For
performance simulations it does not matter whether the last compressor is really of radial design or
only the second group of axial stages on the high pressure spool. For precise off-design
simulations of course the correct map type (either from a radial or from an axial compressor)
should be used.
The geometry calculations for the "axial-radial" compressor assumes two groups of axial
compressor stages, separated by an inter-duct.
5.3 Burner
The geometry of the annular burner is described with ratios of the dimensions that are explained in
the figure.

Note that the compressor exit diffusor extends into the burner. From a geometric perspective,
however, the compressor ends with its exit guide vane.
The burner casing extends to the exit of the turbine nozzle guide vane because this is usually
cooled with air bypassing the combustor can. Note that the calculated burner volume is not the
volume within the burner casing, it is that of the can only.
The mass (weight) of the burner is composed of the can mass, inner and outer casing masses and
fuel injector mass. The latter is considered to be proportional to fuel mass flow and takes - besides
the injectors themselves - also the fuel pipes into account. Note that the mass of the diffusor is part
of the compressor mass.
Casing and can masses are the product of their respective surface areas, a representative
thickness and the material density.
5.3.1 Burner Design Example
Annular combustor
5.4 Turbine
The shape of a turbine flow annulus is described by the inner contour and the stage flow areas.
These are calculated assuming equal aerodynamic loading DH/u² for all stages.The axial Mach
number at any intermediate position is interpolated linearly from the Mach number at the turbine
inlet and exit stations. With these assumptions the stage inlet and exit flow areas as well as the
blade and vane spans are found.
Note that the turbine cross section calculation is not in all details consistent with the data produced
by the Turbine Design option.
Turbine blades may be shrouded or unshrouded. Without shroud the blade will be lighter and more
easy to cool, however, the blade tip clearance can be contained within limits only if its tip radius is
constant along the blade chord. This is because the turbine rotor moves in axial direction during
operation due to thermal expansion and axial forces.

150 GasTurb 11
The blade and vane nomenclature is equivalent to that employed for axial compressors.
The mass (weight) of the turbine is composed of the following three elements:
 The casing mass which is the product of casing surface area, mean casing thickness and the
density of the casing material.
 As part of the disk stress calculation the rotating mass is determined
 The vane mass, which consists of the airfoils and inner vane platforms
For getting a reasonable turbine mass result, select a representative casing material thickness
which takes into account flanges, cooling air passages, pipes of an active clearance control
system and any non axis-symmetric features which might exist. Note that cover-plates are not
modeled; their mass must be taken into account additionally.
5.4.1 HP Turbine Design Example
As you can see, many details of a real turbine are not modeled explicitly in GasTurb 11. Therefore
the mass (weight) numbers are always on the low side.
Note in this example the double wall outer casing which is required for the cooling air supply.

5.4.2 LP Turbine Design Examples
Low pressure turbine of a high bypass engine:

152 GasTurb 11
In the second example - which is from a low bypass engine - the inlet guide vane is much bigger
than aerodynamically necessary because it serves also as support for the bearing casing.
5.5 Inter-duct
The shape of the inner annulus contour is described by a polynomial with given slopes at the inlet
and the exit. The outer contour represents a linear area change between inlet and exit station. A
strut might be needed for bearing support, its length is specified in percent of the inter-duct length.
Entering zero percent for the strut length will produce an inter-duct without strut.
The mass calculation assumes that the duct is manufactured by casting, for example. The struts
are hollow and have the same thickness as the inner and outer walls of the flow channel.

5.6 Exhaust Duct

The turbine exhaust duct contains struts which represents a bearing support structure and/or a
turbine exit guide vane. The cone may end within the exhaust duct or continue downstream. If a
nozzle or exhaust diffusor follows the turbine exhaust duct and you want the exhaust cone extend
into the nozzle, set the cone length/inlet radius ratio to a value greater than 1.0. Do this if you want
to use a plug nozzle or a ring shaped exhaust for a power generation gas turbine.
Using values for the cone length/inlet radius ratio in the range of 0.5...0.8 to 1 is not recommended
because the flow can not follow the sudden increase of the area from the cone end to the exhaust
exit. Note that the cone end cap is not included in the calculated cone length.
5.7 Bypass
The inner shape of the bypass is defined by two third order polynomials which are joined at the Flat
Point - there the bypass channel is cylindrical.
If he thickness of the inner casing is set to zero, then no inner contour is shown and the outer
contour of the bypass will be a straight line. Thus you can make the outer casing conical or
cylindrical. As you can see from the figure, the bypass nozzle is part of the bypass.
With the Variable Cycle Engine the bypass has a second entrance. The mass of the channel from
the compressor inter-duct to the bypass is not considered, neither as part of the bypass nor as part

154 GasTurb 11
of the duct.
5.8 Mixer
Mixer exit area can be specified directly or it is calculated from the given Mach number in station
64. Note that both A64 and XM64 are part of the basic input data, they can not be accessed as
elements of station 64.
5.9 Reheat
The reheat system (afterburner) is a pipe with constant diameter. The fuel injectors and the flame
holders are located upstream of the reheat system.
5.10 Exhaust
The core engine exhaust nozzle can be designed in different variants. For jet engines a simple
conical or a plug nozzle may be appropriate while for turboshaft engines the exhaust can be
configured as a conical diffusor with an inner and and outer wall. Convergent-divergent nozzles are
always of the standard nozzle design, extended by a divergent section. Note that the nozzle throat
and exit areas are a result of the cycle design calculation. However, the petal angle used for the
calculation of the nozzle discharge coefficient is not connected with the geometric nozzle design
except for a standard nozzle without cone. Bypass nozzles are taken care of as part of the bypass.
These are the options for the geometric nozzle design:
1a Standard Nozzle, no Cone
The standard nozzle without cone is fully defined by the exhaust area and the petal angle. The
petal angle is a cycle calculation input if the Nozzle Calculation Switch is set to Standard.
Otherwise the petal angle is calculated from the given ratio length/inlet radius, inlet and throat
radius. Note that the resulting petal angle of this calculation has no influence on the nozzle
discharge coefficient.

1b Standard Nozzle, With Short Cone
If the cone of the exhaust duct continues within the nozzle, then this creates a nozzle inlet section
which is as long as the cone part within the nozzle. The assumption that along the nozzle inlet
section there is no flow area change yields the inlet radius for the second part of the nozzle.
2 Plug Nozzle
The cone of a plug nozzle extends beyond the nozzle throat, its length is calculated from the
nozzle inlet inner radius and the nozzle cone angle (which might be different to that in the exhaust
duct). If the thus derived cone length is less than the sum of the inlet section and the convergent
length then the nozzle cone angle is calculated in such a way that the cone ends in the nozzle
throat.
The length of the inlet section is specified as a fraction of the nozzle outer radius at its inlet. The
flow area at this position is derived from the nozzle inlet flow area multiplied by the Inlet Section
Area Ratio.

156 GasTurb 11
3 Power Generation Exhaust
Gas turbines for power generation need to decelerate the exhaust flow as much as possible
because the kinetic energy of the exhaust gas is a loss for the process. A well designed exit
diffusor is needed for minimizing the total pressure loss. Note that all pressure losses must be
taken into account in the component upstream of the nozzle inlet station because GasTurb 11
uses the correlations for isentropic flow in the exhaust (nozzle).
For this type of exhaust design the cone length sets the total length of the exhaust system; the
cone angle can be positive or negative.
5.11 Intercooler and Heat Exchanger

No geometry calculations are performed for inter-coolers and heat exchangers.
5.12 Gearbox
The mass of the gearbox is calculated from the power it transfers. No gearbox design and
geometry calculations are performed, the gearbox in the engine cross section is a cartoon.

5.13 Disk Design Methodology

An algorithm which estimates the mass (weight) of disks from axial turbo machines is implemented
into GasTurb 11. It must be acknowledged that this disk stress calculation methodology has its
limitations. In an actual disk, the local stresses - which are relevant for disk live - depend on
countless details which are not yet known in the preliminary design phase of an engine.
The disk design methodology and the stress calculation is fully described in the help system to
GasTurb Details 5. In the following sections the integration of this methodology into GasTurb 11 is
discussed.
After having calculated a cycle and stored the input data in a file you can examine any of the disks
independently from the cycle code with the program GasTurb Details 5. This program is able to
read the disk data from the cycle file and can show the distributions of radial and tangential
stresses, for example. Moreover, you can view and edit the material database which comes with
GasTurb 11.
The disk design speed is a result of the cycle design point calculation, modified by increments
which take into account that spool speeds can be higher at other operating conditions than those
of the cycle design point.
5.13.1 Geometry
Select either a Web or a Hyperbolic Disk which has a smooth thickness change between the inner
rim and a small web ring just below the outer rim. A web disk can get the shape of a ring disk when
the difference between rim and bore radius becomes small and the bore width is equal to the rim
width.
Some of the input data for the disk calculations are normal input quantities, others are a result of
the compressor respectively turbine flow annulus design. The lowest permissible bore radius of all
disks of a compressor respectively turbine component is calculated as a fraction of the inner
annulus radius at the inlet to the respective component. The relevant input quantity is the ratio Disk
Bore / Inner Inlet Radius which is found on the General input page of the component.
The Rim Width is equal to the axial component of the blade chord. Note that the cavity height is
158 GasTurb 11
ignored when considering the Root / Blade Height Ratio.
The disk material can be selected from the drop down list which appears when you click in the last
line of the input table on one of the columns. Although the material data is believed to be
representative, the characteristics of the actual material may vary from what is contained in the
material database.
5.13.2 Temperature
Rim and bore temperature have an influence on the design margin of a disk; Exact values for
these temperatures are impossible to get during the preliminary design phase, only first estimates
are possible.
For compressors the inner platform temperatures are increasing from the gas inlet temperature
(first stage) to the compressor exit temperature (last stage). The temperature gradient from the
platform towards the disk center is described with a single number which stands for the
temperature difference from the platform to the center point of the disk. The temperatures in the
live disk are linearly interpolated between the platform temperature and the imaginary disk center
temperature. Besides using adequate numbers for the temperature gradient you can influence the
disk temperature employed for the stress calculation with a positive or negative adder.
The temperature distributions within turbine disks are calculated with a more sophisticated
algorithm. At first the relative temperature at the rotor inlet is calculated for each stage by applying
a factor of 0.9 to the absolute stage inlet temperature. Next the radial temperature distribution is
considered which yields as inner platform temperature 90% of the relative rotor inlet temperature.
If the turbine is not cooled, then this temperature serves as the anchor point from which the
temperature decreases linearly towards the disk center point with a given gradient.
With cooled turbines, the air usually is injected into the cavity in front of the turbine disk with a
tangential velocity component. This lowers the cooling air temperature similarly to the main stream
gas temperature which is lower in the relative (rotating) system compared to the absolute (non-
rotating) system. Dependent on the amount of cooling air and how it is guided to the rotor, the
temperature at the live disk rim can be significantly lower than the platform temperature. For taking
that effect into account, the anchor point for the disk temperature calculation is placed between
the platform temperature of an uncooled turbine and the cooling air delivery temperature (T3 in
case of high pressure turbines). The correlation is a parabola which begins at the platform
temperature and decreases with increasing amount of the rotor cooling air until it reaches as
minimum the cooling air delivery temperature when its amount is 5%. If more than 5% cooling air is
available, then the disk anchor temperature remains at the cooling air delivery temperature.
If a cooled turbine has more than one stage, then two thirds of the total cooling air is led to the first
rotor and one third goes to the second stage. If the turbine has more than two stages, then the rest
of the stages are regarded as uncooled. Use the temperature adders for adjusting the result if you
have better information about the actual disk temperature distribution.
5.13.3 Design Options
With the calculation control variables Adapt Bore Width, Adapt Bore Radius and Optimize Disk
you can influence how each disk is calculated. Select the most straightforward calculation option
by setting all three control variables to zero; then all input quantities are taken as they are.
However, this leads often to over-stressed or unnecessarily heavy disks.
When bore stress is critical, then you can get a feasible disk shape by automatically adapting the
bore width in such a way that the design margin is achieved. This logic is activated by setting
Adapt Bore Width to 1. Alternatively you can work with a prescribed bore width (Adapt Bore Width
=0) and adjust the bore radius to get the desired design margin (Adapt Bore Radius=1). If both the
bore width and the bore radius control variables are equal to one then the bore radius will be set to
its lowest permissible value and the bore width is adjusted to get the desired design margin.

Optimize Disk = 0
Optimization is switched off
Adapt Bore Width = 0 Adapt Bore Width = 1
bore width is as given by input bore width is adapted to the target design stress
margin
Adapt Bore Radius = 0 Adapt Bore Radius = 1 Adapt Bore Radius = 0 Adapt Bore Radius = 1
bore radius is as given bore radius is adapted bore radius is as given bore radius is set to its
by input to the target design by input lower limit
stress margin
Even with the various calculation options described above it is not easy to find a good lightweight
disk design. However, a mass (weight) optimized disk can be found easily with the help of a
numerical disk optimization algorithm which is selected with Optimize Disk=1. The three standard
optimization variables are
lower limit upper limit

Outer Rim Height/Rim Width 0.1 1
Web Width/Rim Width 0.15 1
Inner Rim Height/Rim Width 0.2 1
Whether bore radius and bore width are optimization variables or not is controlled by the settings
of Adapt Bore Width and Adapt Bore Radius:
Optimize Disk = 1
Optimization is switched on
Adapt Bore Width = 0 Adapt Bore Width = 1
bore width is as given by input bore width is an optimization variable
Adapt Bore Radius = 0 Adapt Bore Radius = 1 Adapt Bore Radius = 0 Adapt Bore Radius = 1
bore radius is as given bore radius is an bore radius is as given bore radius is an
by input optimization variable by input optimization variable
As optimization algorithm the adaptive random search strategy is employed because it is more
robust than the gradient strategy. This robustness costs computation time and therefore the
simultaneous optimization of many disks within an extensive parametric design study or in
combination with iterations may need much patience.
If you begin with a new engine project and your first disk design attempt leads to over-stressed
disks, then select for these disks the optimization algorithm and set both Adapt Bore Width and
Adapt Bore Radius to one. In each case the algorithm will automatically search for a feasible disk
shape first and in a second step minimize the disk mass. If the optimization is not able to find a
feasible disk then you need to lower the minimum bore diameter or to reduce the disk rim load.
5.13.4 Design Criteria
The most important result of the disk design algorithm is the disk design margin which is the
minimum of the following four margins:
1. Actual Burst Margin - Design Burst Margin
2. Actual Stress Margin - Design Stress Margin
3. Actual Web Stress Margin - Web Stress Margin
4. Actual Burst Speed - Design Burst Speed
No additional safety margins are considered within the program, it is up to you to design the disk
for the positive stress margin you consider appropriate (10...30% are reasonable numbers). If the
design margin is negative, then the disk is marked as over-stressed in the list output and in the
engine cross section the disk appears in a different color.
The Burst Margin (in %) compares the ultimate strength of the material (evaluated at the average
disk temperature) with the average tangential stress. The disk Stress Margin (expressed in %)
compares the yield strength of the material at the local temperature with the local von Mises

160 GasTurb 11
stress. The lowest local Stress Margin is presented as output quantity. Moreover, the Web Stress
Margin (at the web outer diameter, just below the disk rim) is possibly critical. Finally the disk Burst
Speed - which should be greater than 130...150% of the operating speed - must be checked.
5.14 Shaft
A shaft consists of a front cone, the middle part with constant diameter and the rear cone. The
cone thickness is at the inner radius equal to the thickness of the shaft, at the other end it is only
half of the shaft thickness. No stress calculation is done for shafts.
The outer radius of the LP shaft is equal to the smallest bore diameter from all disks of the HP
compressor and turbines, minus the shaft thickness.
5.15 Geometrical Engine Design
When you select and for the first time with

one of your own data sets (as opposed to the demo files) then you will get an engine drawing
which does not look perfect at all. The reason for that is, that the default input data for the
Thermodynamic Stations and the geometry are not good enough for your specific engine design.
How do you get a more reasonable engine drawing?
Let us design a Two Spool Unmixed Flow Turbofan as an example, beginning with the data from
the file Demo_tf.CYF. First we deal with the flow annulus, second with the disk dimensions.
5.15.1 Flow Annulus

5.15.1.1 Compressors
We will now examine the flow annulus created from the data Demo_tf.CYF beginning with the LPC
(fan). Go to the LPC page now and you will see that the hub-tip Inlet Radius Ratio is 0.3.Change it
to 0.5 and the click the Drawing tab.

You will see a dramatic change in the fan dimensions as well as the compressor inter-duct which
connects the LPC with the HPC. Comparing the LPC shapes with various Inlet Radius Ratio values
this way are easy, however, one can do better: Go to the Drawing page and assign the Inlet Radius
Ratio to the slider: click for that or choose Edit|Slider from the menu.
Now you can modify the LPC Inlet Radius Ratio while the Drawing page remains visible. When you
are finished with your slider experiments reset the Inlet Radius Ratio to 0.3 manually or reload the
data file Demo_tf.CYF from the cycle Design Point Input window. Next assign next Design Mach
Number at station 2 to the slider and see, that also this variable has a big influence on the LPC
shape and the overall engine dimensions.
Note that you can select - besides the Component Geometry input data and those for the
Thermodynamic Stations any of the cycle input data. After each slider movement not only the
geometry calculation will be repeated, the complete cycle is refreshed.
Another option for setting the LPC dimensions is to select LPC Design in the Design Point Input
window. This yields not only the data of the thermodynamic station 2 but also the LP Spool Speed
which is most important for the disk stress calculation. While LPC Design is selected the Inlet
Radius Ratio on the LPC page will be dimmed because this quantity comes now from the LPC
Design page in the Design Point Input window.
After examining how the various input data affect the LPC geometry switch to the HPC and study
some more options. Assign the Annulus Shape Descriptor to the slider and observe its effect on
the flow annulus. Try also the Aspect Ratio: Span / Chord which is a dominant influence factor for
the compressor length.
5.15.1.2 Turbines
The turbine inlet radii are a result of the calculations done for the upstream component. Therefore
- if you want to modify the turbine inlet geometry - you must work with the input of either the burner
(in case of the HPT) or the inter-duct (for the LPT inlet geometry).
The annulus of turbines is mainly affected by the ratio Rexit/Rinlet (measured at the inner radius),
the slope of the inner annulus contour at the turbine exit and the blade aspect ratio. Study the
effects of these quantities both with the HP and LP turbines employing the slider. Note that you can
adjust the scale of the slider by editing the Min and Max values:

162 GasTurb 11
5.15.1.3 Other Components
Engine inlet radii are equal to those at the inlet to the downstream compressor. Therefore any
modification of the input data for the inlet geometry affect only the length of the engine but not its
diameter.
The radii at the inlet and the exit stations of a compressor inter-duct are determined by the up-
respectively downstream compressors. The duct length is calculated from the Length/Inlet Radius
Ratio, the outer annulus contour of any duct is derived assuming a linear flow area transition from
the inlet to the exit station.
The burner inlet radius is equal to the radius found for the HP compressor exit. With the Exit/Inlet
Radius Ratio and the Length/Inlet Radius Ratio you can modify the shape of the burner and the
inlet radius of the HP turbine.
In case of turbine inter-ducts the hub radius at the exit is calculated from the given ratio Exit/Inlet
Radius. The shape of the inner contour can be influenced with the slope values at the duct inlet
and exit.
The turbine exhaust duct and the nozzle geometry are connected in such a way, that the inner
cone can extend into the nozzle respectively into the exhaust diffusor. How far the cone protrudes
into the downstream component depends on the nozzle design option (standard convergent or
convergent-divergent nozzle, plug nozzle or power generation exhaust) you have selected.
5.15.2 Disk Design
When you are done with a first preliminary flow annulus then have a look at the disk dimensions
and the disk stress design margins. The table on the left side contains all the input data which can
directly be edited in this window. The data in the top right table are also input data for the stress
calculations, however, they can only indirectly be addressed because they are a result of the cycle
and annulus design calculations.
Note that one for the disk design very important quantity is not found on the Disks page but on the
General page: this is the ratio of Disk Bore / Inner Inlet Radius which yields the lower limit of the
bore radius for all disks.
The highlighted three lines in the left table control the disk design algorithm, the options are
explained in detail in the Disk Design section. You can select the options for each disk individually,
however, in most cases you will use the same option for all disks. That can be done quickly with
the menu options offered under Edit|Disk Input:
Your choice from the Disk Input submenu will set the corresponding numbers in the table which is
much quicker than editing each cell of the table. For getting a first impression about the disk
design margins click Select All Adaptation Options and then click to update the disk design
results. All disks will be optimized for weight which requires considerable computer power. Check

164 GasTurb 11
the last two lines in the results table to see if one or more disks are Overstressed. If so or when
the Minimum Margin is well above 0 then click again to repeat the optimization run which
might yield a better result.
Before you go to the Drawing or another page you should click which de-selects all disk
adaptation options for all compressors and turbines. Otherwise the response of your computer to
any action will be very slow because the disk optimization remains active.
If you are unable to get sufficient disk stress margins then use better materials, reduce rotational
speed or make any other suitable change to either the component geometry or to the cycle. Check
also if an unnecessarily high value for the Disk Bore / Inner Inlet Radius (on the General page)
prevents a successful disk design. Remember, however, if you choose a too low disk bore radius
then you will get problems with the LP spool diameter.

General Options
VI
166 GasTurb 11
6 General Options
6.1 Range Checking
All the input and output values - except the data needed for the scope More - are checked whether
they are in a reasonable range. Actually two ranges are considered: a narrow range (exceeding it
causes a warning message) and a wider range which - if exceeded - triggers an error message. If
an upper or a lower range border is declared as undefined then it will not be checked.
Default range borders are defined for each engine configuration in the respective NMS file. These
default ranges are rather wide because they must be applicable to any problem; narrow default
ranges would cause a high false alarm rate. It is a good idea to narrow down the ranges for
specific engine simulations because then much more input and output problems can be highlighted
by the range checking procedure. Select from the menu in the Design or the Off-Design Input
window Edit|Ranges for editing the four border values very low, low, high and very high.
If a value is outside the range given by the low and high range limits then this causes a warning
while an error is declared when the value is outside the range defined by the very low and very
high borders. Note that neither a warning nor an error message has any influence on the
calculation, correcting the value of the responsible input properties is left to the user.
For editing the range borders select a quantity by double-clicking it in the input or output tree view.
The present settings of the four range borders will appear in the edit fields. If these settings have
been read together with the data, then the box Save range limits is checked. Edit the range
borders according to your needs.The border values very low and low may be identical; the same is
true for the border values high and very high. To make a border ineffective, leave the edit field
blank.
You can store the edited range borders together with your data: Check the box Save range limits
before clicking Apply. If the box is not checked when the Apply button is clicked, then the edited
range borders will not be part of the data file when it is saved.
6.2 Composed Values

6.2.1 Definition
An introduction into composed values has been given in the Getting Started section. Here some
more complex options for defining composed values are explained.
All input and output quantities that are selectable for the definition of composed values are
presented in the notebook on the left side of the screen. Note that the Tables page is empty as
long as no Table is defined.
The first eight characters in the parameter lists of tables and functions are the short names that
are used in formulae. The availability of names depends on the position of the switches. If turbine

General Options 167
design is switched off, for example, then you cannot use velocity diagram data of the turbine in
composed values since they will not be calculated.
99 composed values can be defined employing the mathematical operations +, -, * , / and ^ for
exponential expressions. You can use parenthesis in your definitions, the natural logarithm ln(x)
and the absolute value abs(x) of any quantity as well as the trigonometric functions sin(x), cos(x),
tan(x), arcsin(x), arccos(x) and arctan(x). Furthermore you can use the operators < and > after an
expression, followed by a single number. If one of these operators is there, then the result of the
expression will be checked if it is lower respectively higher than the number following the < or >
symbol. This option can be handy with a formula that describes the amount of cooling air, see for
example the formula for cp_val4 which yields only positive results for Wcl.
Any composed value can be used as a maximum or minimum limiter during off-design simulations.
With this approach quite complex control schedules can be modeled while the standard control
schedule option of the program is limited to some basic schedule types. Use the generic input
parameters to make a composed value a function of this parameter. Input parameters can be
handy in combination with parametric studies and iteration targets.
The units employed when evaluating the formulae is independent from the units that are used for
the other data in- and output. Thus switching the system of units in general does not invalidate the
composed value definition.
It is a good idea to place the definition of the composed values that are employed as iteration
targets and also the user defined limiters at the top of the composed value definition list. This is not
a stringent requirement, however, it will speed up the calculation.
6.2.2 General Tables
What are General Tables for?
A general table describes numerically a function with two parameters. You can use such a table for
calculating additional output values and for modeling special correlations. For example, you can
define a table which contains reheat efficiency as a function of reheat pressure Ps64 and bypass
ratio BPR. The value read from this table would be used as an iteration target during off-design
calculations with the input value for Reheat Design Efficiency as iteration variable. If you use one
of the generic input parameters as parameter in the table then you can select between lines in the
table by setting the corresponding input parameter in a parametric study, for example. Last but not
least you can use the general table as limiter within the control system simulation.
You can employ up to five tables simultaneously which you can enter manually or read from a file.
How to define a General Table
Select in the composed value definition window Table... to go to the general table definition
window with the table editor. If the Input and Output tabs are not visible then click .

168 GasTurb 11
To define a new table, set the table number first and then drag from the tree view a property as
X-Value and optionally another property as Parameter. Furthermore you should enter a Table
Header which describes the value to be read from the table. Next go to the Numbers sheet and
enter your numbers for x-value and parameter into the grid. For checking your input click the
Graphic tab. Note that both the x-values and the parameter values must increase monotonically in
the table. While editing a table you can view a second table. This can be a copy of the original
table or any other table which you have loaded from file.
After having defined one or more general tables you can select these in the composed value
definition window by double clicking them. Note that you can not combine table reading with any
other operator. The general tables are also offered as maximum limiters in the schedule definition
window.
The units that are used for reading the table and for the result depend on the use of the table:
 If the general table is part of the composed values then the units from the composed value
definition window are employed.
 If the table originates from the schedule definition window then the units of the main input
window are used.
A general table can not be used simultaneously as a control schedule and as a composed value.
6.2.3 Pre-Defined Functions
There are many pre-defined functions selectable as composed values. Functions are selected by
double clicking them or by dragging them from the list to the composed value definition grid. Only
one function is allowed per line, the function name may be preceded by a user-defined name.
You can edit the function call directly in the formula grid or in the special function call grid that
opens when you double-click a line with a function call.
Most of the functions are calling the procedures that are used for the cycle calculation and in these
procedures the gas is modeled as a half-ideal gas. An exception is the Constant Gamma group
which contains formulae as found in many textbooks with constant isentropic exponents. With
these functions you are not able to reproduce the cycle results except you know a properly
averaged value for the isentropic exponent.
In the Mathematics group there are functions like if a>b then x else y which enable you to write
conditional expressions.
6.2.4 Input Parameter
For use with composed values or with general tables there are the nine generic input parameters
InPar1...InPar9 available. Use these parameters to make composed values a function of an input
quantity or to select from several correlations stored in a single general table. The advantage of
General Options 169
using an input parameter in the definition of a composed value is that you can modify the
composed value via the standard data input without redefining the formula.
Composed values may be used as targets in an user defined iteration. If a composed value
employs an input parameter you can perform a parametric study in which the target of the iteration
is a function of the input parameter.
Note that input parameters are only used with composed values and general tables and nowhere
else in the calculation. As long as no input parameters are employed with the composed value and
general table definitions they will not be offered as input quantities. If you need to use input
parameters then first define the composed values and second make your input for the input
parameters.
6.3 Iterations
6.3.1 Definition
With an iteration you can achieve that an output quantity has a single specified value as already
explained in the Getting Started section. Iterations can be performed not only while calculating a
single cycle design point, but also with parametric studies, optimization and the calculation of
small effects.
You can use composed values that employ General Tables and Input Parameters as iteration
targets. You can also request that an iteration variable is equal to the target variable which may be
a composed value. In such a case write as target value the = sign or the word equal in the target
value column.
The definitions of those composed values that are employed as iteration targets should be placed
at the top of the composed value definition list. This is not a stringent requirement, however, it will
speed up the calculation.
Whether the iteration converges, depends very much on the question being asked. If there is a
solution, the program will find it. So check your data if you do not achieve convergence. When you
encounter convergence problems then employ the Convergence Monitor and check especially the
ranges you have specified for the variables.
6.3.2 Design
Click to define an iteration system with up to 20 variable and target

values. Have a look at the following example which deals with a cycle design calculation for a
straight turbojet:
For each of the variables a reasonable range must be specified by setting min and max values. If
the range is too narrow, then by accident the solution is excluded and the iteration will fail to
converge. A very wide range causes also problems, since the cycle cannot be evaluated with

170 GasTurb 11
extreme combinations of pressure ratio and turbine inlet temperature. Moreover, a big range for
the iteration variables leads to an inaccurate result.
6.3.3 Off-Design
Any off-design calculation requires an iteration with several variables. The standard off-design
iteration setup, which is hard coded in the program, depends on the engine configuration and the
simulation problem (steady state, transient and with inlet distortion). For steady state simulations
you can view the variable names, the iteration targets and the estimated variable values in the
Off-Design Input window:
The example above is from a three spool turboshaft engine.
You can define additions to the standard iteration setup as the following example for a turbojet
shows:
Be careful when defining such additions to the standard iteration scheme: you can easily create an
unsolvable problem, and the iteration will fail to converge. In such a case the Convergence Monitor
may help detecting the cause of the problem.
6.4 Export of Data

6.4.1 Export to Excel
From several windows you can select to export your results to Excel. The first step required for
that is to initialize the export process which means that you have to select the data to be exported
to Excel.

General Options 171
To select a property for export double click it in the list or select it and then click . To remove a
property from the export list select it and click . Note that you can rearrange the properties that
you have selected for export with the up and down arrows.
When closing the export selection window Excel will show up if it is not already running. Now you
are ready to export your data which in some cases means that the calculation will be repeated.
From within GasTurb 11 you can specify the top left cell where the job headline or the first property
will be written to the Excel sheet. Be sure to save your spreadsheet before overwriting it with new
data.
Do not shut down Excel before you are done with your GasTurb 11 data export work.
Alternatively to exporting your data to Excel you can write them to a file in Excel format. Moreover,
you can export your data to an ASCII file.
6.4.2 User Defined File Content
You can direct the output of parametric studies and operating lines, for example, to a file which you
can later read with GasTurb or with other programs. A pure text file (ASCII file) will be created with
the short names as headline. First you have to select the quantities you want to write to file, select
Output|Define for that:
The Select from both the input and output quantities. You can save your output parameter
selection with the command File|Save Selection. Opening a file with File|Read Selection will
evaluate the file header and fill the export list box.

172 GasTurb 11
Besides defining the file content you have to specify a File Name. You need not specify an
extension for the name because it will be selected automatically. After closing the output selection
window you can work with the output file. Actually writing to file is triggered by selecting
Output|Write to File. After writing to the file you can select Output|View File which opens an
editor for working with the file and adding comments, for example.
Alternatively to writing to a text file you can export your data to Excel.
6.4.3 Maps
Customer decks derived from GasTurb 11 need as input a file with the compressor and turbine
maps which have been scaled in such a way that they fit to the cycle design point. You can write
this file after selecting File|Write|Component Maps in the Off-Design Input window.
6.5 Graphics
6.5.1 General
The figure shows the graphical output from a parametric cycle design point study with two
parameters. For selecting new plot parameters, do not close the window - because that leads you
to a new parametric study - click instead. If you vary only one quantity
in your parametric study then you can use in the figure up to four y-axes.
GasTurb 11 has selected in the example below the scales for the x- and y-axes automatically in
such a way that all the numbers are round and look nice. You can easily modify the scales after
clicking or Scale|Axes. In this way, you can produce a series of plots
with the same scale. Note that the program will accept your input for a different scale only if your
wish implies round numbers for the x and y-axis. The number of contour lines will be selected
automatically using the same algorithm as for the axes. You can modify the contour line
parameters in a special window.
You can also zoom in to the details of this graph using your mouse. Press the left button and hold
it down while moving the mouse. Enclose with the rubber rectangle the region you are interested in
and release the button to initiate repainting the figure. With a click on the right button of your
mouse you get a pop-up menu with the option Reset Scales which will zoom out to the standard
scaling again. If the range of values is very small, an appropriate number will be subtracted from
the values and noted separately at the axis. If, for example, all values are between 32000.3 and

General Options 173
32000.4 the scale will begin with 0.3 and end with 0.4. Near to the axis the string +32000 will be
written.
If a text box with explanations for symbols shows up in the graphic you can move it to a suitable
place: Left-click on the box and move it to a new place while holding the mouse button down, then
release the button.
Click or View|Reference to toggle between showing and hiding the

reference point. This is the little black square which is consistent with the single cycle point which
was calculated before commencing the parametric study. If this point is not consistent with your
parametric study - because you are using a different iteration setup during the parametric study, for
example - then you should hide it.
Move the parameter values around with clicks on or on

Labels|Rearrange. Try this to find the nicest graph: each click will reposition the numbers.
You can produce graphs with or without grid lines. From a figure with fine grid lines you can read
numbers without the help of a ruler. Reading numbers from a plot without these grid lines is a
cumbersome task because the spacing between grid lines on paper will not be even centimeters or
inches.
The menu option Style lets you switch between linear connections of the calculated points and the
use of splines. With linear connections you get polygons which might look ugly. However, they
create less problems than the nice looking spline connections when exporting the graphic to the
clipboard. Note also that the positioning of the contour lines is based on a linear interpolation
between the calculated points.
Further options in the graphical output window are Add Carpet, export data to Excel and the
Picture Catalog.

174 GasTurb 11
6.5.2 Several y-Axes
If your parametric study employs only one parameter then you will get the choice for using up to
four y-axes in one graphic. Which line belongs to which y-axis can be distinguished with the
symbols that are the same on the line and the axis as highlighted with the arrows in the figure
below.
Most of the options in this graph are the same as for a graph with only one y-axis. When changing
the scales of the axes the following window opens:
Here you can enter new numbers for the axes. Click the button with the hand pointing upwards if
you want for y-axes 2 to 4 the same scale as the first y-axis. Note that the program will accept your
input only if your wish implies round numbers.

General Options 175
6.5.3 Copy to Clipboard
Most of the graphics can be exported to the Windows clipboard and from there pasted into other
applications like a word processor or a presentation program. The graphics are exported as a
Windows metafile which is a collection of Windows GDI output functions. Because metafiles store
actual GDI output calls, they usually are much smaller than a bitmap; they can also be scaled to
almost any size without losing the details. GasTurb 11 stores the data in the enhanced metafile
format.
6.5.4 Contour Lines
Contour lines are lines in a carpet plot (a graph with 2 parameters) along which a property is
constant. Contour lines are, for example, the lines of constant efficiency in a compressor map.
When you have a graphic with contour lines and are not happy with the automatic selection of the
colors or the contour line values then click or select Scale|Contours to
change that. Enter new values for the lowest and highest contour value and change the step size
and then click to apply your choice. With the two color buttons you can affect the sequence of
colors.
6.5.5 Picture Catalog
Graphics that are a result of a parametric study can be stored in a picture catalog. From such a
catalog you can select pictures much quicker than by reselecting the parameters for the x- and
y-axes and the contour lines from the drop-down lists after clicking .

176 GasTurb 11
Since the scales of the axes are stored in the picture catalog it may happen that no data are visible
because all of the results are outside the pre-defined ranges. In such a case click
and select appropriate scales.

Mathematics
VII
178 GasTurb 11
7 Mathematics
7.1 Iteration Algorithms
7.1.1 General Iteration Technique
The calculation of each off-design point requires iteration. Several input variables for the
thermodynamic cycle must be estimated. The result of each pass through the cycle calculations is
a set of Iteration Errors which are inconsistencies in the aero-thermodynamics introduced through
the use of imperfect estimates for the variables. The number of errors equals the number of
variables.
The algorithm used to manipulate the variables in such a way that in the end all errors will be
insignificant is a Newton-Raphson iteration. With two variables Vj and two errors Ei this algorithm
works as follows:
First the variable V1 is changed by the small amount of V1. Both errors E1 and E2 will change, and
we will get the influence coefficients E1/V1 and E2/V1. Then V1 is reset to its original value and
the second variable V2 is changed by V2. Again both errors will change and we will get E1/V2
and E2/V2.
Let us assume for the moment that the influence coefficients Ei/Vj are constant. Then we can
immediately calculate how the variables Vj need to be changed to reduce the errors Ei to zero:
In practical applications to gas turbine performance problems, the influence coefficients are not
constant and these changes of the Vj will not directly lead to Ei=0 after this single correction. Have
a look at the numerical example in the next section for getting better acquainted with the
Newton-Raphson algorithm.
The algorithm can be applied to any number of variables. The matrix of influence coefficients is
called the Jacobi matrix. The system of linear equations is solved by means of the Gauss
algorithm.
GasTurb 11 shows the iteration variables and their estimated values on the Iteration page in the
Off-Design Input window. If the estimated values are too far away from the solution, the program
may have convergence problems. In this case you must make several intermediate steps from a
converged solution toward the desired off-design operating condition.
The single off-design point output contains the number of iteration loops used. If the iteration has
not converged, then the sum of the square of the iteration errors Error²=Ei² is also shown. The
last digit of Error² will be zero or one after full convergence. If the program fails to achieve full
convergence (Error²>10-8), it will show the point with the smallest Error² encountered during the
iteration process.
With the help of the convergence monitor you can observe how the iteration proceeds and possibly
see why an iteration fails to converge.
For transient simulations the implicit Euler integration method is used which means that for each
time step a Newton-Raphson iteration is performed. You can select the integration time step as
required.

Mathematics 179
7.1.2 Numerical Example
A numerical example involving two variables illustrates the Newton-Raphson iteration technique.
Let's look at the following linear relationships:
We are looking for the set of variables that reduces both errors E1 and E2 to zero. Let us guess
and set V1 =3 and V2 =7. By checking the equation we find that E1=40 and E 2=64. Now the
Newton-Raphson iteration is started. First the partial derivatives needed to create the Jacobi matrix
are calculated:
The changes needed to reduce both E1 and E 2 to zero can then be calculated as follows:
The solution to this system of linear equations is V1 = -2 and V2 = -10. The new values for the
iteration variables are then V1 = 3 - 2 = 1 and V2 = 7 - 10 = -3. If we insert these values into the
equations for E1 and E2 we will see that both E1 and E2 are zero as desired.
In the previous example the relation between the variables and the errors was linear. We now try
the following quadratic functions as an exercise:
We start with V1=11 and V2=3. After creating the Jacobi matrix and solving the linear equation the
improved estimates are V1 = 6.944 and V2 = -2.929. The exact solution is V1 = 7 and V2 = -3.
7.1.3 Convergence Problems
There are five typical reasons for convergence problems:

1. The estimated values for the iteration variables are very different to those of the solution
2. The lower or upper variable limits of a user defined iteration are too restrictive and exclude the
solution from the permissible variable range.
3. In off-design the solution is far outside one or several component maps.
4. One or more variables have no influence on any of the iteration errors.
5. No solution exists.
For examining convergence problems you should start with a converged point and go in small
steps into the problem area. Thus you get for each point estimated values of the iteration variables
that are near to the solution for the next step.
180 GasTurb 11
If an off-design iteration does not converge then check for the last converged solution to see if the
operating points are all within the component maps. Note that GasTurb 11 tolerates only a limited
amount of map extrapolation to avoid that unreasonable results are shown as valid solution. Check
also the lower and upper limits for user defined iteration variables.
If the iteration does not converge while all the operating points in the turbomachines are within their
maps then it is very probable that no solution exists provided that all iteration variables affect at
least one of the iteration errors.
A reason for convergence problems at low power ratings may be caused by specifying T4 instead
of relative spool speed. If you plot T4 over spool speed then there might be a minimum of T4 and at
very low power T4 increases with decreasing speed. If you specify T4 lower than the minimum T4
then the iteration can and will not converge.
You can deliberately create a convergence problem by steadily increasing the power offtake while
T4 is given: If you exceed a certain level of power offtake, then no steady state operation is
possible and the iteration will fail to converge. To create an example take the Turbojet
configuration, load the file Demo_jet.CYC and go to the Off-Design Input window. Click
and set the turbine reference point to Beta,ds=0.5 and
N/sqrt(T),ds=1.1. Close the map scaling window and switch to ZT4 given with specified T4=1450.
Set power offtake to 1150kW and run the case, you will get a converged solution and the operating
points in both maps are in healthy regions. Then increase power offtake a little bit to 1180 kW - no
converged solution exists for this high power offtake. With the specified turbine inlet temperature of
1450 K there is not enough energy available for steady state operation with 1180kW power offtake.
7.1.4 Convergence Monitor
If an iteration does not converge then this can have many reasons. The convergence monitor
helps to understand what happens during the iteration and shows how the iteration proceeds
step-by-step. Click or select View|Convergence Monitor to open the
monitor window and then start the calculation by clicking .
On the Variables page you see the names of the iteration variables in the second column and in
the third column the actual value of this variable. The fourth column shows the same value
graphically within the range from minimum to maximum. The fifth column contains an explanation
of the Iteration Error and in the last column the numeric value of the error is displayed.
The minimum respectively maximum values of the predefined off-design variables are set
automatically and cannot be modified by the user. The user-defined additions to the off-design
iteration system and all cycle design iterations have variable limits that are input quantities in the
Iteration definition window.

Mathematics 181
When a minimum or maximum limit is set too stringent then this prevents the iteration to converge.
In such a case the blue line in the Relative Value column will move to the right respectively left
column border. Resetting the relevant limit can resolve the problem.
On the second page of the convergence monitor the normalized Jacobi matrix is shown. If in a row
j all the values are zero, then the variable Vj has no influence on the value of any of the errors Ei.
Similarly, if in a column j there are only zeros, then the Iteration Error Ej is not affected by any of
the variables. In both cases the mathematical solution is undefined and the iteration will not
converge.
On the Settings Page you can modify some parameters that influence the iteration algorithm,
however, this is seldom required.
Maximum Number of Loops

After the maximum number of loops through the engine model the algorithm will stop and check if
the sum of errors squared is lower than the limit multiplied by the Tolerance Factor for Errors
Squared. If this condition is met then the solution will be accepted, otherwise the point is declared
as not converged.
Factor on Step Size for Jacobi Matrix

The Jacobian is generated using finite differences. The size of the differences (steps) influences
the quality of the Jacobian: too large steps introduce errors due to the non-linearities of the
problem and too small steps introduce numerical error. The step size which is automatically
selected by the program changes both its magnitude and its sign with each new Jacobian. You can
change the size of the steps by setting the Factor on Step Size to a value unequal to 1.0.
Limit for Sum of Errors Squared

As soon as the sum of errors squared is below the specified limit the iteration is declared as
converged.

182 GasTurb 11
Tolerance Factor for Errors Squared

See explanations for the topic Maximum Number of Loops.
Finally, on the Output Page you can make your choice about writing iteration diagnostics to a file
for detailed examination.
7.1.5 Iteration Setup Examples

7.1.5.1 Single Spool Turbojet
Let us go through an off-design calculation with a given rotational speed. We will find the variables
and the iteration errors mentioned in the previous section.
The calculation starts with the inlet. This provides the compressor inlet conditions. The compressor
map has to be read next. Although we know the aerodynamic speed N/2, this is not sufficient to
place the operating point in the map. An estimate for the auxiliary coordinate C is required. C is
our first variable.
From the compressor map we can read the mass flow, the pressure ratio and the efficiency and
then calculate the burner inlet conditions. The amount of fuel required for running the engine at the
specified rotational speed is still unknown. An estimate for the burner exit temperature T4 will yield
the fuel-air-ratio. T4 is the second variable.
The combustor exit mass flow W4 is derived from the compressor exit flow W3, the internal air
system (cooling air, bleed) and the fuel flow WF. The pressure loss in the burner depends on the
corrected burner inlet flow only. It's no problem to find the total pressure at the burner exit P4. We
can directly calculate the corrected flow W44/4 at the inlet to the turbine.
Selecting the turbine operating point is similar to selecting that of the compressor: we know the
corrected speed N/4, but not the value of the auxiliary map coordinate for reading the turbine
map. T is the third variable we have to estimate.
Reading the turbine map provides us with the corrected flow (W44/4)map and the efficiency.
Here the corrected flow is derived from a second source. The difference between both corrected
flows constitutes the first error of our iteration. We will ignore this error for the moment and go on.
The turbine exit conditions and the shaft power produced are calculated using the values read
from the map. The difference between the power required driving the compressor and the power
produced by the turbine (it is obvious that they must be equal to ensure steady state operation) is
the second error of the iteration.

Mathematics 183
The pressure loss (P5-P6)/P5 in the turbine exit duct depends only on the corrected flow. When
reheat is not switched on then P6 equals the nozzle total pressure P8. Furthermore W8 equals W6
and T8 equals T6. Thus the nozzle inlet conditions are fully fixed.
A certain total pressure P8,req is required to force the flow W8 with the total temperature T8 through
the given area A8, while the back pressure is equal to Pamb. As long as the iteration has not yet
converged there will be a difference between P8 and P8,req. This constitutes the third error of the
iteration.
We have found three variables and three errors. The Newton-Raphson iteration algorithm modifies
the variables in such a way that all the Iteration Errors equal zero.
The above explanation applies when the compressor rotational speed is specified. Alternatively the
burner exit temperature T4 can be specified. In this case the first variable will be the spool speed
instead of T4; the calculation procedure and the iteration errors will remain the same.
When limiters are active then an additional Iteration Error is generated, which is the deviation from
one of the specified limiting values. We now need an additional variable, we use both the
compressor rotational speed and the burner exit temperature T4 as estimated values. The
program calculates the deviations for all limiters. The limiter errors are formulated in such a way
that any value higher than the limiter setting results in a positive number. The selection of the
biggest error out of all limiter errors ensures that no value will exceed its limit after convergence.
The biggest error - which is nearly zero - defines the active limiter.
When reheat is selected the calculation described above will be done first - reheat fuel will not be
taken into account until the iteration converges. The program uses an equivalent dry nozzle area
during this part of the calculation. After convergence the reheat system (afterburner) is switched
on. The calculation restarts in station 6, and produces new nozzle inlet conditions. These new
conditions require a certain area A8 in order that the flow can pass through the nozzle. If you wish
to study the effect of different nozzle area settings on the reheated performance, you need to
modify the equivalent dry nozzle area by entering a value of, say, 5% for Delta Nozzle Area.
If you want to specify thrust for a reheated case then an ambiguity arises: Thrust is affected both
by the rating of the dry engine and the reheat exit temperature. The limiters affect the operation of
the turbomachines only and therefore employing thrust as a limiter will not change the reheat exit
temperature. With reheat switched on you should work with a user defined addition to the iteration
with ZT7 as iteration variable and FN as iteration target. In parallel you may have limiters switched
on which define the operating point of the turbomachines.
7.1.5.2 Two Spool Turboshaft, Turboprop
The setup of the off-design iteration for the two-spool turboshaft resembles that of the turbojet. Up
to the high-pressure turbine exit the procedure is the same. The first variable is the auxiliary
coordinate C which is used to read the compressor map. The second variable is either the
rotational speed NH of the compressor or the burner exit temperature T4. The third variable is the
auxiliary coordinate HPT needed to read the map of the high-pressure turbine.
The burner exit corrected flow will not be equal to the HPT corrected flow as long as the iteration
has not yet converged. The difference between both corrected flows constitutes the first error of
our iteration. The high-pressure turbine (HPT) exit conditions and the shaft power it produces are
calculated using the values read from the map. The difference between the power required for
driving the compressor and the power produced by the turbine (it is obvious that they must be
equal to ensure steady state operation) is the second error of the iteration.
We ignore this error for the moment and go on. The HPT exit conditions are derived from the
power required to drive the attached compressor and from HPT efficiency. It is no problem to find
the turbine inter-duct pressure loss. We can directly calculate the low-pressure turbine inlet
corrected flow.

184 GasTurb 11
For this type of engine, the low-pressure spool speed NL is an input quantity. Searching the
low-pressure turbine operating point is similar to searching that of the compressor: we know the
corrected speed NL/45 for reading the LPT map, but not the value of the auxiliary map
coordinate. LPT is the fourth variable which we have to estimate.
Reading the turbine map provides us with the corrected flow (W4545/45)map as well as the LPT
efficiency. Here the corrected flow is derived from a second source - the difference between both
corrected flows constitutes the third error of the iteration. We will ignore this error for the moment
and go on. The LP turbine exit conditions and the shaft power delivered are calculated by means
of the values read from the map.
The pressure loss (P5-P6)/P5 of the turbine exit duct depends only on the corrected flow. P6 is
equal to the total pressure at the exhaust, P8. Furthermore W8 equals W6 and T8 equals T6. The
exhaust nozzle inlet conditions are thus fully determined.
converged there will be a difference between P8 and P8,req. This constitutes the fourth error of the
iteration.
We have found four variables and four errors. The Newton-Raphson iteration algorithm modifies
the variables in such a way that all errors equal zero.
When limiters are used, then an additional error will exist which is the deviation from one of the
specified limiting values, therefore an additional variable is required. Without limiters either NHPC
or T4 can serve as a variable, but with limiters both NHPC and T4 are variables.
The program calculates the deviations for all activated limiters. The limiter errors are formulated in
such a way that a value higher than the limit results in a positive number. The selection of the
biggest limiter error ensures that after convergence no limiter will be exceeded. The biggest error -
which is nearly zero - defines the "active limiter".
7.1.5.3 Boosted Turboshaft, Turboprop
For this type of engine, the low-pressure spool speed NL is an input quantity. The booster map
auxiliary coordinate IPC must be estimated; it is the first variable of the iteration. The inlet
conditions and the data read from the map yield W2, T24 and P24.
After the compressor inter-duct, the mass flow is reduced by the handling bleed, and W25 equals
W24 - WHdlBld. Total temperature does not change, the duct pressure loss can be calculated
easily. The corrected mass flow in station 25 is now known.
Next the HP compressor map is read using NHPC (which is either specified or estimated) and HPC
yielding another value for the corrected flow: (W2525/25)map. The difference between those two
flows constitutes the first error of the iteration.
We find two turbine mass flow errors, the HPT work error and the nozzle inlet pressure error, as in
the case of the two-spool turboshaft. The iteration scheme consists of the variables and errors
listed in the table below if NHPC is a specified value. In the alternative procedure T4 is specified,
and NHPC is a variable for the iteration instead of T4. When limiters are used, the other variable is
also employed giving a total of six errors and six variables.

Mathematics 185
variable error
IPC HPC flow
NHPC HPT flow
HPC HPT work
HPT LPT flow
LPT P8 - P8 required
7.1.5.4 Unmixed Flow Turbofan
The iteration starts with estimated values for the first and second variable of the iteration, the
rotational speed of the low- pressure spool NL and for the auxiliary coordinate LPC. This allows us
to read the fan (LPC) map. The inlet conditions and the data read from the map yield T21, P21, T13
and P13. The total mass flow W2 is also derived from the map. We need to split this mass flow
between the core and the bypass streams and estimate the bypass ratio, which constitutes the
third variable of the turbofan iteration.
Core stream calculations will be done next. The compressor inter-duct pressure loss depends only
on W2121/21. After subtracting the handling bleed flow WHDBld, we can find the corrected flow
W2525/25 at the high pressure compressor (HPC) inlet.
Let us assume that the rotational speed of the high-pressure spool NH is a given value. To read
the HPC map we need an estimate for the auxiliary coordinate HPC, which constitutes our fourth
variable.
The pressure ratio P3/P25, efficiency HPC and the corrected flow (W2525/25)map can be read
from the map. The difference between this corrected flow and the one calculated before
constitutes the first error of the turbofan iteration. We will ignore this error and calculate the burner
inlet conditions by means of the values read from the HPC map. Burner exit temperature T4 is an
estimated value, the fifth variable of the iteration.
Searching the HP turbine operating point is similar to searching that of the compressor: we know
the corrected speed NH/4, but not the value of the auxiliary map coordinate for reading the
high-pressure turbine map. HPT is the sixth variable we have to estimate.
The burner exit corrected flow will not be equal to the HPT corrected flow as long as the iteration
has not yet converged. The difference between both corrected flows constitutes the second error
of our iteration. The high-pressure turbine (HPT) exit conditions and the shaft power produced are
calculated using the values read from the map. The difference between the power required driving
the high-pressure compressor and the power produced by the HPT (it is obvious that they must be
equal to ensure steady state operation) is the third error of the iteration.
We will ignore this error for the moment and go on. The HPT exit conditions are derived from the
power required to drive the high pressure compressor and from HPT efficiency. It presents no
problem to find the turbine inter-duct pressure loss. We can directly calculate the low-pressure
turbine inlet corrected flow W4545/45.
Searching the low pressure turbine operating point is equivalent to searching the HPT operating
point: we know the corrected speed NH/45, but not the value of the auxiliary map coordinate for
reading the high-pressure turbine map. LPT is the seventh variable we have to estimate.
Reading the turbine map provides us with the corrected flow (W4545/45)map and the LPT
efficiency. Here the corrected flow is derived from a second source. The difference between these
corrected flows constitutes the fourth error of the iteration.

186 GasTurb 11
As usual we will ignore this error for the moment and proceed. The turbine exit conditions and the
shaft power delivered are calculated using the values read from the map. The difference between
the power required to drive the low- pressure compressor (fan) and the power delivered by the LPT
(it is obvious that they must be equal to ensure steady state operation!) yields the fifth error of the
iteration.
The pressure loss (P5-P6)/P5 of the turbine exit duct depends only on the corrected flow W55/5.
P6 is equal to the total pressure P8 in the core nozzle. Furthermore, W8 is equal to W6 and T8 is
equal to T6. The core nozzle inlet conditions are thus fully fixed.
converged there will be a difference between P8 and P8,req. This constitutes the sixth error of the
iteration.
We now go on with the bypass stream. Its pressure loss depends only on the bypass inlet
corrected flow. P18, T18 and W18 define secondary nozzle inlet conditions. Analogously to the core
nozzle procedure we can calculate the pressure P18,req which is required to force the flow through
the given area A18. P18 will not be equal to P18,req during the iteration. This constitutes the seventh
error.
We have found seven variables and seven errors. The Newton-Raphson iteration algorithm
manipulates the variables in such a way that in the end all errors equal zero.
7.1.5.5 Mixed Flow Turbofan
The iteration for a mixed turbofan is very similar to that for an unmixed turbofan, as described in
the previous section. It leads to the same variables, and all the errors are the same except one.
We obviously have to replace the error derived from flow continuity in the secondary nozzle.
The seventh error for the mixed turbofan is the difference between the static pressures Ps63 and P
s163 in the mixing plane.
7.1.5.6 Geared Turbofan
The iteration for the geared turbofan is also very similar to that described for the unmixed turbofan.
The difference is in the additional intermediate pressure compressor (IPC). Its rotational speed is
easily derived from NL, since it is connected to the fan mechanically. We must, however, make an
estimate for the auxiliary coordinate IPC in addition to the seven variables of the unmixed
turbofan.
There is also an additional error: The corrected flow W2121/21 downstream of the low pressure
compressor (fan) will not be the same as the value read from the IPC map (W2121/21)map.
There will be eight variables and eight errors for the geared turbofan, if we have not switched on
some limiters. With limiters there will be nine errors and nine variables. For the Newton-Raphson
iteration this does not present a problem.
A transient calculation uses as iteration variables fuel flow, acceleration rates for the rotors, and
the auxiliary coordinates in the component maps. In the table below all the variables and the
corresponding errors employed during the simulation of transients are listed.

Mathematics 187
variable error
NL/t IPC flow error
NH/t HPC flow error
Wf Wf – Wf,Control System
BPR HPT flow error
HPT HPT work error
LPC LPT flow error
IPC LPT work error
HPC P8 - P8 required
LPT P18 - P18 required
7.1.5.7 Variable Cycle Engine
The variable cycle engine is a special case because the required iteration setup varies with the
switch position of the VABI's (Variable Bypass Injectors). While all VABI's are open the variables
and errors are
variable error
NL HPT flow
ßLPC HPT work
BPR2 P8 - P8 required
BPR15 LPT flow
IPC Main mixer error (station 64)
NH Core driven fan stage flow
HPC HPC flow
HPT LPT work
LPT Bypass mixer error (station 15)
Thus there are nine variables and nine errors while all VABI's are open. When either the first or the
second VABI is closed then the two bypass ratios are the same and there is no bypass mixer error.
The iteration employs in this case only eight variables and errors.

188 GasTurb 11
7.2 Monte Carlo Simulations

7.2.1 Overview
The Monte Carlo method has its name from the casino in Monte Carlo where many statistical
experiments are made by the gamblers. The physical experiment with the ball in the gambling
room is replaced in a Monte Carlo simulation by running a computer model with randomly
distributed input data. The simulation yields output properties that are again randomly distributed.
The distributions of the output properties can be analyzed for their mean values, standard
deviations, confidence levels etc.
The Monte Carlo simulation method implemented in GasTurb 11 calculates many cycles in which
some selected cycle input parameters are randomly distributed. Normal distributions with specified
standard deviation or asymmetric distributions will be created for the selected input parameters.
The results are presented graphically as bar charts together with points that indicate the shape of a
corresponding Gaussian distribution.
7.2.2 Statistical Background
Probability Distribution and Confidence Level
Everybody knows the probability density plot for a so-called standard distribution which looks like a
bell. The more general case is a non-symmetrical probability distribution with the density p(x) as
shown in the figure. The probability P(x), that the performance level is less than x, is given by the
colored area.
If the random event is the achievement of a component efficiency level 0, for example, then the
probability of missing this efficiency level P(0) is connected with the probability density p() by
Instead of the probability often also the confidence level C is used in discussions. The confidence
level is equal to 1-P(x) and expresses the probability that a certain performance level is achieved.
In the example of the figure above the confidence level of achieving the minimum performance
would be 1 (respectively 100%) and the confidence level of achieving the maximum performance
would be zero. Note that because the example distribution is not symmetrical the confidence level
of achieving the most probable level is less than 50%.

Mathematics 189
About Root-Sum-Squared
If n random variables are independent from each other and each of these variables follows a
Gaussian distribution with the mean value Vm,i and the standard deviation i then any random
variable which is a linear combination of the n random variables will also follow a Gaussian
distribution. The mean value x of this Gaussian distribution can be calculated as
For the standard deviation  holds
The preconditions for the use of the "Root-Sum-Square" method are

 The random variables are independent from each other
 Each of them follows a Gaussian distribution
 Their effects on the quantity of interest can be linearly combined
When one or more of these conditions are not fulfilled then the "Root-Sum-Squared" method must
not be applied.
Monte Carlo Method
The computer model employed with the Monte Carlo simulation yields the connections between
input and output. The random variables may or may not be independent from each other as
required for the application of the Root-Sum-Squared method. Moreover, the correlations between
the variables involved need not to be linear. So the Monte Carlo method has much less restrictions
for its use than the Root-Sum-Squared method and it can be applied to very complex problems.
7.2.3 Symmetrical Distributions
If you select a normal (Gauss) distribution for your Monte Carlo simulation then you enter the
standard deviation s for selected properties. The program will generate normal distributed random
numbers with the specified standard deviation. Values outside of the range of mean value +/-2*
are not considered. With a normal distribution (Gaussian distribution) 68% of all data will be in the
range of +/-  and 95% in the range of +/- 2 

190 GasTurb 11
The random distributions for all input data are independent of each other in a cycle design Monte
Carlo study. In an off-design study, however, there are a few properties that are connected with
each other.
7.2.4 Asymmetric (Trapezoid) Distribution
If you select an asymmetric (trapezoid) distribution for your Monte Carlo simulation then you must
enter the minimum and the maximum value for selected properties. The standard deviation input is
in this case of no relevance. The minimum value must be lower than the nominal value and the
maximum value must be higher than the nominal value. If the distances Xnom - Xmin and Xmax - X
nom are different then the distribution will be asymmetric as indicated by the graphic in the input
window.
Switch between normal and trapezoid distributions by selecting from the menu Distribution or
click the corresponding button. The distribution type selected is marked in the forth column of the
table by G respectively T.
The random distributions for all input data are independent of each other in a cycle design Monte
Carlo study. In an off-design study there are a few properties that are connected with each other.
7.3 Optimization Strategies

What is "optimization" in a mathematical sense? It requires a mathematical model of reality. A
complex engine model, for example, provides many outputs such as thrust, fuel consumption,
weight, noise, manufacturing cost etc., for any meaningful combination of input variables.
One quantity is selected as a figure of merit: The mathematical model is then driven to an extreme
value of the figure of merit by the optimization algorithm. You can, for example, ask for the engine
with the lowest weight.
The figure of merit alone does not fully describe the problem. Normally there are constraints for
both the variables and the results. For an engine of a subsonic transport aircraft the optimization
task could be: Minimize specific fuel consumption (figure of merit = SFC) with the following
variables:
min max
Bypass ratio 6 BPR 12

Mathematics 191
Outer fan pressure ratio 1.5 P13/P2 1.8
IPC pressure ratio 1.5 P24/P2 6
HPC pressure ratio 6 P3/P25 12
Burner exit temperature 1400K T4 1800K
Additionally there might be constraints, for example:
min max
HPC exit temperature T3 840K
HPT exit temperature T45 1250K
Thrust 30 kN FN
HPT pressure ratio P4/P45 3.2
It is not obvious how the variables affect the constraints. In many cases the relation between
optimization variables and the constraints is very complex. It is impossible to see instantly whether
a specific set of variables fulfils the constraints. There are only a few rules for setting up a
mathematical model. The figure of merit and the values for the constraints must depend on the
optimization variables directly. If a certain combination of variables results in an invalid figure of
merit, the model must reply with an error message. Then it must give the control back to the
optimization algorithm again.
Let us be more general now: The mathematical model of the engine is a function which provides
exactly one value for the figure of merit Z and several values Cj for the constraints, for a set of
optimization variables Vi.
We are looking for an algorithm to find the optimum set of variables. This set must have the
highest figure of merit possible without violating any constraint. A minimization task can, by the
way, be easily converted into a maximization task by multiplying the figure of merit by -1.
GasTurb 11 offers two optimization algorithms: a gradient strategy and a random search
algorithm.
7.3.1 Gradient Search
There is a good example for an optimization task: A mountaineer shall climb the highest peak in a
certain region. He has no map and the weather is foggy. His only tool is an altimeter. What is he
going to do? He will certainly check his surroundings first and then go in the direction of the
steepest ascent. In the end he will come to the top of a mountain. This is a place where each step
leads downwards.
The steepest ascent may, however, lead toward a border (which is either the lower or upper limit of
a design variable) of the region. Then our mountaineer will walk along the border until he reaches
the place where each step leads downwards or out of the allowed region.
Is that the end of the story? Not necessarily. There might be several summits within the region.
Our mountaineer may have found the highest peak by chance, but he cannot be sure of that. He
has to check other parts of the region. In mathematical terms there might be local optima besides
the global optimum.
Up to now we have not spoken of constraints. They are like fences, a part of the region is off limits
192 GasTurb 11
for our mountaineer. His task is made more difficult because on his way to the summit he may
have to walk downwards for a while to avoid a forbidden region. The fences (the constraints) often
exclude the summit (where each step leads downwards) as an acceptable solution. They create
local optima that would not exist without fences. Constraints make the task of optimization difficult.
Let us turn to the mathematical algorithm now. The mountaineer who first makes test steps in
several directions uses the gradient strategy as a search method. With the test steps he is looking
for the partial derivatives Z/Vi. For each optimization variable he must do one test step before he
can start his way in the "right" direction.
After the first step uphill the local gradients will be different. The test steps could now be repeated
to find the new direction. Test steps take time, however, and it is therefore better to go on in the
same direction as long as the altitude increases. Reaching a fence (violating a constraint) could be
another reason for stopping the climb. Only then will new gradients be sought. The new direction
will eventually take you along a fence.
The gradient search strategy which is implemented in the program is derived from Reference [18].
The principle is the following: we begin at the point marked Start 1 in the figure with looking for the
direction of the steepest gradient (Direction 1). Following this direction we walk to the highest point.
Then we change direction by 90° (orthogonal). We can do this without evaluating the local
gradient. Then once again we look for the highest point. To define the third direction we use the
knowledge of the first two directions. We connect the point Start 1 with the optimum point found
along Direction 2. We follow this direction as long as altitude increases.
This procedure can be reapplied until the search steps or the changes in the figure of merit
become very small. In the example above the optimum is found along search direction 7.
Up until now we have only dealt with optimization without constraints. In the figure there is a
colored zone which suggests a forbidden region. If we use the strategy just described the search
for the optimum will end at point A along Direction 2. We cannot find the global optimum if we
begin at Start 1. If we begin at Start 2, however, we will reach the top of the hill very quickly.
Do not underestimate the danger of finding only a local optimum, particularly in cases involving
several constraints. Repeat the optimization run from several starting points - the program offers
the option Restart for this purpose. While doing a restart the program uses random numbers as
the optimization variables and checks, which is the worst combination. However, the constraints

Mathematics 193
must be fulfilled during the search for a new starting point. If you have found the same optimal
solution from several starting points, you can be quite sure that you have found the global
optimum.
7.3.2 Random Search
The adaptive random search strategy offered by GasTurb 11 is based on Reference [19]. In an
adaptive random search - which has some similarity with a genetic algorithm - random numbers
concentrated around the best solution found previously are used as the optimization variables. The
algorithm is
with
Vi new value of optimization variable
Vi* value of Vi producing the best figure of merit
Ri search region for variable Vi
kR range reduction coefficient (positive integer)
kv distribution coefficient (positive odd integer)
 random number between zero and one
To start an adaptive random search you should have a variable combination that fulfils all of the
constraints. At the start of the search kR is 10 and kv is 1. In one search run the program tries {40
times the number of optimization variables} random engine cycles. When all cycles have been
calculated, then kR will be duplicated and kv will be increased by 2. The search region will get
smaller. Another {40 times the number of Optimization Variables} cycles will be calculated, and
then kR will be duplicated again and kv will be further increased by 2. This procedure will be
repeated until all cycles for kR=80 have been tried. Cycles that do not fulfil the constraints will be
ignored.
Each time the adaptive random search stops you can also switch over to the gradient search
strategy. Along with the Restart option this constitutes a very flexible tool for mathematical
optimization.
It is obvious, that a very wide range for the variables at the begin of the optimization will yield only
an inaccurate result. On the other side, a too small range for the variables can exclude the true
optimum unintentionally.
The adaptive random search is combined with automatic restarts in the Endless Random Search.
When an optimum solution has been found, then a random search moving away from the present
optimum (a restart) is initiated automatically. This will create a new starting point for the
optimization, and a new search will begin. Some of the searches may end in local optima, but
some will find the global optimum in the search region.
If you have many optimization variables and several constraints in an optimization problem running
on a slow computer, the endless random search is the best choice. You can do other jobs and
leave the computer alone. Come back later, press the Stop-button and you will see the best
solution the computer has found during the last hour, for example. You should check this cycle
thoroughly and look at the effects of small deviations from the optimum variable combination.
Select Sensitivity for that purpose.

How to ...
VIII
196 GasTurb 11
8 How to ...
8.1 ... Adjust the Cycle Design Point
The situation is that you have got data from an engine and you want to model that engine with
GasTurb 11.
Select from the data you have got a point which will serve as cycle reference point. Ideally this
point is the design point of the engine, however, any high power operating point may be chosen.
The thus selected test data point is calculated with GasTurb 11 as a single point in Cycle Design
mode.
For many of the engine configurations there is a Test Analysis option in cycle design mode.
Whenever you have all the input data needed for this option then you should use it because that
makes the adjustments of the GasTurb 11 input data very easy. With the Test Analysis option all
temperatures and pressures on the compressor side are given and these define implicitly
efficiency and pressure ratio for each of the compressors. On the turbine side the pressures are
also input to the program. The only unknowns are the air system properties, the mechanical
efficiencies and power offtake.
Adjust the air system properties in such a way that the calculated temperatures in the hot section
of the engine line up with the given values. This can be done by trial and error combined with
parametric studies and iterations. You can also employ optimization in which the air system
properties are the optimization variables and the figure of merit is the sum of all (Tcalculated -Tgiven)²
from the hot section of the engine. Use composed values for the calculation of the figure of merit.
If you are simulating an engine with a single nozzle then the exhaust temperature can be checked
easily: Consider the engine as a black box which has two incoming energy streams: the intake air
flow and the fuel flow. If no secondary air leaks from the black box and no power offtake exists
then the energy of the exhaust gases (their total temperature) follows from the law of conservation
of energy. If the exhaust temperature calculated by GasTurb 11 does not line up with the
temperature given, then there must be some energy leak like an overboard bleed or power offtake.
When you have found the best match to the given data, then check the box Overwrite P/P, Eff and
T4 input and run the calculation once more. This will modify your compressor pressure ratio, T4
and efficiency input data in such a way, that you get with the Test Analysis switch in off position the
same result for the cycle design point as with the on position.
8.2 ... Adjust the Off-Design Model

At the cycle reference point the match between the given data and the GasTurb 11 results is as
good as you have adapted the data in cycle design mode. Other data points will deviate more or
less from the simulated operating line. Prepare the known data in the same units as used in
GasTurb for reading them from file. Then you can show them together with the GasTurb 11 results
as comparative data.
The part load characteristics in terms of specific fuel consumption depends mainly on the
component maps, especially those of the compressors. The compressor maps yield two
correlations:
1. Corrected Mass Flow - Efficiency
2. Corrected Mass Flow - Corrected Speed
In the final model both correlations must be in line with those of the given data. It is recommended
to deal with both correlations separately and to begin with the first correlation.
Corrected Mass Flow - Efficiency Correlation
Plot and compare your compressor efficiency data in the first step at given compressor inlet
corrected flow. If you do not have any component efficiency information then plot specific fuel

How to ... 197
consumption over shaft power respectively thrust. Do not use spool speeds in any of the plots
while you are working on the first correlation.
For getting the efficiency characteristics and the specific fuel consumption right you must work on
the correlation between the cycle design point and the component maps. With other words: you
must find the place of the cycle design point in the component map(s) which yields the best part
load characteristics. This is explained in the section How to set the Design Points in the
component maps.
Optimize the match between the given corrected flow and efficiency data and the GasTurb 11
results. The specific fuel consumption plotted over shaft power respectively thrust will be as good
in line with the given data as the component loss assumptions are. Check also the hot end
temperatures in plots over shaft power respectively thrust.
If shifting the cycle design point around in the map does not yield sufficient agreement between the
data and the simulation then you can use a different map or even modify the efficiency distribution
in the map within GasTurb 11.
Corrected Mass Flow - Corrected Speed Correlation
When you are happy with all the comparative plots you have checked until now, then you can go
for the second model adjustment step: getting the spool speeds right. This can be achieved with
only small secondary effects on the already adjusted correlations by re-labeling the speed lines in
the compressor maps.
For the adjustment of the Flow-Speed correlation select the component from the menu option Edit
in the operating line window.
After adjusting the Flow - Speed and Flow - Efficiency correlations you should store the modified
map to file. Otherwise you will loose your results when closing the program. Besides storing the
modified map itself you should also save your other data as an Engine Model file because only
such a file will contain the reference to the new map.
8.3 ... Modify the Efficiency Distribution in a Compressor Map

The specific fuel consumption and the thermal efficiency at part load depend very much on the
efficiency read from the compressor maps. While trying to match with the simulation a set of given
data it might be necessary to modify the efficiency in the map; You can do that without leaving
GasTurb 11.
In the operating line input window select Edit for the map of interest. In the window that opens
there is a list with the original peak efficiency numbers in the map. The numbers in the third
column can be edited individually or changed all together by moving the slider on the right side of
the figure. The graphic shows the peak efficiency for each speed as well as the efficiency read
from the map for beta=0.5. This covers the map region where the operating line is positioned in
most cases.
While moving the slider the data at the cycle design point must remain unchanged (because
otherwise the correlation of the cycle design point with the map would be affected) and therefore
you can not modify efficiency at speed = 1.0, neither by editing the table nor by playing with the
slider.
It is recommended not to simultaneously modify the efficiency and to re-label the speed lines in
one go, in a first step the efficiency values should be adapted only. When closing the window then
all the efficiency in the map are factored by the peak efficiency ratio newold=f(Speed). Do not
forget to store the modified map (menu option File|Save Scaled Map in the operating line window)
before leaving the off-design mode.

198 GasTurb 11
Finally you should check the modified map with the program Smooth C which offers many graphics
that show if a map makes sense from a physics point of view.
8.4 ... Re-Label the Speed Lines in a Compressor Map

Re-labeling the speed lines in a compressor map is equivalent to using a different variable
geometry schedule. For the adjustment of the Flow-Speed correlation of a map select the
compressor from the menu option Edit in the operating line window. Make sure that you have
loaded comparative data for the corrected flow and relative corrected speed - if available - before
selecting the Edit command because that allows quickly matching the flow-speed correlation to
given data. It is possible to re-label the speed lines also if you do not have comparative data,
however, doing that is like flying in the dark without instruments.
In the table on the left side you see the original speed values of the map. You can re-label the
speed lines by editing the numbers in the second column of the table or by using the slider below
the figure. All changes will be shown immediately in the figure.
After adjusting the flow-speed correlation you should store the modified map to file (operating line
window, menu option File|Save Scaled Map). Otherwise you will loose your results when closing
the program. Besides storing the modified map itself you should also save your other data as an
Engine Model file because only such a file will contain the reference to the new map.

How to ... 199
Usually, re-labeling the speed lines of a compressor map has nearly no effect on the operating line
and the surge margin. With high bypass engines, if two separate maps are used for the core and
the bypass stream, re-labeling the speed lines in the booster map can cause a significant shift of
the booster operating line and affect the booster surge margin.
8.5 ... Set the Design Points in the Component Maps

Let us assume that a turbofan for a passenger transport aircraft application is to be simulated.
Some data for the Max Climb rating at 35000ft, Mach 0.8 are known and some more data for the
sea level Take Off condition.
The altitude case is selected as a cycle design point and a reasonable match of the GasTurb 11
results and the known data is achieved in a first step.
If you want to employ a scaled component map then you must select a scaling point in the not yet
scaled map which will after scaling of the map be in line with the cycle design point. The position of
the scaling point in the map is described by the two coordinates Map Speed, Design Point and
Map Beta, Design Point. You can modify these two coordinates in the map scaling window which
opens when you select Maps|Special in the Off-Design Input window.
The setting of the map scaling point (i.e. the cycle design point position in the map) influences the
simulation results for off-design conditions (but not those from the cycle design point). Imagine you
have set the cycle design point in the map at high corrected speed in a region where with
increasing speed the efficiency decreases rapidly. In such a case the efficiency will change
significantly with the corrected speed of the respective component during off-design simulations.
However, if you set the cycle design point to a lower map speed in the region of with optimum
efficiency then the efficiency will change only marginally with corrected speed.
You can perform a parametric study which shows the impact of moving the map scaling point on
the simulation results at one selected off-design point with the following procedure:

200 GasTurb 11
 Do a cycle design point calculation and then go for the Off-Design Input window.
 Stay with the Standard Maps or select Maps|Special and load the maps of your choice.
 Go back to the Off-Design Input window.
 Do not modify any of the input data (except composed value definitions), select Task|Mission
and click
 Define a mission which consists of a single point and adjust the input data in such a way that you
get the off-design condition you are interested in.
 Perform the single point mission calculation and check the results.
 Close both the mission result window and the mission input window.
 Select in the Off-Design Input window Task|Parametric Study... and then click the Ok button.
In the parameter selection window you will find at the end of the parameter list the coordinates Map
Speed @ Design Point and Map Beta @ Design Point of all the relevant maps. Select one or two
of them as parameters and do the simulation: the graphical output will offer the data from the
off-design point which you have defined as the single point mission.
8.6 ... Model a Derivative Engine

The most expensive part of an engine is the gas generator or core, which consists of the
high-pressure compressor HPC, the burner and the high-pressure turbine HPT. Engine companies
therefore strive to use the same core for several applications. All engines with a common core
constitute an engine family.
The third option for the mass flow input in the Two Spool Unmixed Flow Turbofan configuration,
for example, allows you to use an HPC map during design calculations. You specify with this
option the map coordinates HPC and N/sqrt(T)Map of the HPC operating point, and reading the
map will yield mass flow, efficiency and pressure ratio of the HPC. The flow capacities of the
turbines will be calculated in such a way, that this operating point is achieved.
Before you can start the cycle calculation for this option you must load an HPC map and adapt it to
a reference cycle. Select Components|HPC Map... from the menu or click
and read a map.

How to ... 201
The map is shown on the right, and on the left you mark what the mass flow units in your map are.
Now you must decide if you want to use the map unscaled or scaled. In the unscaled map you can
position the operating point by setting the Auxiliary Coordinate Beta and rel NH/sqrt(T25/Tstd). The
corresponding values for mass flow, efficiency and pressure ratio are shown in the box on the
lower left side. Note that you can use a map unscaled only if you have read a map with map
reference speed information.
If you choose to scale the map, then you must input both the map coordinates and true values for
mass flow, efficiency and pressure ratio. The resulting map scaling factors are shown on the lower
left side:
After the map has been scaled, the values for HPC mass flow, pressure ratio and efficiency will be
read from the map as long as option 3 from the Mass Flow Input page remains selected. For
example with setting N/sqrt(T)Map=1.1 you will see that core mass flow and pressure ratio will
increase and HPC efficiency will decrease as described by a 10% increase in HPC corrected
speed.

202 GasTurb 11
8.7 ... Achieve Thrust Rating

Commercial turbofan engines are usually designed in such a way that they can provide a certain
thrust at hot day temperature, typically ISA+15K. If the ambient temperature is lower, the engine
can theoretically deliver more thrust. The thermodynamic thrust of an engine is the thrust
developed at ISA inlet conditions with the burner exit temperature of a hot day. Since the aircraft
does not need this much thrust, the engine is normally flat rated. This means that the thrust
delivered is limited to the level that the engine produces on a hot day. The curve {thrust versus
ambient temperature} is flat for temperatures below ISA+15K. Consequently, the engine will run
colder on all days with a temperature less than 30°C. At higher ambient temperatures thrust
decreases sharply because the burner exit temperature remains constant.
Flat Rating
Since thrust cannot be measured while the engine is installed on the aircraft, how is Flat Rating
achieved? There are two alternatives: either NL/T2 or the engine pressure ratio (EPR) P5/P2 can
be kept constant while Tamb decreases below ISA+15K. Try both alternatives with any of the
turbofan configurations! Select the corrected fan speed as the limiter and enter the value NL/2
which you have calculated for Tamb=ISA+15K. Run the cycle at lower ambient temperature, and
then observe the thrust; it will be nearly constant.
You cannot enter a limit for the engine pressure ratio directly. First you must define a composed
value as P5/P2 and switch on this newly defined limiter. You will see that also in this case the thrust
will be nearly independent of the ambient temperature.
You can also study the problem the other way around. Run the engine with constant net thrust and
check which cycle quantities are independent of the ambient temperature for this condition.
Engines with FADEC (Full Authority Digital Engine Control) do not require that you use constant
values for the rating parameters. A microcomputer can handle very complicated rating schedules.
It is quite normal for the rating parameter to be a complex function of the flight Mach number, the
altitude and the deviation from the ISA temperature.
Another feature of rating an engine to NL/T2 or EPR is that deterioration of the component
efficiencies caused by dirt, erosion and increased tip clearances will not cause a thrust loss. Fuel
flow will automatically increase and thus cover the additional losses. To look at this, you can enter
component deficiencies as negative efficiency modifiers in your off-design calculations.
GasTurb 11 allows you to use not only constant values for the limiters but also schedules. The
Off-Design Input window has a menu option Schedules... for this purpose. For example, you can
specify turbine exit temperature T5 as a function of compressor inlet temperature T2, and so
achieve a special thrust characteristic over the flight envelope.

How to ... 203
8.8 ... Compare Data with GasTurb Results

If you have got data from another cycle program, from measurements or from literature you are
certainly interested how these data compare to simulation results from GasTurb 11. Such a
comparison is done in two steps:
First you calculate one of the given data points in Cycle Design mode to get your cycle reference
point. When you have found a reasonable match between your data and the GasTurb 11 results at
this point then you can go for adapting the model for off-design.
8.9 ... Calculate Off-Design Performance for Specified Thrust or Fuel

Flow
If you want to run the engine to a specified thrust or fuel flow level then switch on the thrust or the
fuel flow limiter. For turboshaft engines specify the shaft power delivered instead of thrust.
You can switch on simultaneously several limiters or have control schedules active. If you do that
then you can answer problems like:
Operate the engine in such a way that it delivers 30kN thrust provided that the high-pressure spool
speed is not higher than 102%.
Note that during reheat (afterburner) operation of a jet engine an ambiguity arises: Thrust is
affected both by the rating of the dry engine and the reheat exit temperature. The limiters affect the
operation of the turbomachines only and therefore employing thrust as a limiter will adapt the mass
flow, but not the reheat exit temperature.
With reheat switched on you should work with a user defined addition to the iteration with ZT7 as
iteration variable and net thrust FN as iteration target. In parallel you may have limiters switched on
which define the operating point of the turbomachines.
8.10 ... Modify Reynolds Number Corrections

Reynolds number correction information is stored with the compressor and turbine maps. On the
second line of a map file the Reynolds number correction factors of efficiency are given in the
following form:
Reynolds: RNI = x1 f = y1 RNI = x2 f = y2
As a default the Reynolds correction for corrected flow is set to half of the efficiency correction. For
example, when efficiency is corrected using the factor 0.96, mass flow will be corrected with the
factor 0.98. If you want to modify these numbers, then you must adapt the second line in the
compressor respectively turbine map file.
Note that you can modify the Reynolds number correction data after selecting in the Off-Design
Input window Maps|Special or clicking

204 GasTurb 11
Modifications you make here can be stored in an engine model file (an option in the Off-Design
Input window) and in a map scaling file (an option in the map scaling window). When you read an
engine model file then the Reynolds correction data from the engine model file will override the
Reynolds correction data read from the component map file.
8.11 ... Increase Surge Margin

During an off-design calculation you may detect, that the surge margin in one of the compressors
is not sufficient. You can cure this problem by setting the design point in the map to a lower
ß-value before commencing the off-design simulation. Alternatively, you can use variable geometry
in your engine. Opening the nozzle of a mixed flow turbofan will increase fan surge margin, for
example. Note however, that this will not help if you have got a surge problem with the
high-pressure compressor of your turbofan.
Another option is employing a handling bleed to lower the operating line of a compressor. You can
define an automatic schedule for this bleed. Using variable turbine geometry is mostly not a
practical thing to do, but can also help to alleviate compressor surge problems.
8.12 ... Use a Booster Map with an Unmixed Turbofan

Instead of the Two Spool Unmixed Flow Turbofan configuration select the Geared Unmixed Flow
Turbofan configuration, set the inner fan pressure ratio to 1.0 and use as gear ratio also 1.0. Enter
the booster pressure ratio and the booster efficiency such that they include the fan hub pressure
rise.

How to ... 205
8.13 ... Select the Optimum Fan Pressure Ratio for Turbofan Engines
Some engines for subsonic transports have a mixer while others do not. There is a lot to be said
for both versions. With GasTurb 11 you can study the consequences of mixing the core and the
bypass streams. There are different criteria to be used for selecting the optimum fan pressure
ratio.
Unmixed flow turbofan
Let us start with the unmixed engine. We want to design a low-pressure system for a given core
engine. Which is the best combination of bypass ratio and fan pressure ratio? This problem can
be solved analytically (Reference 24) and leads to the conclusion that the specific fuel
consumption will be lowest when the ideal jet velocities V18 and V8 are related to the low spool
efficiencies according to
Note that this formula implies special definitions for both the jet velocities and the efficiencies. V8,id
and V18,id are ideal velocities: they are calculated from a full expansion to ambient pressure. Fan
takes into account all the bypass stream pressure losses, and LPT all the losses downstream of
the low-pressure turbine.
Mixed flow turbofan
For the mixed turbofan there is also a rule for selecting the best combination of fan pressure and
bypass ratios. At the mixer entry the ratio of the total pressures P16/P6 must be close to unity.
Otherwise, there will be high mixing losses which will decrease the thrust gain as you can evaluate
with GasTurb Details 5. Toward part load the pressure ratio P16/P6 increases. It is therefore good
to select a value for P16/P6 which is slightly below 1 for the design point.
The optimum fan pressure ratio for a mixed flow engine is generally lower than that for an unmixed
engine, provided that both have the same bypass ratio. If you compare engines with the same fan
pressure ratio, the mixed flow engine will have a lower bypass ratio and a higher specific thrust FN
/W2. The amount of power which the low-pressure turbine has to supply to drive the fan will be
smaller if both streams are mixed. This usually allows the mixed engine to be designed with one
fewer LPT stage than the unmixed turbofan. The weight saved by this turbine stage helps to
compensate for the higher weight of the long duct nacelle needed for the mixed flow engine.
8.14 ... Make a Turbine Temperature Schedule
In the Off-Design Input window click or select Schedules... from the

menu. Enter numbers for the schedule and activate it. After closing the schedule definition window
you will see on the notebook page Limiters the activated limiters marked as scheduled.
If you need a control schedule in which T41 is not only a function of T2, but also a function of Mach
number, for example, then you must employ a General Table. Select Edit|Table... from the menu
in the schedule definition window to go to the table editor. After having created a tables in the
editor (or loaded from file) you can select HPT Rotor Inlet Temp T41 as parameter being a function
of the value read from the table which is selectable from the list below the parameter selection list.
Do not forget to activate the schedule before closing the control schedule definition window.
Even more complex control schedules can be described with the help of composed values. The
result for the composed value is finally employed as single valued limiter.

206 GasTurb 11
8.15 ... Make Nozzle Area a Function of Corrected Speed

Select in the Off-Design Input window Schedules.... Use as schedule parameter Delta Nozzle
Area [%] being a function of Corr. Spool Speed [%], enter your numbers and activate the schedule.
Alternatively you can employ a General Table and iterate the nozzle area modifier (i.e. Delta
Nozzle Area [%]) in such a way that the calculated nozzle area is equal to the value read from the
table.
8.16 ... Estimate the Confidence of Achieving the Development Target

When a new engine is designed there is some uncertainty about the component performance that
can be achieved and this transfers to an uncertainty in overall engine performance. If, for example,
the design target in specific fuel consumption of the project is met with insufficient confidence then
the cycle must be modified. That can often be done by an increase in the overall pressure ratio or
in the bypass ratio, for example. The confidence with which the development targets are achieved
can be improved to a certain extent with more time and money spent for engine development.
The Monte Carlo method applied to this problem can give an estimate about the exchange rate
between confidence and development effort. The input data for such an exercise is derived from
interviews with the component specialists as described in the section about Engine Design
Uncertainty.
A similar interview would be to ask firstly for the best value which the efficiency could assume. This
value is interpreted as the 2 limits of a normal distribution. That means, that only in 2.5% of all
cases this value will be exceeded. Further questions are for the most probable value and for a
pessimistic value which will be achieved in at least two thirds of all component designs. The
answers can be checked for consistency: the difference between the most probable and the best
value should be approximately twice as big as the difference between the most probable and the
low value estimate.
The method is not only useful prior to the launch of a new engine project. During the development
it can be used to correlate the confidence in the success of intended modifications with the
probability of achieving the overall development target.
8.17 ... Analyse a Transient Test

If you have measured data from a transient test, then you can analyze them with the help of a
transient simulation. First build a model which describes the steady state behavior of the engine,
then go for the transient simulation. Use as input data the measured spool speed of the first
compressor as a function of time. If the engine has a variable nozzle, then enter also A8 data as a
function of time.
During transient maneuvers there is a significant amount of heat transferred between the blades
and casings and the gas. This effect is not modeled in GasTurb 11, and therefore you should not
use fuel flow as an input because this would result in a wrong energy transfer to the gas stream.
Run the transient simulation with the above specified input and you will get as a result the transient
operating lines in the compressor maps, among other useful information. However, look at the
results with care: GasTurb 11 does not simulate transiently variable tip clearance and heat transfer
which is important for an accurate test analysis of a real engine.
8.18 ... Simulate Water Injection into a Turbofan

For the Two Spool Mixed Flow Turbofan configuration you can study the effects of rain ingestion,
inlet fogging and water injection upstream of the fan. The Geared Mixed Flow Turbofan

How to ... 207
configuration allows for water injection into the core stream upstream of the booster, between the
core compressors and into the burner. Water injection can be used for increasing the power of an
engine and for NOx reduction.
Water injected a certain distance upstream of the fan cools the air down because the water
evaporates before it enters the engine. This process is called inlet fogging. Water injected directly
in front of the fan has no chance evaporating before it enters the engine and we get a wet
compression process.
The wet compression process is described with the empirical constant Evaporation Rate d war / d
Temp. (here war = liquid water-air-ratio). In a first calculation step any wet compression process is
calculated without considering the water which yields the polytropic efficiency. Using this polytropic
efficiency the process is recalculated in 20 steps that each consist of a compression step followed
by an evaporation step. The amount of water evaporating is calculated from the temperature
increase during the compression step and the given Evaporation Rate d war / d Temp. Thus the
amount of gaseous water in the air is continuously increasing while the amount of liquid water is
decreasing.
When no liquid water is left, and the compression process is not yet finished, then the rest of the
compression process is calculated with the then existing gaseous water-air-ratio.
If not all of the liquid water evaporates within the fan then the rest of the liquid water is transferred
to the bypass respectively high pressure compressor HPC. If downstream of the HPC there is still
liquid water then it will be evaporated before the burner calculation commences.
Liquid water at the bypass exit will evaporate after mixing the hot and the cold stream between
stations 64 and 65. Note that the printout will show station 65 only if an evaporation of liquid water
takes place.
The aim of injecting water into the core stream of a turbofan is increasing thrust and reducing
emissions. You can study this with the Geared Mixed Flow Turbofan configuration. Note that in this
simulation it is assumed that all the water evaporates before it enters the compressor. If the
relative humidity - based on total pressure and temperature - exceeds 100% then a warning
message appears. Note that in a more rigourous simulation the calculation of the relative humidity
must employ the static pressure and temperature instead of the total quantities.
Limitations:
In the simulation it is assumed that the water (either gaseous or liquid) is evenly distributed over
the fan face. In a real engine the liquid water will tend to concentrate along the outer wall of the
fan, the booster and the HPC. This is because the water droplets that hit the compressor blades
will be accelerated to blade speed and then move along the blade surface outwards due to
centrifugal force. Finally the droplets will leave the blades and many of them will hit the casing and
create a water film. Some of the water moving along the casing will disappear in the offtakes that
are located there. Water flowing through the handling bleed valve (if open) will enter the bypass
channel.
As mentioned above GasTurb 11 assumes that the water is evenly distributed over the gas stream
and thus the effects of local water concentrations is not taken into account.
Gas properties are stored in tables for dry air, air with 3% gaseous water-air-ratio and 10%
gaseous water-air-ratio. Water flow rates caused by the incoming humidity, inlet fogging and water
injection that yield together more than 10% water-air-ratio lead to extrapolation of the gas property
data tables. It is up to the user of the program to decide whether the error introduced by this
extrapolation of the gas property tables is acceptable or not.

208 GasTurb 11
8.19 ... Generate Data for Input to Aircraft Performance Calculation

Programs
Aircraft performance calculation programs need as an input engine performance data in a specific
sequence and format. You can produce these data with the help of GasTurb 11. If your aircraft
performance program needs data that are not directly calculated by the program like relative thrust
, for example, then make use of composed values.
To produce a series of data, go for the option in the Off-Design Input

window. Before actually commencing the calculation, prepare for exporting the result to file or
initialize Excel.
An operating line always begins with that gas generator spool speed ZXN value which is specified
in the Off-Design Input window. If your aircraft performance program requires the data sequence to
be with increasing thrust, then you must choose a low gas generator spool speed before beginning
the operating line calculation during which ZXN will increase. Otherwise you must begin with a high
spool speed and run the data series with decreasing ZXN.
The default step size for ZXN during an operating line calculation is 0.025, except for the last step
of a series which will be smaller if maximum and minimum limiters are used.
Alternatively you can employ a batch job for creating the data - you can run an unlimited number of
points in arbitrary sequence with this option.
8.20 ... Recover from a "General Error"

Severe errors in the input data will in some odd cases cause the following message to show up:
Your input data do not lead to a reasonable cycle. Please check and correct your data!
Check your data for typing errors, wrong units or wrong orders of magnitude. Look at the Iterations
page in the Off-Design Input window and correct extreme estimates for the iteration variables.
Take range warnings serious. The program can never calculate a cycle with a burner pressure
ratio of 0.04, for example. You may have entered this number because you were thinking of a
burner pressure loss of 4%.
8.21 ... Design an Engine for a Supersonic Aircraft

The design requirements for an engine of a supersonic aircraft are quite different to those of a
subsonic transport aircraft engine. We will study the problem using the file DEMO_MTF.CYM
which contains data for a low bypass ratio, mixed flow turbofan with reheat and a
convergent-divergent nozzle.
There are several conflicting design requirements for such an engine. High specific thrust and low
specific fuel consumption for supersonic flight are the most important criteria. We must also
consider Take Off performance. Moreover, the specific fuel consumption for subsonic cruise
conditions should not be too high. Fulfilling this latter criterion leads to a high bypass ratio engine,
while fulfilling the first criterion mentioned favors a low bypass ratio. The choices you make very
much depend on the mission the aircraft has to fulfill.
The example data file provides you with the cycle data at sea level static (SLS) conditions, which
are shown in the following table. Note that the area ratio of the convergent-divergent nozzle A9/A8
is different for dry and reheated operation. In both cases the nozzle pressure ratio is too low for the
given area ratio. The nozzle over-expands the flow, as you can see from the negative pressure
thrust term. These and other details will appear on the output screen when you run the example.
Note that you must adjust the nozzle area ratio when you switch from dry to reheated operation.

How to ... 209
1
Bypass ratio
1600 K
Burner exit temperature T4
17.325
Overall pressure ratio
48.6 kN
Reheated thrust
2000 K
Nozzle inlet temperature in reheat T7
1.35
Nozzle area ration in reheat (A9/A8)RH
29.4 kN
Dry thrust
1.2
Nozzle area ration in dry (A9/A8)dry
We will now look at supersonic flight conditions. First calculate the design point with reheat
switched on. Then select the off-design calculation option and use the standard component maps
together with the Booster Map Type = 0. The area ratio A9/A8 of the convergent divergent nozzle in
off-design depends on the nozzle throat area A8:
Use a = 0.8705, b = 0.7325 and c = - 0.253. Then enter the following data and start the off-design
calculation:
11000
Altitude [m]
2
Mach Number
1.01
HPC Spool Speed ZXNH
The table below contains the most important results for the two cases A8=A8,Design and A8=A
8,Design+10% For the nominal nozzle area, the mechanical spool speed of the gas generator NH
exceeds the sea level value (all design point speeds are defined as 100%), but the aerodynamic
speed NH/25,R decreases to 91.9%. The relative aerodynamic speed of the fan NL/2,R drops
to an even greater extent. This explains the overall pressure ratio of 10.5, which is quite low
compared to the pressure ratio at sea level.
A8=0% A8=+10%
46.9 kN 50.5 kN
Thrust
52.1 kg/s 56.2 kg/s
Mass Flow W2
1681 K 1672 K
Burner exit temperature T4
1.21 1.36
Bypass ratio
10.5 10.6
Overall pressure ratio
1.339 1.385
Nozzle area ratio A9/A8
12.28 11.53
Nozzle pressure ratio P8/Pamb
89.5 % 92.6 %
Low-pressure spool speed NL

210 GasTurb 11
101 % 101 %
High-pressure spool speed NH
76.9 % 79.6%
Fan aerodynamic speed NL/2,R
92.0% 91.9%
HPC aerodynamic speed NH/25,R
The result clearly shows that the standard map scaling procedure must not be applied if the cycle
design point is at supersonic flight conditions. The standard procedure would place the design
point at a corrected speed of 100% in all maps. If you run a sea level static flight case with such a
cycle design, the operating point in the compressor maps would be found at excessively high
aerodynamic spool speeds.
You can, of course, also use the standard component maps when defining your engine design
point at supersonic flight conditions. You will then have to set the design point in the component
maps to an appropriate map speed value significantly below 100%. This can be done with the
option Maps|Special in the Off-Design Input window.
The table above contains two columns with numbers. Both apply to the same high pressure spool
speed. A bigger nozzle area will improve performance in this case. Whether an increase in the
nozzle area helps depends on the flight condition. To see this, take a look at a subsonic high
altitude cruise case, for example.
For the calculation of dry performance at 11000m, Mach number 0.8 you need to enter some data
in addition to the modified altitude and Mach number. Reset the nozzle area to 100%, switch on
the NL/2,R limiter and set it to 104%. You can now start the calculation.
This specific iteration sometimes fails to converge. What can you do to get a valid solution? Click
to restart the calculation, this might lead to convergence. If not, look on
the Iteration page: you may find an unrealistic number for the estimated bypass ratio, for example.
Correct it to BPR=1 to provide a revised estimate for the iteration. This should help; If it does not,
have a look at the estimates for the other iteration variables and enter reasonable looking
numbers.
Try also the high altitude subsonic flight case with the same two nozzle areas as above. You will
find that - in contrast to the supersonic flight case with afterburning, in which the nozzle area
increase yields higher thrust - increasing the nozzle area at this flight condition leads to a lower
thrust. In the supersonic case the decrease in nozzle pressure ratio due to the bigger nozzle area
is overcompensated by the increase in mass flow and therefore thrust increases. While flying with
subsonic velocity at high altitude the corrected fan speed is limited and this prevents an increase in
mass flow when opening the nozzle and the resulting drop in nozzle pressure ratio decreases
thrust.
8.22 ... Investigate a Variable Cycle Engine

How to ... 211
The variable cycle engine as modeled within GasTurb 11 has three Variable Bypass Injector
(VABI) valves:
 downstream of the fan
 downstream of the core driven fan stage
 at the inlet to the mixer
During the cycle design calculation all three VABI's are in their nominal (open) position, i.e. as
shown in the figure for the double bypass mode. In single bypass mode the front fan and the core
driven fan stage operate in series. Note that the mixer VABI in single bypass mode may be open or
closed as shown in the figure above.
For off-design operation the core driven fan stage must cope with a very wide flow range which
requires variable geometry. The variable guide vane settings of the intermediate-pressure
compressor going with the different VABI positions are separate input properties.
8.23 ... Speed up the Calculation

Extensive use of composed values in combination with user defined iterations can slow down the
calculation considerably. You can minimize the calculation time by moving those composed value
definitions that are iteration targets to the top of the list in the composed value definition list. Also
the user defined limiters should be among the first composed values while they are activated.
8.24 ... Compare Temperature-Entropy and Enthalpy-Entropy Diagrams

When you have a Temperature-Entropy or Enthalpy-Entropy diagram on your screen then you can
freeze this diagram. After having done that or after loading a diagram from file you may show this
2nd cycle as background information together with any other diagram.

212 GasTurb 11
In the example above the high pressure compressor pressure ratio was assigned to the slider and
increased in comparison of that of the reference cycle which is shown in gray.
8.25 ... Compile the Program

The first attempt to compile the GasTurb program usually ends with the error message:
Class THelpRouter not found. Ignore the error and continue?
This message indicates that a Delphi component is missing. The required components - which are
needed for the GasTurb Help System - are part of the EC Software Help Suite (EHS); they can be
downloaded for free from
http://www.ec-software.com/comppage.htm
Store the EHS components in a directory of your choice. Next select in Delphi Project Options
and add on the page Directories/Conditionals the Search Path to this directory.
The next error message which many encounter is:
File not found: Excel_TLB.dcu
This message indicates that the Excel Type Library is not loaded. How type libraries are loaded is
described in the Delphi help system; The Excel Type Library is copied to the computer as part of
the Delphi Integrated Development Environment during the installation of Delphi.

Nomenclature and Units
IX
214 GasTurb 11
9 Nomenclature and Units

You will see the station definition from the nomenclature window which shows a picture of the
engine and also the internal air system schematics together with the actual numbers.
The first page of the cycle result sheet contains a summary in which many abbreviations and
symbols are used. When you click on a symbol - just after the first letter - you will get an
explanation:

Nomenclature and Units 215
9.1 File Nomenclature

There are example data files delivered with the program, one for each engine configuration. The
names of these example files begin with DEMO. The file extension is composed of three letters
and always begins with the letter C which stands for cycle data. The next two letters are associated
with the engine type. Cycle data for single spool turbojets, for example, have the file extension
CYJ.
Engine model files have the same file extension as ordinary cycle data files except that the first
letter is M. This file nomenclature has the advantage, that in data selection boxes only those files
are offered for loading, that are compatible with the type of engine you are currently simulating.
Besides the data files GasTurb 11 employs files with the extension NMS. These engine
configuration specific files contain the names of the properties, default values and step sizes,
default range borders for checking input and output values and more. NMS files can be edited with
the program GasTurb Names.
9.2 Station Designation

The station definition used in the program follows the international standard for performance
computer programs. This standard has been published by the Society of Automotive Engineers
SAE as ARP 755C.
The thermodynamic station names are defined as follows:

0 ambient
1 aircraft-engine interface
2 first compressor inlet
21 inner stream fan exit

13 outer stream fan exit
16 bypass exit
161 cold side mixer inlet
163 cold side mixing plane
18 bypass nozzle throat
24 intermediate compressor exit

25 high-pressure compressor inlet
3 last compressor exit, cold side heat exchanger inlet

31 burner inlet
35 cold side heat exchanger exit
4 burner exit
41 first turbine stator exit = rotor inlet
two spool engines:

43 high-pressure turbine exit before addition of cooling air
44 high-pressure turbine exit after addition of cooling air
45 low-pressure turbine inlet
49 low-pressure turbine exit before addition of cooling air
three spool engines:

42 high-pressure turbine exit before addition of cooling air
43 high-pressure turbine exit after addition of cooling air
44 intermediate turbine inlet
45 intermediate turbine stator exit
46 intermediate turbine exit before addition of cooling air
47 intermediate turbine exit after addition of cooling air
48 low-pressure turbine inlet
49 low-pressure turbine exit before addition of cooling air
5 low-pressure turbine exit after addition of cooling air

216 GasTurb 11
6 jet pipe inlet, reheat entry for turbojet,

hot side heat exchanger inlet
61 hot side mixer inlet

63 hot side mixing plane
64 mixed flow, reheat entry
7 reheat exit, hot side heat exchanger exit
8 nozzle throat
9 nozzle exit (convergent-divergent nozzle only)
The station numbers for the selected configuration are shown in an engine cross section. This
cross section may be printed from the cycle design point result presentation.
9.3 Symbols
The symbols for mass flow, pressures and other quantities are defined in ARP 755. This standard
has been published by the Society of Automotive Engineers SAE. The symbols are composed of
the station name and some leading letters. The following symbols are used in the manual and the
program:
A area
alt altitude
amb ambient
ax axial
Bld bleed
BPR bypass ratio
corr corrected
C constant value, coefficient
C compressor
CFG thrust coefficient
Cl cooling
d diameter
dH enthalpy difference
dp design point
DC pressure distortion coefficient
DT temperature distortion coefficient
f factor
f fuel
far fuel-air-ratio
F thrust
FN net thrust
FG gross thrust
h enthalpy
H high-pressure spool
HdlBld handling bleed
HPC high-pressure compressor
HPT high-pressure turbine
i inner
IPC intermediate-pressure compressor (booster)
L low-pressure spool
Lk leakage
LPC low-pressure compressor (fan)
LPT low-pressure turbine
M Mach number
N spool speed
NGV nozzle guide vane (of a turbine)
o outer
P total pressure
prop propulsion
PW shaft power
R gas constant
rel relative
RH reheat (afterburner)
RNI Reynolds number index

s static
S NOx NOx severity parameter
(used for NOx emission estimates)
SD shaft, delivered
SFC specific fuel consumption
t (blade) tip
t time
T total temperature
TRQ torque
U blade (tip) velocity
V velocity
W mass flow
XN relative spool speed
9.4 Short and Long Names

GasTurb 11 uses two sorts of names for the properties: the short name and the long name.
Examples:
short name long name
alt Altitude
dtamb Delta T from ISA
humid Relative Humidity [%]
XM Mach Number
ZW2Rstd Inlet Corr. Flow W2Rstd
P2q1 Intake Pressure Ratio
ZP3q2 Pressure Ratio
T4_D Burner Exit Temperature
FN Net thrust
WF Fuel Flow
In the user interface usually the long names are used. In some cases, however, the use of the long
names is not appropriate, as for example in the definition of composed values and in tables with
results from a Small Effects study. Note that both the short and the long names are case
sensitive.
9.5 Units
With GasTurb 11 you can use either SI units or Imperial (US custom) units. Switch between them
while you define your cycle design point. During off-design simulations you may switch (use the
menu item Options...) between degree K and C while SI units are selected and between R and F
while Imperial units are selected.

218 GasTurb 11
Altitude m ft
Temperature K or C R or F
Pressure kPa psi
Mass Flow kg/s lbm/s
Shaft Power kW hp
Thrust kN lbf
SFC (Thrust) g/(kN s) lbm/(lbf h)
SFC (Shaftpower) kg/(kW h) lbm/(hp h)
Velocity, Spec.Thrust m/s ft/s
Area m² in²
Diameter m in
Spec.Work H/T J/(kg K) BTU/(lbm R)
A*N² m²RPM²10-6 in²RPM²10-6
Tip Clearance mm in*10-3(=mil)
Torque N*m lbf*ft
Specific Shaftpower kW/(kg/s) hp/(lbm/s)
Note that there is a unit converter which you can activate from the menu on the cycle result sheet.
The units employed when evaluating the composed values are selected in the composed value
definition window. They are independent from the units used for the other data in- and output. The
reason for that is that GasTurb 11 is unable to convert the results of the composed value formulae
to a different system of units.
9.6 Total Pressure

For a thermodynamic cycle calculation the true (static) pressure is of relevance mostly for the
intake and the nozzle, but usually not for the engine components. What matters is the total or
stagnation pressure.
The stagnation pressure is the pressure which the gas would possess when brought to rest
adiabatically. The symbol for total pressures is P followed by the station designation number. Static
pressures are marked as Ps. The symbol for ambient pressure is Pamb.
9.7 Total Temperature

For a thermodynamic cycle calculation the true (static) temperature is usually of no relevance.
What matters is the total or stagnation temperature.

The stagnation temperature is the temperature which the gas would possess when brought to rest
adiabatically. The symbol for total temperatures is T followed by the station designation number.
Static temperatures are marked as Ts. The symbol for ambient temperature is Tamb.
9.8 Further Definitions

9.8.1 Heat Rate
According to the Diesel & Gas Turbine Worldwide Catalog is the Heat Rate a product of Lower
Heating Value of Fuel (measured in kJ/g) multiplied by shaft power Specific Fuel Consumption
(measured in g/kWh).
In GasTurb 11 the following units are standard:

Units SI US
FHV MJ/kg BTU/lbm

SFC (Shaftpower) kg/(kW h) lbm/(hp h)
9.8.2 Stator Outlet Temperature
The Stator Outlet Temperature SOT (=T41) is the total temperature at the exit of the first vane row
of the turbine, after mixing the stator cooling flow with the main stream. The Stator Outlet
Temperature is in GasTurb equal to the Rotor Inlet Temperature RIT because no cooling air is
mixed in between the stator outlet and the rotor inlet.
The first stator of a turbine is also called Nozzle Guide Vane NGV because it accelerates the flow
like a nozzle.
9.8.3 Rotor Inlet Temperature
The Rotor Inlet Temperature RIT is the total temperature after mixing the cooling air of the turbine
inlet guide vane to the mainstream. The mass flow at the rotor inlet is assumed to do work in the
turbine while expanding with the specified turbine efficiency.
9.8.4 Standard Day Conditions
The (sea level) standard day conditions are T = 288.15K and P = 101.325 kPa. The gas constant
of dry air is 287.05 J/(kg*K)
9.8.5 Spool Speed
For many questions the spool speeds are of interest with gas turbine performance simulations.
You can calculate the design point spool speed N,RPM in revolutions per minute from a few
data at the compressor inlet, see compressor design. The design point spool speed is required for
the simulation of inlet flow distortion and transients.

220 GasTurb 11
For off-design simulations there are four different values for the spool speed:
N actual spool speed
N,nominal nominal spool speed
N,rel relative spool speed
N,corr,rel relative corrected spool speed
The relative spool speed is defined as N,rel = N / N,ds with N,ds = 1.0 at the cycle design point.
The actual spool speed is N = N,rel * N,nominal
The relative corrected spool speed is defined as
The index std indicates standard day conditions. For the cycle design point the relative corrected
speed is per definition 1.0.
N,nominal is an input on the compressor design page. It is a good idea to set the nominal speed
to the design point spool speed value which has been calculated from the compressor design
option, but that is not a "must".
As a standard for the cycle design point all relative and all relative corrected spool speeds are set
to 1.0. However, when you use an unscaled map, then this might not be so.
9.8.6 Corrected Flow
Corrected flow is defined as
with
W mass flow
T total temperature
P total pressure
R gas constant
Tstd standard day temperature

Pstd standard day pressure
Rstd gas constant of dry air
9.8.7 Aircraft Speed
Various definitions for the speed of an aircraft are in use:
True Airspeed
The speed of the aircraft's center of gravity with respect to the air mass through which it is
passing.
GasTurb 11 employs the true airspeed.
Indicated Airspeed
The speed indicated by a differential-pressure airspeed indicator which measures the actual
pressure difference in the pitot-static head. This instrument is uncorrected for instrument,
installation and position errors. For this reason it is often called pilot's indicated airspeed.
GasTurb 11 does not calculate the indicated airspeed. If you need it you must employ a composed
value.
Calibrated Airspeed
The airspeed related to differential pressure by the standard adiabatic formulae. At standard sea
level conditions the calibrated airspeed and true airspeed are the same. The calibrated airspeed
can be thought of as the indicated airspeed, corrected for instrument errors. It is sometimes called
true indicated airspeed.
GasTurb 11 does not calculate the calibrated airspeed. If you need it you must employ a
composed value.
Equivalent Airspeed
The equivalent airspeed is a direct measure of the incompressible free stream dynamic pressure.
It is defined as the true airspeed multiplied by the square root of the density ratio (air density at
some flight altitude over density at sea level). Physically the equivalent airspeed is the speed which
the aircraft must fly at some altitude other than sea level to produce a dynamic pressure equal to a
dynamic pressure at sea level. At low speeds the calibrated airspeed and the equivalent airspeed
are the same. For speeds above Mach 0.3 the two differ because of an error in the
differential-pressure measuring device. This error is due to the compressibility of the air at higher
speeds which cannot be calibrated into the instrument.
GasTurb 11 employs the equivalent airspeed.
9.8.8 Entropy Function
The well known formula for the end temperature of an isentropic compression is

222 GasTurb 11
This equation is strictly valid for constant isentropic exponent  only. The formula is often used
with  as a function of the mean temperature (T2is+T1)/2. The evaluation of the simple formula
needs iteration with a result which is only an approximation.
The rigorous expression for an isentropic process with temperature dependent gas properties
employs the entropy function  which is defined as
The change of the entropy function in an isentropic process is equal to the logarithm of the
pressure ratio:
 can be tabulated as a function of temperature and reading this table with given  yields the end
temperature of any isentropic process without iteration.
9.8.9 Relative Enthalpy Rise
The relative enthalpy rise of bleed air is a number between 0 and 1:

 If the relative enthalpy rise is equal to 0 then the bleed is taken upstream of the relevant
compressor.
 If the relative enthalpy rise is equal to 1 then the bleed is taken downstream of the relevant
compressor.
 If the relative enthalpy rise is between 0 and 1 then the bleed air is taken from an intermediate
compressor stage. The number says how much energy was required to compress the air up to
the off-take position.
An example: If you take off some bleed air after the third stage from a compressor which has five
stages, then the relative enthalpy of the bleed air is 3/5=0.6.
9.8.10 Equivalent Shaft Power
In a turboshaft engine the exhaust velocity is minimized and thus the maximum amount of power is
extracted from the gas available from the gas generator.
Turboprop engines do not extract all the power from the exhaust gases since the exhaust gases
create usable thrust. The optimum exhaust gas velocity depends from the flight velocity and the
quality of the propeller. The higher the flight velocity the higher the optimum exhaust gas velocity.
Poor propeller efficiency also favors high exhaust velocity.
When a turboprop engine is to be compared to a turboshaft engine then the equivalent shaft power
of the turboprop is of interest. This shaft power is calculated as the sum of the propeller shaft
power and the term V0*Fg,res/prop. In this formula V0 stands for flight velocity, Fg,res for the
residual gross thrust of the exhaust gases and prop for propeller efficiency. It is common practice
to use prop = 0.85 for the calculation of the equivalent shaft power.
If the flight velocity is zero then the above formula is not applicable. In this case the term V0*Fg,res/
prop is evaluated in GasTurb 11 with V0=10m/s.

9.8.11 Turbine Flow Capacity
The background of the term turbine flow capacity is that in the throat of the nozzle guide vane of a
turbine, the flow velocity is usually sonic or very near to sonic. For sonic flow the quantity
W*sqrt(T)/(A*P) is a function of the gas constant and the isentropic exponent only. When the gas
properties are known then it is sufficient to measure the turbine throat area to evaluate the term
W*sqrt(T)/P which is called the turbine flow capacity.
9.8.12 AnSyn Factor
AnSyn factors describe the difference between the off-design simulation model and quantities
derived directly or indirectly from measurements. The AnSyn factor for efficiency is defined as
fAnSynE = measured efficiency / model efficiency
Similarly, the flow capacity AnSyn factor is defined as
fAnSynC = measured corrected flow / model corrected flow
For each compressor respectively turbine there is a flow capacity and an efficiency factor defined.
Similarly an AnSyn Factor can be calculated from the difference between measured and calculated
thrust of a jet engine, for example. It depends on the engine configuration which AnSyn factors are
used during test analysis.
9.8.13 Propulsive Efficiency
Propulsive efficiency is the ratio of useful propulsive energy – the product of thrust and flight
velocity – compared to the wasted kinetic energy of the jet:
If the nozzle flow is expanded fully to ambient conditions and the inlet mass flow W0 is equal to the
nozzle mass flow W9 then thrust F equals W*(V9-V0) and the above formula can be rewritten as
Propulsive efficiency is maximum when jet velocity equals flight velocity; however, in this case
thrust is zero.
With a turbojet at subsonic flight conditions the exhaust jet velocity is very much higher than the
flight velocity of the aircraft. The high kinetic energy which the exhaust jet has relative to the air is a
loss and this results in poor propulsive efficiency and finally in high thrust specific fuel consumption
(SFC) even if all the component efficiencies are high.
When propulsive efficiency is evaluated for an unmixed flow turbofan then the core stream (index
9) and the bypass stream (index 19) must be considered:

224 GasTurb 11
See also overall efficiency.
9.8.14 Thermal Efficiency
Thermal efficiency is defined as increase of the kinetic energy of the gas stream passing through
the engine by the amount of heat employed which is given as product of fuel mass flow Wf and fuel
heating value FHV:
With turbofan engines one can split the thermal efficiency in two terms, the core efficiency and the
transmission efficiency.
9.8.15 Core Efficiency
Core efficiency is the ratio of energy available after all the power requirements of the core stream
compression processes are satisfied – that means at the core exit - and the energy available from
the fuel:
The enthalpy difference dHis is evaluated assuming an isentropic expansion from the state at the
core exit to ambient pressure.
9.8.16 Transmission Efficiency
Transmission efficiency describes the quality of the energy transfer from the core stream to the
bypass stream. It is defined as ratio of the energy at the nozzle(s) to the energy at the core exit
and is equal to the thermal efficiency divided by core efficiency. Transmission efficiency is
dominated by the efficiencies of the fan and the low pressure turbine, and both efficiencies are
equally important.
9.8.17 Overall Efficiency
The overall efficiency is the ratio of useful work done in overcoming the drag of the airplane to the
energy content of the fuel:

With the same simplifying assumptions as made with the propulsive efficiency it follows that overall
efficiency of a turbofan is equal to the product of thermal efficiency - which can be split into core
efficiency and transmission efficiency - and propulsive efficiency.
The efficiency of an aircraft engine is inseparably linked with the flight velocity as can be seen from
the definitions listed above. So the question arises, how to compare the quality of engines being
used at different flight speeds.
We introduce the specific fuel consumption SFC = Wf/F into the formula above and get:
or
9.8.18 Peak Efficiency
The peak efficiency is the highest efficiency found on a speed line in a compressor respectively
turbine map. The peak efficiency of the map is the highest efficiency found on any speed line.

References
X
228 GasTurb 11
10 References
[1] P. P. Walsh, P. Fletcher
Gas Turbine Performance
Blackwell Science Ltd,1998
[2] J. Kurzke
Performance modeling methodology: Efficiency definitions for cooled single and
multistage turbines
ASME paper 2002-GT-30497 presented at the Turbo Expo 2002 in Amsterdam
[3] Arthur J. Glassman

Users Manual for Updated Computer Code for Axial Flow Compressor Conceptional Design
NASA Contractor Report 189171, 1992
[4] Arthur J. Glassman

Computer Program for Preliminary Design Analysis of Axial Flow Turbines
NASA TN D-6702, 1972
[5] J.L.Younghans, J.E.Johnson, S.J-Csonka

A Methodology to Asses Uncertainty in Selecting Affordable Gas Turbine Technology
ASME 94-GT-419, 1994
[6] J. Kurzke
Some Applications of the Monte Carlo Method to Gas Turbine Performance Simulations
ASME 97-GT-48, 1997
[7] J. Kurzke
Calculation of Installation Effects within Performance Computer Programs
in AGARD Lecture Series 183 "Steady and Transient Performance Prediction of Gas Turbine
Engines", 1992
[8] Committee of Aeronautical Technologies, Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board,

Commission on Engineering and Technical Systems, National Research Council
Aeronautical Technology for the Twenty-First Century
National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. 1992
[9] A. Wulff, J. Hourmouziadis

A Universal Combustor Model for the Prediction of Aeroengine Pollutant Emissions
ISABE 99-7162, 1999
[10] H.G. Münzberg, J. Kurzke

Gasturbinen - Betriebsverhalten und Optimierung
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York, 1977
[11] Warner L. Stewart

A Study of Axial-Flow Turbine Efficiency Characteristics in Terms of Velocity Diagram
Parameters
ASME 61-WA-37, 1961
[12] Sanford Gordon and Bonnie J. McBride

Computer Program for Calculation of Complex Chemical Equilibrium Compositions and
Applications
I. Analysis
NASA Reference Publication 1311, October 1994
[13] Bonnie J. McBride and Sanford Gordon

Computer Program for Calculation of Complex Chemical Equilibrium Compositions and
Applications
II. Users Manual and Program Description
NASA Reference Publication 1311, June 1996

References 229
[14] J. P. Longley, E. M. Greitzer

Inlet Distortion Effects in Aircraft Propulsion System Integration
in: AGARD Lecture Series 183, 1992
[15] J. Kurzke
Effects of Inlet flow Distortion on the Performance of Aircraft Gas Turbines
ASME GT2006-90419, 2006
[16] J. Kurzke
Model Based Gas Turbine Parameter Corrections
ASME GT2003-38234, 2003
[17] H.S. Wainauski, C. Rohrbach, T.A. Wynosky

Prop-Fan Performance Terminology
SAE Technical Paper 871838, 1987
[18] H.G. Jacob

Rechnergestützte Optimierung statischer und dynamischer Systeme
Fachberichte Messen - Steuern - Regeln, Springer Verlag 1982
[19] H. G. Münzberg
Flugantriebe
Springer Verlag, 1972
[20] C. Riegler, M. Bauer, J. Kurzke

Some Aspects of Modelling Compressor Behaviour in Gas Turbine Performance
Calculation
ASME 2000-GT-0574
[21] J. Kurzke
Advanced User-Friendly Gas Turbine Performance Calculations on a Personal Computer
ASME 95-GT-147, 1995
[22] J. Kurzke
How to Get Component Maps for Aircraft Gas Turbine Performance Calculations
ASME 96-GT-164, 1996
[23] J. Kurzke
Gas Turbine Cycle Design Methodology: A Comparison of Parameter Variation with
Numerical Optimization
ASME 98-GT-343, 1998
[24] N. Gasparovic
Das Zweistromtriebwerk bei optimaler und nicht-optimaler Auslegung
Forsch. Ing.-Wesen 42 (1976) Nr.5
[25] R. C. Kelahan, J. L. Gaddy

Application of the adaptive random search to discrete and mixed integer optimization
International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering, Vol. 12, 289-298 (1978)
[26] A.Schäffler
Experimental and Analytical Investigation of the Effects of Reynolds Number and Blade
Surface Roughness on Multistage Axial Flow Compressors
ASME 79-GT-2, 1979

Index 231
Blade and Vane Numbers 145

Index Dimensions 145
Shape Descriptor 145
-B-
-A- Basic Scope 4
A9/A8 Schedule 37 Batch Job
Abbreviations 216 Aircaft Performance 208
Acceleration 82, 86 Edit 90
Accuracy of Engine Test Analysis 46 Example 90
Adaptive Random Search 158, 193 General 89
Nomenclature 89
Additions to the Standard Off-Design Iteration
Scheme 170 Run 91
Advance Ratio 129 Bearing Support 145, 152, 153
Aerodynamic Interface Plane 105 Beta, Auxilliary Coordinate in Maps 133
Afterburner 36, 48, 123 Blade and Vane Numbers
Design Inlet Mach No. 124 Axial Compressor 145
Dimensions 154 Blade Stress 117
Efficiency 124 Blade Temperature 116
Equivalent Dry Nozzle Area 123 Bleed
Limiters 123 Automatic 21
Operating Line 64 Recirculating 108
Pressure Loss 124 Boosted Turboshaft
Specify Thrust 123 Iteration Setup 184
Thermodynamic Station 126 Booster
Air System 31, 127 Design Example 148
Relative Enthalpy Rise 222 Booster Map Type 132
Aircraft Performance 208 Burner 87, 112, 114, 115
Airspeed 221 DesignExample 149
Altitude Test Facility 104 Dimensions 148
AN² 117 Emissions 114
Analysis by Synthesis 25, 72 Mass (Weight) 148
Compressor 74 Off-Design Efficiency 55
Performance Monitoring 81 Part Load Constant 112
Annulus Temperature Rise 112
Burner, Duct, Exhaust 162 Time Constant 87
Compressor 160 Volume 148
Shape Descriptor 145 Burst Margin 159
Turbine 161 Burst Speed 159
AnSyn 25, 72 Bypass 153
AnSyn Factor 76, 223 Heat Exchanger 112
APU 141
Aspect Ratio 145
-C-
Calibrated Airspeed 221
Asymmetric Distribution 190
Can Volume 148
Atmosphere 96
Capacity
Augmentor 36, 123
Compressor 58
Automatic Bleed 21, 61
Turbine 223
Auxiliary Coordinate Beta 133
Catalog 175
Auxiliary Power Unit 141
Centrifugal Compressor 148
Axial Compressor
Chemical Composition

232 GasTurb 11
Chemical Composition Water Injection 108, 109

Fuel 94 Compressor Coupling 138
Clipboard 175 Compressor Map
CO and UHC 115 Efficiency Distribution 197
Coarse Grid 172, 174 Cone Angle 154
Cold Day 96 Cone Length 145, 153
Colors Configuration 6
Contour Lines 175 Constraints 44
Combustor 148 Off-Design 45
CO and UHC 115 Contour Lines 40, 175
Efficiency 112 Control Schedules 166
Emissions 114, 115 General Tables 167
NOx 115 Control System
Part Load Constant 112 Automatic Bleed 61
Pressure Losses 114 Control Schedules 61
Temperature Rise 112 Engine Model 48
Common Core 200 Limiter 18, 182, 183, 185
Comparative Data 65, 196, 198, 203 Limiter Codes (Steady State) 62
Compare Data with GasTurb Results 203 Limiter Codes (Transient) 84
Cycle Design Point 196 Power Lever 85
Off Design Point 196, 198 Single Limiter 60
Comparing Simulation Results 65, 80 Transient 83, 86
Compatibility with Previous GasTurb Versions 5 Conventional Test Analysis 34
Compiling GasTurb 212 Convergence 66, 179, 180
Component Map 135 Convergent Nozzle 37
Compressor 131 Dimensions 154
Fan 132 Discharge Coefficient 125
Format 97 Convergent-Divergent Nozzle 37, 56
Intake 130 A9/A8 Schedule 37
Propeller 134 Dimensions 154
Composed Values 166, 168 Discharge Coefficient 125
Functions 168 Cooled Turbine 119, 120
Introduction 8 Cooling Air Pumping Diameter 120
Tables 167 Cooling Constant 116
User Defined Names 8 Cooling Effectiveness 116
Compressor 168 Cooling with Steam 95
Calculation 106 Copy to Clipboard 175
Capacity 58 Core dP/P 103
Design 105, 145
Core Efficiency 224
Efficiency 33, 106
Core Flow Analysis 76
Efficiency Estimate 107
Corrected Flow 220
Efficiency Modifier 68
Corrected Speed 219
Map 131, 132
Map Format 98 Create Data File Example 77
Map Scaling 49 Creating a GasTurb Model 203
Size Effect on Efficiency 107 Critical Sector Angle 136
Surge Margin 134 Cross Section 144
Thermodynamic Station 126 Customer Bleed 31
Tip Clearance 107 Customer Deck 172
Variable Geometry 198 Cycle Design Point 30, 196
Cycle Output Sheet 7

Index 233
Cycle Reference Point 30, 196 Dead and Live Weight 157
Design 162
-D- Design Criteria 159
Data Export 91, 170, 171 Design Options 158
Data File 30, 48, 215 Design Speed 157
Deceleration 82, 86 Geometry 157
Define Composed Values 166 Temperature 158
Tables 167 Dissociation 94, 112
Define Input Quantities 16, 55 Distortion 136
Degree of Reheat 114 Aerodynamic Interface Plane 105
Derivative Engine 200 Input 57
Design Margin Pressure 139
Disks 158 Temperature 139
Design Point 30 Duct Pressure Loss 110
Design Point Input
Basic Data 30
-E-
Compressor Efficiency 33 Edit
Batch job 90
Con-Di Nozzle 37
Geometry 26
Convergent Nozzle 37
Range Checking Borders 166
Define Iteration 169
Mass Flow 32 Effective Burning Area 124
Reheat 36 Effects
Test Analysis 34 Design 45
Turbine Efficiency 33 Getting Started 13
Off Design 22, 68
Design Table 21, 67
Deterioration 58 Efficiency
Combustor 112
Development Risk 45
Compressor 33, 107
Diagram
Compressor Map 197
Enthalpy-Entropy 211
Core 224
Temperature-Entropy 211
Gearbox 110
Diesel 94
Ideal Propeller 128
Difference between 2 Parametric Studies 41 Modifier 58, 68
Differential Control Constant 83, 86 Overall 224
Diffusor Peak Efficiency 225
Burner Inlet 145, 148 Peak Efficiency (Map Scaling) 50
Dimensions Propulsive 223, 224
Axial Compressor 145 Real Propeller 129
Burner 148 Reheat 124
Burner, Duct, Exhaust 162 Thermal 224
Compressor Annulus 160 Transmission 224
Exhaust Duct 153 Turbine 33
General 144
Emissions 95, 114
Inlet 145 CO and UHC 115
Interduct 152 NOx 115
Nozzle, Exhaust 154
Endless Random Search 193
Reheat (Afterburner) 154
Engine Design for Supersonic Flight 208
Turbine 149
Turbine Annulus 161 Engine Design Uncertainty 45
Discharge Coefficient 125, 154 Burner, Duct, Exhaust 162
Disk Compressor Annulus 160

234 GasTurb 11
Engine Dimensions 144 Fine Grid 172, 174

Disk Design 162 Flat Rating 202
How to make them reasonable 160 Flight Envelope
Turbine Annulus 161 Definition 69
Engine Family 200 Getting Started 22
Engine Model 48 Result 70
Engine Type 6 Flight Input Mode 103
Enthalpy 94 Flight Mission 21, 67
Enthalpy-Entropy Diagram 211 Flow Annulus
Entropy 94 Burner, Duct, Exhaust 162
Entropy Function Compressor 160
Compression 106 Turbine 161
Definition 221 Flow Capacity 223
Uncooled Turbine 119 Flow Channel
Equivalent Dry Nozzle Area 123, 125 Burner, Duct, Exhaust 162
Equivalent Shaft Power 222 Compressor 160
Equivalent Single Stage Turbine 118 Turbine 161
Equivaluent Airspeed 221 Fogging 95
Estimated Values 57 Fuel 30, 94
Evaporation Rate 108 Fuel Flow
Evaporative Inlet Cooling 95 Run to a Given Value 203
Excel Fuel Type
Export Data to 91, 170 Parametric Study 11
Test Analysis Results 81 Functions 168
Exhaust (Nozzle) Fundamental Pressure Loss 124
Dimensions 154
Exhaust Duct 122
-G-
Dimensions 153 Gamma 168
Gap-Chord Ratio 145
Exhaust Pressure Loss
Power Generation 105 Gas Constant 94
Expert Mode 4 Gas Properties 94, 168
Humidity 94
Export
Copy and Paste 7 GasTurb Names 215
Graphics 175 Gaussian Distribution 188
Mission Calculation Results 68 Gearbox 110, 156
Mission Data to File 21 Geared Turbofan
to Excel 91, 170 Iteration Setup 186
User Defined File Content 171 Transient 186
External Load 140 General 43, 128
General Error 208
-F- General Tables 61, 167
Fan Generic Fuel 94
Design Example 148 Genetic Algorithm 193
Map 132
Getting Help 3
Pressure Ratio 205
Gradient Search 191
FHV 30 Graphics
Figure of Merit 45 Copy to Clipboard 175
File Extensions 215 Grid Options 172, 174
File History 48 Picture Catalog 175
File Names 215 Scales 172, 174

Index 235
Graphics Data Directory 2

Several y-Axis 174 Map Directory 2
Single y-Axis 172 Network 2
Zoom 172, 174 Working Directory 2
Ground Input Mode 103 Intake 95, 104
Ground Vehicle Propulsion 112 Distortion 57
Fogging 95
-H- Map 130
Handling Bleed 31, 61 Pressure Distortion 139
Automatic 21 Pressure Loss 103
Heat Exchanger Radial Distortion 103
Bypass 112 Radial Pressure Loss Distribution 103
Simulation Options 111 Temperature Distortion 139
Heat Rate 219 Intake Map Format 98
Heating Value 94 Integral Control Constant 83, 86
Help 3 Intercooler 110
History 48 Interduct
Hot Day 96 Dimensions 152
Hot Day Take-Off 45 Pressure Loss 110
How to 196, 197, 198, 200, 203, 204, 205, 206, Pressure Loss in an Interturbine Duct 121
208 Internal Air System 31, 127
Humidity Relative Enthalpy Rise 222
Effect on Corrected Spool Speed Limiters 60 Test Analysis 76
Hydrogen 94 Interstage Bleed 31, 222
Introduction to GasTurb 2
-I- ISA 96, 219
Ideal Power Coefficient ISA Correction 78
Propeller 128
Iteration
Ideal Thrust Coefficient Boosted Turboshaft 184
Nozzle 126 Convergence 66, 179, 180
Propeller 128 Design 169
Idle 18, 61 GearedTurbofan 186
IGV 18 Introduction 9
Imperial Units 217 Mixed Flow Turbofan 186
Increment 157 Newton Raphson 178, 179
Indicated Airspeed 221 Off-Design 170
Inertia 82 Range Selection 169
Initialize Transient 23 Single Spool Turbojet 182
Inlet Transient 178
Dimensions 145 Turboprop 183, 184
Flow Distortion 136 Unmixed Flow Turbofan 185
Pressure Loss (Power Generation) 103, 105 Variable Cycle Engine 187
Inlet Guide Vanes (variable) 18 Iteration Target 166, 168
Input Data 30 Iteration Variable 57
Off-Design 16
Steady State 55 -J-
Transient 85 Jacobi Matrix 178, 179
Input Errors 166 JP-10 94
Input Parameter 166, 168 JP-4 94
Installation

236 GasTurb 11
Disk 158
-K- Gearbox 156
Kerosen 94 Inlet 145
Key 97 Inter-duct 152
Turbine 149
-L- Mass Flow Input 32
Layout File 67
Matching a GasTurb Model to Given Data 196,
Lift Fan 140 197, 198, 203
Limiter 18, 166 Max Limiter Gain Modifier (Transient) 87
Effect of Humidity 60 Maximum Limiter 18, 61
General Table 167
Measurement Tolerance 80
Interaction of Min and Max Limiters 60
Metal Temperature 116
Interaction with Iteration Setup 56
MIL 210 96
Limiter Codes (Steady State) 62
Minimum Limter 18
Limiter Codes (Transient) 84
Mission 21, 67
Mission 21, 67
Export of Results 68
Schedules 61
Layout of Output List 67
Shaft Power or Fuel Flow 183
Optimization Constraints 45
Single Limiter Setting 60
Temperature Control Schedule 205 Mixed Flow Turbofan
Fan and Booster Map 132
Thrust or Fuel Flow 182, 185
Iteration Setup 186
Thrust Rating 202
Transient 82 Mixer 122
Model Based Engine Monitoring 25
Load Compressor 141
Modifiers 58
Long Names 217
Monitoring 25, 81
-M- Iteration 180
Manufacturing Tolerance 72 Transfer File 81
Map 49, 131, 132, 135, 199 Monte Carlo 45
Intake 130 Algorithm 188
Propeller 102, 134 Asymmetric Distribution 190
Re-Labeling the Speed Lines 198 Confidence 206
Turbine 102 Development Risk 45
Input 189
Map Directory 2
Manufacturing Tolerance 72
Map Format 97
Off-Design 23, 72
Map Reference Speed 53
Standard Deviation 189
Map Scaling 48, 53
Test Analysis Uncertainty 15
Compressor Map 49
Trapezoid Distribution 190
Efficiency 50
Example 1 51 More (Scope) 4, 144
Example 2 52 Multiple Operating Lines 20
Map Scaling File 49
Parametric Study 199
-N-
Procedure 49 Names 217
Turbine 54 Natural Gas 94
Writing Scaled Maps to File 172 Newton Raphson 178, 179
Map Scaling Point 49, 50, 51 NGV 219
Map Type 132 NMS Files 215
Mass Nomenclature 215
Axial Compressor 145 Air System 31
Burner 148 General 214

Index 237
Nomenclature 215 Export to Excel 91, 170

Stations 215 Test Analysis Results 80
Symbols 216 Text File 171
Nominal Speed 219 Overall Efficiency 224
Normal Distribution 188 Overboard Bleed 31
Novice Mode 4 Overspray 95
NOx 95, 115 Overstressed Disk 159
Nozzle 36, 168
C/D Area Schedule 56 -P-
Convergent 125 Parallel Compressor Theory
Convergent-Divergent 125 Aerodynamic Interface Plane 136
Dimensions 154 Compressor Coupling 138
Petal Angle 125 Parametric Study 11, 168
Plug Nozzle 154 Contour Lines 175
Standard Nozzle 154 Difference between 2 Study Results 41
Thrust Coefficient 126 General 38
Map Scaling 199
Nozzle Calculation Switch 38, 125
Off Design 66
Nozzle Guide Vane 219
Off-Design 21, 63
-O- Picture Catalog 175
Off-Design 196, 198 with Contour Lines for Off-Design 40
Effects 22 with Iteration 38
General Remarks 48 with Many Contour Lines 40
Getting Started 16 with Several Carpet Plots 39
Input Data 16 with Turbine Design 42
Parametric Study 21, 63, 66 Peak Efficiency 50, 225
Off-Design Input Data Performance Monitoring 81
C/D Nozzle Area Schedule 56 Performance Scope 4
Flow Distortion 57 Petal Angle 125, 154
Iteration Variable 57 Picture Catalog 175
Modifiers 58 PID Control 83
T4 Input 56 Pitch-Chord Ratio 145
Tip Clearance Correction 58 PLA 85
Variable Geometry (Compressor) 58
Polar Moment of Inertia 82
ZXN input 56
POT and Bleed Input=f(Time) 87
Operating Line 19, 63 Power Coefficient 129
Multiple Operating Lines 20
Power Generation 63, 64
Reheat 19, 64
Inlet and Exhaust Pressure Loss 105
Single Spool Turboshaft 63, 64
Input Mode 103
Optimization
Power Lever 23, 85
Adaptive Random Search 193
Power Lever Input = f(Time) 87
Algorithms 190
Constraints 44 Power Offtake
From Any Spool 140
Figure of Merit 45
Transient 86
General 43
Getting Started 12 Pre-Defined Functions 168
Gradient Search 191 Preliminary Engine Design 4, 26
Off-Design Constraints 45 Pressure 218
Variables 44 Pressure Loss
Burner 114
Optimizing Disk Dimensions 158, 162
Compressor Interduct. 110
Output

238 GasTurb 11
Pressure Loss Reynolds Number Index 101

Exhaust Duct 122 Risk Prediction 45
Fundamental Pressure Loss 124 RIT 219
Inlet 105 RNI 101
Intake 103 Root-Sum-Squared 188
Reheat, Afterburner 124 Rotor Inlet Temperature 119, 219
Turbine Inter-duct 121
Running Line 19
Production Scatter 72
Program Directory 2 -S-
Propeller Scales of Graphs 172, 174
General 128 Scaling Factor 25
Ideal 128 Scan Sequence Number 77
Map 134 ScanId 77
Map Format 102 Schedule 61
Real 129 Nozzle Area 206
Static Performance 102 Turbine Temperature 205
Proportional Control Constant 83, 86 Schedule Correction 79
Propulsive Efficiency 223, 224 Scope 4, 144
Pumping Diameter 120 Secondary Air System 31, 127
Relative Enthalpy Rise 222
-R- Sensor Checking 77
Radial Compressor 148
Sensor Time Constant inTransient 86
Radial Pressure Profile 103
Sequential Combustion 114
Rain 206
Shaft 160
Range Checking 166
Short Names 217
Rayleigh Line 114, 124
Shrouded Blades 149
Recirculation Bleed 108
SI Units 217
Recuperator 111
Single Cycle Output 7
Reference Point 30
Single Point Mission 67
References 228
Single Spool Turbojet
Regenerator 111 Iteration Setup 182
Reheat 36, 48, 123
Single Spool Turboshaft
Design Inlet Mach No. 124
Limiter Interaction with Iteration Setup 56
Dimensions 154
Operating Line 63, 64
Efficiency 124
Small Effects
Equivalent Dry Nozzle Area 123
Design 45
Limiters 123
Getting Started 13
Operating Line 64
Off Design 68
Partload 19
Pressure Loss 124 Smith Diagram 42
Sequential Combustion 114 Smooth C 98, 103
Specify Thrust 123 Smooth T 102, 103
Thermodynamic Station 126 SOT 119, 120, 219
Re-Labeling Speed Lines 198 Special Maps 49, 53
Relative Enthalpy Rise 222 Specific Fuel Consumption 223, 224
Relative Speed 219 Specific Heat 94
Relative Tip Clearance 33 Specify Shaft Power or Fuel Flow 183
Reynolds Correction 50 Specify Thrust or Fuel Flow 18, 182, 185
How to Modify 203 Speed
Map Scaling Example 51 Aircraft 221
Spool 219

Index 239
Split Map 132 Data Input Overview 75

Stability Assessment 136, 138 Deviations from Model 76
Standard Atmosphere 96 Effect of Measurement Errors 80
Standard Correction 78 Example 35
Export of Data 80
Standard Data Directory 2
Export to Excel 81
Standard Data Files 48
Flow Analysis Method 76
Standard Day 219
ISA Correction 80, 81
Standard Day Corrected 220
Measured Values 75
Standard Deviation 189 Monte Carlo Study 72
Standard Map 49 Multiple Point Data Input 77
Static Pressure 218 Rated Power 79
Static Propeller Thrust 129, 134 Schedule Correction 79, 80, 81
Static Temperature 218 Sensor Checking 77
Station 126, 215 Standard Correction 78
Input and Results 26 Transient 206
Thermodynamic 126 Turbine Capacity 75
Statistal Background 188 Turbojet 73
Stator Outlet Temperature 119, 120, 219 Turboshaft 73
Steady State Input Data 55 Uncertainty 46
Steam Cooling 95 with Design Calculation 34
Steam Injection 95 Test Bed 104
Strategy in Optimization 190 Test Data Input 75
Stress Margin 159 Testbed Input Mode 103
Supersonic Engine Design 208 Thermal Efficiency 224
Surge Margin 134, 204 Thermodynamic Station 26, 126
Inlet Flow Distortion 136 Thermodynamic Thrust 202
Small Effects 22 Thermodynamic Turbine Efficiency 33, 120
Symbols 216 Thrust
Run to a Given Value 203
-T- Static 129, 134
T41 219 Thrust Coefficient
Tables Ideal Propeller 128
Editor 167 Nozzle 126
Format 97
Thrust Rating 202
General 167
Time Constant 86
Key 97
Tip Clearance
Tapezoid Distribution 190 Compressor Efficiency 33
Target Off-Design 58
Design Point Iteration 169 Turbine Design 117
Off-Design Iteration 170
Total Pressure 218
Temperature 218
Total Temperature 218
Disk 158
Transient
Temperature-Entropy Diagram 211 100% Power Offtake 86
Test Analysis 223 Accel and Decel 86
Air System 76 Additions to the steady state model 82
Altitude Test Facility 104 Burner Time Constant 87
Analysis by Synthesis 25, 72 Control Constants 86
Comparison with a Model 80 Fuel Flow Input 88
Compressor AnSyn 74 Geared Turbofan Iteration Setup 186
Conventional 35 General 82

240 GasTurb 11
Transient Tutorial 6
Initialize 23 Two Spool Turboshaft & Turboprop
Input Data 85 Iteration Setup 183
Iteration Variables and Errors 88
Limiter Codes 84 -U-
Max Limiter Gain Modifier 87 Units 166
PID Control 83 Units Converter 217
POT and Bleed Input=f(Time) 87 Unmixed Flow Turbofan
Power Lever 85 Iteration Setup 185
Power Lever Input = f(Time) 87 Un-Scaled Maps 53
Spool Speed Input 87 Unshrouded Blades 149
Temp Sensor Time Constant 86 US Units 217
Time Step 88 User Defined Iteration 170
Transmission Efficiency 224 User Defined Names 8
True Airspeed 221
Turbine 168 -V-
Blade Metal Temperature 116 Variable
Cooled 119, 120 Design Point Iteration 169
Cooling Constant 116 Off-Design Iteration 170
Design 115, 116 Variable Cycle Engine 210
Dimensions 149 Bypass 153
Efficiency 33 Iteration Setup 187
Flow Capacity 75, 76, 223 Variable Geometry 58
General 118 Compressor 18, 58, 198
HP Turbine Design Example 150 Variable Guide Vanes
Inter-duct 121 Single Spool Turboshaft 64
LP Turbine Design Examples 151 Vehicle Propulsion 112
Map 102, 135 Velocity Triangles 42
Map Scaling 54
VGV 18, 58
Thermodynamic Station 126
Tip Clearance Correction 117 -W-
Uncooled 119 Warnings 166
Turbofan Water
Booster Map 204 Gaseous 94, 95, 108, 206
Core Efficiency 224 Liquid 109
Handling Bleed Location 31 Water Injection
Mixed Flow 205 Combustor 95
Propulsive Efficiency 223 Compressor 108
Transmission Efficiency 224 Evaporation Rate 108
Unmixed Flow 205 Fogging 95
Water Injection 206 Turbofan 206
Turbojet Work Done on Liquid Water 109
Test Analysis 73 Weight
Turboprop Axial Compressor 145
Equivalent Shaft Power 222 Burner 148
Iteration 184 Disk 158
Single Spool 63, 64 Gearbox 156
Turboshaft Inlet 145
Exhaust Duct Loss 122 Inter-duct 152
Single Spool 63, 64 Turbine 149
Test Analysis 73 Wet Compression 108

Index 241
Wet Compression 108

Work Done on Liquid Water 109
Windows Metafile 175
Working Directory 2
Working Line 63
Write to Excel 91, 170
Write to File 171
-Z-
Zoom 172, 174
ZXN 56
ZXN given (1) or ZT4 given (2) 16

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GasTurb 11

Copyright (C) 2007 by Joachim Kurzke

Part I Getting Started 2

Part II The Cycle Design Point 30

Copyright (C) 2007 by Joachim Kurzke

Part III Off-Design Performance 48

Copyright (C) 2007 by Joachim Kurzke

Part IV Component Modeling 94

Copyright (C) 2007 by Joachim Kurzke

Copyright (C) 2007 by Joachim Kurzke

Part V Engine Dimensions 144

Copyright (C) 2007 by Joachim Kurzke

Part VI General Options 166

Part VII Mathematics 178

Copyright (C) 2007 by Joachim Kurzke

Part VIII How to ... 196

Part IX Nomenclature and Units 214

Copyright (C) 2007 by Joachim Kurzke

Part X References 228

Copyright (C) 2007 by Joachim Kurzke

Copyright (C) 2007 by Joachim Kurzke

1.1.1 Program Requirements and Installation

Operating system Windows 2000, Windows XP

Processor Pentium III (or AMD equivalent) or better

RAM Memory 256 MB or more

Resolution SVGA 1024x768 @ 256+ colors

Copyright (C) 2007 by Joachim Kurzke

Using Data and Component Map Directories

C:\Programs\GasTurb10.exe C:\GasTurb\Data C:\GasTurb\Maps

"C:\Program Files\GasTurb10.exe" "C:\My Data\GasTurb\Data" "C:\My Data\GasTurb\Maps"

About GasTurb Files

1.1.2 Getting Help

1.1.3 What's New in GasTurb 11

used Geared Unmixed Flow Turbofan configuration.

Limiters for controlling minimum values are available now.

Highlights of the new user interface are:

1.1.3.1 Program Scope

Basic Was called Novice Mode in previous versions of the program

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Performance Dubbed Expert Mode previously

More More than performance...

1.1.3.2 Compatibility with Previous GasTurb Versions

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Technical Simulation Differences

There will also be differences between GasTurb 10 and GasTurb 11:

1.2 First Steps

1.2.1 Engine Configurations

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1.2.2 Starting the Calculation

Select as task and then click in the Design

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Cycle Design Output Example

1.2.3 Define Composed Values

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1.2.4 Define Iterations

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1.2.5 Switching Between SI and Imperial Units

1.3 More Cycle Design Calculations

Copyright (C) 2007 by Joachim Kurzke