UNIT 2

DEFINITION OF IC:

An integrated circuit (IC), sometimes called a chip or wafer on which thousands or millions of tiny
resistors, capacitors, and are fabricated. An IC can function as an , timer, counter, computer or
microprocessor. A particular IC is categorized as either linear or digital depending on its intended
application.

DEFINITION LINEAR IC:

A linear integrated circuit (linear IC) is a solid-state device characterized by a theoretically infinite
number of possible operating states. It operates over a continuous range of input levels. In contrast,
a IC has a finite number of discrete input and output states.

EXAMPLE OF OP AMP :

An operational amplifier (often op-amp or op amp) is a high- electronic voltage with a and,
usually, a single-ended output. In this configuration, an op-amp produces an output potential
relative to circuit ground) that is typically hundreds of thousands of times larger than the
potential difference between its input.
Symbol of op amp

Digital ic
It is expressed as series of the digits 0 and 1, typically represented by values of a physical
quantity such as voltage or magnetic polarization. Often contrasted with analogue.

Examples

CMOS Logic Introduction to logic families, CMOS logic, CMOS steady state electrical behavior,
CMOS dynamic electrical behavior, CMOS logic families. Bipolar Logic and Interfacing Bipolar
logic, Transistor logic, TTL families, CMOS/TTL interfacing, Low voltage CMOS logic and
interfacing, Emitter coupled logic, Comparison of logic families

Classification of ic
Levels of integration:

• Small-Scale Integration (SSI):

SSI devices contain several independent electronic
components in a single package.The inputs and outputs are connected directly to the pins in the package.The
number of components is less than 10 in every package.Logic Gates like inverters, AND gate, OR gate and etc.
are products of SSI

• Medium Scale Integration (MSI) :

MSI device has a complexity of 10 to 100
electronic components in a single package.They usually perform basic and specific digital operations and
includesdecoders, adders, counters, multiplexers, and demultiplexers.

• Large Scale Integration (LSI) : Products of LSI contain between 100 and10,000 electronic components
in a single package.They include memory modules, I/O controllers, and 4-bit microprocessor systems.

• Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI): Devices that are results of VLSI contain between 10,000 and
300,000 electronic components.VLSI produces large memory modules and 8bit, 16-bit.

Packages of ic:

Pin diagram of ic:

Temperature ranges of ic :

1. Military temperature range: -55 to+1250c

2. Industrial temperature range: -20 to+850c
3. Commercial temperature range: 0 to +700c

Power supply ranges:

Digital ic are operated with single power supply 0 to 5v

Linear ic are operated with dual [pwer supply -18 to +18v or -5 to +5v

Different circuits of ic:

Internal stages of op amp:

input stage balanced

Intermediate stage un balanced

Level shifting we use emitter follower to provide high impedance

Output stage push pull configuration to increase the power of the signal

Schematic symbol:

Equivalent circuit:

The circuit include

Vo =Avid=A(v1-v2)

A is large signal voltage gain

V1 voltage at non inverting input terminal

V2 voltage at inverting input terminal

V0 output voltage

R0 thevinens resistance

Delta(vid) equivalent thevinens voltage

Ideal transfer characteristics:

You have positive and negative saturated regions, showing the nonlinear and linear regions. If
you want to make signals bigger, you need to operate in the linear region. You can describe the
three regions mathematically as follows

To perform math functions (such as addition and subtraction), the op amp must work in linear
mode. All op amp circuits shown here operate in the linear active region.

Types of configuration:

Open loop:
An operational amplifier is shown without a feedback loop(open loop),in order to illustrate some of its
fundamental properities.operational amplifiers are almost never never used in this way,because the open
lop gain is far too high to be useful .the differential input voltage (the voltage between the two input
terminals of the op amp), Vdiff, is controlled by the slider on the left. The output voltage Vout = A*Vdiff.
Because the open-loop gain A is so big, Vout is saturated unless Vdiff is very small. Note that the output
voltage of an operational amplifier has definite voltage limits. In this case the limits are +14 volts and -14
volts

Open loop differential:

shows the open loop differential amplifier in which input signals vin1 and vin2 are applied to the positive
and negative input terminals.Since the OPAMP amplifies the difference the between the two input
signals, this configuration is called the differential amplifier. The OPAMP amplifies both ac and dc input
signals. The source resistance Rin1 and Rin2 are normally negligible compared to the input resistance
Ri.Therefore voltage drop across these resistances can be assumed to be zero.
Non inverting amplifier:

In this configuration, the input voltage is applied to non-inverting terminals and inverting terminal is
ground

v1 = +vin v2 = 0

vo = +Ad vin

This means that the input voltage is amplified by Ad and there is no phase reversal at the output.In all
there configurations any input signal slightly greater than zero drive the output to saturation level. This
is because of very high gain. Thus when operated in open-loop, the output of the OPAMP is either
negative or positive saturation or switches between positive and negative saturation levels. Therefore
open loop op-amp is not used in linear applications.

The Inverting Amplifier: 1If the input is applied to only inverting terminal and non-inverting terminal is
grounded then it is called inverting amplifier
v1= 0, v2 = vin.

vo = -Ad vin

The negative sign indicates that the output voltage is out of phase with respect to input 180 ° or is of
opposite polarity. Thus the input signal is amplified and inverted also.

Closedloop inverting amplifier:

The gain of the OPAMP can be controlled if fedback is introduced in the circuit. That is, an output signal
is fedback to the input either directly or via another network. If the signal fedback is of opposite or out
phase by 180° with respect to the input signal, the feedback is called negative fedback
Then, the Closed-Loop Voltage Gain of an Inverting Amplifier is given as.

Closed non inverting:

In the previous Inverting Amplifier tutorial, we said that for an ideal op-amp “No current flows into the
input terminal” of the amplifier and that “V1 always equals V2”. This was because the junction of
theinput and feedback signal ( V1 ) are at the same potential.we can calculate the closed-loop voltage gain

Then the closed loop voltage gain of a Non-inverting Operational Amplifier will be given as:

Op amp applications:
 1. Audio and video preamplifers and buffers
2. Filters
3. Voltage regulator and current regulator
4. Analogue to digital converter
5. Voltage clamps
6. Oscillatos and wave form generators
7. Analogue computer
8. Capacitance multiplier
9. Charge amplifier

IDEAL CHARACTERISTICS OF AN

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

There are seven ideal characteristics of an operational amplifier they are:

1. High Open loop voltage gain (Aol)
2. High Input impedance (Rin)
3. High Bandwidth (BW)
4. Low Output resistance (Rout)
5. High Common mode rejection ratio (CMRR)
6. High Slew rate (S)
7. Low Power supply rejection ratio (PSRR)

1.
HIGH OPEN LOOP VOLTAGE GAIN (AOL):
Open-loop gain is infinite in the ideal operational
amplifier but finite in real operational amplifiers. Typical devices exhibit open-loop DC gain
ranging from 100,000 to over 1 million. In cases where closed-loop gain must be very high, the
feedback gain will be very low, and the low feedback gain causes low loop gain; in these cases,
the operational amplifier will cease to behave ideally.
AOL =∞

2. HIGH INPUT IMPEDENCE (Rin):

The differential input impedance of the operational amplifier is
defined as the impedance between its two inputs; the common-mode input impedance is the
impedance from each input to ground.
Rin=∞
3. HIGH BAND WIDTH (BW):
 All amplifiers have finite bandwidth. To a first approximation, the
op-amp has the frequency response of an integrator with gain. That is, the gain of a typical op-
amp is inversely proportional to frequency and is characterized by its gain–bandwidth
product (GBWP).
BW=∞
4. LOW OUTPUT RESISTANCE (Rout):
Low output impedance is important for low-impedance loads;
for these loads, the voltage drop across the output impedance effectively reduces the
open loop gain. In configurations with a voltage-sensing negative feedback, the output
impedance of the amplifier is effectively lowered; thus, in linear applications, op-amp
circuits usually exhibit very low output impedance indeed.
Low-impedance outputs typically require high quiescent (i.e., idle) current in the output
stage and will dissipate more power, so low-power designs may purposely sacrifice low
output impedance.
Rout=0
5. HIGH COMMON MODE REJECTION RATIO (CMRR):
A perfect operational amplifier amplifies only the voltage
difference between its two inputs, completely rejecting all voltages that are common to both.
However, the differential input stage of an operational amplifier is never perfect, leading to the
amplification of these common voltages to some degree. The standard measure of this defect is
called the (denoted CMRR). Minimization of common mode gain is usually important in non-
inverting amplifiers that operate at high amplification.
CMRR=∞
6. HIGH SLEW RATE (S):
The amplifier's output voltage reaches its maximum rate of
change, the , usually specified in volts per microsecond. When slewing occurs, further increases
in the input signal have no effect on the rate of change of the output. Slewing is usually caused
by the input stage saturating; the result is a constant current i driving a capacitance C in the
amplifier (especially those capacitances used to implement its ; the slew rate is limited
by dv/dt=i/C.
S=∞
7. LOW POWER SUPPLY REJECTION RATIO (PSRR):
With increasing frequency the power-supply rejection usually gets
worse. So it can be important to keep the supply clean of higher frequency ripples and signals,
e.g. by the use of
PSRR=0

S NO. PARAMETER VALUE

1 AOL ∞
2 RIN ∞
3 BW ∞
4 ROUT 0
 5 CMRR ∞
6 S ∞
7 PSRR 0

Operational Amplifier Parameters:

Op-Amp parameters

o/p Gain
Input off- Input off- Input bias Input Output Thermal
voltage CMRR PSRR Slew rate Bandwidth
set voltage set current current swing resistance resistance drift
product

1. INPUT OFFSET VOLTAGE (Vios):

The o/p voltage may not be zero with zero i/p voltage, this is due to unavoidable imbalances inside
the op-amp. So we have to apply small voltage at i/p terminals to make o/p voltage zero(Vo=0). This
voltage to be applied is called as INPUT OFFSET VOLTAGE (Vios). For LM741 IC, Vios=150µv.

2. INPUT OFFSET CURRENT (Iios):

The algebraic difference between the currents into the inverting and non-inverting terminals is
referred to as INPUT OFFSET CURRENT (Iios).

For LM741 IC,Iios=200nA.

Formula: Iios =|Ib1 –Ib2|

3. IN PUT BIAS CURRENT(Ib ):

It is the average of currents that flow into the inverting and non-inverting terminals of op-amp.

For LM741 IC, Ib=500nA.

Formula: Ib = (Ib1+Ib2)/2

4. INPUT RESISTANCE (Ri):

It is the equivalent resistance that can be measured at either the non-inverting and inverting
terminals with other terminal connected to ground.

Its ideal value is INFINITY.

For LM741 IC, Ri=10^(12).

5. OUTPUT RESISTANCE (Ro):

It is the equivalent resistance that can be taken at the output terminal and ground. Its ideal
value is ZERO.
For LM741 IC, Ro=75Ω.

6. OUTPUT VOLTAGE SWING (VOS):

It indicates the value of positive and negative saturation voltages of op-amp. The output
voltage never exceeds the limit of supply voltage.

For LM741 IC, Vos=+13v,-13 v.

7. COMMON MODE REJECTION RATIO (CMRR):

It is the ratio of differential gain to common mode gain. It is denoted by row. Its ideal value
is INFINITY. The o/p equation is Vo=AdVd+AcVc.

For LM741 IC, CMRR=120dB.

CMRR=Ad/Ac ; here, Ac=(V1+V2)/2 and Ad=(V1-V2).

8. SLEW RATE (SR):

It is defined as maximum rate of change of output voltage. It is expressed in “volts/µsec”. The

slew rate equation is, SR=2πfVd . Its ideal value is INFINITY. For LM741 IC,SR=0.5 v/µsec.

Formula: SR= (dv/dt)|max

9. THERMAL DRIFT (T):

Thermal drift depends on input offset voltage, input offset current and input bias current.
These three parameters increases for every rise in 10deg.

For LM741 IC, Thermal voltage drift =+15,-15 µv/c.

Thermal current drift =+200 pA/c.

Thermal bias current drift=+200pA/c.

Formulae:

(dVo/dT) = thermal voltage drift

(dIios/dT)= thermal current drift

 (dIb/dT) = thermal bias current drift.

10. POWER SUPPLY REJECTION RATIO (PSRR):

The change in input offset voltage is caused by variation in one of the two supply voltages
while the other is constant. This is called PSRR. Its ideal value is ZERO. For LM741 IC, PSRR=6.31 µv/v.

(dVios/dVcc)|dVee=constant.

11. GAIN BAND WIDTH PRODUCT:

It is the product of band width and voltage gain, when voltage gain is unity. Its ideal value is
INFINITY. For LM741 IC,G=1MHz.

DATA SHEET OF ‘LM741 IC’:

MEASURMENT OF OP-AMP PARAMETERS:

1)MEASURING INPUT OFFSET VOLTAGE:

Measuring input offset voltages of a few micro-volts requires that the test circuit does
not introduce more error than the offset voltage itself. The circuit amplifies the input offset voltage by
the noise gain of 1001. The measurement is made at the amplifier output using an accurate digital
voltmeter.

Vios=(Ve/1000) ,

here Ve=voltage at potentiometer i.e. +10,-10.

2) MEASURING PSSR:

Some manufacturers specify PSRR in terms of the offset voltage it causes at the

amplifiers inputs; others specify it in terms of the output.

PSRR=20log10(Vsupply*Av/Vout) dB.

3) MEASURING INPUT OFFSET CURRENT:

The op-amp used is closed loop configuration. Two input currents are applied to inverting
(Ib1)and non-inverting terminals(Ib2) and resistor is placed in both the terminals. The capacitor is placed
in parallel to resistor , which is placed in non-inverting terminal.
Case(i): put Ib2=0

Now,Ib1 is the current flowing in op-amp through resistor(R) ,the o/p voltage is V01=Ib1*R

Ib1=(V01/R).

Case(ii): put Ib1=0

Now,Ib1 is the current flowing in op-amp through resistor(R) ,the o/p voltage is V02=Ib2*R

Ib2=(V02/R).

Now, Iios=(Ib1+Ib2)/2.

3) MEASURING INPUT BIAS CURRENT:

The op-amp used is closed loop configuration. Two input currents are applied to inverting
(Ib1)and non-inverting terminals(Ib2) and resistor is placed in both the terminals. The capacitor is placed
in parallel to resistor, which is placed in non-inverting terminal.

Case(i): put Ib2=0

Now,Ib1 is the current flowing in op-amp through resistor(R) ,the o/p voltage is V01=Ib1*R

Ib1=(V01/R).

Case(ii): put Ib1=0

Now,Ib1 is the current flowing in op-amp through resistor(R) ,the o/p voltage is V02=Ib2*R

Ib2=(V02/R).

NOW, Ib=|Ib1-Ib2|.

4) MEASURING SLEW RATE:

Vo

+
 Vin

Vin=Vp sinwt

d/dt (Vin)= Vo

d/dt (Vp sinwt)=Vo

dVo/dt=wVp

slew rate=2πfVp V/S

f=slew rate/2πVp Hz

5) MEASURING OUTPUT RESISTANCE:

Vo=(AoL*Vi*RL/Ro+RL)

Vo/Vi=(AoL*RL/Ro+RL)=AoL’

AoL*RL= AoL’(Ro+RL)

Ro= RL(AoL- AoL’)/ AoL’

Ro= RL [(AoL/ AoL’)-1] Ω

Here,

Vo = output voltage

Vi = input voltage

RL=load resistance

Ro= output resistance

AoL=open loop gain

6) MEASURING CMRR:

Let Vs be the source voltage, Vo be the output voltage, Vd=VA-VB, VA is voltage at inverting
terminal, VB is voltage at non- inverting terminal,R1 is resistance at both terminals and Rf is feedback
resistance.

Ac=(Rf/R1+Rf)
 Ad=1+(Rf/R1)

And CMRR=Ad/Ac= -(R1+Rf)2/(R+Rf).

COMPENSATION TECHNIQUES:

COMPESATION TECHNIQUES

AC COMPENSATIION DC COMPENSATION

1)AC COMPENSATION:

COMPENSATION:

THE RATE OF CHANGE OF GAIN AS WELL AS THE PHASE SHIFT CAN BE CHANGED BY USING
SPECIFIC COMPONENTS WITH THE OP-AMP.THE MOSTLY USED COMPONENTS ARE REISTORS,
CAPACITORS.THE NETWORK FORMED BY SUCH COMPONENTS ARE USED FOR MODIFYING THE RATE OF
CHANGE OF GAIN AND THE PHASE SHIFT IS CALLED A COMPENSATING NETWORKS .THE MAIN PURPOSE
OF THE COMPENSATING NETWORKS IS TO MODIFY THE PERFORMANCE OF AN OP-AMP CIRCUIT OVER
THE DESIRED FREQUENCY RANGE BY CONTROLLING ITS GAIN AND PHASE SHIFT.

THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF OP-AMP: 1.INTERNAL COMPESATION

2.EXTERNAL COMPENSATION
 OPEN LOOP
INTERNAL FREQ.
COMPENSATION
CLOSED LOOP
TYPES OF AC
COMPENSATION
POLE-ZERO
EXTERNAL FREQ.
COMPENSATION
DOMINANT
POLE-ZERO

FREQUENCY COMPENSATION:

THE GAIN OF OP-AMP CHANGES WITH VARIATION IN FREQUENCY IS KNOWN AS

MAGNITUDE PLOTE AND THE MANER IN WHICH THE PHASE SHIFT CHANGES WITH FREQUENCY IS
KNOWN AS THE PHAS ANGLE PLOT. AS FREQUENCY INCREASES GAIN OF THE AMPLIFIER DECREASES
AND PHASE ANGLE BETWEEN THE OUT PUT AND INPUT SIGNAL INCREASES .IN ORDER TO MAINTAIN
UNITY GAIN BANDWIDTH FREQUENCY COMPENSATIONIS USED.

i)INTERNAL FREQUENCY COMPENSATION:

 741 AND 351 IC’S HAVE INTERNAL COMPENSATING NETWORKS.IN AN INTERNALLY
COMPENSATED OP-AMPS,THE COMPENSATING NETWORK IS DESIGNED INTO THE CIRCUIT TO CONTROL
THE GAIN AND THE PHASE SHIFT OF THE OP-AMP.

a)OPEN LOOP FREQUENCY COMPENSATION:

THE OPEN-LOOP GAIN OF THE OP-AMP IS CONSTANT ONLY UPTO FIRST BREAK
FREQUENCY.BREAK FREQUENCY IS THE MAXIMUM FREQUENCY OF THE OPEN LOOP OP-AMP.BUT THIS
BANDWIDTH IS VERY SMALL, AND THEREFORE THE OPEN-LOOP CONFIGURATION IS OF LITTLE USE. FOR
THE 741C THE PRODUCT OF THE COORDINATES(GAINAND FREQUENCY)OF ANY POINT BEYOND THE
BREAK FREQUENCY (5HZ)ON THE OPEN-LOOP FREQUENCY RESPONSE CURVE IS ABOUT 1MHz.

b)CLOSED LOOP FREQUENCY COMPENSATION:

THE BANDWIDTH TO BE INFINITE SO THAT THE GAIN IS THE SAME AT ALL FREQUENCY.TO
INCREASE THE BANDWIDTH OF AN OP-AMP AND THUS MAKLE IT A VERSATILE DEVICE,A NEGATIVE
FEEDBACK MUST BE USED WHICH FORMS A CLOSED LOOP. THE CLOSED LOOP BANDWIDTH CAN DE
DETERMINE USING A FREQUENCY RESPONSE CURVE.

ii)EXTERNAL FREQUENCY COMPENSATION:

EXTERNAL COMPENSATING COMPONENTS , RESISTORS,

CAPACITORS ARE ADDED AT DESIGNATED TERMINALS IN NONCOMPENSATED OP-AMP.FIRST
GENERATION OP-AMPS SUCH AS 709 REQUIRE EXTERNAL COMPENSATING NETWORKS.

THERE ARE TWO TYPES :

a)DOMINENT POLE ZERO COMPENSATION:

THE METHOD MOST COMMONLY USED IS CALLED DOMINENT POLE-ZERO

COMPENSATION. WHICH IS A FORM OF LAG COMPENSATION. THE LOWEST FREQUENCY POLE IS CALLED
THE DOMINENT POLE BECAUSE IT DOMINATES THE EFFECT OF ALL OF THE HIGHER FREQUENCY POLES.
THE RESULT IS THAT THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE OPEN LOOP OUTPUT PHASE AND THE PHASE
RESPONSE OF A FEEDBACK NETWORK HAVING NO REACTIVE ELEMENTS NEVER FALLS BELOW −180°
WHILE THE AMPLIFIER HAS A GAIN OF ONE OR MORE, ENSURING STABILITY.

DOMINANT-POLE COMPENSATION CAN BE IMPLEMENTED FOR GENERAL PURPOSE OPERATIONAL

AMPLIFIERS BY ADDING AN INTEGRATING CAPACITANCE TO THE STAGE THAT PROVIDES THE BULK OF
THE AMPLIFIER'S GAIN. THIS CAPACITOR CREATES A POLE THAT IS SET AT A FREQUENCY LOW ENOUGH
TO REDUCE THE GAIN TO ONE (0 DB) AT OR JUST BELOW THE FREQUENCY WHERE THE POLE NEXT
HIGHEST IN FREQUENCY IS LOCATED. IN ADDITION, DOMINANT-POLE COMPENSATION ALLOWS
CONTROL OF OVERSHOOT AND RINGING IN THE AMPLIFIER STEP RESPONSE, WHICH CAN BE A MORE
DEMANDING REQUIREMENT THAN THE SIMPLE NEED FOR STABILITY.

b)POLE ZERO COMPENSATION:

LEAD–LAG COMPENSATION PLACES BOTH A ZERO AND A POLE IN THE OPEN LOOP
RESPONSE, WITH THE POLE USUALLY BEING AT AN OPEN LOOP GAIN OF LESS THAN ONE.

2)DC COMPENSATION:
 TYPES OF DC
COMPENSATON

I/P OFF SET I/P OFF SET I/P BIAS

VOLTAGE CURRENT CURRENT

i)INPUT 0FFSET VOLTAGE COMPENSATION:

THE OFFSET COMPENSATION IS ACHIEVED BY THE USE OF OFFSET COMPENSATION PINS MADE
AVAILABLE BY NTHE MANUFACTURES. THE POSITION OF THE VARIABLE TERMINAL IS SO ADJUSTED THAT
THE OUTPUT VOLTAGE IS ZERO OR NULLED, WHEN BOTH THE INPUT VOLTAGES ARE ZERO.

NULLING PROCEDURE:

1. CONNECT THE CIRCUIT BY INCLUDING THE COMPENSATING RESISTOR AND THE OFFSET NULL CIRCUIT.

2. MAKE ALL GENERATOR SIGNALS ZERO.

3. CONNECT THE LOAD TO THE OUTPUT AND TURN ON THE CIRCUIT ON.

4. CONNECT A DC VOLTMETER OR AN OSCILOSCOPE ACROSS THE LOAD TO MEASURE OUTPUT

VOLTAGE.

5. VARY THE OFFSET VOLTAGE ADJUST TRIMMING POTENTIOMETER UNTIL OUTPUT VOLTAGE BECOMES
ZERO.

ii)INPUT OFFSET CURRENT AND BIAS CURRENT:

1. TO COMPENSATE BOTH INPUT BIAS CURENT AND INPUT OFFSET CUREN .

2. THE INPUT BIAS COMPENSATION IS PROVIDED BY RESISTANCE CONNECTED BETWEEN GROUND AND
NON INVERTING TERMINAL TO COMPENSATE.

3. The Compensation You Are Talking About Will Reduce The Bias Current, But Not
Eliminate It.

4. Some Op-Amps Have Input Current So Low That There Is No Need For
Compensation.

The pin 1 acts as the Ground terminal (0V). The pin 2 acts as the input terminal (5V to 24V).
The pin 3 acts as the output terminal (constant regulated 5V).