ACLAND

ANATOMY

BY Robert D.
Acland, MBBS,
FRCS (1941-2016)
Glossary
Many anatomic structures are still known by names given when Greek, Arabic and Latin
were languages of learning. There are no accepted translations for most anatomic names,
so these interesting links with the past remain in service.
 A
 Abduct
LATIN
ab, away + ducere, pull.
 Acetabulum
LATIN
acteum, vinegar + abrum, holder. Small cup for vinegar, hence any small cup.
 Adduct
LATIN
ad, towards + ducere, pull.
 Adrenal
LATIN
ad, toward + ren, kidney.
 Ala (alar)
LATIN
ala, wing.
 Alveolus (alveolar)
LATIN
alveolus, small compartment.
 Ampulla
LATIN
ampulla, flask.
 Ansa
LATIN
ansa, handle.
 Antecubital
LATIN
ante, in front; cubitum, elbow.
 Anular
LATIN
anus, ring.
 Appendix
LATIN
ad, toward; pendere, to hang. Hence appendage.
 Arcuate
LATIN
arcus, bow.
 Areola
LATIN
areola, small area.
 Atrium
LATIN
atrium, court or hall.
 Auricle
LATIN
auricula, diminutive of auris, ear.
 Axilla
LATIN
axilla, armpit.
 Acromion
GREEK
acron, summit + omos, shoulder.
 Anconeus
GREEK
ancone, elbow.
 Aponeurosis
 GREEK
apo, from: neuron, tendon. (Early GREEK anatomists used neuron
indiscriminately for nerves and tendons.)
 Arachnoid
GREEK
arachne, spider; like a spider's web
 Arytenoid
GREEK
arytaina, pitcher; the two cartilages, with the gap between them, look like the
spout of a pitcher.
 Atlas
GREEK
Atlas, mythical figure; Atlas supports the world on his shoulders.
 Axis
GREEK
axon, axle or pivot.
 Azygos
GREEK
azygos, unyoked (not a pair) named for its asymmetry.
 B
 Biceps
LATIN
bi, double; caput, head.
 Brevis
LATIN
brevis, short.
 Buccinator
LATIN
buccinator, trumpeter
 Bursa
LATIN
bursa, purse.
 Brachial
GREEK
brachion, arm.
 Brachiocephalic
GREEK
brachion, arm; kephale, head.
 Basilic
ARABIC
basilik, inner.
 C
 Calcaneus
LATIN
calcar, spur.
 Callosum
LATIN
callus, hard.
 Calvaria
LATIN
calva, bald.
 Canaliculus
 LATIN
canaliculus, little canal.
 Capitate
LATIN
caput, head; thus rounded or shaped like the head.
 Cauda equina
LATIN
cauda equina, horse's tail.
 Cecum
LATIN
caecus, blind.
 Cerebellum
LATIN
cerebellum, little brain.
 Cerebrum
LATIN
cerebrum, brain.
 Choanae
LATIN
choana, funnel
 Chorda
LATIN
chorda, cord.
 Circumflex
LATIN
circum, around; flexere, to bend.
 Clavicle
LATIN
clavis, key or fastener. An ancient window fastener was a stick with a double
curve.
 Colliculus
LATIN
colliculus, little hill.
 Conjunctiva
LATIN
conjunctivus, joining together.
 Cornea
LATIN
cornea, horny.
 Costal
LATIN
costa, rib.
 Cribriform
LATIN
cribrum, sieve.
 Crista galli
LATIN
crista, crest; galli, barnyard cock
 Cruciate
LATIN
crux (crucis), a cross.
 Crus (pl. crura)
 LATIN
crus (cruris), shin or leg; Used to name anything remotely resembling a leg.
 Cuneiform
LATIN
cuneus, wedge; forma, shape.
 Carotid
GREEK
karotides from karoun, to throttle.
 Carpal
GREEK
karpos, wrist.
 Celiac
GREEK
koilia, belly.
 Chordae tendineae
GREEK
corda, string; tendin, stretched.
 Clinoid
GREEK
cline, bed; the c. processes are named for their resemblance to bed posts.
 Clitoris
GREEK
kleitoris, clitoris.
 Coccyx
GREEK
kokkyx, cuckoo; the bone has a fancied resemblance to a cuckoo's beak.
 Concha
GREEK
conche, cockleshell.
 Condyle
GREEK
kondylos, knob.
 Conoid
GREEK
konos, cone-shaped.
 Coracoid
GREEK
korax, crow; eidos, like; i.e. hooked like a crow's beak.
 Coronary
GREEK
choronos, crown thus encircling.
 Cranium
GREEK
kranion, skull.
 Cremaster
GREEK
kremaster, suspender.
 Cricoid
GREEK
krikos, ring.
 Cuboid
GREEK
 kubos, cube; eidos, resembling.
 Cephalic
ARABIC
alkifal, outer.
 D
 Denticulate
LATIN
denticula, little tooth.
 Digit
LATIN
digitus, finger.
 Diverticulum
LATIN
diverticulum, by-way.
 Dorsum sellae
LATIN
dorsum, back; saddle, saddle, see Sella turcica.
 Duodenum
LATIN
duodenum, twelve; so named because it is 12 fingerbreadths in length.
 Dura
LATIN
durus, hard.
 Dartos
GREEK
dartos, skinned, flayed.
 Deltoid
GREEK
delta, the letter D, thus a triangle.
 Diaphragm
GREEK
diaphragma, partition.
 Digastric
GREEK
dis, double; gaster, belly
 E
 Eversion
LATIN
e-, out; vertere, to turn.
 Epicondyles
GREEK
epi, upon; kondulos, knob.
 Epididymis
GREEK
epi, upon; didumos, testis.
 Epigastric
GREEK
epi, upon; gaster, stomach; originally used to designate the area of the abdomen
overlying the stomach.
 Epiglottis
GREEK
epi, upon; glottis, mouth of the windpipe.
 Epiploic
GREEK
epiploon, omentum.
 Esophagus
GREEK
oisophagos, gullet.
 F
 Falciform
LATIN
falx, sickle; forma, shape.
 Falx
LATIN
falx, sickle.
 Femoral
LATIN
femur, thigh.
 Fimbriae
LATIN
fimbria, fringe.
 Foramen
LATIN
foramen, aperture, hole.
 Fornix
LATIN
fornix, arch.
 Fossa
LATIN
fossa, trench or ditch, hence any concavity.
 Frenum
LATIN
frenum, bridle.
 Fallopian

(Named after Fallopius, Italian anatomist.)

 G
 Galea
LATIN
galea, helmet.
 Gemellus
LATIN
gemelli, little twins.
 Geniculate
LATIN
genu, knee.
 Gracilis
LATIN
gracilis, slender.
 Ganglion
GREEK
ganglion, knot.
 Gastro-
GREEK
 gaster, stomach.
 Gastrocnemius
GREEK
gaster, belly; kneme, leg; the bulge of the leg.
 Genio-
GREEK
geneion, bridle.
 Glenoid
GREEK
glene, socket.
 Gluteal
GREEK
gloutos, buttock.
 -glossus
GREEK
glossa, tongue
 -glottis
GREEK
glottis, mouth of the windpipe
 H
 Hallux
LATIN
hallux, great toe.
 Hamate
LATIN
hamus, hook.
 Hamulus
LATIN
hamulus, little hook
 Haustrum
LATIN
haustrum, pouch.
 Hiatus
LATIN
hiare, to yawn; hence an opening.
 Hilum
LATIN
hilum, point of attachment of a seed.
 Humerus
LATIN
humerus, bone of the upper arm from G omos, shoulder.
 Helix
GREEK
helix, coil.
 Hepatic
GREEK
hepar, liver.
 Hyoid
GREEK
u, letter U; eidos, like; i.e. U-shaped
 Hypogastric
GREEK
 hupo, below; gaster, stomach; originally the area of the abdomen below the
stomach.
 Hypothenar
GREEK
hypo, below; thenar, the palm.
 I
 Incus
LATIN
incus, anvil.
 Infundibulum
LATIN
infundibulum, funnel.
 Inguinal
LATIN
inguen, groin.
 Innominate
LATIN
innominatus, without a name.
 Interosseous
LATIN
inter, between; os, bone.
 Inversion
LATIN
in, in; vertere, to turn.
 Ileum
GREEK
eileos, twisted.
 Ilium
GREEK
eilien, to twist, the twisted bone.
 Iris
GREEK
iris, rainbow.
 Ischium
GREEK
ischion, socket of hip joint.
 J
 Jejunum
LATIN
jejunum, empty, hungry.
 Jugular
LATIN
jugularis, pertaining to the neck (from jugum, yoke)
 L
 Lacerum
LATIN
lacerus, torn.
 Lacuna
LATIN
lacuna, pit, hollow.
 Lamina
LATIN
 lamina, thin plate.
 Latissimus dorsi
LATIN
latissimus, the widest; dorsi, of the back.
 Levator
LATIN
levator, lifter.
 Lieno-
LATIN
lien, spleen.
 Linea alba
LATIN
linea, white; alba, line.
 Linea aspera
LATIN
linea, line; aspera, rough.
 Lingula
LATIN
lingula, little tongue.
 Lumbrical
LATIN
lumbricus, worm.
 Lunate bone
LATIN
luna, moon.
 Larynx
GREEK
larynx, upper part of windpipe.
 M
 Malleolus
LATIN
malleolus, small hammer.
 Malleus
LATIN
malleus, hammer.
 Mamillary
LATIN
mammila, little breast.
 Manubrium
LATIN
manubrium, handle or hilt of weapon.
 Meatus
LATIN
meatus, passage.
 Medial
LATIN
medius, middle.
 Mediastinum
LATIN
media, middle; stare, stand, i.e. midline partition.
 Mental
LATIN
 mentum, chin.
 Minimus
LATIN
minimus, smallest.
 Masseter
GREEK
masseter, chewer.
 Mastoid
GREEK
mastos, breast; eidos, like.
 N
 Navicular
LATIN
navicula, little ship, hence boat shaped.
 Nucha
LATIN
nucha, nape of neck.
 O
 Obturator
LATIN
obturare, to occlude; obturator foramen was named because it is largely occluded
by the obturator membrane.
 Occipital
LATIN
occipitum, back part of head.
 Olfactory
LATIN
olere, to smell; facere, make.
 Ostium
LATIN
os, mouth.
 Odontoid
GREEK
odous, tooth; eidos, like.
 Olecranon
GREEK
olekranon, point of the elbow.
 Omo-
GREEK
omos, shoulder.
 P
 Palpebral
LATIN
palpebra, eyelid.
 Pampiniform
LATIN
pampinus, tendril + forma, shape.
 Papillary
LATIN
papilla, nipple.
 Parietal
LATIN
 paries, wall.
 Parotid
LATIN
para,beside; otos, ear.
 Pectineus
LATIN
pecten, comb.
 Pectoralis
LATIN
pectus, chest.
 Pelvis
LATIN
pelvis, basin.
 Peroneal
LATIN
perone, fibula.
 Pia
LATIN
pia, soft.
 Pineal
LATIN
pinea, pine cone.
 Piriform, piriformis
LATIN
pirum, pear; forma, shape.
 Pisiform
LATIN
pisum, pea.
 Pituitary
LATIN
pituita, phlegm.
 Plantar, plantaris
LATIN
planta, sole of the foot.
 Pollicis
LATIN
pollex, thumb.
 Pons
LATIN
pons, bridge.
 Popliteal
LATIN
poples, back of the knee.
 Porta
LATIN
porta, doorway.
 Prepuce
LATIN
praeputium, foreskin.
 Profundus
LATIN
profundus, deep.
 Pubis
LATIN
pubes, adult; the part covered by pubic (i.e. adult) hair.
 Pudendal
LATIN
pudere, to be ashamed. Genitals (pudenda) were considered shameful parts.
 Punctum
LATIN
punctum, point.
 Papyracea
GREEK
papyros, papyrus, hence paper.
 Peritoneum
GREEK
peri, around; teinein, stretch.
 Pharynx
GREEK
pharynx, throat.
 Phrenic
GREEK
phren, diaphragm.
 Platysma
GREEK
platysma, spread out flat.
 Pleura
GREEK
pleuron, rib.
 Psoas
GREEK
psoai, loins.
 Pterygoid
GREEK
pteryx, wing; eidos, like.
 Pylorus
GREEK
pulouros, gate watcher.
 Q
 Quadratus
LATIN
quadratus, squared.
 Quadriceps
LATIN
quadri, four; caput, head.
 R
 Ramus
LATIN
ramus, branch.
 Rectum
LATIN
rectus, straight.
 Renal
LATIN
 ren, kidney.
 Retinaculum
LATIN
retinaculum, a physical restraint.
 Risorius
LATIN
risus, laughter.
 Radius
GREEK
radix, rod.
 Rhomboid
GREEK
rhombus, four sided figure with equal sides.
 S
 Sacrum
LATIN
sacer, sacred.
 Sartorius
LATIN
sartor, tailor. The action of the muscle crosses the legs, in the position once
assumed by tailors.
 Scrotum
LATIN
scortum, leather purse.
 Sella turcica
LATIN
sella, saddle; turcica, Turkish
 Serratus
LATIN
serratus, saw-toothed.
 Soleus
LATIN
solea, sole of foot; also sole, flat fish. Soleus muscle is named for the latter.
 Squamous
LATIN
squama, scale or plate.
 Stapes
LATIN
stapes, stirrup.
 Salpinx
GREEK
salpigx, trumpet.
 Scalene
GREEK
skalenos, irregular, the scalene muscles were first described as a single muscle;
they form an irregular triangle.
 Scaphoid bone
GREEK
skaphe, scooped out.
 Sciatic
GREEK
ischion, hip joint.
 Sclera
GREEK
skleros, hard.
 Sesamoid
GREEK
sesamon, sesame seed; eidos, resembling.
 Sphenoid
GREEK
sphen, wedge; eidos, like. The s. bone is wedged among the other bones.
 Splanchnic
GREEK
splanchna, bowels.
 Styloid
GREEK
stylos, pillar; eidos, like.
 Symphysis
GREEK
syn, together; physis, growth.
 Saphenous
ARABIC
al safin, hidden.
 T
 Taenia
LATIN
tainia, tape.
 Talus
LATIN
talus, ankle.
 Tectorial
LATIN
tectum, roof
 Tentorium
LATIN
tentorium, tent.
 Teres
LATIN
teres, round.
 Torus
LATIN
torus, bulge.
 Trabecula
LATIN
trabecula, small timber or support.
 Triceps
LATIN
tris, three; caput, head.
 Trigeminal
LATIN
trigeminus, triplet.
 Triquetral
LATIN
triquetrus, three-cornered.
 Tubercle
LATIN
tuberculum, small swelling.
 Tympanic
LATIN
tympanum, tambourine.
 Tarsus
GREEK
tarsos, flat basket also oar blade.
 Thenar
GREEK
thenar, palm.
 Thorax
GREEK
thorax, chest.
 Thyroid
GREEK
thyreos, shield.
 Trachea
GREEK
tracheia, rough; the t. is so called because of its ridged wall.
 Tragus
GREEK
tragos, goat, from small tuft of hair near the ear.
 Trapezius
GREEK
trapezion, four-sided figure with two parallel sides.
 Trochanter
GREEK
trochanter, a roller.
 Trochlea
GREEK
trochilea, pulley.
 U
 Ulna
LATIN
ulna, elbow.
 Uncinate
LATIN
uncinatus, furnished with a hook.
 Uncus
LATIN
uncus, hook.
 Uterus
LATIN
uter, womb.
 Uvula
LATIN
uva, grape.
 V
 Vagina
LATIN
 vagina, sheath.
 Vagus
LATIN
vagare, to wander, i.e. the wandering nerve.
 Vallecula
LATIN
vallecula, little valley
 Velum
LATIN
velum, curtain.
 Vena cava
LATIN
vena, vein; cava, hollow. An old mis-translation of an older GREEK term
meaning vein of the belly.
 Vermis
LATIN
vermis, worm.
 Vesico-
LATIN
vesica, bladder.
 Vestibule
LATIN
vestibulum, antechamber.
 Vomer
LATIN
vomer, plowshare.
 X
 Xiphoid
GREEK
xiphos, sword.
 Z
 Zygomatic
GREEK
zygon, yoke

How the Project Began

By Robert Acland

A helpful suggestion.
Many things led up to my decision to make the Video Atlas, but the immediate cause was
a conversation that happened in the fall of 1993. I had just given a clinical correlation
lecture to our medical students about the importance of anatomy to me in my career as a
surgeon.

One student, Suzanne l'Ecuyer, said, "You can't imagine how helpful it would be if you
could make videos as beautiful as the slides you just showed us." Overhearing her, one of
our senior anatomists said "Bob, you've been talking about doing that for years, it's time
you did it." Within two weeks I had committed myself to making a major series of
anatomical videos for students.

At that time I was moving from my first career as a reconstructive microsurgeon to my

second as a clinical anatomist. For many years before that I had run the University of
Louisville Medical School's microsurgery teaching laboratory, where I had learned how
to make effective instructional videos. My deepening interest in anatomy had led me to
become director of our school's unique Fresh Tissue Dissection Laboratory, and it was in
that setting that a chance event had shown me a way of presenting anatomy in three
dimensions.

Lights, Camera, Action!

In the lab there was an overhead surgical light fixture that had been converted to hold a
TV camera. The camera was on the end of a swinging arm that hung from the ceiling.
The pivot it hung from was supposed to be vertical, but it was off by a degree, so the
whole fixture had an urge to swing around till it reached its low point. Whenever we used
it, someone had to hold the camera still. One day in 1984 we were making a shot of a
specimen that was placed directly below the pivot. The person holding the camera let go
by mistake, and it swung round in an arc while the shot was being recorded. To our
amazement, we found we had made a video shot of an object that appeared to be rotating.
It looked perfectly three dimensional.
It was clear that video of a rotating object could be used as a powerful teaching tool, but I
put the idea on the back burner for nearly ten years. During that time the prospects for a
high quality anatomy video project brightened. TV cameras became lighter and better,
VCRs in the home became universal, and computer-driven anatomy projects, once
considered the way of the future, began to fall short of their early promise. By 1993 I was
ready to put the rotating video idea to good use.

Suzanne L'Ecuyer not only launched the Video Atlas project with her initial suggestion,
she also became my main adviser as the project took shape. Many of the features of the
Video Atlas that students now value were shaped by her keen perception.

How the Atlas Was Made

The bodies used for the Video Atlas dissections were those of individuals who in life had
bequeathed their bodies to the University of Louisville's Body Bequeathal Program. We
appreciate the selfless spirit in which our donors acted, and we respect their desire for
anonymity. No individual is depicted in the Atlas in a way that reveals his or her identity.

Specimen preservation and dissection.

We did not use traditional embalming on the bodies for the Video Atlas, as it discolors
and stiffens the tissues producing an unnatural appearance. Instead we used either no
embalming, or a mild preservation technique that leaves the color and texture of the
tissues almost exactly as they are in the living body.

To keep the specimen in good condition, the dissection and Video recording were done in
a laboratory refrigerated to 8°C (46°F). The dissections were done using fine surgical
instruments, magnifying eyeglasses, and our best surgical and microsurgical skills.
Sometimes two individuals worked on a dissection, sometimes only one. The initial
stages of a large dissection might take 6-8 hours. The dissected specimen was placed on a
table that had a rotating top, and was held in place by wires that connected it to an unseen
support device. The images were made using a broadcast-quality, 3-chip analog video
camera mounted on a rotating arm. The images were recorded on SP-beta analog tape.
Cool fluorescent studio lighting was used to create the best definition and modeling. The
shots were recorded against a background of black velvet. The same material was used to
cover the table and support devices so that they are not seen.

The dissection was done in planned stages. The order in which shots appear in the edited
video is often the reverse of the order in which they were made. We embarked on a
dissection with a script in hand that told us not only what we were going to show, but the
exact words, actions, and shot sequence we would use.

Production and narration.

We are often asked what computer program we used to create the rotation effects that
give the Video Atlas images their striking three-dimensional quality. We didn't use any
computer program. When you see rotation about a vertical axis, it was produced by
rotating the table top by hand while the shot was being recorded. Rotation around a
horizontal axis was produced by rotating the camera arm, again by hand.

For each shot, we read the words of the prepared script into an audio recorder. The words
gave exact timing cues for all the actions that happened in the course of the shot. When
we were ready to record the shot, we played back the audio recording while the video
recorder was running and the actions were being performed. The words from the audio
recorder were re-recorded onto the first of the videotape's two sound tracks, giving an
accurately timed "scratch" audio track. Later, the words were re-spoken onto the second
sound track to create the finished narrative.

The program was edited at the University of Louisville Medical School's IT Television
Service using SP-Beta analog equipment. The Atlas was originally released as a series of
VHS tapes, published individually between 1995 and 2003 as Acland's Video Atlas of
Human Anatomy. Because of the limitations of the VHS format, these tapes showed a
distinct loss of image quality compared to the SP-Beta masters.

Evolving formats.
By the time the series was completed, the DVD format was overtaking tape as the
dominant video medium. The DVD version of the Atlas was released in 2003. It
displayed the video images for the first time in their full original quality.

This high-quality streaming video website brings the Video Atlas to a new level of
access, navigability, and ease of use. Instead of six volumes there are now five: the two
that show the Head and Neck, which were Vol. 4 and 5, now form an extended Vol. 4.
The previous Vol. 6, the Internal Organs and Reproductive System, is now Vol. 5.

Each minute of the finished product took twelve hours to produce: five in creating the
script, five in making the shots, and two in post-production.
Robert D. Acland, MBBS, FRCS (1941-2016)

Dr. Robert Acland gained his expertise in instructional video during his first career as a
pioneer and teacher of microsurgical techniques. In his second career as a clinical
anatomist, Dr. Acland established and directed the renowned Fresh Tissue Dissection
Laboratory at University of Louisville School of Medicine, where he taught anatomy to
students and surgeons and pursued anatomical research. Working with fresh,
unembalmed cadavers, Dr. Acland pioneered new and highly effective techniques of
anatomical videography that give the viewer a clear three-dimensional understanding of
spatial relationships.