Soil Atlas of Europe I

JRC Soils Atlas 3/8/05 2:57 pm Page 1
SOIL ATLAS OF
EUROPE
European Soils Bureau Network

PUBLISHING DETAILS
The citation for this document is:

Soil Atlas of Europe, European Soil Bureau Network
European Commission, 2005, 128 pp
Office for Official Publications of the European
Communities,
L-2995 Luxembourg
© European Communities, 2005
Catalogue Number LB-37-01-744-EN-C

ISBN 92-894-8120-X
EUR 21676 EN
Legal Notice
Neither the European Commission nor any person acting on
behalf of the Commission is responsible for the use that
might be made of the following information.
All Rights Reserved

No part of the material protected by this copyright notice
may be reproduced or utilised in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording
or by any information storage and retrieval system without
the written permission from the copyright owner.
Printed in Belgium and Italy.
Cartographic Representations
Cartographic features depicted on the maps of this atlas are
derived from the EUROSTAT GISCO database (Geographic
Information System for the European Commission,
EUROSTAT, Luxembourg) and from the Digital Chart of the
World. These cartographic data do not have an explicit legal
status; hence, no legal aspects should be derived from the
information depicted on any of the maps in this publication.
Cover: The different colours on the map correspond to the

distribution of the major soil reference groups across the
European continent (JRC).
Soil Data: European Soil Bureau Network. For additional

information, please contact the Soil and Waste Unit,
Institute for Environment and Sustainability, European
Commission DG Joint Research Centre, Via Fermi, 21020
Ispra (VA), Italy.
Maps produced by the Soil and Waste Unit, Institute for

Environment and Sustainability, DG Joint Research Centre,
Ispra.
Final design and graphical support by Lovell Johns Limited,

10 Hanborough Buisiness Park, Long Hanborough, Witney,
Oxfordshire, OX29 8RU, United Kingdom.
2
The guiding principle of this book was that soil should Acknowledgements
be made as simple as possible, but no simpler (based on
This atlas is the result of more than ten years of fruitful effort and collaboration between the
a quotation by Albert Einstein). European Commission’s Joint Research Centre in Ispra, Italy, and Europe’s leading soil science
institutions. Without this considerable cooperation, the production of this atlas would not
have been possible. The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of following
individuals and organisations. We also offer our apologies and thanks if we have
Principal Editors inadvertently and unintentionally omitted anybody.
Arwyn Jones, Luca Montanarella and Robert Jones For his constant support to the project, special thanks are due to Giovanni Bidoglio, Head of
the Soil and Waste Unit, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Joint Research Centre,
European Commission Ispra, Italy.
Directorate General Joint Research Centre
Institute for Environment and Sustainability For their considerable and invaluable advice and contributions during the drafting of the atlas,
Soil and Waste Unit the authors appreciate the efforts of Peter Bullock, Henrik Breuning-Madsen, Raoul Dudal,
Ispra, Varese, Italy Wolf Eckelmann, John Hollis, Selim Kapur, Mark Kibblewhite, Erika Micheli, Juan José Ibáñez
Martí, Freddy Nachtergaele, Vladimir Stolbovoi, Jan J.H. Van Den Akker, György Várallyay and
Pandi Zdruli. Without their contribution, this publication would be significantly poorer.
Authors and Contributors For their guidance, direction and support to the project, the authors thank the Editorial
Board of the Soil Atlas of Europe. These include:
Erhan Akça, University of Çukurova, Adana, Turkey Arnold Arnoldussen, Stanislaw Bialousz, Pavol Bielek, Winfried Blum, Jaume Boixadera, Henrik
Saturnino de Alba, Consejo Superior De Investigaciones Cientificas, Spain Breuning-Madsen, Vanda Valerija Buivydaite, Raoul Dudal, Wolf Eckelmann, Alexandra
Avelino García Álvarez, Consejo Superior De Investigaciones Cientificas, Spain Freudenschuß, John Hollis, Selim Kapur, Aldis Karklins, Nikola Kolev, Josef Kozak, Mark
Stanislaw Bialousz, Warsaw University of Technology, Poland Kibblewhite, Christine Le Bas, Franc Lobnik, Donatello Magaldi, Erika Micheli, Juan José Ibáñez
Bernhard Berger, European Commission, DG Environment Martí, Freddy Nachtergaele, Loit Reintam, Vladimir Stolbovoi, Jan J.H. Van Den Akker, Eric Van
Pavol Bielek, Soil Science and Conservation Research Institute, Slovakia Ranst, György Várallyay, Sonya Sammut and Pandi Zdruli.
Winfried Blum, Universität für Bodenkultur Wien, Austria
Henrik Breuning-Madsen, University of Copenhagen, Denmark In addition, the maps at the core of the atlas are based on the efforts of the scientific
Vanda Valerija Buivydaite, Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Lithuania contributors to the Soil Map of the European Communities 1:1,000,000 (CEC, 1985)
Cemil Cangir, University of Thrace, Tekirdag, Turkey Belgium: J. Ameryckx, A. Louis, R. Maréchal, R. Tavernier; Denmark: K. Rasmussen; France:
Joel Daroussin, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, France J. Dupuis, M. Jamagne, A. Mori, E. Servat; Germany: E. Mückenhausen; Greece: A. Koutalos,
Ural Dinç, University of Harran, Sanliurfa, Turkey N. Yassoglou; Irish Republic: M. Gardiner, J. Lee; Italy: F. Mancini, R. Salandin; Luxembourg:
Raoul Dudal, Institute of Land and Water Management, Belgium A. Puraye, J. Wagener; Netherlands: H. De Bakker, J. Pons, J. Schelling, R. Van der Schans;
Olaf Düwel, Bundesanstalt Für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe, Germany Portugal: J. Carvalho Cardoso; Spain: A. Guerra, F. Monturiol; United Kingdom: B. Avery,
Wolf Eckelmann, Bundesanstalt Für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe, Germany R. Glentworth, R. Grant; FAO: R. Dudal; CEC: A. Cole, J. Gillot, A. Prendergast; Advisors: K. Beek,
Alexandra Freudenschuß, Umweltbundesamt Gmbh, Austria S. Lunt, G. Smith, C. Sys.
Steffen Fritz, European Commission Joint Research Centre, Italy
Andrew Hartley, European Commission Joint Research Centre, Italy The scientific contributors to the compilation of the European Soil Database.
Reinhard Hartwich, Bundesanstalt Für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe, Germany Albania: P. Zdruli, K. Cara, Sh. Lushaj; Austria: O. Nestroy; Belarus: N Smeyau; Belgium,
Roland Hiederer, European Commission Joint Research Centre, Italy Luxembourg: E. Van Ranst, L. Vanmechelen, R. Vermeire; Bulgaria: I. Kolchakov, B. Georgiev,
John Hollis, National Soil Resources Institute, United Kingdom S. Rousseva, D. Stoichev; Cyprus: C. Hadjiparaskevas; Czech Republic: J. Nemecek, J. Kozak;
Beata Houskova, European Commission, Joint Research Centre Denmark: H.B. Madsen, M. Olsson, T. Balstrøm; Estonia: L. Reintam, I. Rooma; Finland:
Sigbert Huber, Umweltbundesamt Gmbh, Austria J. Sippola; France: M. Berland, M. Jamagne, D. King; Germany: W. Eckelmann, R. Hartwich;
Marcel Jamagne, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, France Greece: N. Yassoglou; Hungary: G. Várallyay, E. Michéli; Irish Republic: S. Diamond; Iceland:
Jonas Jasinskas, State Land Survey Institute, Lithuania O. Arnalds, E. Gretarsson; Italy: D. Magaldi, U. Galligani, U. Wolf; Latvia: A. Karklins,
Selim Kapur, University of Cukurova, Turkey O. Nikodemus.; Lithuania: V. Buivydaite; Moldova: V. Ungureanu; Netherlands: A. Bregt,
Aldis Karklins, Latvia University of Agriculture, Latvia P. Finke; Norway: A. Nyborg; Poland: S. Bialousz; Portugal: M. Bessa, L. Reis, P. Marques,
Mark Kibblewhite, National Soil Resources Institute, United Kingdom M. Madeira; Romania: C. Rauta, I. Munteanu, F. Nicholae, M. Parachi, M. Zota; Russia: I. Savin,
Dominique King, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, France V. Stolbovoi; Slovakia: J. Hrasko, V. Linkes; Slovenia: B. Vrscaj, T. Prus; Spain: J. Boixadera,
Nikola Kolev, Institute of Soil Science, Bulgaria J.J. Ibáñez-Martí, A. Rodriguez, C. Arbelo; Sweden: M. Olsson; Switzerland: L.F. Bonnard;
Josef Kozak, Czech University of Agriculture, Czech Republic Turkey: D. Murat Ozden, S. Keskin, U. Dinc, S. Kapur, E. Akca, S. Senol, O. Dinc; Ukraine:
Christine Le Bas, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, France V. Medvedev; United Kingdom: J. Hollis, M.G. Jarvis, R.J.A. Jones, A. Thomasson, J. Bell; General
Donatello Magaldi, Universita’ Di L'Aquila, Italy coordination INRA: J. Daroussin, M. Jamagne, D. King, C. Le Bas, V. Souchère; JRC: A. Burrill,
Juan José Ibáñez Martí, Consejo Superior De Investigaciones Cientificas, Spain J. Meyer-Roux, L. Montanarella, P. Vossen.
Erika Micheli, Szent Istvan University, Hungary
Freddy Nachtergaele, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Finally, the authors are grateful for the flexibility, understanding and professionalism of Peter
Jan Nemecek, Czech University of Agriculture, Czech Republic Markley, Christine Bond, Clare Brown, Ian Dewsbery and Richard Hewish at Lovell Johns Ltd
Åge Nyborg, Norwegian Institute of Land Inventory, Norway throughout the, sometimes tortuous, process of assembling this publication.
Claudia Olazabal, European Commission, DG Envronment
Jiri Presler, Arbeitsgruppe für Bodenklassifikation und Nomenklatur der Bodenkundlichen
Gesellschaft der Schweiz, Switzerland
Loit Reintam, Estonian Agricultural University, Estonia
Picture Credits
Karl Ritz, National Soil Resources Institute, United Kingdom
José-María García Ruíz, Consejo Superior De Investigaciones Cientificas, Spain The authors would like to thank the providers of graphical elements (photographs, diagrams,
Otto Spaargaren, ISRIC - World Data Centre for Soils, Wageningen, The Netherlands illustrative maps) for their permission to use their material in the atlas. All contributors are
Vladimir Stolbovoi, International Institute For Applied Systems Analysis, Austria listed below:
Dick Thompson, National Soil Resources Institute, United Kingdom F. Abdel Kader (FAK), E. Akca (EA), U. Alagoz (UA), M. Badraoui (MB), I. Baillie (IB), A. Belward
Jan J.H. Van Den Akker, Alterra Wageningen University and Research Centre, The (AB), P. Bielek (PB), J. Boixadera (JB), H. Breuning-Madsen (HBM), D. Cluzeau (DC), J. Daroussin
Netherlands (JDN), Ad De Roo (ADR), C. Dozzi (CD), J. Duffner (JDR), J. Dusart (JD), W. Eckelmann (WE),
Eric Van Ranst, Laboratory of Soil Science, Ghent University, Belgium E.A. Fitzpatrick (EF), G. Genovese (GG), R. Hiederer (RH), J. Hollis (JH), Joint Research Centre
György Várallyay, Research Institute for Soil Science And Agricultural Chemistry, Hungary (JRC), A. Jones (AJ), R. Jones (RJ), A. Karklins (AK), R. Langohr (RL), C. Kosmas (CK),
Henk Wösten, Alterra Wageningen University and Research Centre, The Netherlands J. Kozak (JK), L. Montanarella (LM), G. Montecchi (GM), D. Mulligan (DM), H. Ozcan (HO),
Pandi Zdruli, Centre International de Hautes Etudes Agronomiques Méditerranéennes - S. Kapur (SK), E. Micheli (EM), J.J. Ibáñez Martí (JJIM), F. Nachtergaele (FN), National Oceanic
Istituto Agronomico Mediterraneo di Bari, Italy. and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), P.N. Owens (PNO), H. Reuter (HR), K. Ritz (KR),
M. Serdem (MS), M. Suri (MS), A. Thompson - Capita Symonds Ltd (AT), F. Turkelboom (FT),
J.J.H. Van Den Akker (JJHVDA), E. Van Ranst (EVR), G. Várallyay (GV), D. Walter (DW), P. Zdruli (PZ).
Every effort has been made to trace copyright holders.

The European Commission apologizes for any unintentional omissions and would be
pleased to add an acknowledgment in future editions.
3
CONTENTS
Authors and Contributors 3
Acknowledgements 3
Contents 4
Preface and Foreward 7
Introduction 9
Scope of the Atlas 9
What is soil 10
The role and importance of soil 12
Soil forming processes 14
The soil in your garden 18
Soil and agriculture 20
Soil and cultural heritage 21
Forest soil 22
Soil as a source of raw material 23
The soil of Europe 24
Soil classification 25
The major soil types of Europe 28
Mapping soil 34
Soil maps 36
Soil maps of Europe 38
Legend 40
The soil of Europe 42
Index of regional maps 44
Regional Maps 46
European soil: a global perspective 80
The World 81
Eurasia 84
Soil of the Mediterranean Region 86
Northern latitudes 92
4
A Soil Database of Europe 96
Geographical Information Systems 97
Soil Geographical Databases of Europe 98
Soil properties maps 100
Using the soil database 102
European Soil Bureau Network 104
European Soil Information System 105
Nested soil data 106
Key threats to soil in Europe 108
Introduction 109
Soil sealing 110
Erosion 111
Loss of organic matter 112
Decline in biodiversity 113
Contamination 114
Compaction 115
Hydro-geological risks 116
Salinisation 117
Protecting soil in the European Union 118
The way forward 119
Additional Information 120
Supporting maps 121
Further reading 125
Glossary of soil terms 126
The Joint Research Centre 127
ESB Network 128
5
An example of a dolina from Croatia. This feature occurs in regions where limestone has been dissolved by rainwater to create a landscape known as karst (virtually no rivers or
streams, many depressions, fissures and collapsed structures). Soil accumulates in these depressions and provides a stable, nutrient rich natural unit for cultivating crops (EM).
Soils can preserve information about the environment in which they were formed. The photograph above shows the Artrkar soil in Hungary, a unique formation resulting from
the changing environment since the end of the last ice age. The striking patterns are caused by freezing and thawing soon after the last ice age some 10,000 years ago and have
no relation to the present day climate (EM).
6
PREFACE FOREWORD INTRODUCTION FROM CHAIR OF EUROPEAN

SOIL BUREAU NETWORK
The European Union has established within its Sixth Soil is a finite resource that is under pressure from many European soil is an immensely valuable World resource,
Environmental Action Programme the need to prevent soil activities, mostly human induced. It is clear that the which requires protection to ensure future global food
degradation in Europe. In order to achieve this objective, the European Commission must be at the forefront of security and environmental quality. Soil forms over very long
EU proposed to develop a specific thematic strategy for soil developing policies and effective practices to protect soils periods of time and once destroyed it is effectively lost to
protection. The way forward towards such a new strategy across Europe. It is in this context that the Directorate present and future generations. Europe is blessed with
has been presented in a Communication from the General Joint Research Centre (JRC), as the European highly productive agricultural soil, but the continent also
Commission entitled “Towards an EU Thematic Strategy for Commission's research centre, is carrying out research and has vast natural and semi-natural lands, in which soil plays
Soil Protection”1. where a number of major threats, i.e. collecting information with the aim of better understanding a vital role by conserving biodiversity and supporting global
erosion, contamination, decline of organic matter content, the processes that lead to soil degradation, investigating environmental systems. Thus soil is a living system that is a
loss of biodiversity, sealing, salinization, landslides and possible remediation techniques and evaluating the effect type of natural capital available to enrich the lives of
flooding have been identified. of policy changes on soil resources. citizens.
Some features of soil, such as its enormous variability or the As many of the issues affecting soil cross national boundaries The ‘Soil Atlas of Europe’ is important because of the
fact that soil is mainly privately owned in Europe make the or administrative areas, responsibility for soil protection is growing threat to soil resources and the need to raise
development of a soil protection policy somewhat different not always easily defined. To address this issue, the JRC is awareness of their value to society. The Atlas illustrates
from the protection policy of air and water. Soil diversity already working towards the goals outlined under the vividly the great diversity of European soil and it is intended
reflects differences in climate, geological origin, vegetation, European Research Area initiative by actively co-operating to both encourage and underpin the development of new
land use and historical development that are the main with key players such as the European Soil Bureau (ESB) policy measures for soil protection. Compilation of the Soil
characteristics of European landscapes. Recognizing soil Network. The JRC's Institute for Environment and Atlas has been made possible through the mature and deep
diversity implies taking into account the strong local Sustainability hosts the Secretariat of the ESB and brings collaboration existing within the European Soil Bureau
component of any soil protection policy. Different soil types together, on a regular basis, expert scientists in the field of Network (ESBN), which joins centres of excellence
require different management and protection measures. soil science. This network provides harmonized and coherent throughout continental Europe specialising in the survey,
information on European soil to policy-makers and other analysis and monitoring of soils. The Network’s origins go
This new “Soil Atlas of Europe” is intended to be a step users. Established more than 10 years ago as one of the major back more than 50 years, when the idea to construct a soil
towards raising public awareness on the importance and the scientific reference networks of the JRC, it has been map of Europe was first proposed. In its current form, it has
key role of soil for many human activities and for the expanding over the past years to cover more than 40 been an operational network of the European Commission
survival of ecosystems. The Atlas compiles existing countries and will continue its activities also in the future for more than 20 years. The ESBN includes soil institutions
information on different soil types in easily understandable supporting the new EU Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection. from all the Member and Candidate States of the European
maps covering the entire European Union and bordering Union, as well as some Neighbouring Countries to the east
countries. The publication is intended not only for the I am pleased to see that the result of the collaboration and south, and it works closely with the Services of the
specialized reader but also for the general public, aiming to between the JRC and the ESB Network has resulted in this European Commission, the European Environment Agency
‘bridge the gap’ between soil science, policymaking and striking, informative and timely document. This Atlas not (EEA) and international institutions such as The Food and
public knowledge. By addressing a non-specialized only marks the advent of Soil Protection legislation but also Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations. It is a
audience, the Atlas will increase public awareness and coincides with the Enlargement of the European Union – successful European collaboration that has a critical role to
understanding of the diversity of soils and of the need to both areas where the JRC has been very active in supporting play over the coming decades.
protect this precious resource. the development of European policies
Accelerating global change is bringing new challenges to
Recognizing the importance of soil as a non-renewable I hope that you will find this Atlas both enlightening and soil management. More intensive land use and the extension
resource which provides many functions crucial to human motivating. of urban areas place new pressures on soil resources. Yet
activities as well as ecological functions (hosting soil there is little account being taken of soil properties in spatial
biodiversity, the filtering and buffering capacity, the role as planning and there is widespread damage to soils caused by
an archive of cultural heritage, etc.), will support the erosion, contamination and other threats, such as declining
development of protective measures that will incorporate organic matter and biodiversity, compaction, sealing and
local knowledge about each specific soil type and function salinisation. Looking ahead, adapting to climate change will
as well as safeguarding soils for future generations. require more information about soil resources and their
response to altered weather patterns, so that future capacity
The Atlas draws on the expertise and activities of the Joint to support food production, environmental services and
Research Centre in this field and has been elaborated in biodiversity can be assessed. In short, there is an urgent need
close collaboration with specialized institutions in Member for better soil protection to secure irreplaceable soil-based
States and bordering countries participating in the services. In recognition of these requirements and under the
European Soil Bureau Network. EU Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection, the European
Commission is providing essential leadership. The ESBN
We trust that this publication will be a major step towards stands ready to continue its supporting role as a pan-
a better understanding of the soils of Europe and their European source of high quality soil information and
diversity , thus fostering and strengthening the commitment technical advice.
of the European Union to protect and preserve our soil.
Dr. Roland Schenkel It is hoped that the Soil Atlas of Europe will encourage a
Acting Director-General of the JRC greater interest and appreciation of European soil resources
(European Community, 2005) and of their importance to economic, social and
environmental well-being.
Janez Potocnik
Commissioner for Science and Research
(European Community, 2005)
Professor Mark Kibblewhite

Chairman, Steering Committee,
European Soil Bureau Network
(NSRI, 2005)
Stavros Dimas
Commissioner for Environment
(European Community, 2005)
1. COM 179 (2002) see http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/soil/index.htm
7
Introduction
Cultivated soil allows the production of crops that are essential for human existence (EM).
Soil can vary enormously. Soil characteristics can change across the landscape and also with depth.
The soil under your feet will be quite different from that just 40cm deeper. The above picture shows
the vertical changes in a soil profile that has developed on the flood plain of a river valley. The dark
band below the surface is rich in organic matter while the pale zone below is due to the accumulation
of lime (calcium carbonate) by water percolating through the soil. Note the presence of gravels
deposited by the river at the base of the profile (EM).
8
Introduction
Scope of the Atlas Soil protection aspects exist in Community legislation in a scattered manner. Requirements aimed at preserving soil quality can be found in the Common
Agricultural Policy, in different pieces of environmental legislation and in product legislation. So far there is not at EU level any instrument specifically
Soil is one of the fundamental components for supporting addressing the protection of soil. In the 6th Environment Action Programme1 (EAP) among the priorities set for the conservation of biodiversity and natural
life on the planet. resources, the Community took the commitment of addressing soil alongside water and air as an environmental media and as a non renewable resource to
be preserved, hence taking the commitment of developing a Thematic Strategy for the protection of soil.
Soil can be defined as a mixture of rock particles, organic As a first step in this process, the Commission adopted on 16 April 2002 a Communication2 “Towards a Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection”. This
matter, air and water that occupies the uppermost few Communication highlighted the need to introduce, in a more systematic manner, soil protection aspects in other Community policies. It also identified the
metres of the Earth’s crust. major threats to soil in the enlarged EU, i.e. erosion, organic matter decline, contamination, loss of biodiversity, salinisation, compaction, sealing, floods and
landslides. The Communication was followed by a very wide and inclusive public consultation with Member States in 2003 and 2004, soil scientists, industry,
environmental NGOs and other stakeholders in order to develop the basis of soil policy in the EU.
Soil performs a number of key environmental, social and
economic functions that are vital for life. Plants and crops Taking into account the very local nature of soil and its huge variability, the Commission has always sought to ensure that the right level of intervention
are dependent on soil for the supply of water, nutrients and is reached for soil protection (some measures are better adopted at local, regional and national level, some at Community level), that any EU-wide action
as a medium for growing. Soil stores, filters, buffers and would have to reflect the soil variability and allow for sufficient flexibility to apply a customised approach for the different types of soils and that
Community action would be based as far as possible on existing schemes. This approach, coupled with the results of the comprehensive public consultation,
transforms substances that are introduced into the will be building blocks for the Thematic Strategy that the Commission envisages to propose by the end of 2005 in order to meet the challenge of establishing
environment. This capability is crucial in producing and a long term soil protection policy to ensure a sustainable use of soil in the EU.
protecting water supplies and for regulating greenhouse
1Decision 1600/2002/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 July 2002 laying down the Sixth Community Environment Action Programme, OJ L242, 22.07.02, p.1
gases. Soil is a provider of raw materials. Soil is also an
incredible habitat and gene pool – in excess of 5 tonnes of 2COM(2002) 179 final
live organisms can exist in a hectare of arable soil. Soil is a
fundamental component of our landscape and cultural
heritage.
Simply put, without soil, the Earth and society as we know

it, would not function. It is no coincidence that the word
earth is used for both soil and the planet that we live on.
In order to perform its many functions, soil condition must

be maintained. Yet, often the value of soil, a largely non-
renewable resource, is not always appreciated.
The famous scientist, Gallileo said, "What greater stupidity

can be imagined than that of calling jewels, silver, and gold
'precious,' and earth and soil 'base'? People who do this
ought to remember that if there were as great a scarcity of
soil as of jewels or precious metals, there would not be a
prince who would not spend a bushel of diamonds and We are preserving the environment for future generations through measures to protect soil (EM).
rubies and a cartload of gold just to have enough earth to
plant a jasmine in a little pot, or to sow an orange seed and
Another goal of this atlas is to educate. Many people have As you will see in the following pages, subtle variations in
watch it sprout, grow, and produce its handsome leaves, its
no knowledge of soil nor the important roles that it plays. landscapes, land use and geology can lead to local variations
fragrant flowers, and fine fruit."
This atlas aims to explain and show, in a non technical in soil types. The maps of the atlas show the broad regional
manner, how soil is created, the properties of soil and their patterns across Europe of the major soil groups that are
relevance to society, the different soil types that are found generally characteristic of that area.
across Europe and how soil is classified and mapped.
The atlas concludes with an examination of the major
The core of the atlas is a striking series of maps illustrating threats to soil across Europe. The goal of the European
the varying patterns of different soil types occurring across environmental policy is to reduce the pressure of these
Europe. The maps show, for the first time, the distribution of threats on soil.
the soil of Europe through a new soil classification scheme,
the World Reference Base. The atlas also displays a series of Although the text has been written in English, the atlas aims
maps showing the relevance of European soil types in a to show the diversity and richness of soil across all Europe.
global context. If you are interested in discovering more about soil in the
other languages of Europe, please consult the Bibliography
The maps that make up this atlas are based on information Section at the back of the atlas.
provided by the European Soil Bureau Network: a collection
of organisations from all the countries of Europe that are After reading this atlas, we hope that the content helps you
responsible for mapping and managing soils. The European to understand better how the product of the complex
Soil Bureau collaborates with the European Commission to interactions between climate, geology, vegetation,
provide relevant information to policy makers. The soil biological activity, time and land use leads to the creation of
information is stored in digital or computerised form. This the valuable resource we call Soil.
allows us to create maps using special computer
programmes, known as geographic information systems.
Soil should be regarded as a material that has chemical composition,

structure and supports plants and living organisms (PB).
Unfortunately, the careful use and management of soil has

not been a high priority for many people. In fact, there is
evidence that the thin layer of soil that we all depend on, in
many areas of Europe and beyond, may be increasingly
threatened by a range of human activities.
For this reason, the European Union has decided to protect

soil in the same manner as water and air by developing a
strategy to safeguard this vital resource. To this end, the
European Commission, supported by the Council of
Ministers and the European Parliament, has agreed to
develop a Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection.
One of the primary aims of the Soil Atlas of Europe is to

support the European Soil Thematic Strategy by providing
comprehensive information about European soil and raising
awareness of issues affecting soil. The approach adopted by
the policy makers of Europe is to ensure that soil is used in
a sustainable manner so that future generations may inherit
a viable environment and, if possible, find it in an even
better condition that it is at present. Weathering of rocks in mountains produces sediments that are transported downstream by erosion to create fertile soil in the lower parts
of the landscape (PZ).
9
Introduction
What is soil?
There is an old Chinese proverb that states: The soil in profile In many European soil types, between the dark coloured ‘A’
and brighter ‘B’ horizons, is a pale coloured layer. This
Soil is the product of various environmental weathering horizon has a smaller content of very fine material such as
“Man…despite his artistic pretensions and many processes that operate on geological materials on the clay, organic matter, nutrients and chemicals such as iron
accomplishments, owes his existence to a thin layer of Earth’s surface over a period of time. If we dig down into than either the overlying A or underlying B, hence its paler
topsoil …and the fact that it rains”. the soil to about 1 or 2 metres depth and look at the vertical colour. Such layers, from which some soil components have
section revealed, we notice a number of roughly horizontal been ‘leached’ out, are known as ‘eluvial’ or ‘E’ horizons and
layers that look slightly different. These layers are the result usually represent the most impoverished parts of the soil
When different people refer to ‘The Soil’ they usually have of the local environmental weathering processes and they profile with respect to biological activity and nutrient
rather different ideas of what this means. To the gardener have colour, physical structure and chemical characteristics availability.
or farmer, soil is the upper few centimetres of ground that that differ significantly from those of the underlying rocks
is cultivated and nurtured to produce crops. To the engineer, and sediments. Soil scientists call the layers ‘soil horizons’ Towards the base of the subsoil, the soil structure gradually
it is the ‘overburden’ or unwanted loose material at the and, as a means of shorthand and easy communication, dies out as the factors affecting its development decrease
ground surface that needs to be removed to provide a more assign letters of the alphabet to distinguish the different in influence.
stable foundation upon which to work. To the geologists it types.
is the loose ‘unconsolidated’ material overlying the rocks Eventually a layer is reached where the influence of
they study. However, to the vast majority of the human race environmental weathering processes is minimal, either
living in cities and towns, soil is simply the ‘dirt’ or ‘dust’ to Know Your A, B, C! because there is hard rock present or because there has not
be cleaned from their hands or the vegetables that they buy been enough time for the processes to have a significant
to eat. Many large supermarket retailers in the western When a soil pit is dug and the vertical profile of the soil impact or because the layer is too far from the land surface
world now do this before putting them on display in order examined, normally, an uppermost layer that is darker than to be affected. This layer is called the soil ‘substrate’ or ‘C
to make such produce ‘more attractive and presentable’. those beneath can be recognised. This is the ‘topsoil’ or ‘A horizon’ or ‘soil parent material’ and has either no
horizon’ which contains most of the organic material within structural development or shows joints and bedded layers
In fact, soil is all of these different things. Soil is the living, the soil; hence its darker colour. It is the engine room of the characteristic of rock formations.
breathing skin of our planet and it is affected by, and is the soil where most of its biological and chemical activity
result of, the many and varied interactions that occur occurs. If the topsoil layer is removed by erosion or human
between the atmosphere, as governed by climate and activity, most of the soil’s ecological potential goes with it.
weather patterns, the biosphere, that is the local vegetation Although the topsoil layer will regenerate over time, if left
and animal activities including those of man, the geosphere, undisturbed, it may take hundreds of years for its full
the rocks and sediments that form the upper few metres of original potential to be restored.
the Earth’s solid crust. Those of us who study soil have a
definition for it. We say ‘soil is any loose material at the Below the dark-coloured topsoil are one or more brighter
surface of the Earth that is capable of supporting life’ and coloured layers; the ‘subsoil’ or ‘B horizons’. These layers
these life-supporting functions have been understood for a
very long time.
contain much less organic material (making them different
in colour) but are still exploited by plant roots and soil A
animals that use the water, air and nutrients stored in them.
They are usually brown or reddish in colour because they
What is soil made of? contain iron oxides weathered from clay minerals in the soil.
All of us have come into contact with soil at some time in

our lives and most are familiar with such terms as clay, sand These photographs show how soil profiles can differ quite
or peat. In reality, soil consists of a complex mixture of radically in their appearance depending on their position in
mineral and organic particles that represent the products of the landscape (JH).
weathering and biochemical processes that break down the
local rocks and sediments into individual grains of The profile on the right, a Cambisol under woodland, shows
B
increasingly smaller sizes and also break down the dead a classic A-B-C sequence of soil horizons, with colour
vegetation and organisms that fall on or remain within it. differences reflecting the relative distributions of organic
When we handle the soil, the fact that it usually stains and matter and iron oxide produced by the weathering of
moistens our fingers, shows that it also holds different minerals in the soil (JH).
amounts of water and chemicals and the amounts of these
that can be held by the soil are determined by the size and In contrast the profile on the left, a Stagnic Luvisol under
origin of the mineral and organic particles present. The two pasture, shows an more complex sequence of A-E-B
other final components that make up the soil are the
organisms, both plants and animals, that live (and die)
horizons. Colour differences again reflect changes in the
distribution of organic matter and iron oxide minerals, with C
within it and the air that enables them to live there. the paler coloured E horizon containing less clay or iron
oxide than the A or B horizons. However, superimposed on
these basic colour differences is a ‘mottling’ effect caused
by periodic waterlogging of the soil as a result of the
impermeable clayey nature of the B and C horizons (JH).
10
Introduction
What is soil?
Within the A, E and B horizons, various clods, aggregates

and grains of different sizes can be seen. These are the
building blocks of the soil that together form its
architectural fabric or ‘structure’. Soil structure determines
the amount and rate of water and air movements. The
structure of the soil results from natural processes such as
seasonal cycles of wetting and drying and freezing and
thawing and, especially in the topsoil, from interactions
between the mineral components and substances derived
from living and dead plants and animals.
Structure in the upper parts of the soil is also affected by

human activities, in particular, agricultural cultivations,
vehicle trafficking and building operations. However, it is
also important to remember that simply walking over the
soil surface alters its soil structure and the more frequently
this happens the greater the alteration.
These photographs show two very different soils in a

mountain landscape.
The profile on the right is a Leptosol where the dark,
A organic-rich A horizon lies directly over an R horizon of

calcareous (lime rich) rock (IB).
In contrast, the profile on the left, a Fluvisol on the river

floodplain is a deep soil, with a thick, organic-rich A horizon A
merging downwards into the C horizon of relatively
unaltered rich river silt over sands and gravels. The lower
parts of the C horizon are periodically waterlogged by a
rising groundwater table and show a similar grey and
orange ‘mottled’ effect to that in the E horizon of the soil
shown on the previous page. Because of their fertility and
C reliable water supply, such river floodplain soils were usually

the first to be exploited for agriculture by humans (JH).
Key Facts You Should Know About Soil
• Soil makes up the outermost layer of our planet and

is formed from rocks and decaying plants and
R
animals.
• Soil has varying amounts of organic matter (living

and dead organisms), minerals, and nutrients.
• An average soil sample is 45 percent minerals, 25

percent water, 25 percent air, and four percent
organic matter. Different-sized mineral particles, such
as sand, silt, and clay, give soil its texture.
• Topsoil is the most productive soil layer.
• Ten tonnes of topsoil spread evenly over a hectare is

only as thick as a one Euro coin.
Do you say earth, soil or dirt?
• Natural processes can take more than 500 years to
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word form 2 centimetres of topsoil. So many differences
“soil” is an Old English term coming from the Latin,
solium, meaning seat but used to imply ground (solum). • In some cases, up to 5 tonnes of animal life can live in The characteristics and vertical arrangement of soil horizons
one hectare of soil. can vary greatly from place to place, often over surprisingly
The word soil can also be used in a derogatory sense to short distances. This is because of the diverse range of
mean something is damaged or unclean, “these clothes • Fungi and bacteria help break down organic matter in surface geological materials across Europe, combined with
are soiled”. However, this sense of the word soil has a the soil. the geographic variability of the environmental weathering
different derivation, coming instead from the Old French processes that alter them.
word suiller, which in turn is derived from the Latin for • Earthworms digest organic matter, recycle nutrients,
pig, sus. More than likely, people who tended pigs and make the surface soil richer. In addition to this variability, the environmental weathering
generally had unclean clothes and were identified by processes vary over time, both in the short term with
their soil-covered clothes. Over time the differences in • Roots loosen the soil, allowing oxygen to penetrate. seasonal weather and vegetation cycles and in the long
meaning were forgotten. This benefits animals living in the soil. They also hold term, as climate and land use patterns change in response
soil together and help prevent erosion. to external drivers.
Although the term “dirt” is an often used as a substitute
for soil, the word dirt often implies an unclean • A fully functioning soil reduces the risk of floods and It is this complexity across Europe that gives rise to the
appearance. The word dirt originates from the Old Norse, protects underground water supplies by neutralising incredible diversity of soil. The same type of geological material
drit, meaning excrement. The common meaning of the or filtering out potential pollutants and storing as will have a different arrangement of soil horizons in a
words dirt and soil probably relate to the use of farmyard much as 3,750 tonnes of water per hectare. Mediterranean environment than it will in Scandinavia or under
manure as a fertilizer to improve soil. Crops would be intensive lowland agriculture than under ancient woodland.
planted in soil fertilized by dirt. • Soil scientists have identified over 10,000 different
types of soil in Europe. This then is soil; a dynamic body that acts as the home to
The term, “earth” has a Germanic or Saxon origin that
a myriad of organisms, responds to the changing seasons
gave rise to the Old English word, eorthe, while the word
• Research indicates that soil captures approximately 20% of and weather patterns with associated changes in its
for wet soil, “mud,” also has a Saxon origin that became
the man-made carbon emitted to the atmosphere annually. organic, liquid and gaseous composition and, chameleon-
the Old English word, mot, meaning a bog or a marsh.
like, gradually changes to reflect its local environment.
11
Introduction
The role and importance of soil
Soil is the vital natural habitat that regulates our

environment and responds to the pressures imposed upon it.
Ignored by the majority of us, soil carries out a number of
key environmental tasks that are essential to our well-
being:
• Soil is the medium that enables us to grow

our food, natural fibre and timber.
The most productive agricultural soil is to be found along the

major river valleys of Europe such as the Danube, Rhine, Seine and
Ebro, their estuaries and also on the glacial plains of northern
Europe where ice age winds have deposited a layer of fine rock-
dust to form fertile ‘loess’ soil. The well drained but often thin soil
formed on the chalk and limestone plateaux of southern and
eastern England and the Paris Basin form some of the most
extensively exploited cereal growing areas of Europe.
Sunflowers growing in France. Soil health and quality are fundamental issues for the production of crops and foodstuffs (EM).
• Soil is the natural filter and reclamation What is pH?

centre where potential pollutants are
neutralised and broken down and excess water When soil scientists describe soil they often refer to it as
being acid or alkaline or having a certain pH value.
is re-distributed to surface or ground water. The pH index is a number used to express the
concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution. This number
indicates the degree of acidity. The scale is from 0 to 14,
with a neutral soil having a pH of 7. Alkaline soils will
range from pH8 to pH14 (strongly alkaline) while acid soils
will range from pH6 to pH2 (strongly acid).
Acidity Neutral Alkalinity
0 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Podzols Humid regions Arid regions Saline

mineral soils mineral soils soils
Range for most mineral soils
Soil can absorb much of the rain that falls on it but the
The photographs above and to the right (JH) show the drainage amount varies according to texture, structure and
from two soil types with very different filtering potential. The vegetative cover. Well structured loamy soil under grass or
sediment-laden drainage shown above is derived from a soil that woodland acts like a sponge and can absorb as much as
has been leached over time. Rainfall percolating through its 40% of its volume as water. However, under some types of
weakly structured upper layers detaches clay-sized material and intensive cropping, the regular use of heavy machinery can
removes it from the soil through field drains along with compact the soil preventing rain from infiltrating and
associated agro-chemicals. The uncontaminated drainage shown
increasing surface runoff. In other cropping systems such as
on the right is derived from a soil with much more stable
vineyards, maize and sugar beet, part of the field surface
structure. Both soil types occur in the same field!
may remain bare at times when rainfall is most common or
heaviest. Under such conditions, the surface structure of
the soil quickly collapses and a surface seal or ‘cap’ forms.
This prevents rain from entering the soil and increases
surface runoff. Sandy and silty soil with small amounts of
organic matter is particularly vulnerable to surface capping.
Increased surface runoff and decreased soil storage

potential can significantly increase the likelihood of ‘flash’
flooding from intensive rainfall. Surface capping also
reduces the amount of rainfall that infiltrates the soil and
eventually replenishes the underground water resources
stored in porous rocks (‘aquifers’). In some cases it may
increase the amount of rain that is rapidly moved to the
surface water network, resulting in a more rapid rise of river
levels in response to rainfall and possibly even increasing
the likelihood of river flooding.
Increasing numbers of floods in recent years have demonstrated

the paramount importance of effective and integrated
management of land resources in the protection of the
environment and the citizens. The loss of soil resources to
urbanisation is a key factor in enhancing flood events. The
picture on the left shows flooding in the valley of the River Uck in
Southern England, November 2000, which caused extensive
damage to buildings in the nearby market town of Uckfield (AT).
12
Introduction
The role and importance of soil
• Soil is the environmental engine room

where dead plant and animal tissues and
other wastes are re-cycled to provide
nutrients for the growth of new life. The
incredible variety of organisms that inhabit
the soil and the diverse biological resource
they represent is only just beginning to be
understood
Soil biodiversity reflects the mix of living organisms in the soil. Our
knowledge of the diversity of life within the soil compartment is
still at a basic level. The above picture shows (from top left,
clockwise) a bacterial colony (KR), a nematode (KR), a centipede
(IB) and an earthworm (KR).
The huge numbers of soil organisms are matched by extreme

biodiversity, particularly at the microbial scale. Soil bacterial
communities alone comprise some tens of thousands of
species and many hundreds of other species types are also Hittite statues (below) made of relatively soft basalt and
present. Below ground biodiversity always exceeds that above limestone were discovered intact after being buried under wind
Life in soil and associated size ranges (KR). ground. Such extreme diversity is thought to originate in the blown and fluvial soils. In comparison to statues of a similar age,
complexity of the soil structural architecture where the pore found in the same area, that were left on the surface, the fact
networks that form the living space for below ground life that these artefacts were preserved in soil meant that they were
A vast quantity and range of life resides in most soil types. propagate from the macro- to the micro-scale. These protected from the effects of thousands of years of weather (SK).
The total weight of organisms below a temperate grassland subterranean labyrinths provide physical protection to
can exceed 5 tonnes per hectare, equalling or exceeding the organisms, but can also isolate them from other organisms
above ground biomass. A few grams of such soil contain within the network. Each isolated community evolves • Soil provides the foundation upon which we
billions of bacteria, hundreds of kilometres of fungal independently, leading to the generation of biodiversity. construct our buildings, roads and other
hyphae, tens of thousands of protozoa, thousands of
nematodes, several hundred insects, arachnids and worms, infrastructures.
At present we are not sure how important such biodiversity
and hundreds of metres of plant roots. is with respect to sustaining soil functions. However, it is
likely that in many semi-natural ecosystems, complex inter-
If soil is the engine room, then the soil biota form its relationships have developed between the myriad of soil
biological engine. They are involved in most of the key soil organisms present. Reducing soil biodiversity will inevitably
functions, driving fundamental nutrient cycling processes, change the balance of these relationships and may even
regulating plant communities, degrading pollutants and impair functioning of the ecosystem.
helping to stabilise soil structure. Soil organisms also
represent a crucially important biotechnological resource,
with many species of bacteria and actinomycetes providing
• Soil protects our buried heritage of
sources of antibiotics. archaeological and historic remains from
damage and depletion.
Much of the evidence of our European heritage remains Gravel is used throughout the world in the construction of roads
buried within the soil, awaiting study by archaeologists and and buildings (EM).
palaeo-ecologists. The degree of preservation of such
remains depends very much on the local soil conditions. • Soil: a vital role.
The soil functions described on these pages are vital to life
Waterlogged or very acid soil with low levels of oxygen has
on Earth but not all soil types can carry them out to the
very little microbial activity and provides an ideal
same extent and some are far more susceptible to the
environment for preserving organic remains. Any disturbance
collapse of a function when stresses are placed on them.
of these environments, such as the drainage of wetlands or
the ploughing and levelling of burial mounds, changes the
A type of clay soil, known as a Vertisol, shrinks strongly
conditions and leads to rapid decay and loss of the material.
when it dries out and swells equally strongly as it becomes
In more freely draining and well aerated soil, most organic
wet. Seasonal cycles of wetting and drying can result in
remains have completely decayed and the only evidence of
significant soil movement, even at depths of over 1metre,
their presence is a dark stain within the soil. The principal
particularly if there are large contrasts between wet and dry
archaeological remains that occur are mineral artefacts -
seasons. Such soil is inherently unstable and can cause
stone structures or tools, pottery, and metal objects.
significant problems for building foundations unless special
engineering solutions are put in place. However this type of
Archaeologists use these artefacts and the layers in which
soil is also fertile and can store adequate moisture to sustain
they are preserved, to reconstruct the communities that
crop growth. From the functional perspective therefore,
produced them and the environments in which they lived.
Vertisols have a good, sustainable potential for food, fibre
But to do this the soil layers must remain undisturbed.
and timber production but a poor and costly potential for
maintaining stable foundations. Ideally, new building
developments and infrastructure should avoid Vertisol areas,
which should be maintained as agricultural, recreational or
semi-natural land.
A clear understanding of the functional capability and potential

of different soil types is thus vital for planning the sustainable
development of our environmental resources. We should never
forget that soil is the beating heart of the ecosystem. Remove
the soil and life within that ecosystem will collapse.
Ped, Clod and Sod!

In 2004, Swiss scientists discovered Europe's largest living In the English language, a number of words are used to
organism - a fungus called Armillaria ostoyae (honey fungus) describe “lumps” of soil.
covering 35 hectares (approximately the size of 35 football • A ped is an aggregate of soil particles formed by
pitches) growing in a national park near the town of Ofenpass.
The photographs above show some of the meso- and micro- natural processes.
The fungus prevails as an underground network of connected
organisms present in an arable soil: top – bacteria (stained light filaments, and is apparent above-ground when it produces • A clod is a lump of soil formed by artificial means such
blue) in worm casts (KR); middle – fungal hyphae forming mycelium mushrooms that emerge from the soil, often concentrated as ploughing or digging.
(branch like structure) along the soil pore network (KR); bottom – around the roots of trees. The largest living organism ever • A sod is a piece of soil that is held together by a layer
tiny insects known as springtails (order Collembola), usually less discovered is another species of Armillaria found in the Malheur of grass. Sods are often used to prepare or repair lawns,
than 4 mm long, are abundant in soil throughout the world, feeding National Forest in Oregon, covering 890 hectares (JD). football pitches and golf courses.
on living and dead plant material (DC).
13
Introduction
Soil forming processes Leaching
Soil in Europe varies tremendously Most of Europe is characterized by a climate that provides a
Mor – an organic-rich, acidic layer lying on the surface. precipitation surplus during some part of the year (i.e.
Some soil types are deep and allow roots to penetrate up to Mull – a surface layer in which mineral and organic where rain and snowfall are greater than evaporation rates).
three metres, whereas some possess strongly cemented matter are intimately mixed. This surplus fills up the soil water ‘reservoir’ which might
horizons or acid subsoil that inhibit rooting. These Moder – an intermediate phase between mull and mor have been depleted during a summer. The remaining
differences arise from the interaction of local where decomposition is greater than a mor but not as surplus of rainfall during autumn and winter percolates
environmental processes acting upon the soil fabric. advanced as a mull. down through the soil to form groundwater or feed rivers.
The photograph below shows the profile of a typical well drained When passing through the soil, the water quickly dissolves
Such soil forming processes are determined by climate and
soil under temperate forest and shows evidence of the main soil easily soluble salts such as chlorides, nitrates, sulphates and,
organisms (both plants and animals) acting on the local processes described in the surrounding texts: humus formation, more slowly, the carbonates. In northern Europe there is
geological surface materials over time. Additionally, the weathering, leaching and clay translocation (EM). evidence that about 10,000 years are needed to dissolve the
basic influences of climate and organisms are modified by
calcium carbonate in the uppermost one metre of glacial
both the slope of the land and human activities. The
tills. The calcium carbonate is leached as calcium and
interplay between all these factors creates the soil forming
bicarbonate ions. In the drier part of Europe they can be re-
processes that gradually change the geological materials
precipitated further down the soil profile as calcium
into a soil with distinct and well defined horizons.
carbonate to form a Calcic horizon. In more humid parts
they are leached to the groundwater. As long as calcium
Climate and vegetation are responsible for the creation of
From here carbonate is present, the pH of the soil is about 8 (see Page
the major soil groups. These groups are known as zonal soils
12) and the soil will often be whitish or light coloured.
and cover large areas. Examples of these soil groups include
When all the calcium carbonate has been dissolved and
the Podzols of the coniferous forests of northern Europe
leached away, the pH will fall and calcium, magnesium,
and the Chernozems of the grass steppes in Ukraine. Slopes
sodium are leached from the surfaces of both clay minerals
and different parent materials can modify or change the soil
and humus to be replaced by hydrogen, aluminium and iron.
type completely from what is expected from the climate
When this process ends, the pH will be around 4 and the soil
and vegetation conditions. Some soil profiles can develop
is referred to as being acid. Under extreme conditions, soil
horizons that are impermeable for plant roots in landscapes
pH can be as low as 2.0 to 3.0 which is regarded as very acid
where soil conditions favour deep rooting. Histosols can
(e.g. acid sulphate soil). For agricultural use such soils will
develop in depressions in an otherwise well drained
often be limed in order to raise the pH to a more acceptable
landscape. Such soil is called an intra-zonal soil and might
level for plant production and by ploughing and liming, the
be erratically distributed as islands in the zonal soil.
mor layer will be turned into a mull layer.
To here
Time is an important consideration since the soil forming
factors must act for a considerable period to develop the
mature soil profile with well expressed soil horizons. Some
soil forming processes, such as gleying (water-logging),
might occur within a few years while podzolization might
take centuries to develop a mature Podzol.
Finally, humans play an important role in soil formation by

manuring, irrigating, draining, liming and ploughing the
land.
The dominant soil processes in Europe are typical for

humid temperate, semi-arid and sub-tropical climates. The
major soil forming processes acting on well drained
sediments are humus formation, leaching, weathering, clay
migration, clay destruction and podzolization, while on
imperfectly draining sites they consist of gley formation,
precipitation of pyrite, peat formation and in the semi-arid
areas, salinization (high salt levels). The following texts
describe these processes. Weathering
Below the sediments on which soil has developed we usually

Soil processes in well drained sediments find solid rock. In fact all sediments are derived from solid
rock by a process known as weathering. There are in
Humus formation principle two types of weathering, physical and chemical.
A leached soil profile. Calcium carbonate is being leached from
Plant cover plays an important role in soil formation and By physical weathering, rocks disintegrate without the upper part of the profile and redeposited as a whitish horizon
nutrient turn over. Plants extract nutrients from the soil changing their chemical composition. Typical examples of lower down the soil (ED).
water solution to build up organic material. After death the these processes are the splitting of rocks by freezing and
plant material will decompose in the soil through the thawing or the daily warming by the sun and cooling during
actions of micro-organisms like bacteria, fungi and animals the night.
such as earthworms and ants. Through decomposition,
water and carbon dioxide are released and humus is formed. In chemical weathering, the minerals in the rocks Soil across Europe!
decompose and new minerals are formed. Minerals such as While this atlas is written in English, the maps show the rich
If the soil is slightly acid to slightly basic then the feldspar, mica, augite, hornblende and olivine (known as the variety of soils across Europe. This box lists the translation of the
decomposition of the organic matter is relatively rapid and primary silicates) which are stable at higher temperature word “soil” in the languages of Europe and shows the cultural
and pressure than found at the Earth’s surface will slowly and linguistic diversity in our people.
earthworms mix up the humus with the mineral soil and a
type of organic matter called mull is formed. A thick mull disintegrate to form secondary silicates such as clay
Albanian: Dhé
layer is found in the mid-latitude continental part of Europe minerals (e.g. kaolinite, illite, vermiculite and smectite), iron Bulgarian: Pochva Luxembourgish: Boudem
where low annual precipitation, cold winters with little and aluminium hydroxides, carbonates and readily available Croatian: Tlo Maltese: Hamrija
snowfall, hot summers and a precipitation maximum in nutrients such as calcium and potassium. As described Czech: Pùda Norwegian: Jord
spring guarantee the development of deep humus and earlier, the clay minerals are very important for plants as Danish: Jôrd Polish: Gleba
nutrient rich mull horizons, sometimes more than one metre they retain nutrients and favour root growth. Dutch: Bodem Portuguese: Solo
thick. Chernozems, some of the most fertile soil in Europe, Estonian: Muld Romanian: Sol
are formed under such conditions. The various forms of iron oxides are often responsible for Finnish: Maaperä Romany: Phuv
the colour of the soil. In central and northern Europe, French: Sol Russian: Pochva (пoчва)
German: Boden Serbian: Zemlja
In acid soil, fungi dominate the conversion of plant goethite is the dominant mineral giving the soil a brown or
Greek: Edafos (Xµα) Slovakian: Pôda
remnants to humus. The decomposition rate is slow and the yellowish-brown colour. In the warmer Mediterranean Slovenian: Zemlja
Hungarian: Talaj
worms that should mix up the sediment and the humus are region, hematite coatings are formed (a process known as Irish Gallic: Talamh Spanish: Suelo
scarcer. The organic matter remains on top of the mineral rubefaction) giving the soil a characteristic red colour. Italian: Suolo Swedish: Jord
soil forming a mor layer. This can be divided into three parts. Latvian: Augsne Turkish: Toprak
At the top a litter layer consisting of newly fallen leaves. The weathering intensity is highest at the surface and Lithuanian: Dirvo¬emis Welsh: Pridd
Below that is found the fermentation layer with partly decreases with depth. Thus, the amount of iron oxides
decomposed litter from previous years and at the base is the formed will decrease with depth meaning that the colour of
humus layer with fully decomposed plant remnants without the subsoil will be lighter at the base of the profile. Humus formation and weathering are common phenomena
any macroscopic evidence of its origin. that affect all soil types. All other processes described in
this section are particular and form different kinds of soil
against the background of humus formation and
weathering.
14
Introduction
Soil forming processes Podzolization Soil processes in imperfect drained areas
The movement of clay particles Sandy sediments are rather common in the northern part of Gleying
Europe and especially in Scandinavia. In these areas, huge
One of the most common soil forming processes is the coniferous forests dominate the landscape and When it rains, water percolates through the soil. In many
movement of clay particles from one soil horizon to podzolization is the normal pedological process in the sandy cases, this water drains away. However in some cases, due
another. This process is known to soil scientists as glacial deposits. The continuous leaching of the soil in to a slowly permeable subsoil or the presence of a barrier to
translocation and involves the mechanical transfer combination with a slow and incomplete decomposition of drainage, the water has no escape route and forms a
(eluviation) of clay particles from the topsoil by percolating the organic matter fallen on the ground form a distinct mor ‘perched watertable within the soil.’
water and the re-deposition of the clay particles below layer.
(illuviation) on the surfaces of soil particles or in wormholes. In some soil types, temporary or permanent groundwater
Organic acids from this layer destabilize the iron and can be found at relatively shallow depths (< 2 m). This
There are some physical and chemical conditions that should aluminium oxides in the soil, which are then leached by the groundwater is mainly due to restrictions on drainage
be fulfilled before the process starts. The pH of the soil percolating water, leaving behind sand grains with whitish outfalls, the location of the soil in depressions in the
should be between 5 and 7 where it is believed that the soils colours as the colouring caused by the mineral goethite has landscape that collect water or in marshy areas near to the
structure is so weak that aggregates easily break down and gone. Below a depth of about of about 50cm, an illuvial B coast.
release single clay particles to the soil water. The percolating horizon forms. The uppermost part of this horizon consists of
water can then transport the clay particles downwards if a a black humus rich layer that sits on a reddish-brown horizon A shallow groundwater strongly decreases the movement of
continuous coarse pore system has developed. Such a system with enhanced iron content. These two horizons can be gases in the soil because oxygen and carbon dioxide
will develop if dry seasons alternate with wet seasons. In that strongly cemented by the iron, aluminium and carbon diffusion in waterlogged pores is very slow compared to air
way the soil will shrink during the dry season and develop coatings on the grains and is then referred to as an ‘ortstein’. filled pores. If organic matter is present in the waterlogged
cracks which form pathways for the movement of the clay soil horizon the metabolic activity of the micro-organisms
particles during the wet season. The clay will accumulate will create an oxygen deficit and a state known as reducing
where the cracks end and the water movement almost stops develops. In these conditions, ferric iron (Fe3+) is converted
or where the water penetrates into the dry aggregates and to the more soluble, and therefore mobile, ferrous iron (Fe2+).
the clay particles are filtered at the ped surfaces forming Since the ferric oxides are responsible for giving subsoils
clay layers called cutans. Clay particles are very small, their characteristic yellowish-brown or reddish-brown
normally less than 2 micrometres. colours, their disintegration into ferrous oxides will give the
Below, a classic Podzol soil profile on arable land clearly showing the soil a distinctive greyish or bluish colour. However, in some
white leached horizon, followed by dark humus rich and iron rich of the larger pores where some oxygen may remain, mottles
zones. The uppermost greyish layer is caused by the mixing as the of rust-coloured material indicate the presence of oxidizing
result of ploughing of humus material and white sand grains (HBM). conditions.
The above profile shows a soil with clay illuviation. At the top of
the profile, we can see the darker plough layer overlying a light
brown horizon. Clay minerals have been leached from both these
horizons to the ones below (HBM).
Clay destruction
As described above, the movement of clay within a profile

leads to a soil with less clay in the topsoil than below.
Similar clay distribution can be found in soil where the clay
in the topsoil has been destroyed rather than removed. This
process is believed to happen in soil with an acid topsoil (pH
< 5). It is not clear how common this phenomenon is in Above, a well developed pseudogley profile (see text below for
Europe but it is believed to be very active in tropical regions. explanation) (JH).
On the other hand, the destruction of clay particles in former

clay rich Bt-horizons is common in many parts of Europe. In
this case, the clay on the ped surfaces is redistributed or In soil science, two basic types of gley are widely recognised,
disintegrated leaving behind tongues of silt and sand that pseudogley and groundwater gley.
cut into the former clay enriched horizon. At the end of such
a process, the Bt-horizon can totally disappear. Where water is held temporally above a slowly permeable or
impervious horizon, a surface water gley or pseudogley is
formed (see above picture). This type of gley is characterized
by the presence of bleached ped surfaces and root channels
while the interior of the peds is enriched by ferric iron.
Pseudogleys can develop in any location in the landscape
where perched watertable will develop in periods with
precipitation surplus (i.e. high rainfall events) and disappear
in periods when the soil dries out.
The profile on the right illustrates the result of the processes of In Europe, this sort of perched watertable will typically
clay translocation and destruction. Most of the clay minerals will develop during the autumn and winter months and will
have been illuviated or degraded in the pale coloured horizon. The disappear during spring. With the development of intensive
horizon below is enriched with clay but even there in parts the
farming and the need to improve land for agricultural needs,
clays are still being broken down leaving a variegated appearance.
A small podzol is forming in the clay depleted upper horizon many soils with pseudogley characteristics will today be
(HBM). described as drained and the pseudogley may be regarded as a
relict feature.
15
Introduction
Soil forming processes Salinisation
Groundwater gleys develop in depressions in the landscape In semi-arid regions, salt affected soil may develop in
where permanent groundwater can be found at shallow depressions and in alluvial plains where groundwater levels
depth. The groundwater gley is characterized by the are high. In such areas, water is “sucked” to the surface due
chemical deposition (precipitation) of ferric iron on ped to capillary actions. Due to the heat of the sun, the water
surfaces or in root and worm channels. The interior of the will evaporate leaving behind deposits of salt in the surface
ped is bluish because of ferrous iron (described in the layer. Crusts of salt (a process known as encrustation) will
previous page). In some gley soil, the mineral often develop on the surface.
ferrodisulphide or pyrite can be found (iron pyrites is
commonly known as Fools Gold). Some saline soil types are naturally occurring but others have
developed due to agricultural practices. Irrigation has
If drained, the groundwater gley is a useful soil for farming provided the right conditions for salt encrustation to occur as
but some soil processes might give rise to problems if the salt in the irrigation water is left behind in the soil when
drainage is actually carried out! The high sodium (salt) the irrigation water is used or transpired by the plants.
content in coastal soil types may destabilize the soil
structure after drainage, the soil structure will collapse and
the agricultural value remains low. The oxidation (rusting)
of pyrite after drainage can cause the release of sulphuric
acid leaving the subsoil with pH of around 2 (very acid). This
condition will not only give serious problems for farming
but also environmental problems due to ochre pollution (a
combination of iron oxide and clay minerals, used as a
pigment to produce red, brown or yellow paints).
This picture shows about 80 centimetres of fen peat overlaying

the olive-grey coloured limnic deposits from a former lake. The
high organic content of the peat soil is clearly visible. Peat is
formed under cool, humid climatic conditions. The word “fen”
means an area of wooded swampy lands where the underlying
sediments are lime-rich boulder clays (deposited during the last
ice age). The term is derived from an area in eastern England
(HBM).
Peat
• Peat is a very important source of fuel in many northern

countries (e.g. Ireland, Scotland, Russia). Compared to
coal, peat has a much lower calorific value and produces
a lot of smoke when burnt. Given the right geological The above photograph shows a salt affected soil. Such a soil is
conditions and time (millions of years), peat deposits known as a Solonetz or Solonchak. The white salt crystals in the
may eventually change to lignite or even coal. dark horizon are clearly visible (EM).
• Many people refer to ‘peat bogs’. A bog is the general

term for an expanse of waterlogged spongy ground
composed of decaying plant remains. The well-
preserved remains of trees are frequently discovered The photograph below is a good illustration of surface salt crusts
within peat bogs. These remains give an indication of a and salt tolerant vegetation (EM).
former landscape, often drier and warmer than the
present, which was overwhelmed by wetter and cooler
conditions.
A groundwater gley. Note the presence of distinctive blue-grey

colour and the red mottles denoting the re-deposition of iron
The photograph below shows a typical landscape of an upland
oxides in the presence of oxygen (HBM).
peat bog. Small pools like the one shown in the photograph will
slowly fill up with decaying plant remains and silt. The water in
such areas often appears brown because it contains high
concentrations of dissolved organic compounds that come from
Peat formation
the decomposition of vegetation (ED).
Very wet areas with permanently anaerobic conditions (no
oxygen) give rise to peat, the dark, unconsolidated, fibrous
material that we buy in garden centres and supermarkets in
order to grow plants. There are two major types, moor and
fen peat, which develop in different ways.
What is a salt?
Fen peat develops in river valleys, flood plains and lakes
when the water becomes so shallow that plants such as the Most people know from their school days that the
reed, Phragmites, invade the water body. When the plants chemical formula for common salt, the substance we add
die, their waterlogged remains cover the soft deposits in to our food and what makes the sea salty is sodium
which they grow and, over time, become peat. The pH of fen chloride or NaCl.
peat is neutral to mildly alkaline due to the presence of
calcium, potassium, magnesium and sodium found is the However, a salt is actually any chemical compound formed
sediment of rivers and streams. As these watercourses also from the reaction of an acid with a base element where
transport clay, silt and sand deposits, the fen peat will often the hydrogen of the acid is replace by a metal. Hence,
have a substantial mineral content. sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid react to create a
salt, sodium chloride, and water.
Moor peat develops in the uplands and areas with high
rainfall. As rainwater is poor in nutrients, acid conditions NaOH + HCl = NaCl + H2O
develop and, as we have previously seen in the Podzols, a slow
decomposition of plant debris occurs. As a consequence,
If solutions of salts are allowed to evaporate, then the salt
organic matter accumulates and forms blanket peat or raised
is deposited as crystals.
bogs. These raised bogs, which can also form on a fen peat,
are very acid as they do not obtain the nutrient inputs from
Examples of other salts include copper sulphate, lead
water courses as happens in the fen peat. Sphagnum, a type
nitrate, magnesium chloride and magnesium sulphate (the
of moss, is one of the most common plants in raised bogs
latter is better known as Epsom Salts).
forming a fibrous soil with a pH often below 3.
16
Introduction
Soil forming processes
Soil processes on well drained sediment in relation to an Alisol. At this stage the soil is so acid that the clay in the nutrient levels can be improved through fertilizing and
time illuviated horizon will disintegrate or be redistributed to manuring to become a high yielding soil. In Denmark, liming
other parts of the profile and tongues of silt and sand will of the strongly leached, loamy Saale till has raised the pH by
The processes described in this section form the most cut into the clay illuviated horizon. This is referred to as an about 1.5 units in the plough layer but at a depth of 1.2 m
common types of soil found in Europe. Albeluvisol. Finally, the leaching will enable an iron pan to the effect of the liming has gone. On the calcareous, loamy
develop and the soil turns into a Podzol. Weichsel till, the leaching of the topsoil has lowered the pH
In some sediments only a few of the processes described in to about 5, but at a depth of 1.2 m the pH is about 8. On
the previous pages will be active while in other soil types or arable land the liming has increased the pH to about 7 in
locations, several processes could be running simultaneously Soil in relation to man the topsoil, whereas at the depth of about 1 m the pH on
or following each other. The figure below illustrates how the arable and forest land is the same (about 8).
different soil processes can produce a succession of soil The natural soil reflects the history of the soil forming
types in a loamy calcareous sediment. factors. Therefore, in a natural state each soil type has some This changing of the chemical characteristics of the soil can
distinctive characteristics. For example, a Podzol is an acid stop, reverse or reactivate some of the pedological
Initially, we have the newly deposited sediment. Only a soil with a mor layer. This will normally be true in forests but processes. Podzolization stops immediately when the mor
shallow humus layer has developed and free calcium ploughing and liming on arable land will remove the mor layer has been removed and the pH raised to about 6 while
carbonate is still to be found close to the surface. This soil layer and turn it in to a mull layer about 30 cm thick and clay migration, which mainly happens in slightly acid soil,
is known as a Regosol. After some time, the calcium with a pH of around 6. A wet soil at the base of a slope with can revitalize when lime is applied.
carbonate will be leached from the top part of the soil, a gleyic characteristics can be drained. Rivers can be
deeper mull layer has developed and the weathering of the straightened thus lowering the water table in the adjacent In the drier parts of Europe inadequate irrigation of the
primary silicates and the formation of iron oxides has soil. Gley features in such areas express a former state and fields can lead to salinisation while agriculture in
created a strong coloured B-horizon just below the mull as such behave as a natural well drained soil. mountainous areas can lead to severe soil erosion. This
layer. The soil is now called a Cambisol. The continuous latter aspect has been demonstrated in historical time in the
leaching moves the calcium carbonate front further Histosols will often disappear when drained because the Mediterranean area. Mature soil with well developed
downwards, the pH drops to about 6 and clay illuviation peat layer will physically shrink due to water loss followed horizons can been washed away completely and replaced by
starts. We have now a nutrient rich Luvisol but the leaching by the decomposition of the peat due to oxidation. bare rock.
will continuously remove the base elements from the soil.
This will make the profile so acid that it will be classified as Other soil types with poor agricultural value due to low Man’s activity has also created new soil types such as urban
soil, soil in huge waste deposits and, in former times, the
famous plaggen soil (see section on Soil and Archaeology
later in the Atlas).
Due to the creation of gardens and parks, soil in urban areas can be
modified significantly compared to its original natural state (EM).
Imperfectly and poorly drained soils in relation to topography.
The series of photographs below illustrates a topographically related sequence of soils known as a catena (a term derived from the Latin meaning a chain); soil profiles are linked together when
traced down a slope from the ridgeline to the valley floor. Soils change character according to slope angle and drainage conditions.
On the crest of the landscape we find thin soils with underlying parent materials very close to the surface. These are usually Regosols. On the slope towards the valley the precipitation surplus
can leach nutrients laterally or vertically and leached profiles can be found if the local conditions permit the formation of deep soil. In the valley bottom we can find groundwater gley at
shallow depths. In the centre of the valley, peat formation has taken place and thick layers of fen peat have developed. The nature of the parent material can be important.
A shallow soil. (HBM) Leaching. (HBM) Waterlogging leading to A fen peat. (EM)
gleyic conditions. (HBM)
17
Introduction
The soil in your garden
The closest most people ever get to soil is when they are in
their garden. Without soil, no flowers would grow, there
would be no grass for the lawn and no fruit or vegetables
for the kitchen! How does someone find out what type of
soil they have in their garden?
As you have seen in the previous pages, soil is made up of

humus (organic matter) and various proportions of three
different sizes of particles: clay, silt and sand. The particular
combination of soil particles and organic matter, together
with the local climate, parent material and previous
vegetation cover determine the type of soil in your garden.
A loam, which is a mixture of sand, silt and clay in rougly

equal proportions with a moderate level of organic matter,
is often regarded as the perfect garden soil!
Topsoil
When you look at bare ground, all you see is the topsoil. As
you have seen in the previous pages, you’ll see a clear
boundary between the topsoil and subsoil if you dig a deep
hole in your garden. Around a new house, it’s possible that
there will not be any topsoil at all. In this case topsoil must
be brought in. It’s worth checking this because if the topsoil
layer is only a few centimetres thick, the subsoil can cause
the gardener problems.
What you see growing in your garden depends on the type of soil (AJ). Rhododendrons thrive in acid soil (EM).
What kind of soil do you have?
Stand by a patch of bare soil in your garden with a watering Neutral soil, usually clays, has a pH of 7. Acid soil, such as Improving the soil in your garden.
can. Tip the water on to the soil. If the water drains away peat, has a pH of 6 or less while alkaline soil, often found in
immediately, then you have a permeable soil. If the water lime-rich areas, has a pH of 8 or more. Very few people are lucky enough to have “the perfect” soil
lies on the surface for a while then the soil may be clayey in their garden. Many people have a heavy clay soil or
or compacted. The acidity of soil influences the plants that will grow in nutrient poor sandy soil. There are a few simple ways to
your garden because the pH level of the soil determines how improve the quality of the soil in your garden.
You can also find out what kind of soil you have by plants absorb nutrients and control the presence of toxic
touching it. Take a good handful of soil, moisten it and elements. In alkaline soil, a number of key elements such as Digging and incorporating well-rotted organic matter can
squeeze it in your hand. If you are left with a ball of sticky iron, manganese and zinc become soluble (dissolved in significantly improve soil structure. The easiest source of
material then you have a clay soil. Sandy soil feels gritty water) and are washed out of the soil while the levels of organic matter is a compost heap where garden waste (grass
and falls apart when you open your hand. A peaty soil feels certain metals, such as molybdenum, become higher. In acid cuttings, leaves, twigs, straw) can be stored.
spongy while a loam or a silty soil feels smooth and stays in soil, aluminium and iron are soluble in sufficient quantities
a ball but not as strongly as the clay soil. to be toxic to the growth of plants. In the case of a clay soil, sand and organic matter can be
added to improve the texture of the soil.
Another test for soil type is to see how the soil particles Most plants prefer a pH between 6.5 and 7 (slightly acid or
settle in water. Take a large transparent glass or plastic jar. neutral). Within this range, nutrients are most easily In many cases, the soil can lack sufficient nutrients. Plants
Add a handful of soil, stir well and leave to settle over night. available to plants. Plants that prefer acid soil conditions do not grow very well. In this case you may need to add
How the container appears in the morning can reveal the will not thrive in alkaline soil, and may even die. The some fertilizer or “plant food” to your soil. Fertilizers are
texture of the soil: opposite is also true. basically divided into two groups:
Plants such as rhododendrons or camellias growing in the • Organic: from natural sources like plants, animals.
• Sandy Soil: sand particles have sunk to the bottom and garden indicate acid soil. Saxifrages, yew trees and certain
the water is clear. clematis indicate alkaline soil. Whilst several conditions, • Inorganic: manufactured ‘chemical’ feeds or mineral deposits.
including sunlight, water and soil acidity can affect the
• Silty Soil: water is cloudy, thin layer of sediment on the colour of flowers, in general, acidic soils produce blue Plants don’t care where their nutrients come from but from
bottom. blooms in hydrangeas whilst alkaline soil makes them pink. a gardeners’ point of view, organic fertilisers have an
advantage because they encourage soil bacteria, which help
• Clay Soil: water is still cloudy, very little sediment on the A more accurate way of establishing the pH of a soil is to use to keep soil healthy.
bottom because clay particles take a long time to settle. a testing kit, available from garden centres.
• Loam Soil: fairly clear water, layered sediment on the

bottom with finer particles on the top.
• Organic Soil: organic material floating on the surface,

water cloudy and a small layer of sediment on the bottom.
• Lime-rich soil: layer of white gritty fragments on the

bottom, water has a pale-grey or milky colour.
What problems will your soil cause?
• If you have a clay soil- water logging when it’s wet.
• If you have a sandy soil – drying when it does not rain.
• If you have a lime rich soil – dry and some plants will not
grow in your garden.
Is your soil acid?
An important property of a garden is whether the soil is acid,

alkaline or neutral. From a chemical point of view, the acidity
of a soil is determined by the number of hydrogen atoms
(ions) compared to hydroxyl ions (a compound of oxygen and
hydrogen - OH). High levels of hydrogen ions causes acid soil
while the reverse gives alkaline soil. Equal concentrations of
hydrogen and hydroxyl ions give a neutral soil. Traditional gardens in Europe have a ‘kitchen patch’ for growing fruit and vegetables for home consumption (RJ).
18
Introduction
The soil in your garden
Adding organic matter to your soil: making your own

compost
Buy or make a simple composting bin (four stakes and some

chicken wire) to contain your compost. Try to choose a site
on grass or soil so that earthworms can move in and out of
the compost heap.
Start off by adding a layer of coarse material e.g. (twigs and

branches) and build up the heap by adding layers of garden
and kitchen wastes.
Woody stems should be cut up into small pieces. Weeds that

can re-root from small pieces must be left out to die for
several days before adding to the heap. Grass cuttings
should be mixed with coarser material to allow air
circulation and to stop them from turning into a wet mass.
Vegetable waste from the kitchen is good to add too. But

cooked food and meats should be avoided because they may
attract vermin. Old woollen and cotton clothes, newspaper
and cardboard cut into pieces will compost if soaked and
mixed in. Wood ash from fires and even waste from the
vacuum cleaner can all be composted
To help decomposition, moisten the heap. If you want to

speed things up, intersperse with layers of manure from a
A European deep burrowing earthworm, Aporrectodea longa (Lumbricidae), a sign of healthy soil (EM).
local farm. Try not to let the compost heap dry out
completely or it will not rot down. Keep heat in and rain out
by putting on a lid of newspaper, plastic sheeting or carpet. Earthworms Soil as a source of food
Chemicals to accelerate decomposition are not essential but
they do add bacteria and enzymes that improve A good indication of a healthy soil is the presence of Plants absorb around thirty different types of nutrients and
composting. It is the action of these micro-organisms that earthworms in your garden. An earthworm is a long, minerals through their roots. For this to happen, the
generates the heat which is so beneficial in the composting creeping animal, with a soft, segmented body. They have no nutrients and minerals must be dissolved in water – another
process, especially for killing weed seeds. legs but instead are covered in hairs or bristles that help reason why plants must be watered.
them to move. They breathe through their skin, which must
When the heap begins to shrink in size and starts to cool, remain moist to absorb oxygen from the air. The main soil nutrients for plants are nitrogen (N),
take out the contents, shake up any compressed matter and phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). Soil also contains several
return them to continue the composting process. When the Earthworms have existed for about 600 million years. There minor elements that are only needed in minute amounts.
compost is brown and crumbly you can add it to your soil as are about 3,700 species of oligochaetes (terrestrial
needed. earthworms); many are so small that they are invisible to In nature, leaves and plants decompose and return nutrients
the naked eye. to the soil, maintaining the natural balance. However, by
weeding and tidying the garden, the remains of plants that
Earthworms are hermaphrodite, which means they do not would naturally rot down are removed and, over time, the
need another worm to reproduce. They lay eggs which hatch nutrient reserves of a soil are depleted. This is why people
as little worms. Worms can live for up to ten years. add fertilizers to their garden.
A simple garden compost bin that produces cones of rotted

organic material when lifted (AJ).
Many people still grow their own vegetables in the garden – how does fertilizer help the soil? (EM)
The value of worms for soil is that they are able to eat in The most common garden fertilizers contain a mixture of
Farmyard manure, a mix of straw and animal excrement, is often excess of their own weight in organic waste, soil and minerals N:P:K. If a packet is labelled 6:4:4, it means that in every
used by gardeners to raise soil organic levels and improve soil and excrete their own weight in castings daily, which makes 100 grams of fertiliser, there is 6 grams of nitrogen and four
texture (AJ). compost and enriches the soil. The worms living in one hectare grams each of phosphorus and potassium.
can break up about 100 tonnes of soil per year. They don't eat
living plant tissue and so do not hurt plants either. Some
people even keep them as pets, feeding them on kitchen
scraps just so the worms can make compost for their gardens.
The N:P:K ratio helps you choose the right fertiliser. If the
If you accidentally cut an earthworm in half while ratios are about the same, it is a general-purpose fertiliser
gardening, only one part of the worm will die. The piece and will aid all round plant growth. If the fertiliser has a
with the saddle (the fatter, pink part) will survive. When the higher ratio of:
temperature is very cold or very hot, worms are able to
survive by burrowing deep into the soil. • Nitrogen - it will encourage leafy growth
• The longest earthworm in the world is the African

Giant Earthworm, which can grow up to 6.7m long. • Phosphorus - it will encourage root development
• Earthworms avoid light.
The finished product: a rich, fertile compost (EM). • Potassium - it will encourage fruit and flower production
19
Introduction
Soil and agriculture
Soil is the medium that enables us to grow our food, natural

fibre and timber. Virtually all vegetation, including grasses,
arable crops, shrubs and trees, need soil for the supply of
water and nutrients and to fix their roots. It is not an
understatement to say that soil is one of the key issues on
which agriculture is based and, thus, fundamental to the
existence of human society.
Agricultural soil is a precious and limited resource, whose

value has frequently been built up by man during decades
or even centuries. Irreversible degradation of soil implies
not only ruining the main asset of the current generation of
farmers but also reducing the farming opportunities of
future generations. Therefore, there must be a sustainable
use and management of agricultural soil, with a view to
safeguarding the fertility and agronomic value of
agricultural land.
The most productive agricultural soil is to be found along

the major river valleys of Europe such as the Danube, Rhine,
Seine and their estuaries. It is interesting to note that all
societies have long recognised the productivity of these
dark and base-rich soils. Their location with respect to
available river and ground water ensure their high
productivity.
Productive agricultural soil can also be found on the glacial

plains of northern Europe where ice age winds have
deposited a layer of fine rock-dust to form fertile ‘loess soil’.
The well drained but often thin soil formed on the chalk and
limestone plateaux of southern and eastern England and
the Paris Basin form some of the most extensively exploited World food supplies are affected by the quantity and quality of soils, which in turn are influenced by the proper management of soils,
cereal growing areas of Europe and, until recently, produced especially the use of fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation and land tillage practices (EM).
more grain than Canada
While agriculture and forestry soil are fundamental to our
livelihood and are subject to threats originating from other
sectors, there is widespread concern about the
The picture below shows the Cinque Terre region of Italy. consequences of several agricultural practices on soil
Productive agricultural land was so scarce in these coastal quality. The excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides can
villages that extensive terraces were constructed and agricultural
have a dramatic impact on soil biodiversity and possibly, on
soil was developed by the local farmers on the steep slopes. The
soil of the Cinque Terre has now been classified as a World human health. The spreading of sewage sludge, the organic
Heritage Site by UNESCO (EM). rich by-product of waste water treatment plants, as a
fertilizer has been halted by many European countries and
is the focus of intensive research due to concerns about
heavy metals and other pollutants. Use of heavy
agricultural machinery can cause the soil to compact and
lose the capability to store water.
On the floodplain of the River Po in northern Italy, one can find

the largest area of rice production in Europe. Every spring the
paddy fields are flooded with snowmelt from the nearby Alps to
start the cultivation of the rice crop, much of it destined for the
famous risotto dishes of Italy (EM).
However, not all agriculture is confined to lowland plains or

river valleys. One should not forget the famous wines and
olive oils produced in some of the drier areas of Europe. Throughout many parts of Europe, especially in Scandinavia,
Vineyards and olive plantations are usually situated on the forestry is the major form of land use. Extensive tracts of
well draining soils of the Mediterranean basin and central conifers, growing on acid Podzols, are managed, generally in
Fluvisol, found on recent alluvial deposits, is often a highly fertile
Europe. These soil types, usually light coloured, are often a sustainable manner, to provide us with softwoods for and agriculturally productive soil (EM).
quite fertile and will respond very well to various types of furniture and paper. One should also bear in mind the other
soil management procedures (e.g. irrigation). products of the forests, such as berries, mushrooms and the The Common Agricultural Policy of the European Union
opportunities for game and recreation, generate significant already provides farmers with opportunities for soil
revenue in several countries. In Finland, the annual revenue protection. A number of agri-environmental measures offer
generated by the collection of forest berries is estimated at opportunities for the build-up of soil organic matter, the
around 11 million Euros. This figure does not include private enhancement of soil biodiversity, the reduction of erosion,
harvestings. Currently, there is considerable interest in diffuse contamination and soil compaction.
forests and, especially, forest soil for storing carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere as a mechanism to combat global These measures include support to organic farming,
warming due to greenhouse gases. conservation tillage, the protection and maintenance of
terraces, safer pesticide use, integrated crop management,
management of low-intensity pasture systems, lowering
stock density and the use of certified compost.
Olive trees growing in southern France (AJ).
In some parts of Europe the pressures on soil are so great

that terrain, normally considered not to be suitable for
farming has been adapted over time for agricultural use.
The reclamation of coastal land and subsequent
management through drainage and fertilizer allowed Dutch
engineers to create the polders. In Ireland, farmers carried
cartloads of seaweed to raise the organic content of fields
to improve the quality of pasture while in many The acid Podzol soil of northern Europe does not immediately give Potatoes growing in Holland. Careful management of soil
mountainous parts of Europe, steep slopes were terraced to the impression of an agricultural soil. However, Podzols support resources is of paramount importance in the sustainable
create fertile ledges for crops and animals. large areas of silviculture and associated activities (EM). management of the environment (EM).
20
Introduction
Soil and cultural heritage
Many of the activities of our ancestors can still be

recognized through detailed studies of the soil. In fact, the
soil is one of our main sources of information on the history
of man before he was able to write.
Soil as a medium for preserving artefacts and treasures
When digging the soil for gardening, farming or

constructing buildings, artefacts, treasures or other
evidences of human activities are often exposed. Different
soil types preserve these remains in various ways.
In wet soil types such as Histosols and Gleysols, the lack of

oxygen (anaerobic state) slows down the decomposition of
organic matter. In these soil types the remains of animals
can be found with hunting marks from arrows or spears.
Well preserved human bodies have been excavated from
moors and bogs. In some communities, people were
executed and buried in the moors as a religious act. The
anaerobic conditions preserve the bodies very well and The Neolithic Age burial mound in Anglesey, UK, is approximately 6000 years old. Buried archaeological objects have been used to study
several thousands of years later they are excavated with soil formation in many European countries (AJ).
skin, flesh and clothes still present and sometimes it is even
possible to investigate the food content in the stomach Careful study of the soil at the border between the
giving us an idea of what they were eating just before they uppermost humus coloured soil horizon and the yellowish-
died. Wooden constructions, such as poles for bridges, boats brown subsoil below can provide important information on
and wooden tools can be preserved giving us valuable previous human activities. In plaggen soil, spade marks are
information on the level of technology at that time. a distinct feature while in other areas orthogonal marks
from ploughing with ards (oxen-pulled ploughs) are
In well drained soil such as Chernozems, Luvisols and common. In some regions, humus coloured marks can be
Podzols, organic artefacts will decompose rapidly while found indicating the positions of postholes for wooden
metallic items such as weapons and ornaments can be houses thus telling us about the location of former
preserved for longer periods. The aggressiveness of the soil settlements.
to metal can vary among soil types and the climatic
conditions. Acid soil is slightly more aggressive, rusting iron A burial mound with the blue core described in the text (HBM).
artefacts faster than neutral to slightly acid soil. In wet
humid climates, decomposition rates are faster than in a The main burials are normally found within the core. When
cold arid environment. Pottery, on the other hand, seems to excavated more than 3000 years after interment, well-
be rather stable in all soil types. preserved oak log coffins have been uncovered. By this
process, some of the most remarkable discoveries from
prehistoric southern Scandinavia have been made, as corpses,
costumes, food, weapons and other implements are extremely
well preserved. The existence of the lower iron pan protects
the soil below the mound against leaching and this buried soil
profile, called a palaeosol, can provide valuable information
on the state of farmland soils in the past.
Criss-crossing plough furrows made about 3300 years ago in
Denmark (HBM).
Soil processes in burial mounds
Treasure found in the soil – this ceremonial helmet was discovered Some man-made soil constructions, such as burial mounds,
in a 7th Century Anglo-Saxon ship burial in Sutton Hoo, UK allow certain soil processes to operate that lead to well-
(British Museum). developed soil horizons. These horizons, under special
circumstances, can change the chemical environment in
The soil profile as an archive such a way that extraordinary conditions can develop for
the preservation of human bodies and grave goods.
The development of characteristic horizons in the soil can
provide valuable information on human life in ancient In the South Scandinavian Bronze Age (1300-1400 BC),
times. many thousands of burial mounds were constructed in A 3400 year old oak coffin from a burial mound in Egtved,
Denmark, southern Sweden and northern Germany. They Denmark. The soil conditions have allowed the coffin to survive
Agriculture practices were about 15 metres in diameter and 3-4 metres in height the passage of time in a remarkable state of presentation. The
Past farming practices can be recognized in the soil profile. In but some were much larger with diameters up to 70 metres. tree used to make the coffin was felled in the year 1370 BC (HBM).
northwest Europe, especially in the Netherlands and Germany, They were built of sods over one or a few stone beds on
a special man-made soil type, known as plaggen soil, has which oak log coffins containing the bodies of presumably Soil mapping and cultural heritage
developed as a result of a special agricultural system. On the high ranking people were placed.
strongly leached, acid sandy outwash plains and moraines, Soil maps are a valuable tool for explaining the location of
Podzols have developed underneath a vegetation cover of past settlements. Matching the density of settlements to
heather (Calluna vulgaris). The farmers used the heather and areas with good soil for farming is a tested technique.
the uppermost centimetre of the soil as bedding in the stables. However, such soil might not necessary be what we consider
The dropping from the animals, mixed with the bedding, was today as the best soil. Communities with low agricultural
later used as manure on the nearby fields, slowly building up technologies may have preferred sandy soil to loamy and
a thick humus rich soil layer rich in nutrients and soil water. clayey soil because of tillage problems. Mapping soil
These fields provide a relatively high and stable crop chemistry can be used for finding previous settlements, fields
production compared to the surrounding land. or industrial production places such as iron smelting.
Sampling soil for phosphorus has been used to infer previous
settlements while augering can be used to identify burial
mounds. Techniques such as metal detecting and geo-
magnetism are valuable tools for discovering treasures in the
A modern experiment to reconstruct a Bronze Age burial mound topsoil and former structures, now buried beneath the soil.
that develops iron pans (HBM).
In some cases, as the result of a special construction method

for burial mounds, iron pans have developed both above
and beneath the core of the mound and, in this way, totally
encapsulating the core. When the mounds are excavated,
the core appears bluish or black due to a lack of oxygen and
contains a lot of water, while the surrounding mantle is
normally brown or yellowish-brown and dry. The core
contains large quantities of un-decomposed organic matter
A typical plaggen soil with a very deep man-made humus layer while plant material on the sods of the surrounding mantle Auger sample showing material from a burial mound
(from the Netherlands) (HBM). is decomposed. superimposing a soil from the Bronze Age (1300-1400 BC) (HBM).
21
Introduction
Forest soil • Results indicated a relationship between acid deposition
and pH. However, for base saturation such a direct
The soil component in forest ecosystems relationship could not be substantiated. This may be due
to the fact that other factors, such as climate and soil
Soil has a major ecological role in forest ecosystems, type, strongly influence base saturation. Extremely acid
involving many organisms and individual chemical topsoil conditions (i.e. having a mineral surface layer pH
processes. Soil provides moisture, nutrients and physical value below 3.0) were reported for a number of plots,
support for plants and serves as a filter for toxic substances located almost exclusively in the region receiving a very
and a receptor for natural wastes. In forestry, soil is the high atmospheric deposition. A common characteristic of
resource, whereas trees are merely a crop. The forest cover these soil types is a low reserve of basic exchangeable
and the associated forest floor provide a micro-climate and cations, indicating a low buffering capacity against
a spectrum of organisms different from those associated acidification.
with most other soil types. Differences between agricultural
and forest soils derive, in part, from the fact that often the • Atmospheric deposition has resulted in high levels of
most “desirable” soil has been selected for agricultural use heavy metals in strongly industrialised areas.
and the remainder left for native vegetation such as forest. Concentrations of certain heavy metals, particularly lead
Fortunately, soil requirements for forest trees frequently and zinc, in humus layers and topsoils show regional
differ from those for agricultural crops. Poor drainage, steep gradients reflecting atmospheric deposition patterns. The
slopes, or the presence of large stones are examples of soil majority of plots having an organic layer with high lead
conditions that favour forestry over agricultural use. and zinc concentrations are found in the regions with the
highest deposition load.
The European forest soil condition survey
Public concern for the health of European forest ecosystems

in the late 1970s and early 1980s resulted in an extensive
forest soil condition monitoring programme set up by the
European Commission and the International Co-operation
Programme on the Assessment and Monitoring of Air
Pollution Effects on Forests (ICP Forests). The first pan-
European forest soil survey, carried out in the 1990s with the
participation of thirty one countries, assessed the chemistry
and properties of soil which determine a vulnerability to air An experimental forest plot in northern Belgium (Brasschaat)
pollution. Forest soils were sampled at the intersection points where (above) pine trees (Pinus sylvestris) are growing on a deep
of a trans-national 16 km x 16 km grid (network of Level I ploughed Podzol (see profile below) (EVR).
plots – see figure below). Sampling and analyses were carried
out by several laboratories across Europe.
A tower to measure and monitor air pollution in a forest

ecosystem. Instruments at different levels on the tower sample
the air to build up a profile of pollution in the forest (EVR).
The chemical data allowed an assessment of the soil’s

capacity to perform its ecological functions within the
forest ecosystem. The capacity to supply nutrients (e.g.
nitrogen, phosphorus and basic cations), the sensitivity to
acidification, and the capacity to immobilise heavy metals
(e.g. zinc, lead and cadmium) are important indicators of
forest soil quality in strongly industrialised regions.
The Forest Soil Condition Database offers numerous

The European forest soil condition database application possibilities, such as the investigation of the soil
stress factors on tree condition, the improvement of critical
The results of the first large-scale forest soil survey were load calculations, estimation of weathering rates and the
published in a report on the “Forest Soil Condition in extrapolation of soil data to sites where no information is
Europe” in 1997, based on a database of 4,532 plots in 23 available.
countries. The database was later extended up to 5,289
plots, representing 28 countries. For each plot, the database
consists of general information, such as the soil
classification name and chemical and physical data of Future activities
organic and mineral soil layers. The mineral soil was sampled
at two or three fixed depths between 0 and 20 cm and then The results of the large-scale forest soil condition survey
analysed for a range of elements (e.g. pH, organic carbon, may contribute in revealing the role of air pollution as an
nitrogen and metals). important stress factor for forest ecosystems. However, to
assess soil changes induced by atmospheric deposition soil
Evaluation of the European forest soil condition condition measurements should be repeated at regular time
intervals. At the start of the forest soil Level I programme,
The results of the survey reflect the spatial variability of the plans were made to repeat the survey every ten years. Since
forest soil condition in Europe and show a correlation the implementation of the Level II programme of ICP Forests
between the soil chemistry and atmospheric deposition of in 1994, 770 intensive monitoring plots have been
nitrogen, acidity and heavy metals: established in 29 European countries. In these plots, more
parameters are assessed more frequently and with a higher
• Higher nitrogen content in the organic layer of forest soils intensity at a lower number of plots than in the Level I
is observed in areas receiving high atmospheric deposition programme in order to recognise factors and processes
compared to remote areas in Europe. Nitrogen deposition, affecting forest condition. Instead of using a systematic Special instruments known as lysimeters have been positioned in
decreasing the carbon/nitrogen ratio of humus layers, will network covering the total forest area, plots are selected in the forest to collect data on the amount and the chemical
disturb organic matter and nutrient cycling. a way that all important forest ecosystems are represented. composition of soil water at different soil depths (EVR).
22
Introduction
Soil as a source of raw material
Soil is an important source of raw materials. Although the

concept is quite clear for agriculture where it is the main
raw material from which food is produced, soil provides raw
materials such as clay, sands, minerals and peat which are
used for many different industrial applications.
As is the case of “more traditional” raw material such as iron

ore, oil and natural gas, soil is essentially a non-renewable
resource with potentially rapid degradation rates and
extremely slow formation and regeneration processes. The
use of soil as a source of raw materials is obviously
depleting the available soil resources and is considered as a
non-sustainable type of soil use.
A major use of peat is the horticulture industry and amateur The most important commercial sources of sand and gravel are
gardeners who have found that the unique physical, chemical and river flood plains, river channels, and glacial deposits. Sand and
Peat as a fuel
biological properties of peat-based products give excellent results. gravel resources of Europe are large. However, because of their
Peat is an excellent mineral-soil improver or conditioner. Due to a geographic distribution, environmental restrictions and quality
Peat is the accumulated remains of plant materials formed unique cellular structure, peat has high water and air holding requirements for some uses, sand and gravel extraction is
under waterlogged conditions where organisms responsible capacities such that it can retain and subsequently provide uneconomic in some cases. Some countries mine offshore
for the decay of plant remains are suppressed. Peat moisture and air to the roots of plants (EM). deposits of aggregates while increasingly, recycled construction
accumulation takes place at various rates depending on materials are being used (RJ).
water regime, temperature and topography but average
rates are of the order of 20 - 60 cm per 1000 years. Many commercial companies have introduced intensive Sand and gravel are the most accessible basic raw material
methods of peat extraction resulting in the mining of peat for the construction industry and are used as concrete
Throughout history, peat has been exploited, primarily as a rather than the traditional sustainable harvesting approach. aggregates, road base, mixed with bitumen for road
source of fuel, particularly in Ireland, Scotland, Denmark, Peat mining is considered a particularly controversial use of surfaces, construction fill, snow and ice control (gritting),
Scandinavia, Poland, northern Germany and Russia. Peat soil as it depletes large areas of wetlands that are rich in railroad ballast, roofing granules and water filtration
was traditionally cut by hand into rectangular blocks from biodiversity and are particularly fragile natural habitats. systems.
long trenches dug across the bog. The blocks would then be These mechanized methods can destroy the environment
spread out to dry before being used to fuel open fires and responsible for the creation of the peat. Clay minerals, an important constituent of soil, have an
stoves. The drying process involves turning the peat blocks important commercial role. Kaolinite (otherwise known as
in order to allow air to circulate around the sods and to dry Nowadays, a number of peat-free alternatives are readily “china clay”) is widely used in the ceramics industry but is
the peat from its cut moisture of 90% by weight to around available on the market, including cocoa shells, coir (from also used for paper coating and as a filler in paints.
35% by weight. In this process, more than 8 tonnes of coconut husks), bark products, manure, leaf mould and Vermiculite is well established as a growing medium, attic
water are evaporated per tonne of peat! garden compost. A switch to alternatives will not only insulation and a useful packaging material. Being highly
reduce the use of peat but also reduce the volume of waste absorbent, it safely retains leaks from packed materials such
going to landfill sites. as hazardous chemicals. As it is inorganic, it does not
present any potential fire hazards. Because of its swelling
properties, montmorillonite is utilised in some hair care
Soil in construction products (e.g. shampoo) and as a liner for garden ponds.
The mineral and textural properties of soil have been a

valued resource in construction for hundreds of years. Mud bricks used for construction in Mali (AB).
The compressibility, plasticity (the ability of a soil to be

moulded) and cohesion (the capacity of soil grains to remain
together) properties were the basis for building the earliest
houses. Sun-dried mud bricks, often referred to as adobe,
are the world’s oldest manufactured building material. The
Great Wall of China, constructed over 2,000 years ago, was
build from dried mud bricks. In a similar manner, clay rich
soils were used to make pottery and roof tiles.
Even up to 200 years ago, the walls of many houses in

Europe were built from woven wooden panels covered by
“daub”, a type of rendering made from a mixture of soil,
cow dung and straw or grass.
Traditional cutting of peat for fuel in Scotland. Peat cut by hand

was a slow procedure that allowed the vegetation to regenerate
over time (RJ).
With the advent of oil and natural gas as primary fuels

sources over the last forty years, there has been a steady
decline in the use of peat as a fuel in private houses. The
generation of electricity in many countries still utilises peat
burning power stations (a medium sized power station can
consume up to 1 million tonnes of peat annually).
Research in Scotland has recently suggested that the

burning of certain types of peat was responsible for
releasing a highly toxic chemical into the environment. Because of the absorbent
Unusual levels of a substance known as dioxin, an properties of peat, it has been
organochlorine, had been discovered in soil samples pre- used as diapers, surgical
dating the twentieth century. Researchers discovered that dressings and as an absorbent
burning coastal peat, which had high levels of sea salt agent for oil spills. Peat has
(sodium chloride), could give off dioxins and expose people been used as insulation in
to these toxins. homes, blended to make
plywood, peat cork and as a
wood preservative. Peat baths
Soil in horticulture have been used as a treatment
for various injuries and
During the last forty years, there has been an explosion in medical conditions.
the use of peat for horticultural activities where it is used as
a growing media, a soil improver or mulch by amateur
gardeners and the professional horticulture industry. The percentage content of peat in topsoil (0 – 30 cm) as mapped from the soil databases described later in the atlas (RH, RJ).
23
The soil of Europe
The two photographs on this page illustrate the influence of time on soil forming processes. Both
pictures show Podzols. The above picture shows a typical mature Podzol soil with a well defined
Spodic horizon. The term Spodic implies an accumulation of organic matter in the B horizon. This is
the thinner dark zone that marks the boundary between the gray leached A horizon and the brown B
horizon (HBM). The picture below shows a young soil developing in drifted sand. An organic rich
layer, known as a mor, has developed on the surface of the soil and the podzolisation process has
begun (HBM).
24
The soil of Europe

Soil classification
Introduction to soil classification In order to create a common understanding of soil resources Soil in arid and semi-arid regions are differentiated to either
in different countries, a new soil classification system, SOLONCHAKS with a high content of soluble salts,
From the previous pages of this atlas, one can understand named World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB), has SOLONETZ with a high percentage of adsorbed sodium ions,
how different characteristics can develop within soil profiles been developed. The WRB, the soil classification scheme GYPSISOLS with a horizon of secondary gypsum
or in different geographical areas. Apart from bare rock, used for the soil maps in this atlas, has been adopted as the enrichment, DURISOLS with a layer or nodules of soil
glaciers and water, soil covers the Earth's surface as a official soil classification system of the International Union material that is cemented by silica and CALCISOLS with
continuum. The gradual changes of soil characteristics of Soil Science (IUSS) and the accepted common scheme of secondary carbonate enrichment.
across the landscape make the study and comparison of soil databases of the European Union. The WRB is not
different soil types difficult. To overcome this problem meant to replace national soil classification systems but Soils that occur in the steppe zone between dry and humid
pedologists (scientists who study soils) have developed serves as a common denominator through which national temperate climates where vegetation consists of ephemeral
various ways to characterise soil bodies, identify, label and soil classification systems can be compared and correlated. grasses and dry forest classify to three Reference Soil
group them according to certain names and rules called Groups. CHERNOZEMS with deep, very dark surface soil and
nomenclature. This important task is known as soil carbonate enrichment in the subsoil, KASTANOZEMS with
classification, one of the advanced branches of basic and The World Reference Base for soil resources less deep, brownish surface soils and carbonate and/or
applied soil sciences. gypsum accumulation at some depth and the PHAEOZEMS,
The WRB is a two-level system of soil classification with 30 the dusky red soils of prairie regions with high base
Classification is the procedure to arrange soil into groups, Soil Reference Groups (see below and Page 28) and a series saturation but no visible signs of secondary carbonate
categories or, as the word implies, classes, relevant to a of uniquely defined qualifiers for specific soil accumulation.
specific purpose. For example, a fundamental soil scientist characteristics (see box on Page 28).
would consider soil classes matching the processes and The brownish and greyish soils of humid temperate regions
mechanisms driving soil formation and geographical For describing and defining soils the WRB exploits the show evidence of clay or organic matter redistribution.
distribution; environmental scientists use soil types grouped following nomenclature: Eluviation and illuviation of metal-humus complexes
according their ecological functioning, biological activity, • soil characteristics comprise single observable or produce the greyish (bleaching) and brown to black
buffering and water filtering capabilities; engineers need measured parameters; (coating) colours of soils. Five soil reference groups include
soil groups according to different building carrying • soil properties are a combination of characteristics the acid PODZOLS with a bleached eluviation horizon over
capacities, roads construction, swelling and shrinking indicating soil-forming processes; an accumulation horizon of organic matter with aluminium
properties while agronomists wish to have information on • soil horizons represent three-dimensional bodies and/or iron, PLANOSOLS with a bleached topsoil over dense,
crop suitability, responses to various chemicals and containing one or more soil properties; slowly permeable subsoil, base-poor ALBELUVISOLS with a
management practices. While classification schemes will bleached eluviation horizon tonguing into a clay-enriched
group soil differently, classification also provides a common Soil horizons and properties are used to describe and define subsurface horizon, base-rich LUVISOLS with a distinct clay
language to map soil types, exchange and compare soil classes if they are considered as being “diagnostic”. This accumulation horizon and UMBRISOLS with a thick, dark,
knowledge about them. means reaching a certain degree of expression, as acid surface horizon that is rich in organic matter.
determined visually, by prominence, measurability,
Early soil classifications were based on individual importance and relevance for soil formation, soil use and Soil of permafrost regions that shows signs of
characteristics such as the texture of soil (e.g. loam, clay or quantitative criteria. To be diagnostic, soil horizons also ‘cryoturbation’ (i.e. disturbance by freeze-thaw sequences
sand) or the parent material (e.g. alluvial soil, gravelly soil, require a minimum thickness. and ice segregation) are assembled in one soil reference
etc.). During the late 1880s the Russian geologist Vasili group, the CRYOSOLS.
Dokuchaev - now regarded as the father of soil science -
was the first to suggest a more scientific classification based
on the combination of soil characteristics in relation to their Soil Reference Groups How is the WRB classification system used?
formation. This, so called genetic principle, remains the
guide for most present day national soil classifications, Twenty four soil reference groups represent the soil of The following steps have to be undertaken to classify a soil:
distinguishing features resulting from soil-forming Europe, 80% of the global range of soil types.
processes from those whose origin is geological. • Identification of soil characteristics through observation
Organic soils, such as peat, are brought together in one soil in the field, supported by laboratory analyses;
Since the 1950s, most European countries have carried out reference group called HISTOSOLS while all man-made
an intensive soil survey to optimise the efficient use of their soils, which vary widely in properties and appearance but • Determination of the presence and type of horizons (see
land resources. This success was based on well-established have in common that their properties are strongly affected Page 27);
national soil classifications and standards. The foundation by human intervention are aggregated to the ANTHROSOLS
of the European Union brought about an increased soil reference group. • Identification of specific vertical successions of horizons
interdependency for the countries supplies of food and on the basis of which the soil , considered, is defined;
agricultural products. Mineral soil whose formation is conditioned by the
particular properties of their parent material are sub- • Application of the key to the WRB Reference Groups to
divided in to the ANDOSOLS of volcanic regions, the sandy determine the Soil Group in terms of a specific
ARENOSOLS of desert areas, beach ridges, inland dunes or combination of horizons. A simplified key is given below.
areas with highly weathered sandstone and the swelling /
shrinking heavy clayey VERTISOLS of back-swamps, river
basins, lake bottoms and other areas with a high clay
content.
Start Here: Does the soil profile have:
Mineral soils whose formation was influenced by their
topographic setting (for example, soils associated with
recurrent floods or on steep terrain) range from the
FLUVISOLS, which show stratification or other evidence of
recent alluvial sedimentation, non-stratified GLEYSOLS in
waterlogged areas and shallow LEPTOSOLS over hard rock
or highly calcareous material, to the deeper REGOSOLS,
which occur in unconsolidated materials that have a weak
profile development because of low soil temperatures,
prolonged dryness or erosion.
Soils that are only moderately developed on account of

their young pedogenetic age or because of rejuvenation of
the soil material are referred to as CAMBISOLS.
The wet tropical and subtropical regions where high soil

temperatures and ample moisture promotes rock
weathering, rapid decay of soil organic matter, a long
history of dissolution and transport of weathering products
has produced five types of deep and mature soil types.
PLINTHOSOLS are marked by the presence of a mixture of
clay and quartz (‘plinthite’) that hardens irreversibly upon
Vasili Dokuchaev (1846-1903) is widely regarded as the father of exposure to the open air while deeply weathered
soil science. He was one of the first people to investigate the FERRALSOLS have a very low cation exchange capacity and
properties of soil in a systematic and scientific manner. He are virtually devoid of weatherable minerals. ALISOLS have
explained how soils reflect the environment in which they are high cation exchange capacity and much exchangeable
formed. He introduced the concept of five soil forming factors aluminium, NITISOLS have deep profiles in relatively rich
(climate, organisms, topography, parent material, time) that are parent material, ACRISOLS develop on acid parent rock with
still accepted in modern soil science. Most of his new ideas were
a clay accumulation horizon, low cation exchange capacity
published in his classic book the "Russian Chernoziom". The
picture was taken in the Docuchaev Museum in St. Petersburg and low base saturation while LIXISOLS possess a low cation
where he worked (EM). exchange capacity but high base saturation percentage.
25
The soil of Europe
Soil Classification
Qualifiers of the Reference Soil Groups
Ferric: having, within 100 cm from the soil surface, a ferric horizon. Rhodic: having a subsurface horizon with a Munsell hue of 5YR or redder
Acroxic: having, within 100 cm from the soil surface, less than 2 cmol(+) in all parts, a moist colour value of less than 5.5 and a dry colour value
per kg of exchangeable bases plus 1 M KCl exchangeable Al 3+ in the fine Fluvic: having, within 100 cm from the soil surface, fluvic soil material. no more than one unit higher than the moist value.
earth fraction of one or more horizons with a combined thickness of 30
cm or more (in Andosols only). Gelic: having within 200 cm from the soil surface, permafrost. Rustic: having a cemented spodic horizon which has enough amorphous
iron to turn redder on ignition, which underlies an albic horizon, and
Albic: having, within 100 cm from the soil surface, an albic horizon. Gleyic: having within 100 cm from the soil surface, gleyic properties. lacks a sub horizon which is 2.5 cm or more thick and which is
continuously cemented by a combination of organic matter and
Andic: having, within 100 cm from the soil surface an andic horizon. Greyic: having uncoated silt and sand grains on structural ped faces in a aluminium, with or without iron (in Podzols only).
mollic horizon (in Phaeozems only).
Arenic: having throughout the upper 50 cm soil layer a texture of loamy Skeletic: having between 40 and 90 percent (by weight) gravel or other
fine sand or coarser. Haplic: having the typical expression of the Soil Reference Group in the coarse fragments to a depth of 100 cm from the soil surface.
sense that there is no further meaningful characterization.
Aridic: having aridic properties without a takyric or yermic horizon. Episkeletic: having between 40 and 90 percent (by weight) gravel or
Histic: having, within 100 cm from the soil surface, a histic horizon. other coarse fragments between 20 and 50 cm from the soil surface.
Calcaric: calcareous at least between 20 and 50 cm from the soil surface.
Humic: having, over a depth of 100 cm from the soil surface, more than 1 Stagnic: having stagnic properties within 50 cm from the soil surface.
Calcic: having, between 50 and 100 cm from the soil surface a calcic % organic carbon (by weight) in the fine earth fraction to a depth of 50 cm.
horizon or concentrations of secondary carbonates. Terric: having a terric horizon, which is 50 cm thick in Anthrosols or
Lamellic: having within 100 cm from the soil surface, clay illuviation more than 30 cm thick in other soils.
Carbic: having a cemented spodic horizon which does not contain lamellae with a combined thickness of 15 cm or more.
sufficient amorphous iron to turn redder on ignition (in Podzols only). Thionic: having, within 100 cm from the soil surface, a sulfuric horizon
Leptic: having continuous hard rock between 25 and 100 cm from the soil or sulfidic soil material.
Chernic: having a chernic horizon (in Chernozems only). surface.
Umbric: having an umbric horizon.
Chromic: having a subsurface horizon of which the major part has a Luvic: having an argic horizon, which has a cation exchange capacity equal
Munsell hue of 7.5 YR and a chroma (moist) greater than 4 or a hue or greater than 24 cmo(+) per kg of clay (in ammonium acetate at pH 7.0) Vermic: having in the upper 100 cm of the soil or down to rock or a
(moist) redder than 7.5 YR. throughout and a base saturation of 50 % or more throughout the horizon petrocalcic, petrogypsic or petroplinthic horizon whichever is shallower,
to a depth of 100 cm from the soil surface. 50 percent or more (by volume) wormholes, worm casts and/or animal
Dystric: having in at least some part between 20 and 100 cm from the soil burrows.
surface, or in a layer directly above a lithic contact in Leptosols, a base Mollic: having a mollic horizon.
saturation (in 1M ammonium acetate at pH 7.0) of less than 50 percent. Vertic: having, within 100 cm from the soil surface a vertic horizon or
Placic: having within 100 cm from the soil surface a sub horizon of the vertic properties.
Eutric: having in at least some part between 20 and 100 cm from the soil spodic horizon which is 1 cm or more thick and which is continuously
surface, or in a layer directly above a lithic contact in Leptosols, a base cemented by a combination of organic matter and aluminium, with or Vitric: having, within 100 cm from the soil surface a vitric horizon and
saturation (in 1M ammonium acetate at pH 7.0) of more than 50 percent. without iron (in Podzols only). having no andic horizon overlying the vitric horizon.
Endoeutric – Eutric: having a base saturation (in 1M ammonium acetate at pH Rendzic: having a mollic horizon, which is between 10 and 25 cm thick and
7.0) of 50 % or more in all parts between 50 and 100 cm from the soil surface. contains or immediately overlies calcaric soil material having more than
40 % calcium carbonate equivalent (in Leptosols only).
While the above box lists the qualifiers of the reference soil groups, the box below explains the diagnostic horizons, properties and materials that are used for the above definitions. Some of
the terminology used on this page may seem very complicated but it reflects the detail required to assign the continuum that is soil to one group or another. What is also evident is that many
of these criteria can only be determined through laboratory analysis. Thus, the correct classification of a soil involves an understanding of the position of the soil in the landscape, observations
of the soil profile carried out in the field and supporting laboratory measurements.
Surface horizons and subsurface horizons at shallow depth cryic: perennially frozen horizon in mineral or organic soil materials aridic properties: refer to soil material low in organic matter, with evidence
of aeolian activity, light in colour and (virtually) base-saturated
anthropogenic: surface and subsurface horizons resulting from long- calcic: horizon with distinct calcium carbonate enrichment
continued human processes, notably deep working, intensive fertilisation, continuous hard rock: material which is sufficiently coherent and hard when
addition of earthy materials, irrigation or wet cultivation duric: subsurface horizon with weakly cemented to indurated nodules moist to make digging with a spade impracticable
cemented by silica (SiO2) known as `durinodes'
chernic: deep, well-structured, blackish surface horizon with a high base ferralic properties: indicate that the (mineral) soil material has a `low' cation
saturation, high organic matter content, strong biological activity and well- ferralic: strongly weathered horizon in which the clay fraction is dominated by exchange capacity or would have qualified for a ferralic horizon if it had been
developed, usually granular, structure. Its carbon content is intermediate low activity clays and the sand fraction by resistant materials such as iron-, less coarsely textured
between a mollic horizon and a histic horizon aluminium-, manganese- and titanium oxides
geric properties: mark soil material of very low effective cation exchange
folic: surface horizon, or subsurface horizon at shallow depth, consisting of ferric: subsurface horizon in which segregation of iron has taken place to the capacity or even acting as anion exchanger
well-aerated organic soil material extent that large mottles or concretions have formed in a matrix that is largely
depleted of iron gleyic properties: visible evidence of prolonged waterlogging by shallow
groundwater
fulvic: thick, black surface horizon having a low bulk density and high organic
carbon content conditioned by short -range -order minerals (usually fragic: dense, non-cemented subsurface horizon that can only be penetrated by
allophane) and/or organo-aluminium complexes roots and water along natural cracks and streaks permafrost: indicates that the soil temperature is perennially at or below 0oC
for at least two consecutive years
histic: (peaty) surface horizon, or subsurface horizon occurring at shallow gypsic: horizon with distinct calcium sulphate enrichment
depth, consisting of organic soil material secondary carbonates: significant quantities of translocated lime, soft
natric: subsurface horizon with more clay than any overlying horizon(s) and enough to be readily cut with a finger nail, precipitated from the soil solution
melanic: thick, black surface horizon conditioned by short-range-order high exchangeable sodium percentage; usually dense, with columnar or rather than being inherited from the soil parent material
minerals (usually allophane) and/or organo-aluminium complexes. Similar to prismatic structure
the fulvic horizon except for a `melanic index' of 1.70 or less throughout stagnic properties: visible evidence of prolonged waterlogging by a perched
nitic: clay-rich subsurface horizon with a moderate to strong polyhedric or water table
mollic: well-structured, dark surface horizon with high base saturation and nutty structure with shiny ped faces
moderate to high organic carbon content strongly humic properties: indicative of a high content of organic carbon in
petrocalcic: continuous, cemented or indurated calcic horizon the upper metre of the soil
ochric: surface horizon without stratification, which is either light coloured,
or thin, or has a low organic carbon content, or is massive and (very) hard petroduric: continuous subsurface horizon cemented mainly by secondary silica
when dry (SiO2), also known as a `duripan' Descriptive summary of diagnostic materials
petrogypsic: cemented horizon containing secondary accumulations of gypsum anthropogenic: unconsolidated mineral or organic material produced largely
takyric: finely textured surface horizon consisting of a dense surface crust (CaSO4.2H2O)
and a platy lower part; formed under arid conditions in periodically flooded by human activities and not significantly altered by pedogenetic processes
petroplinthic: horizon continuous layer indurated by iron compounds and
soils
without more than traces of organic matter calcaric: soil material, which contains more than 2 percent calcium carbonate
umbric: well-structured, dark surface horizon with low base saturation and equivalent and shows strong effervescence with 10 percent HCl in most of the
plinthic: subsurface horizon consisting of an iron-rich, humus -poor mixture of fine earth
moderate to high organic matter content
kaolinitic clay with quartz and other constituents, and which changes
irreversibly to a hardpan or to irregular aggregates on exposure to repeated fluvic: fluviatile, marine and lacustrine sediments, which show stratification
vitric: surface or subsurface horizon rich in volcanic glass and other primary
wetting and drying with free access of oxygen in at least 25 percent of the soil volume over a specified depth and/or have
minerals associated with volcanic ejecta
an organic carbon content decreasing irregularly with depth
salic: surface or shallow subsurface horizon containing 1 % of readily soluble
yermic: surface horizon of rock fragments (`desert pavement') usually, but not
salts or more gypsiric: mineral material, which contains 5 percent or more gypsum (by
always, embedded in a vesicular crust and covered by a thin aeolian sand or
loess layer volume)
spodic: dark coloured subsurface horizon with illuvial amorphous substances
composed of organic matter and aluminium, with or without iron organic: organic debris, which accumulates at the surface and in which the
Subsurface horizons mineral component does not significantly influence soil properties
sulfuric: extremely acid subsurface horizon in which sulphuric acid has formed
through oxidation of sulphides sulfidic: waterlogged deposit containing sulphur, mostly sulphides, and not
albic: bleached eluviation horizon with the colour of uncoated soil material, more than moderate amounts of calcium carbonate
usually overlying an illuviation horizon vertic: subsurface horizon rich in expanding clays and having polished and
grooved ped surfaces (`slickensides'), or wedge-shaped, or parallelepiped tephric: non or only slightly weathered products of volcanic eruptions, with
andic: horizon evolved during weathering of mainly pyroclastic deposits; structural aggregates formed upon repeated swelling and shrinking or without admixtures of material from other sources
mineral assemblage dominated by short-range-order minerals such as
allophane
Descriptive summary of diagnostic properties
argic: subsurface horizon having distinctly more clay than the overlying
horizon as a result of illuvial accumulation of clay and/or pedogenetic abrupt textural change: very sharp increase in clay content within a limited
formation of clay in the subsoil and/or destruction or selective erosion of clay vertical distance
in the surface soil
albeluvic tonguing: iron-depleted material penetrating into an argic horizon
cambic: genetically young subsurface horizon showing evidence of alteration along ped surfaces
relative to underlying horizons: modified colour, removal of carbonates or
presence of soil structure alic properties: very acid soil material with a high level of exchangeable
aluminium
26
The soil of Europe
Soil Classification: Grouping soil types together

An example of an exercise to classify a soil according to
WRB methodology.
The soil shown in the above picture satisfies the Chernozem

criteria if it posses the following characteristics (EM):
1. having a mollic horizon with a moist chroma of 2 or less

if the texture is finer than sandy loam, or less than 3.5 if
the texture is sandy loam or coarser, both to a depth of at
Distribution of soil types in Europe and Russia (to the Ural Mountains) according to their key characteristic. This figure clearly shows that least 20 cm, or a mollic horizon which has these chromas
Europe is dominated by soil reflecting the generally humid-temperate climate of the continent (AJ). directly below a plough layer; and having
2. concentrations of secondary carbonates starting within
200 cm from the soil surface; and
3. no petrocalcic horizon between 25 and 100 cm from the
soil surface; and
4. no secondary gypsum; and
5. no uncoated silt and sand grains on structural ped
surfaces.
From various field and laboratory examinations the soil does

indeed turn out to be a Chernozem. The next step is to
identify the qualifiers. The table below lists the possible
qualifiers for Chernozems.
Chernic having a chernic horizon

Vertic having a vertic horizon within 100 cm from the soil
surface.
Gleyic having gleyic properties within 100 cm from the soil
surface.
Luvic having an argic horizon which has a cation exchange
capacity equal to or more than 24 cmolc kg-1 clay
throughout, and a base saturation by 1 M NH4OAc) of
50 percent or more throughout the horizon to a depth
of 100 cm from the soil surface.
Glossic showing tonguing of the mollic horizon into an
underlying B horizon or into the saprolite.
Calcic having, between 50 and 100 cm from the soil surface, a
calcic horizon or concentrations of secondary
carbonates
Siltic having, within 100 cm from the soil surface, a layer
more than 30 cm thick and containing 40 percent or
more silt
Vermic having, in the upper 100 cm of the soil 50 percent or
more (by volume) wormholes, worm casts, and/or filled
animal burrows.
Haplic If no other qualifier applies
From our analysis, we see that for this soil the Calcic, Siltic
and Vermic qualifiers apply.
Therefore, following the rules set by WRB, the full name of

the soil is Silti-Calcic Chernozem (Vermic)
To learn more about the main

WRB Reference Group soils that
occur in Europe. please refer to
the following pages. The key
characteristics of each soil is
explained with supporting
pictures and a map showing the
locations where the soil is
dominant.
This picture shows the variability of different soil types across a river valley and illustrates the need to accurately characterise and classify
soils into distinct classes (EM).
27
The soil of Europe

The major soil types of Europe
Soil with subsurface accumulation of low activity clay Acid soil with a bleached horizon penetrating a clay
ACRISOLS minerals and low base saturation (from the Latin, acris, ALBELUVISOLS accumulation horizon (from the Latin, albus, meaning
meaning very acid). white and eluere, meaning to wash out).
An Acrisol is a highly weathered soil occurring in warm temperate regions and the wetter parts Albeluvisols have an accumulation of clay in the subsoil with an irregular or broken upper
of the tropics and subtropics. Acrisols have poor chemical properties, low levels of plant boundary and deep penetrations or ‘tonguing’ of bleached soil material into the illuviation
nutrients, high levels of aluminium and high susceptibility to erosion. These conditions are horizon. The typical “albeluvic tongues” are generally the result of freeze-thaw processes in
strong limitations for agricultural use. Acrisols are similar to the Red-Yellow Podzolic soil of periglacial conditions and often show a polygonal network in horizontal cuts. Albeluvisols occur
Indonesia, Red and Yellow Earths and are related to several subgroups of Alfisols and Ultisols mainly in the moist and cool temperate regions. Also known as Podzoluvisols (FAO), Ortho-
(Soil Taxonomy). podzolic soil (Russia) and several suborders of the Alfisols (Soil Taxonomy).
Left: Sheet and rill erosion on Left: Albeluvisols develop

Acrisols; mostly under forest vegetation;
Below: a natural Acrisol profile Below: Albeluvic tongues are
exposed by deep gully erosion; clearly visible penetrating the
The map shows the location of bleached illuvial horizon; The
areas in Europe where Acrisols map shows the location of
are the dominant soil type. areas in Europe where
Albeluvisols are the dominant
soil type.
Cover 15 % of Europe, the

Cover less than 1 % of Europe. most common soil.
Young soil developed from highly weatherable volcanic Soil formed or modified by human activity that caused
ANDOSOLS deposits (from the Japanese, an, meaning black, and do, ANTHROSOLS profound changes in soil properties (from the Greek,
meaning soil). anthropos, meaning man).
Most Andosols are formed from volcanic ejecta (ash, pumice, cinder) and related parent An Anthrosol is a soil that was formed or significantly modified through human activities
materials. The rapid chemical weathering of porous, permeable, fine-grained mineral material, ranging from long-term deep cultivation (e.g. terraces), substantial additions of mineral and
in the presence of organic matter, generally results in the rapid development of soil profiles. The organic fertilizers, continuous application of earth (e.g. sods, shells), irrigation and substantial
dark topsoil is generally different in colour from subsoil. Andosols occur throughout the world additions of sediment to wet cultivation involving puddling of the surface soil. The
where volcanic activity is common. Other international names are Andisols (Soil Taxonomy), morphological and chemical characteristics of this soil vary depending on the specific human
Vitrisols (France) and volcanic ash soil. activity. Anthrosols are also known as Plaggen soil, Paddy soil, Oasis soil and Terra Preta do Indio.
Left: Fertile pasture land Left: "Plaggen" fertilization over time

has resulted in a raised land surface.
developed on old volcanic ash Farm houses often lie deeper than
deposits – note the cinder their surroundings. (RL); Below: Thick,
black Anthrosol in Belgium, overlying
cones in the distance; remnants of a Podzol developed by
Below: An Andosol develops in long-term fertilization of sods or
unconsolidated volcanic "Plaggen" mixed with animal manure.
Spade marks are clearly visible at the
deposits – note the contrast in boundary between the Anthrosol and
colour of the horizon; The map the buried Podzol; The map shows the
location of areas in Europe where
shows the location of areas in Anthrosols are the dominant soil type.
Europe where Andosols are the
dominant soil type. On a continental scale, it is the
dominant soil in less than 0.1 % of
Europe but locally can be very
Cover around 1 % of Europe. important.
28
The soil of Europe

Easily erodable sandy soil with slow weathering rate, low Soil with significant accumulation of secondary calcium
ARENOSOLS water and nutrient holding capacity and low base CALCISOLS carbonates, generally developed in dry areas (from the
saturation (from the Latin, arena, meaning sand). Latin, calcarius, meaning calcareous or lime-rich).
Arenosols have a coarse texture to a depth of one metre or to a hard layer. Soil formation is Calcisols have substantial movement and accumulation of calcium-carbonate within the soil
limited by low weathering rate and frequent erosion of the surface. If vegetation has not profile. The precipitation may occur as pseudomycelium (root channels filled with fine calcite),
developed, shifting sands dominate. Accumulation of organic matter in the top horizon and/or nodules or even in continuous layers of soft or hard lime (calcrete). Calcisols are common on
lamellae of clay, and/or humus and iron complexes, mark periods of stability. Arenosols are calcareous parent material in regions with distinct dry seasons, as well as in dry areas where
amongst the most extensive soil types in the world. carbonate-rich groundwater comes near the surface. Formerly Calcisols were internationally
known as Desert soil and Takyrs.
Left: the surface of Arenosols Left: a typical Calcisol

are often unstable in the landscape showing a hard
absence of continuous calcrete layer;
vegetation cover; Below: the deposition and
Below: stabilized Arenosol with accumulation of calcium
organic matter accumulation carbonate (CaCO3) may form a
at the surface and lamellae in continuous hard pan layer; The
the subsurface; The map shows map shows the location of
the location of areas in Europe areas in Europe where Calcisols
where Arenosols are the are the dominant soil type.
dominant soil type.
Cover 1 % of Europe. Cover 5 % of Europe.
Soil that is only moderately developed on account of Soil with a deep, dark surface horizon that is rich in organic
CAMBISOLS limited age or rejuvenation of the soil material (from CHERNOZEMS matter and secondary calcium carbonate concentrations in the
deeper horizons (from the Russian for chern, black, and zemlja,
the Latin cambiare meaning to change). earth).
A Cambisol is a young soil. Pedogenic processes are evident from colour development and/or Soil having a very dark brown or blackish surface horizon with a significant accumulation of
structure formation below the surface horizon. Cambisols occur in a wide variety of organic matter, a high pH and having calcium carbonate deposits within 50 cm of the lower limit
environments around the world and under all many kinds of vegetation. Commonly referred to of the humus rich horizon. Chernozems show high biological activity and are typically found in
as brown soil, Braunerde (Germany), Sols bruns (France) or Brunizems (Russia). The USDA Soil the long-grass steppe regions of the world, especially in Eastern Europe, Ukraine, Russia, Canada
Taxonomy classifies Cambisols as Inceptisols. and the USA. Chernozems are amongst the most productive soil types in the world.
Left: Cambisols are common in Left: The main source of the

Europe and can be very high organic content of
productive agriculturally, Chernozems is the annual
especially in loess areas; decay of grass;
Below: Pedogenic processes are
evident in colour development Below: the dark surface soil
or structure formation below material is generally mixed to
the surface horizon; The map significant depths by the high
shows the location of areas in biological activity; The map
Europe where Cambisols are shows the location of areas in
the dominant soil type. Europe where Chernozems are
the dominant soil type.
29
The soil of Europe

Soil of cold areas with permafrost within a depth of 1m Young soil in alluvial (floodplain), lacustrine (lake) and
CRYSOLS from the surface (from the Greek kraios, meaning cold FLUVISOLS marine deposits (from the Latin, fluvius, meaning river).
or ice).
Cryosols develop in arctic and mountainous regions where permanently frozen subsoil or Fluvisols are common in periodically flooded areas such as alluvial plains, river fans, valleys and
"permafrost" is found. In this type of soil, water occurs primarily in the form of ice and tidal marshes, on all continents and in all climate zones. Fluvisols show layering of the sediments
cryogenic processes - such as 'freeze-thaw' sequences, 'cryo-turbation', 'frost heave', 'cryogenic rather than pedogenic horizons. Their characteristics and fertility depend on the nature and
sorting', 'thermal cracking' and 'ice segregation' are the dominant soil forming processes. These sequence of the sediments and length of periods of soil formation after or between flood events.
processes result in distorted horizons and patterned ground. These soils are widely known as Common international names are Alluvial soil, Fluvents (Soil Taxonomy) and Auenböden
Permafrost soil, Gelisols, Cryozems, Cryomorphic soils and Polar Desert soil. (Germany).
Left: patterned ground in the Left: Fluvisols develop due to the

permafrost region of Russia, deposition of sediments
the result of sorting of soil due following flood events - the
picture shows a typical flood
to freezing and thawing;
event where the river has
Below: cryoturbed or distorted overflowed its banks;
horizons above the permafrost; Below: the profiles of Fluvisols
The map shows the location of show a layering of the sediments
areas in Europe where Cryosols indicating deposition by water;
are the dominant soil type. The map shows the location of
areas in Europe where Fluvisols
are the dominant soil type.
Soil saturated by groundwater near the surface for long Soil of dry areas with secondary accumulation of
GLEYSOLS periods (from the Russian, gley, meaning 'mucky mass') GYPSISOLS gypsum (from the Latin, gypsum, meaning the evaporite
calcium sulphate).
Gleysols occur mainly in lowland areas where the groundwater comes close to the surface and Gypsisols have substantial secondary accumulation of gypsum in the subsurface. Most areas of
the soil is saturated with groundwater for long periods of time. Conditioned by excessive Gypsisols are in use for low volume extensive grazing. They occur in the driest parts of the arid
wetness at shallow depth, this type of soil develops gleyic colour patterns made up of reddish, climate zone, which explains why leading soil classification systems label them Desert soil
brownish or yellowish colours on ped surfaces or in the upper soil layers, in combination with (USSR), Aridisols (Soil Taxonomy), Yermosols or Xerosols (FAO).
greyish/bluish colours inside the peds or deeper in the soil profile. Common international names
are Gleyzems (Russia), Gley (Germany), meadow soil, groundwater soil and hydro-morphic soil.
Left: Gleysols are generally not Left: Arid "bush" vegetation so

well drained and need intensive typical of many gypsisol
management before they can regions;
be used; Below: The high amount of
Below: note the characteristic gypsum may form a
red and bluish /grey mottling petrogypsic horizon - a hardpan
and the presence of water in that further limits the use of
the profile pit; The map shows this soil; The map shows the
the location of areas in Europe location of areas in Europe
where Gleysols are the where Gypsisols are the
dominant soil type. dominant soil type.
Dominant in only very small

Cover 5 % of Europe. part of Europe (less than 0.1 %)
30
The soil of Europe

Dark soil with high accumulation of partially decomposed Soil with surface horizon rich in organic matter and with calcium
HISTOSOLS organic matter generally developed in wet or cold KASTANOZEMS carbonate or gypsum accumulation in subsurface horizons (from
the Latin castanea, chestnut, and the Russian, zemlja, meaning
conditions (from the Greek, histos, meaning tissue).
earth or land).
Histosols are composed mainly of organic soil material. During development, the organic matter Kastanozems have a deep, dark coloured surface horizon with a significant accumulation of
production exceeds the rate of decomposition. The decomposition is retarded mainly by low organic matter, high pH and an accumulation of calcium carbonate within 100 cm of the soil
temperatures or anerobic (low oxygen) conditions which result in high accumulations of surface. Kastanozems occur mainly in the dry parts of the steppe regions of the world and are
partially decomposed organic matter. Histosols occur mainly in the boreal and sub arctic regions shallower and lighter in colour than Chernozems.
and are also known as peat, muck, bog and organic soil.
Left: a typical Histosol Left: Kastanozems being

landscape from northern “observed” in the field;
Europe; Below: Secondary calcium
Below: Histosols are usually carbonate accumulation occurs
black or very dark brown and close to the surface; The map
contain recognizable remains shows the location of areas in
of plants; The map shows the Europe where Kastanozems are
location of areas in Europe the dominant soil type.
where Histosols are the
dominant soil type.
Shallow soil over hard rock or gravelly material (from Soil with a subsurface horizon of high activity clay
LEPTOSOLS the Greek, leptos, meaning thin). LUVISOLS accumulation and high base saturation (from the Latin,
luere, meaning to wash).
Leptosols are shallow over hard rock and comprise of very gravelly or highly calcareous material. Luvisols show marked textural differences within the profile. The surface horizon is depleted in
They are found mainly in mountainous regions and in areas where the soil has been eroded to clay while the subsurface ‘argic’ horizon has accumulated clay. A wide range of parent materials
the extent that hard rock comes near to the surface. Because of limited pedogenic development, and environmental conditions lead to a great diversity of soils in this Reference Soil Group.
Leptosols do not have much structure. On a global scale, Leptosols are very extensive. Leptosols Other names used for this soil type include Pseudo-podzolic soil (Russia), sols lessivés (France),
on limestone are called Rendzinas while those on acid rocks, such as granite, are called Rankers. Parabraunerde (Germany) and Alfisols (Soil Taxonomy).
Left: in Leptosols, rocks are Left: Luvisols generally occur

often close to the surface and on well drained landscapes;
many outcrops are visible; Below: note the marked
Below: a Leptosol on highly textural differentiation within
calcareous material, known as the soil profile between the
a Rendzina; The map shows surface and subsurface
the location of areas in Europe horizons; The map shows the
where Leptsols are the location of areas in Europe
dominant soil type. where Luvisols are the
dominant soil type.
31
The soil of Europe

Soil with a deep, dark surface horizon that is rich in organic matter Acid soil with a bleached horizon underlain by an
PHAEOZEMS without secondary calcium carbonate concentrations within 1m (from
the Greek, phaios, meaning dusk and the Russian, zemlja, meaning
PODZOLS accumulation of organic matter, aluminium and iron (from
the Russian, pod, meaning under, and zola, meaning ash).
earth or land).
Phaeozems are found in wet steppe (prairie) regions and are much like Chernozems and Under acidic conditions aluminium, iron and organic compounds migrate from the surface soil
Kastanozems but more intensively leached in wet seasons. Consequently, they have a dark, down to the B-horizon with percolating rainwater. The humus complexes deposit in an
humus-rich surface horizon and have no secondary carbonates in the upper metre of soil. accumulation (spodic) horizon while the overlying soil is left behind as a strongly bleached albic
Commonly used international names are Brunizems (Argentina, France), Parabraunerde- horizon. Most Podzols develop in humid, well drained areas, particularly, in the Boreal and
Tsjernozems (Germany) and Aquolls in the order of the Mollisols (Soil Taxonomy). Temperate Zones.
Left: Chernozems and Left: Podzols are common

Phaeozems are highly productive under vegetation with acidic
soil types and are used mainly litter (e.g. conifer trees);
for cereal crop production; Below: the typical contrasting
Below: Phaeozems are more leached and accumulation
intensively leached than other horizons of a Podzol - note the
steppe (prairie) soils formation of an 'iron pan'; The
and do not have secondary map shows the location of
carbonates in the upper areas in Europe where Podzols
horizons; The map shows the
are the dominant soil type.
location of areas in Europe
where Phaeozems are the
dominant soil type. Cover 14 % of Europe, the
dominant soil of the northern
Cover 3 % of Europe. latitudes.
Soils with limited development (from Greek, rhegos, Strongly saline soil (from the Russian, sol, meaning salt
REGOSOLS meaning blanket). SOLONCHAKS and chak, meaning salty area).
A Regosol is a very weakly developed mineral soil in unconsolidated materials with only a limited surface Solonchaks are a strongly saline soil type with high concentration of soluble salts. They occur where saline
horizon having formed. Limiting factors for soil development range from low soil temperatures, prolonged groundwater comes near to the surface or where the evapo-transpiration is considerably higher than
dryness, characteristics of the parent material or erosion. Regosols form a taxonomic rest group containing precipitation, at least during a large part of the year. Salts dissolved in the soil moisture remain behind
all soil types that cannot be accommodated in any of the other WRB Reference Groups. Regosols are after evaporation of the water and accumulate at or near the surface. Their morphology, characteristics
extensive in eroding lands, in particular, in arid and semi-arid areas and in mountainous regions. and limitations to plant growth depend on the amount, depth and composition of the salts. Common
Internationally, Regosols are similar to Entisols (USA), skeletal soil (Australia), Rohböden (Germany) and international names for Solonchaks are saline soil and salt-affected soil.
Sols peu évolués régosoliques d'érosion(France).
Left: Regosol is a shallow Left: after evaporation of water

blanket-like soil - rock salts accumulate at or near the
outcrops are often common; surface of Solonchaks - note the
Below: Regosol profiles show surface salt crusts and crystals;
thin surface horizons Below: a Solonchak with shallow
overlaying generally saline groundwater; The map
unstructured deposits; The map shows the location of areas in
shows the location of areas in Europe where Solonchaks are the
Europe where Regosols are the dominant soil type.
dominant soil type.
Dominant in very small areas but

Cover 2 % of Europe. can be very important locally.
32
The soil of Europe

Soil with subsurface horizon of clay accumulation and Soil with dark, acid, surface horizon rich in organic
SOLONETZ high sodium content (from the Russian, sol, meaning UMBRISOLS matter (from the Latin, umbra, meaning shade).
salt and etz, meaning strongly expressed).
Strongly alkaline soil with a subsurface horizon of clay minerals, strong columnar structure and high Umbrisols generally develop in cool and humid climates, where precipitation considerably
proportion of adsorbed sodium and/or magnesium ions. Solonetz are normally associated with flat exceeds evapotranspiration. They are usually associated with acid parent materials. In other
lands in a climate with hot, dry summers or with former coastal deposits that contain a high mapping systems, these soils are classified as Umbrepts and Humitropepts (Soil Taxonomy),
proportion of salt. Solonetz soil occurs mainly in the Ukraine, Russia, Kazakhstan, Hungary, Bulgaria Humic Cambisols and Umbric Regosols (FAO), Sombric Brunisols and Humic Regosols (France).
and Romania. Internationally, Solonetz are referred to as alkali soil and sodic soil, Sols sodiques à
horizon B et Solonetz solodisés (France), Natrustalfs, Natrustolls, Natrixeralfs, Natrargids or
Nadurargids (Soil Taxonomy).
Left: Typical landscape of Left: Umbrisols generally

Solonetz with salt crystals on develop under woodland;
the surface and salt tolerant Below: Umbrisols have dark
vegetation; organic matter rich surface
Below: Columnar structure horizons; The map shows the
close to the surface of a location of areas in Europe
Solonetz; The map shows the where Umbrisols are the
location of areas in Europe dominant soil type.
where Solonetz are the
dominant soil type.
Cover 0.5 % of Europe. Cover 2.5 % of Europe.
Seasonally cracking soil, rich in swelling clays (from the

VERTISOLS Latin, vertere, to turn).
Vertisols are rich in swelling clay minerals and occur primarily in level landscapes under climates with
pronounced dry and wet seasons. Vertisols shrink and swell upon drying and wetting. Deep wide cracks
form when the soil dries out and swelling in the wet season and creates polished and grooved ped surfaces
(slickensides) or wedge-shaped or parallel-sided aggregates in the subsurface vertic horizon. The Reader’s Tip!
landscapes of a Vertisol may have a complex micro-topography of micro-knolls and mircro-basins called
“gilgai”. Vertisols are also known as black cotton soil (USA), regur (India), vlei soil (South Africa) and
margalites (Indonesia). This section of the Atlas has introduced you to the
23 major soil types of Europe1.
Far left: Vertisols open wide
cracks in the dry season;
Left: Wedge-shaped aggregates The colour used in the box surrounding the soil
and grooved ped surfaces called
slickensides are common in group name is the same colour that is used for
Vertisols;
Below: a highly cracked Vertisol
that soil type in all the maps in the next sections
profile showing compaction of of the Atlas.
the surface horizons due to
agricultural machinery; The map
shows the location of areas in In this way, when you see a red area (i.e. an
Europe where Vertisols are the
dominant soil type. Andosol) on a map then you can refer to this
Cover 0.5 % of Europe. section find the same colour to see the basic
characteristics of the soil, what it generally looks
like and the type of landscape associated with it.
The colours used in the maps of the Atlas are

based on the soil maps produced by the UN Food
and Agriculture Organization (FAO) with slight
modifications to clarify certain issues.
1. In this exercise, the soils of Turkey and Russia as far as the Ural
Mountains were included.
All photographs in this section were provided by (EM) unless otherwise stated.
33
The soil of Europe

Mapping soil
Soil mapping is a difficult topic! This is because of two key than the graphical accuracy of the map. However, on large The information recorded during soil mapping by regional
problems. scale maps of 1:5,000 to 1:25,000, boundary lines represent or national organisations is usually based on a set of
a 5 to 25 m zone on the ground that are usually less than standard protocols that define the type of soil
Firstly, there are many purposes for which soil mapping may the transition zone and users should always be aware of this characteristics to be recorded and how each characteristic is
be carried out: when interpreting the information shown graphically on defined. Similarly, standard protocols are used to define the
the soil map. range of laboratory analyses carried out on each soil sample
• To provide information to assist land and environmental collected and the methods used for the analysis.
management.
• To provide strategic information on the current status of How soil maps are made Once a number of field observations have been made, the
soil quality (e.g. for national policy development). field surveyor begins to develop a conceptual model of the
• To provide a framework for extrapolating the results of All soil maps are based on field observations. They are also relationships between soil characteristics and local
local studies and soil monitoring networks. based on various degrees of interpretation as to how and topography, climate, geology and land use. Tentative
• To demonstrate how local and national soil variability fits where the observed soil characteristics and associated soil boundaries are sketched in between different soil areas and
into the global pattern (trans-national policy). types change between observation points. Such the changes in soil characteristics between these boundaries
interpretation is based on conceptual models of how the checked by further field observation. This process usually
The type and range of information required for each of local soil forming factors and processes determine the results in amendments being made to both the conceptual
these purposes is different although there is often a certain variation of soil characteristics across the landscape. For model used to interpolate between points and the
amount of overlap between them. Because of this, the most of the soil maps created during the previous century, boundaries placed on the field map sheets. By the end of
techniques used to map soil and the information gathered these conceptual models were never explicitly defined or the field survey, a set of field map sheets showing the
during the survey can be very different, depending on the quantified; they were simply based on the soil surveyors boundaries between different soil areas has been finalised.
purpose for which the mapping is being carried out. In experience and observations of local soil variation.
general there are two broad categories: Soil mapping for a However, with the advent of the digital age and information
Specific Purpose and General Purpose soil mapping. technology, these conceptual models are increasingly being Soil mapping unit
quantified and made more consistent.
Surveys for a specific purpose focus on quantifying the The soil mapping unit is the basic unit that makes up the soil
amount and spatial variation of a specific soil property or Field observations are the key to making good soil maps. In map. On large-scale maps, the soil mapping unit
attribute. For example, the nutrient status or soil leaching most soil mapping carried out to date, the location of each corresponds to an individual soil type. A soil type is a
potential of a field. General purpose surveys on the other inspection point is chosen by the field surveyor. Each specific soil with definable characteristics.
hand, attempt to quantify the amount and spatial variability location is selected to provide information as to how the
of a wide range of soil properties so that they can be used soil characteristics being mapped vary in relation to the On small-scale maps, soil mapping units rarely comprise
for many different purposes. local geology, landscape, vegetation and climate – all single soil types, but usually consist of a combination of a
factors used to develop the conceptual model of soil spatial dominant soil with minor associated soils. When the various
Most specific-purpose soil mapping is carried out within variation. Often, inspection points are located on a straight soils of a soil mapping unit occur in a recognizable
relatively small areas - one or more agricultural fields or an line that crosses the landscape where the topography (how geographical pattern in defined proportions, they constitute
area of land where a former industrial activity or accident slopes vary across the landscape creating different land a soil association. If such a pattern is absent, they form a
may have caused specific types of contamination. In forms) and geology vary the greatest. In other cases, where soil complex. Soil associations merge into a mosaic to create
contrast, general purpose soil mapping tends to be carried the landscape has little variation, inspection points are a soilscape.
out over much wider areas ranging from the river catchment located more randomly. In some cases, particularly for
through to regional and national levels. national ‘inventory’ purposes, observation points are located
at pre-determined intervals on a standard grid, say at 10 km
Map scales x 10 km intersects.
The scale of a map indicates how the size of the map At each inspection point, soil characteristics are examined
relates to the actual size of the area being portrayed. For by either digging a small pit to reveal the profile, or by using
a map scale of 1:100,000, 1 centimetre on the map surface a soil ‘auger’ to extract soil samples, normally to a depth of
is equivalent to 1 kilometre on the land surface. at least 1m or to rock. Each point is geo-referenced and the
characteristics revealed in the soil profile are entered onto
Maps that are sufficiently detailed to show the positions field sheets, often in the form of symbols or ‘shorthand’
of individual fields of a few hectares in size have scales of notes. In modern soil mapping, the information is entered
1:5,000 to 1:25,000 where 1 centimetre on the map either directly in digital format, or onto standardized forms
represents 50 metres to 250 metres respectively on the that are then digitized. The information recorded is based
ground. Such maps are called ‘large scale’. on field observation – the size and shape of soil structures,
the thickness, depth and colour of each soil layer, the
At the regional or national level, maps have much smaller ‘texture’ of the soil estimated from its feel under moist
scales, commonly 1:250,000, but including scales of conditions. In addition however, at a limited number of
1:100,000 and 1:400,000. inspection points, soil samples are taken for more detailed The above photograph taken from an aircraft over the Fenland of
laboratory analysis. south-eastern England clearly shows the concept of soil units and
Most of the maps shown in this Atlas are taken from the soilscape. Fluvisols of old river channels meander through the
1:1,000,000 scale soil map of Europe where 1 centimetre darker, organic rich peat soils that together comprise the Fens (JH).
on the map represents 10 kilometres on the land surface. Students being instructed on soil description and sampling
techniques (EM).
The objective of both types of soil mapping is to identify
areas of land that behave in the same way. For specific
purpose soil mapping, this is relatively straightforward as
the information being gathered relates to a single soil
property or attribute. For general purpose mapping
however it is much more difficult, as the objective is to
identify areas of land within which the range of
characteristics is small enough to ensure that it has the
same capability to carry out the various soil functions. We
therefore need to define a range of characteristics within
which soil can be said to behave in a similar way. There are
many ways of doing this and soil scientists are still working
towards identifying and defining the most effective and
consistent frameworks.
The second key problem with mapping soil is that there are
seldom obvious sharp boundaries between different types of
soil profiles or soil properties. Soil horizons and their
associated properties change continuously over the
landscape, sometimes very rapidly over a short distance, but
usually much more gradually over long distances. It is
difficult to represent such differences on a map, where
individual lines are usually used to separate one soil type or
property range from another. This brings us on to the issue
of scale (see box).
On small scale maps of 1:100,000 or smaller, where the

width of a line on the map is equivalent to at least 100 m
on the ground, the width of the transition zones that
separate one soil type from another are usually smaller
34
The soil of Europe

Mapping soil
Until very recently, field mapping techniques to produce a

soil survey had remained unchanged for the past 100 years.
The five standard pieces of equipment for a soil scientist
include:
• some type of device for investigating the subsoil such as

an auger (left) or a spade to excavate a soil profile (above
- RJ);
• paper based maps (originally topographic but increasingly

aerial photography or satellite images) on which to record
field information (see below);
• a device to measure the slope angle (e.g. a clinometer);
• pH kits and litmus paper to measure soil acidity;
Traditional soil mapping is conducted by inspecting the soil with an auger and spade at intervals throughout the landscape. The intervals • Munsell Soil Colour Chart books to record soil colour
between inspections can be according to a pre-determined grid or, more often, based upon the judgement of the surveyor who uses his or (bottom left) (JH);
her knowledge of the relationship between soil type and landscape, geology and vegetation to determine where to make inspections. Auger
borings are supplemented by excavated profile pits at determined points in the landscape where boundaries between soil types occur (JH). • A four-wheel drive vehicle to carry the soil surveyor,
equipment and samples across the countryside (RJ).
More detailed investigations in the field include weighing soil

fractions to calculate stoniness (RJ).
A Munsell colour chart to record the colour of the soil (JH).
A general purpose soil map field sheet constructed using free survey, soil types being delineated by hand drawn lines. The numbers
indicate the position of inspection site (JH).
35
The soil of Europe

Soil maps
Digital mapping – the future
By using geographic information systems (see Page 97),

global positioning systems (GPS) and information collected
by remote sensing (i.e. sensors and cameras mounted on
aircraft and satellites) to help create maps in the field, vast
improvements in consistency, speed of production and
accuracy will be realized.
When soil is not covered by vegetation, aerial photographs and

satellite images are useful for soil inventory and for analysis of
soilscapes. Four main factors influence the soil reflectance in
remotely sensed images: mineral composition, soil moisture
levels, organic matter content and surface soil texture.
The above picture is a digital image acquired by the Thematic

Mapper sensor on the Landsat Earth Observation satellite.
Orbiting at an altitude of 750 km the Landsat satellite repeats
its coverage of the earth every 16 days while the onboard
sensors capture an image of about 185 kilometres x 185
kilometres. This scene shows an area in central Poland at the
end of September when the majority of the landscape exhibits
bare soil. The image clearly shows that the locations of
Phaeozems (purple) contrast strongly with the bright Luvisols.
Also visible are Fluvisols of river valleys that can be identified
as linear green features of permanent grass pastures. The very
dark areas (e.g. upper part of the image) are forested. The
nominal resolution of the Thematic Mapper sensor is 30 metres
(Eurimage Landsat Scene 190/23 acquired 26.09.1991 – SB).
The picture on the right is a photograph taken from a special

survey camera onboard an aeroplane flying at approximately
2000 metres. Using such an image and supporting fieldwork,
a trained analyst can map the locations of Humic Gleysols
(dark brown), Luvisols (bright) and Gleyic Luvisols (darker than
Luvisols) on the image. Artificial underground drains are
visible in the top-right corner of image (GUGiK Poland).
36
The soil of Europe

Soil maps
Conscious of its responsibilities with regard to the practical

application of soil data, the Working Party, at its meeting in
Florence in 1965, proposed the preparation of a Soil Map of
Europe at a scale of 1:1,000,000. The sixth meeting of the
Working Party was held in Montpellier in 1967, at which the
study for implementing the preparation of this map was
started. Among other things the meeting recommended the
preparation of the legend and the definition of the soil units
to be used and also to make a selection of the base map.
The group of rapporteurs, at their meeting in Poitiers in

1967, recommended that for the construction of the legend
of the Soil Map of Europe at scale 1:1,000,000 advantage be
taken of the experience gained with the construction of the
legend for the FAO/UNESCO Soil Map of the World at a scale
1:5,000,000. It was proposed that the general principles
underlying the definitions of the soil units for the Soil Map
of the World be also adapted for the Soil Map of Europe.
However, with regard to the larger scale of the Soil Map of
Europe (1:1,000,000 versus 1:5,000,000), the existing soil
units had to be further subdivided in order to reflect a
greater level of detail. At the meeting of the Working Group
in Varna in 1969, the general principles for the construction
of the legend of this map were adopted.
In 1970 the Correlation Committee met in Ghent and

prepared the “Elements of the Legend” and the participating
countries were requested to prepare national maps at a
scale of 1:1,000,000 using the proposed legend on the I.G.N.
(Institut Géographique National, France) map, which had
been selected as the base.
The first drafts of the maps of several countries – prepared

in terms of the unified legend – were discussed during the
eighth session of the Working Party in Helsinki in 1971. At
the ninth and last session, held in Ghent in 1973, the
Availability of detailed soil surveys (1:50,000 scale or larger) in Europe (JD). discussions about the common legend were finalised and
recommendations were made for the completion of the
map, especially with respect to the correlation of the
mapping units on the boundaries of adjacent countries. This
work was carried out at ad hoc meetings in various
countries. Consequently, several countries prepared a
revised version of their map in 1974 and an entirely new
map was prepared for France by 1978. The Correlation
Centre at Ghent University was then in possession of an up-
to-date map of all EEC and many East European countries.
However, at the meeting in Ghent no decisions were taken
concerning the publication of the map since FAO, as a result
of a stringent financial situation, could not shoulder this
burden.
In 1978 the Working Group on Land Use and Rural

Resources of the European Communities proposed that a
Soil Map of EEC countries be prepared using the data
already collected by FAO for the compilation of a Soil Map
of Europe. It was also proposed that the EEC should invite
Professor R. Tavernier, Chairman of the Soil Correlation
Centre, Ghent, to oversee the preparation of such a map.
Following the decision taken in 1978 to prepare a Soil Map

of EEC countries, an Advisory Panel with representatives
from each member state was convened. Since most of the
existing maps had been prepared before 1974 it was decided
to update them using more recently acquired information,
and because the selected base map had not proved fully
satisfactory, a new one had to be sought.
The base map finally selected was the Operational

Navigation Chart, in Lambert Conformal Conic projection,
with Standard Parallels 57°20 and 62°40. The United
Kingdom Ministry of Defence gave authority for the
reproduction of ONC material for the purpose of preparing
a base map for the Soil Map of the EEC countries. The Soil
Availability of 1:250,000 scale soil surveys in Europe (JD). Map and accompanying explanatory text, published in
1985, was the culmination of more than 30 years work.
Soil mapping in Europe History of the soil maps of Europe
In 1986 the International Society of Soil Science published
Many soil survey organisations in Europe were initiated post A number of soil scientists involved in the correlation of the Soil Map of Middle Europe at scale 1:1,000,000 that
–World War II in response to the perceived need to expand different soil classification systems and soil survey methods implied the re-editing of part of the Soil Map of the
agricultural output, at least to the point of self-sufficiency used in Europe started collecting soil data in 1952. Their European Communities with the addition of the soil maps of
at a national level. initiative led to the creation of a Working Party within the Austria and Switzerland.
United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation whose
Soil maps in Europe have been prepared at a range of scales objectives were to correlate soil nomenclature and
and there is little consistency between countries in the scale classification in Europe and to study the application of soil
used or in whether the emphasis is on small or large scale surveys for land development. The first meeting of the
mapping. It is generally accepted that as an absolute Working Party was held in Bonn in 1957. It was realised that
minimum each country should have a national map at a the best way to achieve these aims was through the
scale of 1:250,000. Any scale smaller than this is regarded of preparation of a unified soil map of the continent. The
little value for in-country management of soil resources. preparation of such a map, at a scale of 1:2,500,000, was
started in 1959 and was brought to a successful conclusion
in 1965.
37
Soil maps of Europe
Soil is able to preserve evidence of past seismic events. This picture shows a recent normal fault
cutting a soil profile on andesitic tephra near Rome. The soil on the right of the fault has dropped
approximately 30 cm with respect to the in-situ material on the left (GM).
Soil and water - the essential combination for life on the planet. The above picture shows a rice crop growing in a ‘paddy field’ (EM).
38
Soil maps of Europe
This part of the atlas contains a series of map sheets

showing the regional distribution of WRB Reference Soil
Groups across Europe.
As illustrated by the above diagram (JH), a soil map depicts

areas where soil properties, according to the classification
scheme used, are similar. Hence, the light blue tones on the
above map correspond to the top left soil profile while the
yellow areas on the map correspond to the soil on the
bottom right. It is important to realise that a soil map is a
two-dimensional representation of a three-dimensional
object and only the spatial or geographical change in soil
properties is depicted.
Pages 40 and 41 present the legend to be used to interpret

the regional maps while Pages 44 and 45 provide an index
to the individual map sheets.
39
JRC Soils Atlas 4/8/05 9:47 am Page 40
Soil maps of Europe
40
Soil maps of Europe
41
Plate 1
The soil of Europe
42
Plate 1
43
Plate 2
Index of regional maps
44
Plate 2
45
Plate 3
To Tv
Tv Tv
Tv To
Tv To Tv
Tg
Ud
Tv Ud Th
To Th Ud Ud Tg To Tg To
Ud Ud Ud
Ud Th
Tv
Tg
Tv Th To
Th
Tv Th Th
Tv Ud Tg Tg
To
Tv Tv
Th Tg
Ud Tv
Th Ud Tg Tg Tv
Tv Tv
Tv
Tv Th Tv
Ud Tv Tv Tg
Tv
Tg
Th Tv
Tv Ud
Od Th Tg
Tg Tv
Tv
Ud Th Tg Tg
Tv Tv
Tv Tv
Ud To Gx
Ud Tv
Tv Tv
Th
Od To
Gx
To Ud
Th Ud Ud To
Tv
Ud Ud To Ud
Tv
Ud Tg
Tg Tv To
Ud
Tg
Ud
To To Tg To Ud
Tv Tv
To Ud Th Ud To
Tv
To Ud Ud Tv
Th To
Tg
Tv
Tg Tg
Tv Ud
Tg
To
Tv
To Ud
46
Plate 3
47
Plate 4
48
Plate 4
49
Plate 5
50
Plate 5
51
Plate 6
52
Plate 6
53
Plate 7
54
Plate 7
55
Plate 8
56
Plate 8
57
Plate 9
58
Plate 9
59
Plate 10
60
Plate 10 Plate 10
61
Plate 11
62
Plate 11
63
Plate 12
64
Plate 12
65
Plate 13
66
Plate 13
67
Plate 14
68
Plate 14
69
Plate 15
70
Plate 15
71
Plate 16
72
Plate 16
73
Plate 17
74
Plate 17
75
Plate 18
76
Plate 18
77
Plate 19
78
Plate 19
79
European soil : a global perspective
Ferralsol is a soil found in wet tropical regions. A Ferralsol is a deep, strongly weathered soil with a
chemically poor but physically stable subsoil. Residual iron gives the soil a characteristic dark reddish
brown colour (EVR).
Arenosols or sandy soils occur throughout Europe. However, in many parts of the world, Arenosols present major problems for agriculture. The picture above shows an Arenosol
in southern Africa (EM).
80

The World
Soil of the World SOTER: The World Soil and Terrain Database variable scale of the end products presented. For instance,
the soils and terrain database for north-eastern Africa,
Soil degradation processes are not confined to the European SOTER (SO for Soil, TER for Terrain) was another initiative of contains information at equivalent scales of between 1:1
Union but constitute a major worldwide problem with the ISSS from the 13th World Congress of Soil Science in million and 1:2 million, but the soil profile information is
significant environmental, social and economic 1986. Under a UNEP project, ISRIC, in close cooperation with only referenced to a particular mapping unit, not by latitude
consequences. As world population increases, the need to the Land Resources Research Centre of Canada, FAO and and longitude. The same is true for the soil profile
protect soil as a vital resource particularly for food ISSS, set about developing a methodology to classify areas information of the 1:5 million scale SOTER database of the
production is increasing. Growing awareness in the on the basis of their soils and landscape. After initial testing European Union.
international community of the need for global responses involving five countries (Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, United
has led to an increasing number of international initiatives. States and Canada), the SOTER methodology was endorsed The 1:2.5 million scale SOTER database for Central and
by the ISSS Working Group on World Soils and Terrain Eastern Europe, with more than 600 georeferenced soil
There is currently no single binding multilateral agreement Digital Database. After a few refinements, the Procedures profiles and the SOTER database for southern Africa have
at global level dealing specifically with soil protection. Many Manual for Global and National Soils and Terrain Digital just been released. A major effort is still needed to assemble
aspects of soil protection are already covered by the existing Databases was published in 1993 by UNEP, ISSS, FAO and supplementary data for Western Africa, West Asia,
multi-lateral environmental agreements (MEA’s). Mainly the ISRIC. Thus obtaining international recognition. Southeast Asia and Australia. Once assembled the different
United Nations Convention for Climate Change (UNFCCC), pieces of the SOTER puzzle can be correlated and integrated
the Convention for Biodiversity (CBD) and the United The SOTER programme provides an orderly arrangement of in a unique 1:5 million scale WORLD SOTER, using whatever
Nations Convention for Combating Desertification (UNCCD) data on natural resources in such a way that these data can best soil profile information is available. This product, now
are already dealing with soil related issues. be readily accessed, combined and analysed from the point planned for 2006, will result in a significant update of
of view of several potential uses (e.g. food production, worldwide soil and terrain information.
The challenge posed by the intricate relationships of climate, environmental impact, conservation). Fundamental in the
biological diversity, drought and desertification on the SOTER approach is the mapping of areas with a distinctive, Regional Soil Mapping
social, economic and environmental fronts in many often repetitive, pattern of landform, morphology, slope,
countries has been exemplified in recent times. It has also parent material and soils at a scale of 1:1 million (SOTER Large regional soil mapping undertaken by other agencies
been amply demonstrated that there is a clear convergence units). Each SOTER unit is linked through a geographic includes the preparation of the Circumpolar Soil Map
of objectives among the three Rio Conventions, the UNCCD, information system to a computerized database containing undertaken by the IUSS Cryosol Working Group and the
the CBD and the UNFCCC. Parties to these Conventions have attributes on topography, landform, terrain, soils, climate, European Soil Bureau (see Page 104). This striking product
repeatedly pointed out that there is need for a firmer vegetation and land use. In this way, each type of is the result of information gathered by soil scientists from
convergence of the strategic approaches the various information or each combination of attributes can be many countries. The ESB is also preparing a new soil map for
interested parties, particularly at the individual country displayed spatially as a separate layer or overlay or in the Mediterranean.
level, have hitherto pursued. Moreover, the need is also tabular form.
recognized for Parties to focus more on a broader The Geographic Distribution of Soils in the World
framework that includes a complex set of issues The SOTER concept was initially developed for application at compared to Europe
encompassing desertification and land management, country scale and national SOTER maps were prepared for
biological diversity, climate change, socio-economic Uruguay, Kenya, Hungary, Jordan and Syria. SOTER The table at the foot of the page shows ranking of the
development, among others. In particular, in order to databases are currently being produced for other countries. occurrence of major soil groups in different continents and
address more concretely the intertwined issues of poverty More information is available from ISRIC’s website at globally based on an analysis of the digital FAO/UNESCO Soil
eradication, sustainable development and environmental http://www.isric.nl/. Map of the World. The first observation to be made is that
security, the three Rio Conventions have expressed the need at a very general level, nearly all continents have a different
to join efforts in order not to address these issues separately. The original idea was to apply the SOTER methodology dominant soil group: Podzols in Europe, Leptosols/Cryosols
worldwide at a scale of 1:1 million in order to replace the in north and central Asia, Arenosols in Australasia and
A good knowledge of the soils of world is a prerequisite for paper Soil Map of the World. However, it soon became Africa, Regosols in North America, Acrisols in Southeast Asia
the development of a global response to soil degradation. obvious that the resources to complete this huge task in a and Ferralsols in South America. This reflects clearly the
This section shows the reader how the soils of Europe reasonable timeframe were lacking. However, this still different environmental conditions in which the soils were
compare and relate to soils in other parts of the world. remains the long-term objective pursued on a country-by- formed but, more importantly, implies a different
country basis. production potential and the need to adapt specific soil
management practices to specific soils.
The Soil Map of the World In the early 1990s, FAO recognized that a rapid update of
the Soil Map of the World would be a feasible option if the A second observation is that of the six most prevalent soils
The 1:5 million scale Soil Map of the World, produced by original map scale of 1:5 million were retained. Together worldwide only two (Cambisols and Leptosols) have a
the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations with UNEP, FAO started to fund national updates of the soil significant extent in Europe (and only occur in 3rd and 6th
(FAO) and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and map in Latin America and Northern Asia. At the same time, place in the ranking). When we consider the top eight soil
Cultural Organization (UNESCO), is still the most appropriate FAO requested consultants to test the SOTER approach in groups in each continent it is striking that in Europe two
source of soil information for studies at continental, Asia, Africa, Latin America, the Baltic States, Mongolia and soil groups (Chernozems and Kastanozems) are unique in
regional or global level. the former Soviet Union. their importance as they do not occur in any other
continent in important proportions.
Conceived in 1960 at the 7th Congress of the International These parallel programmes of ISRIC, UNEP and FAO were
Society of Soil Science (ISSS), the FAO and UNESCO initiated merged in 1995 when the three major partners agreed that Another observation in this respect is that half of the soil
a project under the leadership of Rudi Dudal, to produce a the SOTER approach at scale of 1:5 million would be the groups dominating the European landscape (Cambisols,
series of soil maps of continents and large regions at a scale official strategy to replace the FAO-UNESCO Soil Map of the Luvisols, Chernozems and Kastanozems) are generally
of 1: 5 million (1 cm on the map represents 50 km on the World. The aim was to have a global coverage of the revised considered among the more productive soils because of
ground). Twenty years later, the map, the fruit of worldwide 1:5 million scale map by the 17th World Congress of Soil their favourable characteristics (deep and relatively rich in
collaboration among innumerable soil scientists, was Science (WCSS) to be held in Thailand, 2002. Since then, clay or organic matter); while in other continents that is
completed. other international organizations have shown support and often not the case.
collaborated to develop SOTER databases for specific
Rapidly advancing computer technology and the expansion regions. This is the case for Northern and Central Eurasia Finally please note that soils strongly influenced by human
of geographical information systems (see later in the atlas) where the International Institute for Applied System activity (e.g. Anthrosols) have not been mapped consistently
during the 1980’s led to an effort to digitize the map. The Analysis (IIASA) joined FAO and the national institutes while and their extent is seriously underestimated, particularly in
FAO Digitized Soil Map of the World. was released on ten the European Soil Bureau (ESB) is coordinating the countries industrial regions with a high population density (e.g. Europe).
1.4 MB diskettes! of the European Union. In 2002 a meeting was organized
with north American soil scientists to explore the These general observations also hide significant differences
In 1984 a rasterized or cell-based version of the digitized soil possibilities of transforming the existing circumpolar within the European Continent itself where there is a clear
map was prepared at a resolution of 1º x 1º grid cells. Only the database into a SOTER compatible product. difference between the Mediterranean, the temperate and
dominant FAO soil unit in each cell was indicated. In 1993, the cold zone. However, the table clearly shows that Europe
FAO and the International Soil Reference and Information It should be noted that although the information is has a unique soil cover compared to the rest of the world,
Centre (ISRIC) collaborated to produce a raster map with a 30' collected according to the same SOTER methodology, the which at least in the temperate part, contains more
x 30' cell size for the World Inventory of Soil Emissions specific level of information in each region results in a productive soils than most other continents.
project. This database contained the distribution of up to ten
different soil units and their percentages in each cell. In 1996,
FAO produced a version of the map which had a cell size of 5' The table shows the major soil groups by continent in order of dominance.
x 5' (corresponding to 9 km x 9 km at the equator) with a
database corresponding to the paper map (i.e. soil units,
topsoil texture, slope class and soil phase), digital maps of
statistically derived soil properties (e.g. pH, organic carbon,
C/N ratio, soil moisture storage capacity, soil depth, base
saturation, textural classes, etc. ) and an interpretation, for
individual countries, on the extent of specific problem soils
(see http://www.fao.org/ for more information).
81

The World
This spread shows the distribution of different soil types across the world. Thirty Reference Soil Groups cover nearly 13 thousand million hectares of the globe. One can estimate that Europe covers about 5%
of the global soils (0.6 million ha) on the basis of 24 Reference Soil Groups (i.e. 80% of the global Groups). This calculation illustrates tremendous soil diversity in the continent.
The World Soil map shows that climatic belts drive major geographical patterns of the soil distribution. The blues and greens clearly indicate the soil of the boreal climates from which Cryosols and Gleysols
dominate; the reddish and pale-brown generally highlight temperate and subtropical regions occupied by Albeluvisols, Chernozems and Kastanoezems. The yellows stand for arid climates covered by Calcisols,
Gypsisols. The reddish colours illustrate expansion of the iron-rich tropical Ferralsols, Acrisols, Lixisols, and Nitisols in Africa, Asia and South America. In a few regions, soil cover shows a combination of Reference
Soil Groups, which follows mosaic of parent rocks and complicated relief forms.
On a global scale, Leptosols (165 million km2) and Cambisols (150 million km2) are by far the most extensive soils on the planet.
Nitisol, an example of a tropical soil from Brazil. Note the

depth of the soil profile and the lack of distinct horizons.
Occupying around 2 % of the Earth’s surface, Nitisols are
found mainly in eastern Africa, coastal India, South America,
and tropical islands (Cuba, Java, and the Philippines). They are
perhaps the most fertile of the tropical soil types (EM).
82
Sorted and patterned ground. A characteristic feature of the

freezing and thawing cycles that creates the soil of northern
latitudes. Cryosols do not occur in the southern hemisphere (EM).
Leptosols. The most common soil type on the planet. Leptosols

are found in all climate zones, particularly, in areas with a
high rate of erosion (AJ).
83

Eurasia
The regional maps depicted in the previous section of the

atlas show only the soil types of the European continent,
which is limited by the Ural Mountains in the East. The map
on this spread shows the distribution of soil groups
throughout Northern Eurasia including Russia
The map clearly illustrates that the Ural Mountains act as a

divide in terms of soil geography. While the same soil types
occur on both the east and the west sides of the divide, the
distribution patterns are quite different. The wide spread of
Albeluvisols that characterise Poland, Belarus and Russia is
stopped. Large homogeneous tracts of Histosols in West
Siberia (dark grey), Cryosols (dark blue), Podzols (dark green)
and Gleysols (light blue) dominate. The Cambisols (orange
tones), so prevalent in Western Europe, do not reappear in
any significance until to the east of Lake Baykal.
Fluvisols (light blue) are striking features in the landscape of

Russian Asia. They reflect the extensive floodplains of the
Ob, Yenisey, Lena, Kolyma, and Amur rivers. The only
comparable examples in Europe are the lower tracts of the
Po and the Volga.
The fertile soil of the steppes is clearly indicated by

Chernozems (brown) that are fragmentally presented in the
southern part of Siberia. Andosols (red) of Iceland and the
Andosols develop on volcanic material, notably volcanic ash but also on tuff, pumice, cinders and other volcanic ejecta of various
Kamchatka Peninsula are striking reminders of volcanic
composition. . Volcanoes are formed at the boundaries of plate margins and indicate where new land is being created. On the adjacent map,
activity. Iceland, the Massif Central of France, the west coast of Italy, Sicily and the Kamchatka Peninsula of eastern Asia represent active or recently
active volcanic activity. An Andosol is usually a very fertile soil type that occurs in some of the most densely populated areas of the world.
However, Andosols are vulnerable to disturbance that can cause landslides and erosion by wind and water (EM).
A Gleysol caused by water-logging of the soil due to high water table (EM).
84
Major soil groups of Eurasia
85
Soil of the Mediterranean Region
A Petric Calcisol or Calcrete; a widely distributed soil and land surface in the Mediterranean region
used for grazing and agro-forestry. The white material is calcium carbonate (EF).
Snow in summer? Salt affected soils in the coastal area of Albania. In 2004 the estimated area is about 15,000 hectares
throughout the country. Considerable amounts of salt accumulate during the summer on the soil surface through the process
of evaporation. Only a few salt-tolerant (halophyte) natural plants populate these areas (PZ).
86

The lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea are Histosols act as organic carbon pools and play an important
characterized by a wide diversity of soil reflecting role in carbon sequestration. Therefore they should be
differences in climate, landscape, vegetation, time and, properly treated, preferably left in their natural condition. If
especially, the long-term influence of human activities. cultivated, well-managed and functional drainage systems
Erosion has been a dominant factor in carving landscapes must be developed to keep the soil profile at optimal
and influencing soil distribution. One of the best known wetness.
examples of Mediterranean soil is the famous “terra rossa”.
However, there can be great confusion when one tries to
classify soil types as they possess variable depths, evidence Leptosols
of clay transportation within the profile, carbonate content
and age of soil development. Thus, as evidenced by the Rarely is there another soil type that could characterize
photograph below, their classification may vary from better the Mediterranean environment than the Leptosols.
Regosols or Leptosols to Luvisols. This widespread shallow soil of undulating lands and steep
slopes located mainly on the northern Mediterranean region
Understanding the formation and behaviour of occur predominantly as Calcaric, Mollic, Rendzic, Eutric or The typical prismatic structure and poor physical properties make
Mediterranean soil is a challenge that still requires the Haplic soil units (see Page 27). The Mollic and the Rendzic land management of Vertisols very difficult (MB).
thoughts of many pedologists. The dominant parent Leptosols are dominant on partly degraded forested land in
materials of southern Europe, North Africa and the Middle Turkey and southern France. The Calcaric Leptosols occupy Their swelling and shrinking properties lead to the
East are the limestones and dolomites that gave rise to the large areas of the Dalmatian Coast (Croatia), the Spanish development of an undulated surface micro topography
development of the typical karstic ecosystem of the and Greek islands and much of the nearby coastal zone. that requires a careful land management approach. In the
Mediterranean. Furthermore, special attention is needed to Extensive areas of Leptosols occur on the eastern and relatively wetter parts of the Mediterranean, Vertisols can
understand the past and present role of wind borne southern Turkish coastlines, the highlands of Cyprus and be maintained as areas of traditional use, such as improved
materials from the Sahara desert in the development of the large areas of Syria, Lebanon, and Israel. Leptosol is the rangelands. The use of green manure (legumes) as part of
region’s soil. The following text outlines the major soil types shallow soil of the karstic landscape, highly susceptible to an improvement technology has been found to be highly
of the Mediterranean as well as less widespread but high erosion due to the conversion of forests to Mediterranean beneficial in improving their physical properties. Some
value soil that is important in indigenous land use and shrub-lands and degraded maquies. This process, initiated Vertisols from the sub-basins of eastern Turkey have been
ecosystem management. thousands of years ago, is still continuing. used as indigenous rangelands for centuries whereas the
Vertisols in the Tavoliere delle Puglie in the south of Italy are
devoted to the irrigated cultivation of tomatoes, sugar-
beets, and asparagus and non-irrigated durum wheat. Both
systems, which might seem to be contradictory, are
sustainable due to their specific production characteristics
and efficient use of water throughout the year.
Fluvisols
Fluvisols are frequently located along past or present rivers,

as in the alluvial basins of Spain, southern France, Greece,
Italy, Turkey, Albania, Middle East and Egypt. Occasionally,
they are present in the deltas of coalescing alluvial fans that
extend from mountains towards the Mediterranean Sea.
Due to their setting in the landscape, Fluvisols are

susceptible to the build up of salinity especially in Spain,
Turkey, Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia and need extra care in
irrigated areas. Fluvisols are highly productive soil types and
are allocated mainly to cash crop production, such as
Recent terracing of Leptosols in Syria for the cultivation of cereals vegetables, cotton, maize, sunflowers and, when the climate
and olives (FT). is a little wetter, cereals. Recent trends towards
environmentally friendly agriculture have compelled
Although Leptosols are known to be a potential resource for farmers to consider cost-effective salt tolerant crops on
grazing and forestry, their terracing has created the ancient lake depressions that always bear the risk of salinity.
traditional Mediterranean landscape (see photographs
above and below), which is a unique and productive agro- Gleysols, Solonchaks and Solonetz
ecosystem suitable for water harvesting with long adapted
indigenous crops, dating back to the Roman period, Gleysols are found only in small areas throughout the region
providing sustainability to the system itself. in association with Solonchaks and Solonetz. Their typical
characteristic is the presence of gleyic properties within the
Mediterranean terra rossa from the southern part of Turkey. (PZ) upper 50 cm topsoil layer of the soil profile. Drainage is a
land management prerequisite for their use and cultivation.
Histosols Solonchak soil (see below) occurs in the semi-arid parts of

southern Europe. In Turkey and Spain, they are mostly
Histosols cover relatively small areas throughout the region. associated with dominant Fluvisols overlying marls of
They are formed from organic soil material and are lacustrine origin. As salinity builds up, the rising water table
continuously influenced by the presence of shallow follows deep seepage from lower elevations as well as spring
groundwater. Parent material is made of partially waters reaching the alluvial surfaces, and is ultimately
decomposed plant remains with or without the addition of enhanced by high evaporation of the semi arid
sand, silt or clay. Histosols cover the lower parts of fluvial, environment. Gleyic Solonchaks are widespread within the
lacustrine and marine landscapes and are often associated context of waterlogged areas as back swamps.
with Fluvisols, Gleysols, Solonchaks and Vertisols. In a
natural way, Histosols act as the highly valuable wetlands
that maintain natural biodiversity.
The depth of peat layers is usually shallow but when a

combination of tectonic lowering and accumulation of peat Ancient Roman terraces on Leptosols in Turkey used for the
occurs, the depth may reach as much as 300 metres as cultivation of olives, grapes and cereals (MS).
reported in the Drama Plain, Greece. Pockets of Histosols
are found in Albania, Spain and, very occasionally, in the
Middle East where they follow the Antakya Fault (the Vertisols
northern extension of the Rift Valley) in Southern Turkey.
Although not widely distributed in southern Europe,
Histosols represent very fragile soil ecosystems. Studies Vertisols cover large parts of the deltas of the
have shown that reclamation, land management and crop Mediterranean as dominant or associated soil types with
production can drastically affect them. Naturally, they are Fluvisols, Cambisols, Calcisols, Luvisols and occasionally
suitable for grazing and forestry. However, under good Leptosols.
drainage systems, they are very productive soil for
horticulture. If mismanaged, their cultivation could Extensive deposits are found in Turkey, the western Balkans,
accelerate the mineralization of organic matter, cause soil Spain and Italy. In Morocco, Vertisols are called Tirs while Salinity can build up if the drainage system is not functioning well
subsidence and waterlogging. the magnesium-rich Vertisols in the Balkans are known as or poor quality water is used for irrigation – as evidenced by the
smonitsa soil. bare area in this field of maize (PZ).
87

Soil of the Mediterranean Region Kastanozems and Phaeozems
The presence of a Salic horizon is essential to differentiate The distribution of Kastanozems in southern Europe is very
Solonchaks from other soil types such as Gleysols. Mollic, limited and mainly associated with Leptosols, Cambisol,
Calcic and Gypsic Solonchaks may be associated with Calcisols and Fluvisols. They occasionally associate with
Kastanozems, Phaeozems, Calcisols and Gypsisols. Saline Gypsisols, Solonchaks and Solonetz in depressions of
Vertisols occur very occasionally in the semi arid parts of warmer and drier areas. Some Kastanozems are covered by
southern Europe. forests or are used for grazing. Other areas are cultivated
for cereals and occasionally for irrigated crops. The build up
On the other hand, Solonetz (see figure below), rich in of salts may be a problem for these fertile and productive
exchangeable sodium and magnesium ions, are confined to soil types if water is not well managed during irrigation.
flat lands and are found with Gleysols and Solonchaks. In
coastal areas, they can be associated with Fluvisols. The Phaeozem is a soil with a distinct dark surface colour and
transition of Solonetz to Gypsisols and Calcisols occurs due high organic matter content. In the Mediterranean region
to the accumulation of gypsum and calcite below the Leptic, Vertic, Gleyic, Luvic, Pachic, Calcaric, Skeletic, Siltic,
diagnostic Natric horizon, as found in semi arid conditions Dystric, Chromic, and Haplic represent the most common
of Spain and Turkey. Extensive areas of saline soil occur in soil units. They are found in Spain, France, Italy, the Western
Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, Egypt and throughout the Middle Balkans, Albania, Greece, Turkey, Israel, Lebanon, Syria, and
East. One dominant factor for the expansion of saline soil Morocco. Phaeozems in rain fed, flat or gently undulating
in the Mediterranean is the introduction of irrigation and environments, become very productive especially for
the intensification of crop production. cereals. Under irrigation, a great variety of crops, including
sugar beet, vegetables or fodder, may be cultivated. In
sloping mountain areas, they are suitable for forestry or
managed grazing. If mismanaged, Phaeozems in
mountainous regions could be seriously threatened by
erosion. The lack of the Mollic horizon in many parts of the
Mediterranean mountains is the best evidence of historic Tabular gypsum (calcium sulphate) crystals in Gypsisols viewed in
soil erosion. a polarizing microscope at x100 magnification (EA & SK).
Umbrisols
Umbrisols occur mainly in the northwest of Portugal and

Spain with smaller patches in the Balkans. Umbrisols are
associated with moist but free-draining conditions, namely
Phaeozems, which ultimately integrate by cultivation to
The polygonal development on the surface of a Solonetz in
Anthrosols. Cambisols and Leptosols may also be associated
southern Turkey (HO).
to Umbrisols as well as being adjacent in the landscape.
Solonchaks and Solonetz are very difficult soil types to
manage and require extensive effort to be productive. Regions of cleared forests, converted to short grasses,
However, they are widely used for arable farming and widely used as grazing lands, dominate Umbrisols in the
extensive grazing. The production of salt tolerant crops northwestern part of the Mediterranean. Thus, the
(Atriplex) on unused grasslands seems to be a highly management in this context has aimed at the introduction
profitable and environmentally friendly practise used in of improved pasture and correction of soil acidity by liming.
several countries of the Mediterranean region. Cambisols, Luvisols and Leptosols at higher elevations face
similar problems as Umbrisols.
A Gypsisol profile from Spain (JB).
Andosols
Gypsisols, Durisols and Calcisols Pedogenetically, Gypsisols are characterised by the presence
of Duric and Petroduric horizons that practically limit the
Andosols occur in the volcanic regions of southern Europe,
These are the typical soil types that form under arid or semi- effective soil depth available to plant roots. In fact, the
primarily in Italy, France and with minor distributions in the
arid conditions. With the exception of Calcisols, their Petroduric horizon can vary between 10 cm to 4 m in depth.
undulating mountainous of Turkey. They are associated
extension is limited in the northern Mediterranean areas but In addition, Durisols could have an Argic, Cambic or Calcic
with Cambisols, Podzols and Luvisols in France, Cambisols in
highly visible in the southern countries. In the arid regions horizon above the Petroduric horizon. The agricultural use
Italy whereas in Turkey with Calcisols, Leptosols and
of North Africa and the Middle East, mud and debris floods of Durisols is limited to extensive grazing.
adjacent Fluvisols. Identification of Andosols has been
highly controversial within the Mediterranean context due formed the so-called “wadis” located in areas of low relief.
Many wadis were formed during the Late Pleistocene to Calcisols occupy large areas in Spain while in Turkey and
to the lack of the bulk density requirement (0.9 g/cm3),
Early Holocene period between between 13,000 and 8,000 Cyprus where they are ranked the second most dominant
organic matter content as well as morphological-field
years ago. Consecutive mudflow occurrences have been soil after Leptosols. Minor distributions are also found in
characteristics such as thixotropy (the smeary feeling that
responsible for the development of Calcisols with variable Italy, France, Greece and Albania. The major soil units
develops due to the sol-gel transformations under pressure).
contents of secondary carbonate (lime) accumulation, include the Vertic, Luvic, Petric, and Haplic categories.
leading to the development of Calcic and Petrocalcic Petric and Luvic Calcisols represent the dominant calcretes
horizons within a depth of 100 cm or deeper and often of Turkey, Cyprus, Spain as well as North Africa and the
grading to ‘calcrete’. Middle East. Calcisols are associated with Leptosols at
higher elevation and with Gleysols, Vertisols, and
Gypsisols are characterised by the substantial accumulation Solonchaks in lower depressions.
of secondary gypsum (CaSO4). The natural vegetation is
made of xerophytic plants (cacti are xerophytic shrubs) and
ephemeral grasses. The largest concentration of Gypsisols in
the Mediterranean occurs in the Libyan Desert, Jordan,
Syria, parts of Central Anatolia and Cyprus. The agricultural
use of Gypsisols depends on the gypsum content in the
upper topsoil layer. If the gypsum content is low they can
be used for production of small grains, cotton, and forage
crops. In the Gypsisols of alluvial plains, irrigation and
drainage are necessary for the cultivation of crops, fruit
trees, and grapes. However large areas are used only for
extensive grazing.
Durisols contain cemented secondary silica (SiO2) in the

upper one meter of the soil. Their typical feature is the
presence of a hard-cemented layer identified as the
Andosols of the western slope of Mount Etna in Sicily, Italy “duripan phase”. In the Mediterranean, they occur on level
formed by lava flows with tephra – fragmented rocks deposited by and slightly sloping alluvial plains, terraces and gently
pyroclastic flows from an erupting volcano (CD). sloping piedmont plains mainly in Jordan, Syria, Morocco,
Tunisia, and Algeria. They are often found in association
Andosols are cultivated for a variety of crops. They with Gypsisols, Calcisols, Solonchaks, Solonetz, Vertisols,
represent soil ecosystems that are vulnerable to Arenosols, and Cambisols.
disturbances, especially to soil sealing, which may lead to
the development of landslides (southern Italy and eastern A striking example of a calcrete. The picture shows a massive
Turkey) and erosion. The unavailability of phosphorous is secondary accumulation of soft lime forming this Calcic horizon
(the white zone) in the hilly areas of Central Albania (PZ).
their main chemical constraint of soil fertility.
88

Luvisol is a fertile soil suitable for a wide range of Dry farming (the profitable production of crops without
agricultural uses (except for the shallow Leptic units). On irrigation) is possible where the annual rainfall exceeds 300
sloping land, Luvisols require measures, such as man-made mm. Some Arenosols in the coastal regions of Southern
terraces, to control erosion and deforestation. The Chromic, Turkey have been anchored by agro-forestry activities such
Calcic and Vertic Luvisols of the Mediterranean are as the planting of stone pine (Acacia cyanophylla),
commonly used for cereals and for sugar beet while the eucalyptus (Eucalyptus camaldunensis) and acacia (Acacia
upper slopes are best suited for fruit trees, vineyards, olives cynophylla) on and in between sand dunes.
and grazing. The Haplic Luvisols of northern Italy are used
for wine production.
Regosols
Cambisols A Regosol is a weakly developed soil found on

unconsolidated materials. Regosols are typical of the
A Cambisol represents a young soil in a continuous process mountainous regions of Spain, Italy, Albania, Greece, Turkey,
of pedological maturation, as revealed by the presence of Syria, Jordan, Lebanon and Israel. Regosols occur primarily
the Cambic horizon. Cambisols stand between Fluvisols and on eroded land associated with Cambisols, Leptosols,
Luvisols. Cambisols are the most widely distributed soil of Luvisols, Phaeozems, Umbrisols, and Calcisols. The Dystric
the Mediterranean delimiting the semi-arid climatic regions qualifier is the main measure of the Regosols in the
of the area. The major Cambisol units are Eutric and Dystric Mediterranean region followed by the Eutric and Calcaric
which occur in France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Croatia, soil units.
Bosnia-Herzegovina, FYROM, Albania and Greece, whereas
the Vertic ones are mainly found in Italy, Greece, Turkey and Regosols have little value for agriculture. In Spain and
Cyprus. The remaining Gleyic, Fluvic and Andic units only Turkey some of them are used for capital-intensive irrigated
cover minor parts of the Mediterranean. Cambisols are farming systems. However, Regosols are better suited for
widespread in North Africa and the Middle East as well. forestry, managed grazing and recreation. The continuous
threat of erosion as well as forest clearing badly damages
Cemented Petrocalcic horizon in central Albania that limits Cambisols with moderate to deep soil profiles are among the fragile natural ecosystem of this soil.
effective soil depth to around 50 cm (PZ). the most productive soil of southern Europe. They associate
with Luvisols and Vertisols and with Fluvisols and Gleysols in
wet depressions or deltas. The Eutric Cambisol is used for
the cultivation of all kinds of crops while Dystric Cambisols
are used for mixed arable farming. The Calcaric and
Chromic Cambisols on steep slopes are covered with forests.
The Vertic, as well as the Eutric, Calcaric and Chromic
Cambisols in irrigated or non-irrigated alluvial plains are
dominantly used for food and oil crop production
throughout the Mediterranean region. Where the climate is
wetter, many Cambisols support typical Mediterranean
indigenous agro-ecosystems such as carobs, figs, olives, and
grapes.
Arenosols
Arenosol is a sandy soil having sand or another coarse

texture in the upper 50 cm soil layer. In southern European
A Luvic Calcisol profile from Southern Turkey. This soil is widely countries, Arenosols occur mainly in the lacustrine, fluvial
distributed throughout Turkey, the Middle East, North Africa and marine environments of the present and ancient coastal
(especially Tunisia) and Spain (SK & EA). areas including sand dunes along the coast. In more humid
environments, Arenosols are good for horticulture provided
Calcisol in the Mediterranean region is a productive soil that efficient systems of irrigation and drainage are put in
with moderately deep profiles. However, effective soil place, complemented by ‘fertigation’ (the application of
depth could be reduced by the presence of a Petrocalcic nutrients through irrigation systems). In arid areas where
horizon. Occasionally, shallow Petric soil units (with rainfall is less than 300 mm per year, Arenosols are
relatively high water holding capacity) are allocated for the predominantly used for extensive and nomadic grazing.
traditional production of tree crops like olives, almonds, Uncontrolled grazing and clearing for cultivation without
vineyards, apricots and figs. In eastern and central Spain appropriate soil conservation measures can easily make
and Turkey, Calcisols have been used extensively for grazing Arenosols unstable and revert the land to shifting dune Olive trees growing along foot slope terraces in southern France (AJ).
creating areas that are prone to erosion especially at the systems.
peripheries of active fault lines.
Extensive areas of Calcisols in the Mediterranean are used

for the production of irrigated winter wheat, melons, and
cotton. Calcium tolerant crops such as sorghum, rhodes
grass and alfalfa, are best suited for Calcisols. A number of
vegetable crops have successfully been grown on irrigated
Calcisols if fertilization with nitrogen, phosphorus and trace
elements (Iron and Zinc) are provided.
Luvisols
A Luvisol is a well-developed soil whose main pedological

characteristic is the formation of the argic sub surface
horizon through the destruction and movement (eluviation
and translocation) of silicate clay from the surface topsoil
layer.
The Luvisols of the Mediterranean region are widely

distributed throughout Portugal, Spain, Italy, Greece,
Albania, Croatia, Turkey and Cyprus and are often associated
with Cambisols, Leptosols and upland Regosols under forest
cover. The Gleyic and Haplic units dominate the Luvisols of
Italy and France. Chromic and Rhodic units (terra rossa soil)
are widespread in Greece, the southern part of Portugal,
central Spain, western and southern Turkey and northern
Italy. Luvisols are observed to associate with Alisols and
Acrisols in the humid parts of the Mediterranean requiring
further research to understand the relations between the
soil typologies and the fluctuating past and present climates
of the Mediterranean. Luvisols are also present in Morocco,
Algeria, and the Middle East (Jordan, Syria, Israel, Lebanon). A Luvisol under forest cover in Greece (CK).
89
European soil : a global perspective 0° 10°

Soil of the Mediterranian Region
The countries that surround the Mediterranean Sea

cover an area of nearly 9,000 million km2 with a
population of over 400 million people. Due to the warm
climate and cultural associations, the Mediterranean,
often regarded as the cradle of European civilisation,
attracts more than 200 million tourists each year.
Increasing pressure from tourism, agriculture, the
climate and slope conditions make the soil of the
Mediterranean a particularly threatened resource.
The irregular red boundary on the map indicates the

watersheds of rivers that flow into the Mediterranean
Sea. It is for this reason that the soil of Portugal and
large parts of Spain are not considered in this
delineation of The Mediterranean whereas the soil of
the Rhone Valley in southern Switzerland are!
40°
30°
Only twenty years ago the Sahara desert surrounded the “Desert Road” connecting Cairo and
Alexandria in Egypt. The “greening of the desert” through sand dune management and irrigation has
transformed the area to fields of bananas, grapes and horticulture crops. As seen on the above map,
A pistachio tree integrated with an underlying Calcrete - an there is clear differentiation between the soil on the floodplain of the Nile and the desert as the river
indigenous land management technique in the Eastern journeys towards the delta and the sea. The large purple area to the west of the Nile, just below the
Mediterranean (SK). delta, is the Al-Fayyum depression, once an old lake, now used for intensive irrigated agriculture (FAK).
90 0° 10°
20° 30° European soil : a global perspective
40°
30°
The figure on the left shows a typical Cambisol landscape from Tuscany in Italy – a classic
Mediterranean landscape (EM).
This map is based on several information sources. The European data described in the atlas are
complemented by soil data at a scale of 1:1 million from Morocco, northern Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt
and the Lebanon that are in the process of being integrated with the European database. The
remaining gaps (e.g. southern Algeria, Libya and the Middle East) have been filled with data from
the 1:5 million scale Soil Map of the World. Efforts are underway to produce a better harmonised
soil map for the entire region.
20° 30° 91
Northern latitudes
A Cryosol from northern Russia. The wet base of the section is the continuously frozen ground known as permafrost. The bluish-grey zone is known as an active layer where
cycles of freezing and thawing cause cryoturbation and mix organic matter into the soil (EM).
A striking example of a Podzol. The pale leached topsoil indicates a loss of iron oxide coatings which
subsequently accumulate in the reddish-brown“iron pan” horizon lower down the profile (EM).
92
Northern latitudes
Europe is part of the circumpolar segment of the global soil

coverage. This part of the atlas describes the pattern of soil
distribution around the Arctic, a pole of snow and ice. The
harsh continental climate with a low amount of solar
radiation, intense cold during long winter and limited
heating during the short summer provide a negative heat
balance on these lands. The cold affects the surrounding
landscape and leads to the formation of permanently frozen
ground known as permafrost (soil having an annual
temperature within the upper one meter layer of below 0oC).
Cryosol is the most characteristic soil type of the northern

latitudes and is often found in association with Histosols
and Gleysols. Cryosols form from coarse-textured deposits
and from fresh alluvial or aeolian parent material associated
with Podzols, Planosols and/or Cambisols.
Cryosols have a number of specific soil-forming processes

that distinguish them from other soil. Most of these
processes are driven by a soil water regime that migrates
along a thermal gradient from warm to cold sites. This
move has different directions due to the seasonal freeze-
thaw cycle and may cause cryoturbation, frost heave,
cryogenic sorting, thermal cracking and ice segregation.
Repeated freezing and thawing of water in the soil results

in lifting of coarse rock fragments, cryoturbation (i.e. is the
churning of minerals by hard frost) and mechanical crashing
(physical weathering) of rocks. During freeze-back (the
freezing portion of the cycle), freezing fronts move both
from the soil surface downward and from the permafrost
table upward. As this happens, moisture is removed from
the unfrozen soil material between the two fronts (frost A Cryosol from northern Russia. Below 40 cm, one can clearly see the frozen ice of the permafrost. The upper portion of the profile thaws
desiccation). Desiccation is responsible for the development during the summer months. The maximum thaw depth of the seasonally frozen layer is known as the active layer and varies according to
the physical characteristics of the soil and prevailing weather condition (EM).
of blocky structures in these soils; the combination of
cryoturbation and desiccation causes the granular structure
of many fine-textured Cryosols. The cryostatic pressure that While the subsoil of Cryosols remains permanently frozen Cryosols with a high silt content are thixotropic, such that
develops as the freezing fronts merge results in a higher (the permafrost layer), the upper portion thaws in summer. viscosity decreases when stirred or shaken, to become
bulk density of the soil. The maximum thaw depth of the seasonally frozen layer liquified gel but returns to the hardened state upon standing.
represents the depth of the active layer. The latter is highly
Cryoturbation (frost churning) mixes the soil materials and dynamic and depends on climate and environmental The active soil layer in Cryosols supports biological activity
results in irregular or broken soil horizons, involutions, changes. The active layer in Cryosols can extends up to 80 and protects the underlying permafrost. Soil texture,
organic intrusions, organic matter occurrence in the subsoil, cm below the soil surface and depends on the physical moisture regime, thickness of organic surface layer,
oriented rock fragments, silt-enriched layers, silt caps and environment of the soil and the soil texture, soil moisture vegetation cover, aspect and latitude are among the factors
oriented micro-fabrics. Two models have been suggested to regime and thickness of organic topsoil. When the that control the thickness of the active layer.
explain the cryoturbation process: temperature drops, freeze-back occurs from the frost table
upwards and from the soil surface downwards. The soil Salt crusts are common on soil surfaces on the high arctic
• in the cryostatic model, freezing fronts moving downward material between these freezing fronts comes under islands of Canada and Russia. These salt crusts develop
from the surface and upward from the permafrost table cryostatic pressure and, as a result, unfrozen materials are during dry periods in the summer because of increased
cause pressure on the unfrozen material between the displaced and soil horizons are contorted and broken. This evaporation from the soil surface.
fronts; causes the characteristic cryogenic structure and
cryoturbated soil horizons. The pH of Cryosols varies greatly and depends on the
• in the convective cell equilibrium model, heave- composition of the parent material: Cryosols developed in
subsidence cycles at the bottom move upward and Weak leaching and translocation of materials occur in calcareous parent material have a higher soil-pH than soils
inward. This results in a slow upward cell-type circulation. permafrost soil giving rise to leached horizons. However, in non-calcareous material. The similarity of the soil-pH to
the evidence of the transformation of soil material is often that of the parent material is also caused, in part, by
Frost heave is caused by an expansion of soil volume due to partially or completely destroyed by cryoturbation, which cryoturbation, which mixes soil materials not only between
freezing either because of the change in volume that takes mixes the soil materials in the active layer. horizons but also with the parent materials.
place when water is converted to ice or because ice build-
up in the subsoil causes cracks to form in the soil.
Re-freezing causes coarse fragments in the soil to be heaved

and sorted resulting in oriented features in the soil and
micro-topography of patterned ground. These include
circles (including earth hammocks), nets, polygons, stripes
and steps.
Thermal cracking is formed when frozen materials contract

under rapid cooling. The resulting cracks are typically
several centimetres wide. They might become filled in with
water or sand later to form ice or sand wedges. Since old
thermal cracks are zones of weakness, cracking recurs at the
same place.
Ice segregation refers to the accumulation of ice in cavities

and hollows in the soil mass and manifests itself in a variety
of phenomena. Features include ice lenses, vein ice, ice
crystals and some types of ground ice. The characteristic
platy and blocky macro-structures of Cryosols result from
vein ice development.
Cryosols can have Gleyic properties that develop from

prolonged saturation with water during the thaw period.
Cryosols might also manifest features of podzolization if
derived from coarse-textural deposits. In the cold deserts,
Cryosols might have alkaline properties and salts or show
signs of reddening (Rubefaction).
The cracking of frozen soil leads to the formation of patterned and sorted ground on Cryosols (EM).
93
This striking map shows the dominant characteristics

of northern and mid latitude soils according to the
WRB classification scheme for Reference Group Soil.
The map is the output of a project to compile a soil
database covering the United States, Canada,
Greenland, Iceland, Europe, Russia, Mongolia, and
Kazakhstan. The European soil data shown earlier in
this atlas contributed to the project. The database
was processed to create a version of the map in the
WRB classification for the atlas.
The map clearly shows the zonal arrangement of soil

around the North Pole. The blue band of the Cryosols,
passing to the green of the Podzols, then the browns
of the pinks of the prairie Albeluvisols, Chernozems
and Phaozems. The yellow soils of the Calcisols
delineate the more arid regions.
At this scale, Western Europe stands out as a block of

Cambisols. The light blue tones from the wetlands of
Florida, the Mississippi Valley and the lakes and
marshes beyond the Ural Mountains indicate the
major distribution of poorly drained Gleysols.
The red colour indicating the Andosols of Iceland, the

Massif Central in France, the southwestern coast of
Italy, the Kamtchatka Peninsula, the Aleutian Islands
and the Rocky Mountains of the USA clearly identify the
main areas of recent or active of volcanic on the map.
Cryosol Working Group. 2004. Northern and Mid-Latitude Soil Database, Version 1.
Data are available on-line http://www.daac.ornl.gov from Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Distributed Active Archive Center, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, U.S.A.
94
The distribution of permafrost-affected soil is a specific feature of the circumpolar soil map. The southern boundary of the permafrost reaches
between 45° to 50° North on the Eurasian Continent, 55° latitude in North America while it is shifted northwards to about 70° North in Europe
due to the warming effect of the Gulf Stream. The decrease in temperature with elevation also causes permafrost to occur in mountains areas,
usually above the snow-line, the altitude at which snow occurs all year around. Exposure to sunshine can cause a different pattern of
permafrost on north-facing slopes compared to the sunnier, south-facing slopes.
Major areas with permafrost-affected soils are found in Russia (10 million km2), Canada (2.5 million km2), China (1.9 million km2) and Alaska
(1.1 million km2) and parts of Mongolia. Continuous permafrost is observed in the Arctic and sub-arctic zones. Discontinuous permafrost is
common in the boreal zone and sporadic in more temperate mountainous regions.
Natural and man-induced biological activities in Cryosols are confined to the active surface layer that protects the underlying permafrost.
Removal of the upper peat layer or of the vegetation and/or disturbance of the surface soil often induces rapid environmental change, with
possible damage to man-made structures.
Most areas of Cryosols in Eurasia are in a natural state and support sufficient vegetation for grazing animals such as reindeer (herding of
reindeer is an important industry in the northern areas of Europe). Overgrazing leads rapidly to erosion and other environmental damage.
Human activities, mainly relating to oil and gas production and mining have had a major impact on Cryosols. Severe “thermokarsting” has
occurred on land cleared for traffic. Improper management of pipelines and mining can cause oil spills and chemical pollution that affect
large areas.
Global warming studies predict significant temperature increases in northern areas. Cryosols contain a lot of peat and act as a carbon sink
under the present climate. However, warming of the circumpolar regions would alter the thermal regime of the soils and increase the depth
of the active layer. This would strongly enhance the decomposition of soil organic matter; previously “fixed” carbon would be released to the
atmosphere as carbon dioxide and methane and accelerate global warming even more.
95
A Soil Database of Europe
A catena is a repeated sequence of soils that are associated with a change in landscape along river valleys. The term is derived from the Latin word for chain since all the soils
from the skyline to the valley floor are linked together, or chained, when traced down the slope. The characteristics of the soils vary with changing slope angle and drainage
conditions so that different degrees of leaching and translocation of clays are found (EM).
Looking at soils from the air provides a graphic view of their variability in the landscape. The darker, freely draining soils along the gullies in this field are clearly apparent.
Aerial photographs are widely used in soil survey and archaeology. The remains of buried structures or even wooden buildings that have completely rotted away can often be
seen through variations in soil colour or other physical characteristics (EM).
96

Geographical Information Systems
What is a Geographic Information Systems? • http://www.gis.com

• http://www.geo.ed.ac.uk/home/giswww.html
All the maps contained in this Atlas, have been produced • http://www.usgs.gov
using a technology known as Geographic Information
Systems or GIS for short.
A GIS can be defined as a specialised computer system (both

hardware and software) for capturing, storing, checking,
merging, manipulating, analysing and displaying data which
can be located somehow on the surface of the Earth. In
geography, the term “spatial” is used when referring to such
data. Latitude and longitude coordinates, map references,
administrative regions, water bodies and settlements are
some of the means of relating information to a particular
location. In this respect, a GIS is different from a Computer
Aided Design programme (CAD) that stores information on
features in an abstract space.
Real world features such as roads, rivers, soil types, or water

quality sampling sites are represented in a GIS in digital
form as points, lines (arcs), polygons (areas) or as cells (a
grid).
Descriptive information or attributes about objects (e.g.

names, ownership, depth, soil type) can be associated with
the geographical data. This “descriptive” information is
normally stored in the form of tables in a database and is
linked to the geographic or map data by a common
identifier.
For the most part, spatial data can be "re-projected" from

one coordinate system into another, thus data from various
sources can be brought together into a common database The above picture shows the interface to the GIS software used to produce the maps in the atlas. The digital cartographic data (map) have
and integrated using GIS software. In this way, a global been coloured using a legend based on codes indicating the WRB Reference Group. The small window displays the attribute table for the
map data. Each polygon or area has been coded with the appropriate WRB code and a unique identifier (ID) to link the attribute data to the
database on rare birds using latitude and longitude to mark
graphics (AJ) (ESRI ®).
sightings of particular species could be combined with data
on river networks compiled on the basis of maps using the
Spanish national coordinate system. Spatial data and
associated attributes in the same coordinate system can
viewed together and layered on top of each other to create
maps.
Another property of a GIS database is that it has “topology”.

This term defines the spatial relationships between different
features. When topological relationships exist, analyses
such as modelling the flow through connecting lines in a
network, combining adjacent polygons that have similar
characteristics and overlaying geographic features can be
performed.
Higher level analysis can also be carried out on data.

Questions such as “What would happen if…pollution
accidentally leaked into a river?”, “Where does…a Podzol
occur next to arable land?” or “Is there a pattern
to…burglaries in a city?” are only feasible on large volumes
of information by using a GIS.
Other examples of analysis that have been carried out using

GIS software range from identifying houses on flat land that
are within 200m of rivers for flood predictions to locating
groundwater regions under permeable soils to limit
pesticide applications.
The last, but by no means least, component of a GIS is the

human element! Well-trained people, knowledgeable in
spatial analysis and skilled in using GIS software are
essential to the GIS process.
The above picture shows the GIS
Increasingly, GIS are being used by more and more software can be used to query or
organisations. Originally developed primarily as a research search spatial data and display
tool for Geography departments of universities, now GIS is the results. The picture shows the
widespread in facilities management (e.g. water pipes, location of all polygons
containing the code CM in the
electricity cables), marketing and retailing (e.g. optimising
WRB-GRP column of the attribute
store location with respect to customer needs), military (e.g. table. In effect, the map shows
battlefield maps, terrain evaluation), environmental (e.g. the distribution of Cambisols (AJ)
predicting floods, erosion risk, forest fires), transport (e.g. (ESRI ®).
vehicle routing, noise surveys), health (e.g. relationship
between illnesses and social or environmental factors) and
many, many more cases.
The GIS software used in the production of the maps in this

book was a product called ArcGIS developed by ESRI Inc.
from Redlands, California. GIS are often regarded as mapping
software. However, GIS are
If you would like to learn more about spatial data and powerful tools to visualise
Geographic Information Systems then have a look at the different sources of data in many
following sites on the World Wide Web; ways. The figure on the right is an
extract from the atlas showing
• http://www.ec-gis.org/inspire/ how soil data from six countries
• http://www.eurogi.org/ were combined to produce a single
map (AJ).
97
Soil Geographical Databases of Europe
Introduction
The soil maps of Europe contained in this Atlas are based on

a collection of knowledge contained in a databank known
as the Soil Geographical Database of Eurasia. The database
contains a range of information on soil which is stored in
several databases, referred to as the:
• Soil Geographical Database of Eurasia at a scale 1:1 million

(SGDBE);
• Soil Profile Analytical Database of Europe (SPADE);
• Hydraulic Properties of European Soils (HYPRES) Database;
• Pedotransfer Rules Knowledge Base (PTR).
These linked databases represent a first step in the

development of a fully integrated European Soil
Information System (EUSIS), the concept of which is
described on Page 105 of the Atlas.
The information used to create the maps of Europe depicted

in this Atlas resides in the Soil Geographical Database of
Eurasia. This database is the result of a collaborative project
involving all the European Union Member States and
neighbouring countries through participation in the
European Soil Bureau Network (see Page 104).
How does the database work?
The Soil Geographical Database of Eurasia is a simplified

representation of the diversity and geographical variability
of the soil coverage at a European level. It is based on
Geographical Information System concepts (see Page 97).
The database is composed of a digitised soil map (digital or

computerised representation) that is made up of closed
contours called polygons. The soil map is at a scale of
1:1,000,000 where 1 centimetre on the map represents 1
kilometre on the ground. At this scale, it is not possible to
draw very small polygons, so it is not possible to draw
directly the delineation of individual soil types. Thus, the
soil map represents the delineation of groups of soil types
that are called Soil Mapping Units or SMU for short. Soil
Mapping Units correspond to the polygons that are defined
by the same group of soil types. The groups of soil types are
generally defined as areas in the landscape where the same
soils are present, in the same position and which have
functioning relations between them.
Each SMU contains one or more Soil Typological Units (STU)

which are individual soil units that can be described by
parameters (or attributes) specifying the nature and
properties of the particular soil (for example the texture, the
water regime, the stoniness, WRB code, etc.). This
information is stored as a separate table called STU
The Soil Geographical Database of Europe at a scale 1:1 million consists of a geometrical dataset (digital map) and a semantic dataset (set
Attributes.
of attribute files) that link attribute values to the polygons of the geometrical dataset. The above diagram illustrates how map polygons,
SMU’s and STU’s are linked together. Try and follow the diagram to understand that polygon 1 from the digital map (the red area),
To describe the properties of the soil types, several tables are corresponds to SMU 1, which consists of two STU (10 and 11) that occupy 30% and 70% of SMU1 respectively. In this example, analysis of
available forming the semantic dataset. The first table, the STU.ORG and the STU Attribute table would show that the dominant soil of SMU1 would be STU 11, an Andosol (AN) (JDN).
called SMU, contains variables (named also as attributes)
that give information about the SMU. The second table, Be careful in using these maps?
So, how is it possible to draw a map for a soil property? This
called STU, contains the information describing the soil
is possible using the relations between tables and polygons. The Soil Geographical Database of Eurasia results from a
types, named in the database Soil Typological Units (STU).
These variables give information about the nature and the synthesis work done by national soil scientists in each
The most common way to make a map of a soil property is country by expert judgment. Thus, the accuracy of this work
properties of the soil like its texture, its name in WRB
to determine a dominant STU within each SMU. This can be is depending on the state of knowledge of soils and the
classification, its parent material and so on.
done using the STU.ORG table where the percentage of area availability of more detailed soil information in each
of each STU within a SMU is given. Then, the dominant STU country. Thus, quality indices of the information are
A third table, called STU.ORG, gives the list of the STUs that
within a SMU is the STU having the higher percentage of important to look at, like the purity maps or confidence
belong to each SMU with the percentage of area they
area. Then, you just have to take the value of the dominant level for estimated data (see Page 99).
represent within the SMU. When the SMU is composed of
STU for the soil property you want to map and to assign this
only one STU, this percentage is equal to 100. When the
value to all the polygons that form the SMU.
SMU is composed of several STUs, then the sum of the
percentages is equal to 100% (for example in the figure on
It is important to keep the indication of the percentage of
this page, the SMU 1 is composed of the STU 11 representing
area corresponding to the value drawn on a map. In the
70% and of the STU 10 representing the remaining 30%).
above method, it is the percentage of area of the dominant
STU. This percentage can also be drawn on a map. Such
The data are stored in a relational database management
maps are called purity maps and give important information
system that enables to define relations between the
about the variability of the soil property within the SMUs
polygons, the SMU table, the STU.ORG table and the STU
(see the figure of the bottom of the page). The higher the
table and which are symbolised on the figure by arrows.
percentage, the lower is the variability inside the SMU.
These relations enable the transfer of information from one
object to another and are very useful to make maps from
the Soil Geographical Database.
How do you deal with more than one STU?

Producing the maps for the Atlas
By now, you will have realised that, in many cases, there will
be several SMUs with more than one STU. But, soil An example of a confidence index for the soil data. The above
To produce the maps shown in the Atlas, a procedure was
properties are described for the STUs, not for the SMUs and figure is a purity map that shows the proportion of the area of the
carried out to take the dominant value per SMU using an SMU that is effectively covered with the corresponding thematic
generally, the STUs that belong to the same SMU have
automatic procedure developed in the GIS. value shown on a corresponding thematic map; darker hues
different properties.
indicate purer areas (JDN).
98
Soil Geographical Databases of Europe
As explained in the previous page, the soil maps in this Atlas

are based on a databank known as the Soil Geographical
Database of Eurasia. In addition to the 1:1 million scale Soil
Geographical Database of Eurasia (described in detail on
Page 98), the databank contains a series of additional
databases.
• Soil Profile Analytical Database of Europe (SPADE);

• Hydraulic Properties of European Soils (HYPRES);
• Pedotransfer Rules Knowledge Base (PTR).
This page will briefly explain the significance of the

information contained in these three databases.
Soil Profile Analytical Database of Europe
The Soil Profile Analytical Database of Europe (SPADE) was

developed to link to the Soil Typological Units (STU) of the
Soil Geographical Database of Europe with chemical and
physical soil profile data that would be representative of
these STUs. The driving force of this database was a need of
data about the soil available water for plants for a project
called MARS (Monitoring Agriculture by Remote Sensing)
which develop a tool for predicting crop yield across Europe.
SPADE was compiled through the collaboration of national

experts from the 12 European Union member countries in
the 1980s. The main problem encountered when compiling The soil of woodlands. The soils on steep slopes in wooded areas are well protected from erosion by the thick litter layer produced by
this database was the availability of data. Many countries falling leaves and the tree root system that helps bind the soil (EM).
were not able to give a representative measured soil profile
for each STU of the Soil Geographical Database of Europe
due to the lack of more detailed soil information in some Hydraulic Properties of European Soils Database (HYPRES) The innovative work done within this project of
areas. pedotransfer rules development was to formalized the
In SPADE, measurements about hydraulic properties of soils expert judgment and to develop a specific database to store
The second problem is the availability of data concerning are often not available. But, unfortunately, these soil the pedotransfer rules: the knowledge base. Each rule is
some particular measurements, especially those concerning properties are essential to answer to many agricultural or developed in the form of:
the hydraulic properties of soils. These measurements are environmental problems. Many researchers throughout the
very expensive and are thus generally not performed. To world have worked to develop tools that provide accurate IF <condition> AND <condition> THEN <estimated
alleviate this problem, estimated profiles were compiled. estimations of these properties. These tools are developed variable> = <this value>
When real measurements are lacking, the national expert through the generic term of pedotransfer functions.
gave an estimation of the corresponding soil property. A confidence level (high, medium, low) is given by the author
What is a pedotransfer function? A pedotransfer function of the rule to the estimation that enables to give
The database includes analytical information for the key soil is a tool that allows the use of available soil information information to users about the quality of the estimated data.
horizons on parameters such as: (pedo-) to estimate (-transfer) another soil information.
They are generally developed using a set of profile The knowledge base enables also the development of trees
information where measurements of the hydraulic of rules, where a rule uses as input data results coming from
• Texture (& particle size grades) properties are available and are compared to more common another rule. The soil properties estimated by the
• Electric conductivity soil information like particle size distribution, organic pedotransfer rules concern biological, chemical, mechanical
• Organic matter content (C, N) matter content, etc. This leads to the determination of and hydrological properties of European soils. They permit
• CEC and exchangeable bases statistical relations giving a mathematical function to the use of the Soil Geographical Database as input for
• Structure estimate the hydraulic property by using other soil modelling in many domains such as yield forecasting,
• Soil water retention information. climate change impacts, erosion risk assessment and many
• Total nitrogen content others.
• Bulk density Many pedotransfer functions were developed but the main
• pH problem in using it is their domain of application. Does a The output attributes were grouped into four classes that
• Root depth function developed on soil profiles from the United States correspond to biological, chemical, mechanical and
• ESP or SAR or from Germany be valid to estimate hydraulic properties hydrological properties of soils. These include:
• Groundwater level of European soils?
• Calcium carbonate content • Topsoil organic carbon content
• Parent material To overcome this issue, 20 institutions from 12 European • Presence of a raw peaty topsoil horizon
• Calcium sulphate content countries collaborated to establish a database about • Soil profile differentiation
hydraulic properties of European soils (HYPRES). Data for • Profile mineralogy
5521 horizons were collected and analysed to define • Topsoil and subsoil mineralogy
The quality and the reliability of the information in SPADE pedotransfer functions for estimating soil water retention • Topsoil and subsoil cation exchange capacity
is an important matter for users. and hydraulic conductivity for topsoil and subsoil using the • Topsoil and subsoil base saturation
texture class of the Soil Geographical Database of Europe. • Depth to rock
Firstly, when the SPADE initiative began, the database was These pedotransfer functions applied to the STUs of the Soil • Volume of stones
referring to a certain version of the Soil Geographical Geographical Database of Europe allows the mapping of • Subsoil textural class
Database of Europe. When countries provided new versions hydraulic properties of European soils. • Topsoil and subsoil structure
of their soil map, they did not always update the data stored • Topsoil and subsoil packing density
in SPADE, making the link between soil profiles and STUs • Parent material hydrogeological type
difficult. Pedotransfer Rules (PTR) Database • Depth to a gleyed horizon
• Depth to impermeable layer
Secondly, the soil data in each country are generally linked Some properties of soils are not described specifically in the • Hydrological class
to soil units defined in the national soil classification. In Soil Geographical Database of Eurasia but are essential to be • Topsoil and subsoil available water capacity
most countries, these classifications differ significantly from known to answer to specific demands. As we saw it for the • Topsoil and subsoil easily available water capacity
the classification system used for the European databases. HYPRES database, tools were developed to estimate some
This difference leads to gaps in the database especially when soil properties using available soil information: the An example of a PedoTransfer Rule
trying to find representative profiles. pedotransfer functions. But, to develop pedotransfer
functions, a set of soil profiles with measurements of the IF <soil name is "eutric Cambisol" and parent material is
Thirdly, the determination of a unique and representative needed soil property is necessary. When the Soil "calcareous regional metamorphic rocks">
profile for STUs, which are defined at a global level due to Geographical Database was first used, such a set was not
the high variability of their properties, is a difficult available. Thus, to use the database, it was decided to THEN <soil depth is "Medium">
procedure. develop pedotransfer rules. As for pedotransfer functions, a
pedotransfer rule is a tool that enables the estimation of a ELSE IF <soil name is "eutric Cambisol" and parent
soil property using available information. But, the material is "any other parent material">
During recent years, a major initiative has been underway estimation is not based on a mathematical relation but on
supported by the European Crop Protection Association to an expert judgment (it is why we used the term rule instead THEN <soil depth is "Deep">
update the database. A revised version, SPADE2, is foreseen of function).
to be available for 2005.
99

Soil properties maps
The maps shown on this page illustrate how the various databases described in the preceding pages can be used to provide information on the characteristics and properties of soils in a harmonised manner across
Europe. In this instance, the data for Belarus, Cyprus, Iceland, Russia, Turkey and Ukraine were not processed. For an explanation of the properties displayed by the individual maps, please consult the Glossary on
Page 126 of the Atlas (RH, RJ & LM).
100

Soil properties maps
Organic material in the soil is essentially derived from The map above shows the distribution of organic matter in north. There are many factors affecting the amount of
residual plant and animal material, broken down by the topsoil (0-30 cm depth) across Europe at a resolution of organic matter in soil and these are described in more detail
microbes and decomposed under the influence of 1 km based on land cover, temperature and soil data for the on Page 112.
temperature, moisture and local soil conditions. Organic 1980s and early 1990s. The dark brown and blackish tones
matter is extremely important in all soil processes by acting on the map clearly show the extent of organic rich Histosols Since carbon, in the form of organic matter, may be
as a storehouse for nutrients, contributing to soil aeration in Scotland, western Ireland and Scandinavia. These areas sequestered by vegetation and soil in sufficient quantities to
and ensuring good structure. Soil which is dark-brown or are in marked contrast to greyish and yellowish areas mitigate some detrimental effects of Global Change, the map
black in colour usually contains significant amount of occupied by Calcisols and Cambisols in southern Europe, attempts to define the status of organic matter content in
organic matter (>15%). where organic matter contents are much lower than in the European topsoils for 1990, in-line with the Kyoto Protocol.
This map was produced by the Institute of Environment and Sustainability, Joint Research Centre (RH).
101

Using the soil database
Interpretation of soil resources
The soil classes shown in the Atlas have a fundamental

meaning. These principal classes can be exploited to specify
a quality of soil resources in relation to their current use and
potential. Generally, quality is a relative term that shows the
suitability of a particular soil type to meet a specific
practical purpose. For example, different crops have varying
demands on soil characteristics such as texture, rooting
depth, acidity and so on. Consequently, soil quality is often
regarded as a crop specific measure. Similar examples can be
given for the suitability of soils to any other uses (e.g.
engineering, waste, recreational activities, etc.). In this text,
an evaluation of the natural quality of European soil
regarding their agricultural use is provided allowing the
reader to make their personal assessment of the soil quality
across any territory.
Natural soil fertility is expressed by three levels that are

derived from an evaluation of a combination of many soil
characteristics including organic matter content, clay
content, clay mineralogy, presence of weatherable minerals,
pH, base saturation and biological activity.
Natural soil fertility levels for Reference Soil Groups of Europe
Soil toxicity interprets the level of certain soluble

compounds in soil. These substances are toxic to many crops
and affect their productivity. A general evaluation of the
Reference Soil Groups showing one or more of these toxic
characteristics is given in the table below.
Soil chemical constraints in Reference Soil Groups of Europe
Soil that requires protection, conservation and particular

attention is often formed in specific environmental
conditions that strongly limit their use. A Cryosol is the soil
of severe cold climate and is extremely sensitive to human
impacts. Anthropogenic intervention on these soils affects
very fragile tundra ecosystems. Histosols are often formed
under waterlogged conditions and play a regulatory role of
hydrological balance of the landscape. In addition, Histosols
accumulate an enormous mass of partly decomposed
organic residues, which will decay if the land is drained and
thus contributing to an increase in the concentration of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (the most important
greenhouse gas). There is widespread agreement that this
soil type should be protected. Fluvisols and, to some extent,
Gleysols indicate land with a high risk of flooding. The
increasing evidence of this hazard in Europe makes it
important to account for the geographical distribution of
these soil types when planting crops, establishing
infrastructure and settlements.
Monitoring of Agriculture with Remote Sensing
The figures on the right illustrate one of the main driving

forces behind the creation of the European Soil Databases.
The Monitoring of Agriculture with Remote Sensing,
(MARS), project, started in 1988, was designed initially to
apply emerging space technologies for providing
independent and timely information on crop areas and
yields through the use of agro-meteorological models. The
soil parameters from the soil databases described previously
are used as inputs to a Crop Growth Model to define the
hydrological characteristics of the soil and the ease by
which the root systems of crops can develop. MARS
bulletins, produced by the MARS-STAT Project of the Joint
Research Centre’s AgriFish Unit, are published 6 to 8 times a
year to provide a forecast of crop yields throughout the
European Union (GG).
102

Using the soil database
The above map is taken from a EU research project to develop

a Pan-European Soil Erosion Risk Assessment (PESERA). The
map shows the estimated sediment loss from soil erosion by
water based on a model that combines soil property data with
information on climate, land cover and topography (altitude,
slope angle, etc.) for river basins across Europe (RJ).
The legend shows areas with very low estimated sediment

loss (green) to high estimated sediment loss (red/purple).
The map clearly highlights the problems of soil erosion in
the Mediterranean regions (e.g. central Italy, southern Spain
and Greece) and in southwest France.
Sheet wash erosion on a Chernozem in Hungary. Sheet erosion is

the removal of soil by overland flow on low gradient slopes. Soil
particles loosed by the impact of raindrops are carried away by
unchannelled flow of water during intense rainfall when the
infiltration rate of the soil has been exceeded (ED).
Estimated Soil Loss (t/ha/yr)
The image on the right (DM) is the output of a study

carried out by the JRC that used information from
the soil database to estimate direct N2O emissions
from agricultural soils. N2O has a high global
warming potential and due it's long atmospheric
lifetime can also affect stratospheric ozone levels.
Soil characteristics (i.e. soil organic carbon and

texture) along with fertilisation and climate are
some of the key factors determining N2O
formation and losses from agricultural soils.
Regional 'hot-spots' were identified where agricultural

soils with high organic carbon content and moisture
content combined with high fertilisation rates
produce the potential for high N2O emissions.
103

The European Soil Bureau Network provides policy makers with information on soil processes and related issues in Europe. The network is made up of representatives from the European Commission’s Joint Research
Centre, all EU Member States, Candidate and Neighbouring Countries. Details on how to contact the ESBN member in your country are given at the end of the Atlas (AK).
The maps in this Atlas are an output from the European Soil In 1992, the Soil and GIS Support Group was renamed and • specific EU policies, including the Common Agricultural
Bureau Network (ESBN), which is a network supporting the became the Soils Information Focal Point (SIFP) with a work Policy, the Sixth Environmental Action Plan, the European
soil bureau of the Joint Research Centre (JRC). It includes programme devised by a Soil Information System Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection
soil scientists from more than 40 soil science institutions Development (SISD) Committee, under the chairmanship of
covering the entire European continent. It is a scientific the Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA) • internationally binding agreements, such as the UN
expert group providing advice to the JRC on soil of Orleans, France. Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), which
information, as well as on technical options for soil calls for detailed soil information at a regional scale and
management and their implementation. ESBN has a specific At a meeting of the SIFP, held in Athens in 1996, the ESBN specifically requests comparable soil information for the
role as a facilitator and provider of soil information that is came into existence and the SISD evolved into the ESBN countries of the Mediterranean basin
relevant to European Union and national policies. Scientific Committee. Starting in 2003 and in response to a
new, European-level appreciation of the importance of soil • environmental disasters, such as landslides and flooding,
resources, the ESBN has re-defined its aims and objectives which have highlighted the need for adequate soil
so that it can make a full contribution to the development information for disaster prevention.
and implementation of the complete scope of soil
History of the ESBN management and protection within Europe. The ESBN has
confirmed that as a network of the JRC it is a European A meeting on ‘Soil Protection Policies within the European
The ESBN was established formally in 1996 but its origins as organisation with a membership that does not represent Union’ (Bonn, 9-11 December 1998) led to the so-called
a network of soil science experts go back more than three single countries or national interests and whose principal ‘Bonn Memorandum’, which called for a European Soil Forum
decades. Its major achievement to date has been the interest is in the application of soil science in support of of high-level officials and decision-makers to establish a
successful compilation of a Soil Information System for sustainable development throughout Europe. It is seeking to ‘common ground’ for soil protection policies in Europe.
Europe (EUSIS). produce soil information for policy making in a reactive but
also pro-active way, linking policy makers and soil scientists The publication in 2002 of the Communication ‘Towards a
One of the key goals of the ESBN was the development of a to improve reporting about soils in Europe. To support this thematic strategy for soil protection in Europe’ marked a
harmonized soil geographical database for Europe, based aim it is developing close-working relationships with the new phase in the development of soil policy for Europe. The
primarily on the soil map of the European Communities (see European Environment Agency (EEA), in partnership with European Commission initiated a major consultation process
Page 37 on the history of these soil maps). The further the JRC. supported by an Advisory Forum and technical working
development of this database remains a primary objective groups, including one for soil monitoring. The ESBN and its
of the ESBN. membership contributed strongly to these initiatives and to
Soil Information Needs in Europe the reports that were concluded in 2004.
The ‘digital age’ for European soil information began in
1982 when a ‘Computerisation of Land Data Group’ (CLDG) The demand for soil information has been increasing rapidly Among the many, important conclusions of this extensive
was established by the European Commission, comprising in the last few years and continues to do so. This is driven consultation process was an underlining of the need for
representatives of the main centres of expertise within the by several factors that reflect the growing strategic better spatial information about soil properties and
EEC at that time. The main result of this group was the importance that is attached to soil information. Some of condition, based on a full appreciation of the great diversity
publication of the Soil Map of the European Communities in the factors are and high variability of soils within Europe. To support tailored
1985. The group continued to meet annually until 1988 and rather than “one size fits all” approaches to soil resource
was responsible for a number of initiatives that relate to the • the establishment of the EEA, and its European Topic management within an integrated approach to natural
maps in this Atlas, of which the digitisation of the EC Soil Centre (ETC) on Soils, which has generated a need for a resource protection, it is essential to have better spatial
Map is the most important. large amount of soil-related information information about soils than is available currently at the
European level, as well improved, finer-scale national-level
Progress slowed in the 1980’s due to difficulties in funding. • a growing concern about the impacts of agriculture and other information for management of soils within river-basins and
However, in 1990 the strategic need for soil information human activities on soils, and of associated economic costs, smaller landscape units. ESBN is supporting initiatives by the
became clearer when a Monitoring of Agriculture by Remote which has triggered a number of policies and regulations that JRC and the EEA to meet these strategic requirements.
Sensing (MARS) project at the JRC required information on need soil information for their implementation
the water holding capacities of European soils, as an input to
a crop growth model supporting yield forecasting for main
agricultural crops throughout the continent.
In response, a Soil and GIS Support Group was funded by

the JRC and it began new work on a number of
fundamental database projects, including
• a major update of the EC Soil Geographical Database (the

digital version of the published EC Soil Map)
• the compilation of a soil profile analytical database
• development of a “pedotransfer” rules database (to allow the

characteristics of soils to be derived from a series of other,
known parameters, e.g. slope, soil name, land cover, etc.).
From the early 1990’s and continuing up to the present,

representatives within the ESBN of the national soil surveys
of Europe have been concerned about a general decline in
soil survey and monitoring in many EU member states.
Among the initiatives to revive soil monitoring as an
important research activity, was the creation of network of
centres of excellence in soil hydrology under the EU Human
Capital and Mobility Programme. One of the first products
of this network was computation of pedotransfer functions
for estimating the hydraulic properties of European soils. Crops growing on a fertile Chernozem soil (EM).
104

European Soil Information System
A conceptual illustration of the nested European Soil Information System showing the inter-relationships between the different scales of soil data and needs (LM).
A European Soil Information System INSPIRE This initiative is known as the INfrastructure for SPatial
InfoRmation in Europe (INSPIRE). The INSPIRE initiative is
Soil and land information systems vary across the countries. The general situation on spatial information in Europe is one therefore timely and relevant to soil data collection but also
They range from essentially simple databases containing soil of fragmentation of datasets and sources, gaps in a major challenge given the general situation outlined
profile and analytical data to well developed and integrated availability, lack of harmonisation between datasets at above and the many stakeholder interests to be addressed.
computerised systems containing climate, land use and land different geographical scales and duplication of The key principles of INSPIRE are:
ownership information as well as soil data. The capabilities information collection. These problems make it difficult to
of these systems range from purely storage and retrieval of identify, access and use data that is available. Fortunately, • Data should be collected once and maintained at the level
data to integrated dynamic modelling using GIS technology awareness is growing at national and at EU level about the where this can be done most effectively.
for evaluating current and future policy requirements at need for quality geo-referenced information to support • Seamless spatial information from different sources across
national and regional scale. understanding of the complexity and interactions between Europe should be combined and shared between many
human activities and environmental pressures and impacts users and application.
The most advanced systems within the European Union • Information collected at one level should be available at
countries are those of Austria, France, Germany, The EUSIS approach is designed to accommodate the different levels.
Netherlands and the UK. The Austrian system is a good guidelines set out by the European Commission to trigger • Geographic information needed for good governance at
example of one built from the outset to take in a large the creation of a European spatial information all levels should be abundant under conditions that do
variety of data from many different sources. The Dutch infrastructure that delivers to the users integrated spatial not refrain its extensive use.
system, having the benefit of a digitized set of detailed soil information services. These services should allow the users • Geographic information should be easily available
maps for the whole country and associated descriptive and to identify and access spatial or geographical information • Geographic data should become easy to understand and
analytical data, is strongly linked with GIS technology and a from a wide range of sources, from the local level to the interpret.
range of simulation models so as to be able to respond global level, in an inter-operable way for a variety of uses.
readily to a whole range of topical issues. The UK (England
and Wales) system is a good example of one that from its
inception had a very flexible design based on relational
database technology and at an early stage in its
development combined climatic, land use and topographic
data.
Computerised information systems are now capable of

producing sophisticated graphical output but it is important
to appreciate that the outputs are only as good as the input
data, and for at least half of the EU and EFTA countries this
is inadequate for decision making because less than 50 per
cent of the area has sufficiently detailed soil maps.
EUSIS
The overall aim of the European Commission is that the soil

database described and used in this Atlas will be fully
integrated into a nested European Soil Information System
(EUSIS), as portrayed in the above figure.
This nested system will be fully compatible with European

soil data in the future and the World Soil and Terrain
(SOTER) database of FAO, described earlier in the Atlas. At
the same time, EUSIS will link up with the existing National
and Regional soil information systems within the EU in
order to address the needs of users of soil information at
different scales. For example, estimating the impact of
climate change will require generalised soil information at a
global scale (e.g. 1:5,000,000 or smaller) while local planners
utilise data at a much larger scale (e.g. 1:5,000 or 1:10,000) Special attention is needed to ensure that land management or agricultural practices do not damage soils. This picture shows the unequal
in order to have the detailed information required for distribution of nitrogen fertilizer as illustrated by the dark and light green strips highlighting unequal crop growth and ploughing up and
spatial planning and precision farming applications. down the hill rather than across the slope to reduce erosion (EM).
105

Nested soil data
(JK)
1 : 2 500 000
Examples of nested soil data
As explained in the previous pages, a key element of the

European Soil Information System (EUSIS) within the
INSPIRE initiative is concept of nested data. In simple terms
this means that information at different map scales or
resolution for the same location can be stored and accessed
through EUSIS. One could imagine different map sheets
laying one on top of the other.
The maps show soil units for the Czech Republic at a scale
of 1:2,500,000 (above) with detail around the town of
Haradec Králové at scales of 1:1,000,000 (right), 1:250,000
(facing page top) and 1:50,000 (facing page bottom).
By comparing the small-scale maps on this page with the

more detailed maps on the facing page, the issue of
cartographic generalisation of reality becomes strikingly
obvious. Many of the patterns and soil types depicted on
the 1:50,000 map cannot be identified at all on the
1:250,000 map. This means that the information collected
at the base level or the largest scale must be simplified for
displaying and use at regional or European level. Procedures
must be developed to ensure that the boundaries between
soil units can be redrawn accurately at different scales and
that the smaller scale soil units are labelled or classified
accurately in accordance with the information contained in
the larger scale datasets (maps). One solution is to use a
grid or cells to map the soil units at the larger scale. This
grid can then be re-sized or resampled to generate coarser
resolution data based on a statistical analysis of the finer
cells that the larger cell occupies.
(JK)
1 : 1 000 000
106

Nested soil data
(JK)
1 : 250 000
Monitoring Changes in Soil Quality
Alongside soil maps and databases, monitoring the

conditions of soil is now a vital component in the quest for
information about the soils of a particular region or
country. A monitoring programme can provide information
about how soils are changing with time and can be used to
answer questions about whether the quality of a soil is
improving, deteriorating or staying about the same under a
particular use and management practice.
Monitoring is also the chief means of identifying the nature

of contaminated land, effects of trans-boundary migration
of pollutants and the extent and form of land degradation.
Within the EU countries monitoring is usually carried out by

a number of different organisations, not just those
responsible for soil survey. This is because the reasons for
establishing monitoring programmes can be very varied (e.g.
forest health, land contamination, fertility of agricultural
land, environmental risk assessment, effects of acid rain,
land degradation).
However, in most cases soil survey organisations are

involved in helping to establish monitoring programmes by
relating the monitored components to soil type. It is also
essential that monitoring programmes are linked to the
national land/soil information systems so that the results
can be progressively incorporated into these systems. This
will also allow the results of the monitoring programme to
be interactive with other data about the soils of the
monitored area and also to benefit from being able to
interact with ecological, land use, climatic, cadastral and
demographic databases. It is particularly important that
information collected is not isolated from all the other
information about soils, their use and management.
(JK) Soil monitoring data will become a fundamental element of
1 : 50 000 EUSIS.
107
Key threats to soil in Europe
Healthy soil is a fundamental and irreplaceable component of agricultural production. The demands of agriculture must be balanced by soil protection measures. This concept
is known as sustainable agriculture. Good agricultural practices can maintain and even improve soil health, soil quality and soil biodiversity, combat soil erosion processes and
protect human health (EM).
An example of poor land management practices. In this field, ploughing has been carried out up and down the slope rather than across the slope (a technique known as contour
ploughing). As a result, the plough furrows act as rills or small gullies and facilitate the movement of soil down the slope when heavy rainfall occurs. The sediment is deposited
as a fan-like feature at the end of the furrow (RJ).
108

Introduction
Key threats to soil in Europe • Loss of organic matter is mainly due to intensive use of Regarding the state of the different threats in Europe, in many
the land by agriculture, especially when organic residues cases there is not enough information available about their
Maintaining soil condition is essential for ensuring the are not sufficiently produced or recycled to soil. spatial distribution and their changes with time. One of the
sustainability of society. However, soil is under increasing Agronomists consider soil with less than 1.7% organic important tasks facing soil scientists in Europe will be to create
threat from a wide range of human activities. The threats matter to be in pre-desertification stage. a soil monitoring system to provide detailed information
are complex and although unevenly spread across Europe, about the development of these key threats in Europe.
their dimension is continental. For simplicity they are • Decline in biodiversity is linked to the loss of organic
presented separately below. However, in reality they are matter, because biodiversity depends on organic matter, Relating the main threats to driving forces and pressures,
frequently inter-linked. When many threats occur which means that all soil biota live on the basis of organic through cross-linking with European and national strategies
simultaneously, their combined effects tend to increase the matter. reveals that many agricultural, regional planning, environmental
problem. Ultimately, if not countered, soil will lose its protection, transport, energy development, single market and
capacity to carry out its functions. This process is known as • Contamination can be diffuse (widespread) or localised other policies may have an important influence, because they
soil degradation. and is due to many human activities, such as industrial are partly triggering or inducing threats.
production, traffic, etc., mainly through the use of fossil
In the European Union, an estimated 52 million hectares, material, such as ores, oil, coal, salts and others, or due to Analysing the impacts of threats by relating them to
representing more than 16% of the total land area, are agricultural activities. important soil functions reveals that erosion can be
affected by some kind of degradation process. In the new correlated with air pollution, water pollution, decline in
Member States this figure rises to 35%. • Compaction of soil is a rather new phenomenon caused biomass production, endangering of human health and
mainly from high pressures on soil through heavy loads by decline in biodiversity.
Soil degradation, when occurring in dry areas, is known as vehicles in agricultural and forest land use. An estimated
desertification which is caused by climatic conditions 4% of soil throughout Europe suffers from compaction. In the following pages, the cause and implications of the
(droughts, aridity, irregular and intense precipitation eight main threats are explained.
regimes) and human activity (deforestation, overgrazing, soil • Hydro-geological risks are complex phenomena, resulting
in floods and landslides deriving partly from uncontrolled Threats to soil in the New Member States and Candidate
structure deterioration). The affected land can no longer
soil and land uses (e.g. sealing, compaction and other Countries are essentially similar to those in the European Union.
support vegetation. According to the UNEP World Atlas of
Desertification areas under desertification risk include adverse impacts) as well as uncontrolled mining activities.
• The average degree of soil sealing in parts of Germany between 1999
central and southeast Spain, central and southern Italy, and 2001 was 5.3 hectares (seven football fields) per day. Analysis of
southern France and Portugal and extensive areas of Greece. • Salinisation is mainly a regional problem but in those the CORINE Land Cover 2000 dataset indicates that due to economic
Worldwide desertification has extremely serious socio- areas where it occurs, such as the Mediterranean basin growth, soil sealing is a significant and increasing issue in the New
economic consequences and can ultimately cause the and Hungary, agricultural, forestry and the sustainable use Member States.
destabilisation of societies and the migration of human of water resources are severely endangered. An estimated
populations. 1 million hectares in the EU are affected. • The extensive floods that affected the Czech Republic in August 2002
caused more than 220 000 inhabitants to be evacuated and caused
In a first approach, it is important to analyse these threats an estimated 2.7 billion Euros of damages (Ministry of Environment,
Climate change presents an overarching but as yet Czech Republic).
uncertain factor linked to degradation processes. in two ways:
• Erosion is a major environmental issue, although there are significant
In the communication of the European Commission to the - to understand the driving forces behind them and the differences between countries regarding its extent and intensity.
Council and the European Parliament, entitled "Towards a resulting pressures which lead to adverse effects on soil. Areas affected range from 5% to 39% of the total surface.
Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection" (see Page 118), eight - to understand how the impacts of these threats negatively
main threats to soil were defined. influencing the functions of soils for humankind and the • The European Environment Agency estimates the number of
environment. contaminated sites within the European Union to be between
300,000 and 1.5 Million depending on the definition taken. Local
• Soil sealing occurs mainly through the development of
Issues to consider include the protection of open water and contamination associated with the 3000 former military facilities
technical, social and economic infrastructures, especially constitutes a major problem not yet fully evaluated.
in urban areas. In 1996, 43% of the area on the Italian ground water, control of air contamination and pollution,
coast, generally containing fertile soil, was completely protection of the food chain through biomass production, • Several forms of diffuse contamination have been reported.
built-up. protection of human health in the case of direct contact with Acidification is affecting about 35% of Poland, Hungary and
soil and finally the maintenance of biodiversity of the soil, Lithuania. Many parts of Lithuania have high levels of Barium but this
• Erosion is mainly due to the inadequate use of soil by which is as important as the biodiversity on the earth surface. may be strongly influenced by extremely high natural background
agriculture and forestry, but also through building concentrations.
development and uncontrolled water runoff from roads The analysis of the impacts arising from the threats is an
absolute prerequisite for the development of operational • Soil compaction is widespread particularly in Bulgaria.
and other sealed surfaces. In more than one third of the
total land of the Mediterranean basin, average yearly soil procedures or responses for the mitigation of these threats.
• In Hungary 8% of the territory is affected by salinisation, mostly of
losses can exceed 15 tons/ha. natural origin. In the other candidates countries it does not appear to
be a major problem.
The process and inter-relationships of soil degradation. Decline in organic matter may cause erosion, facilitate compaction, decrease water infiltration and increase the danger of floods and landslides (RJ).
109

Soil Sealing
SOIL SEALING is the loss of soil

resources due to the covering of land
for housing, roads or other
construction work.
Increase in artificial area

The building of new roads, houses, shops offices work seals off
soil (ED). in coastal zones in
Projected increase in selected countries of Increase in artificial
The covering of the soil surface with impervious materials as urban population between mainland Europe area between
1990 - 2025 (%) 1975 - 1990 (%) 1950 - 1990 (%) Area type
a result of urban development and infrastructure
construction is known as soil sealing. The term is also used <0
to describe a change in the nature of the soil leading to 0 - 10 <0
impermeability (e.g. compaction by agricultural machinery). 10 - 15 0 - 10 0 - 50
Sealed areas are lost to uses such as agriculture or forestry
15 - 20 10 - 20 50 - 100
while the ecological soil functions are severely impaired or
>20 20 - 30 100 - 200 Urban zone
even prevented (e.g. soil working as a buffer and filter
system or as a carbon sink). In addition, surrounding soils no data 30 - 40 >200 Sub urban zone
may be influenced by change in water flow patterns or the
fragmentation of habitats. Current studies suggest that soil Probable problem areas of soil sealing in Europe (Source European Environment Agency)
sealing is nearly irreversible.
Spatial planning strategies determine to a great extent the
The greatest impacts of soil sealing are observable in urban progression of soil sealing. Unfortunately neither the widely recognised in the EU. A rational land-use planning to
and metropolitan areas. The Figures right illustrate the economical nor the ecological or the social effects of enable the sustainable management of soil resources and
areas in Europe where the rates of soil sealing are high and irreplaceable soil losses have been considered adequately so the limiting of sealing of open space is demanded. Possible
where the greatest pressures are likely to occur. In already far. In the meantime the necessity to include environmental measures include the redevelopment of brown-fields and
intensively urbanised countries like Holland or Germany the concerns and objectives in spatial planning, in order to the rehabilitation of old buildings.
rate of soil loss due to surface sealing is high. There is little reduce the effects of uncontrolled urban expansion, is
space for further urbanisation. Most of the growth will
presumably take place within or on the edge of the
suburban areas. In the Mediterranean region, soil sealing is
a particular problem along the coasts where rapid
urbanisation is associated with the expansion of tourism.
Very high rates of sealing are now predicted for countries
like Portugal, Finland or Ireland where urbanisation levels
are generally low.
In Central and Eastern Europe soil sealing has been

comparatively modest in the past decades. An accelerated
increase of built-up areas can be recorded as a consequence
of the political and economic changes during the late
1980s. Rural populations migrated to the cities and new
settlements were developed. Rising pressures on soil can be
expected in the course of a strengthened economic growth
in these countries. Generally the enlargement of the EU and
the integration of new countries in the common market will
lead to a heightened movement of people and transport of
goods. More infrastructure will be built in order to ensure a
good connection between peripheral regions and the centre.
Built-up areas have been mainly enlarged at the expense of

agricultural land. Progressive soil sealing will take place
especially for Western Europe where the area of built-up
land increases at a faster rate than the population. Besides
the influence of tourism, the rising demand for land
resources can be mainly caused by changes in population
behaviour such as people’s preference for living outside the
city centres, an increased demand for bigger houses or out-
of-town developments such as supermarkets, leisure centres This image was taken by the U.S. Air Force Defence Meteorological Satellite Program from about 800 km above the Earth's surface at
and associated development of transport infrastructure. approximately midnight local time. The detector in the satellite is sensitive to city lights. This picture clearly shows the extent of urbanisation
throughout Europe and is a good indication where the pressures of soil sealing are at their greatest (NOAA).
110

Erosion
Soil erosion is regarded as one of the most widespread forms
EROSION is a physical phenomenon that of soil degradation, and as such, poses potentially severe
results in the removal of soil and rock limitations to sustainable land use in Europe. Soil can be
eroded away by water and wind. Erosion by water occurs
particles by water, wind, ice and gravity. due to the energy of water when it falls to the earth and
flows over its surface. Strong wind, depending on its
strength and duration (persistence), can blow away loose
soil from flat or undulating terrain. Soil erosion by water is
a widespread problem throughout Europe and the main
processes are rain-splash, rain-wash, rill-wash and sheet-
wash. Whilst these processes are often localised they
produce distinct features such as rills, gullies and, in
extreme cases, badlands. There are other forms of water
erosion, for example snowmelt erosion in northern Europe
which can also produce surface features such as rills and
gullies, and bank erosion where streams, rivers and lake
waters wash bank material into suspension to be carried
downstream, or away from the shore, until the velocity of
flow or movement diminishes sufficiently for deposition to
take place. Several other types of soil erosion have been
recognised and studied by researchers. For example, wind Erosion causing a 1m deep rill in the Severn Valley UK,
erosion occurs in areas where soil is dominantly sandy or January 2001 (PNO).
silty, dry and not stabilised by plant roots; cultivation,
levelling of land for example to create terraces, trampling distributed throughout the year than in the south.
by animals destroying surface cover and soil removal by Consequently the area affected by erosion is less extensive
harvesting of root crops cause further losses of soil. than in southern Europe. However, erosion is still a serious
problem, particularly off-site, in northwest and central
The most dominant effect is the loss of topsoil, which may Europe, and is on the increase largely as a result of sheet
not be conspicuous but nevertheless potentially very erosion on bare soil surfaces, the area of which has increased
damaging. If soil loss by these various forms of accelerated significantly in Europe since the Second World War.
erosion is to be reduced or eliminated, the amounts of soil
removed must be quantified and this requires a different There are very few sites in Europe where soil erosion has been
approach for each type of erosion. On-site measurements or is still being monitored but the measurements of soil loss
Severe gully erosion in Spain (JI). can quantify soil loss at the field scale and accumulation in that do exist show average rates varying from less than 0.5
reservoirs can reveal the amount of sediment removed to more than 200t/ha/yr. The highest losses, sometimes as
Erosion is a natural process, occurring over geological within individual catchments or basins. Lakes and reservoirs high as 500 t/ha/yr, have been measured following single
timescales, that has been largely responsible for shaping the act as large sediment traps and sedimentation rates can storm events of short duration but with heavy rain falling on
physical landscape we see around us today. The action of provide valuable comparisons between environments. bare soil surfaces. Erosion literature commonly identifies
rain, wind, ice (in the form of glaciers) and temperature (by However, complications arise because soil loss in one part of ‘tolerable’ rates of soil erosion, but these usually exceed the
freezing and thawing) wear down and shatter rock surfaces. a catchment or basin can lead to deposition (sediment yield) rates that can be balanced by natural weathering of parent
Subsequently, geomorphic processes have distributed the in another part. Not all the material eroded on a hillslope materials to form new soil particles.
weathered materials, produced by these agents, over the will arrive at the outfall of the catchment or accumulates in
surface of the Earth. For millions of years, erosion has reservoirs, a significant part may remain in intermediate Soil loss in some places may be considered acceptable from
transformed the landscape, wearing down mountain and storage on slopes, in alluvial fans, as colluvium along foot- an economic standpoint but some modern cultivation
upland areas whilst sedimentation has filled in continental slopes and as outwash on plains. methods are causing overall erosion rates that are becoming
basins with the resulting debris. Thus erosion is a process increasingly unacceptable from a long-term point of view.
that is essential for soil and landscape formation and has Climate, topography and soil characteristics are important Two examples of this are the use of herbicides to kill the
taken place since time began. physical factors affecting the amount of erosion. The vegetation on the ground in olive groves and vineyards, thus
Mediterranean region is particularly prone to accelerated reducing competition for water and nutrients, and cereal
Most present-day concerns about soil erosion, leading to its soil erosion because it is subject to long dry periods, cultivation on hilly land previously in pasture for stock
perception as a process of degradation, are related to followed by heavy bursts of erosive rain, falling on steep rearing. Both these systems currently receive financial
accelerated erosion, where the natural rate has been slopes often with shallow soil low in organic matter. The support from the European Common Agricultural Policy yet
significantly increased by human activities. These activities introduction of agriculture and grazing during Neolithic are visibly degrading the land. It is clear that on some
include the stripping of natural vegetation especially times (6000-8000 years ago), in and around the productive land there is an overall loss of soil material that
clearing of forests for cultivation, changing land cover in Mediterranean Basin, marked the start of progressive forest is becoming irreversible. By contrast, there are some ancient
other ways through cultivation, grazing, controlled burning clearance which has continued until the present day. A well farming systems that have proved to be sustainable over a
or wildfires, levelling of the land surface, and varying the known example of one of the effects of this is the Ebro long period, for example the dehesas in Spain, the montados
intensity of land management, for example through poor Delta, the growth of which is linked to deforestation and in Portugal and the bocage in France. Unfortunately, these
maintenance of terrace structures and cultivation of steep expanding agricultural activities that took place between systems tend to be labour intensive and mainly practised by
slopes. The resulting changes to the soil cover allow natural the Middle Ages and the 19th century. In parts of the the older people in rural communities.
forces to remove soil particles much more rapidly than Mediterranean region, erosion has reached a stage of
normal soil-forming processes can replace them, hence the irreversibility such that, in some places, erosion has
term accelerated erosion. Soil losses > 2 t/ha/yr are practically ceased because there is no more soil left. This
considered by experts in many parts of the world to be contrasts with NW Europe where there is less loss of soil,
irreversible within a timescale of 50-100 years. because rain falls mainly on gentle slopes and is more evenly
The above maps show the relationship between erosion and organic matter levels in soil. The map on the left shows estimated soil erosion rates for Spain, Portugal and southwestern France (see Page 102). Areas
with very low erosion rates are indicated in green while high-risk zones are red or purple. The map clearly highlights the problems of soil erosion in Andalucia, along the Tajo Valley and just north of the Pyrenees.
The map on the right shows the levels of organic carbon in the topsoil. Note the close correspondence between the areas of low organic carbon (shown in grey) and the high risk of erosion (RJ).
111

Loss of organic matter
LOSS OF ORGANIC MATTER. An

imbalance between the build-up of
soil organic matter and rates of
decomposition is leading to a decline
in soil organic matter contents in
many parts of Europe.
A Histosol, a soil rich in organic matter. Most mineral soil

contains less than 10% organic matter (6% organic carbon) in the
topsoil (EM).
The presence of organic matter is extremely important in all

soil processes, acting as a storehouse for nutrients and a
source of soil fertility, contributing to soil aeration, thereby
reducing soil compaction, and ensuring good structure. Other The map above shows the distribution of soil organic carbon, a major component of organic matter, according to administrative units; it
benefits are related to the improvement of infiltration rates emphasises the generally low levels in southern Europe compared to the north (RH).
and the increase in storage capacity for water. Furthermore,
organic matter serves as a buffer against rapid changes in soil • Overgrazing; Degradation of peat soil in the Netherlands
pH and it acts as an energy source for soil micro-organisms. • Soil erosion;
• Forest fires. There is evidence to suggest that the organic matter content
The amount of organic matter stored in soil is thus of great of soils in Europe is decreasing, in some cases at an alarming
importance and, in the past few years, there has been In essentially warm and dry areas like Southern Europe, rate.
increasing concern about declining levels leading to depletion of organic matter can be rapid because the
processes of decomposition are accelerated by high • In Roman times, 45% of the Netherlands was covered by
increased soil degradation (loss of structure and fertility),
temperatures. Some areas in southern Spain for example peat. Today, the figure is around 8%, most of which is used
erosion and desertification. There are two groups of factors as pasture.
that influence the inherent levels of soil organic matter have experienced serious depletion of organic matter
content: natural factors (climate, soil parent material, land through changing land use and recently adopted
• In the 1970's the area of peat was about 290,000 ha. In
cover and/or vegetation and topography) and management practices. It is clear that human occupation
recent years, water levels in ditches in the peat areas has
anthropogenic or human-induced factors (land use, over the past 5000 years in this part of Europe gives us an been lowered to 60 cm – 120 cm below the surface
management and degradation). idea of how other parts of the continent could be affected (compared to originally 20-30 cm), which resulted in an
in the future. increased oxidation of the peat and an average subsidence
Concerning climate, within belts of uniform moisture of the soil of 1 cm per year.
conditions and comparable vegetation, the average amount
of organic matter increases by two to three times for each • Nowadays, the area of peat soil is about 220,000 ha. Thus,
over the last thirty-five years, 70,000 ha of peat soil has
10 deg C decrease in temperature, because decomposition
degraded to an other soil type.
rates reduce as temperatures decline. In general, organic
matter increases as the effective soil moisture becomes • A subsidence of 1 – 2 cm per year equals to 14 tons of peat
greater, poorly drained soils generally having much higher per hectare (ha) per year. The oxidation of 1 cm per year
organic matter contents than their better-drained results in a production of 22.6 tons/ha/year of CO2.
equivalents. This is because decomposition of organic
matter requires oxygen and this is in short supply in • In the Netherlands the CO2 emission of peat soil is about 3%
waterlogged soils. of the national CO2 production (in 1990). In a country like
Norway the production of CO2 from peat in agricultural use
A sandy soil usually contains less organic matter than a soil is higher than the production of CO2 by the traffic.
of finer texture, e.g. heavy loam or clay. This is because
oxygen is required for decomposition of organic matter and
poorly drained soils have low oxygen contents and fine
textured soils are generally poorly aerated. Organic or mineral?
There are several factors responsible for the decline in soil Soil scientists often use the term “mineral soils” to describe
organic matter and many of them stem from human activity: soils composed predominantly of mineral material which are
low in organic matter or humus content. The soil profile below
• Conversion of grassland, forests and natural vegetation to the A horizon is normally all mineral soil. A mineral is a
This is an area east of Sevilla where olive cultivation has become natural crystalline inorganic substance. Silica is a mineral but
arable land;
almost a monoculture. The removal of soil and hence organic coal is not because it is derived from organic material (i.e.
• Deep ploughing of arable soils causing rapid plants).
matter from the soil upslope is clearly visible (white area), the
mineralisation of organic matter:
topsoil becoming browner lower down (RJ).
112

Decline in biodiversity
DECLINE IN SOIL BIODIVERSITY is Key functions performed by soil biota

the reduction of forms of life living in These map onto the ‘goods and services’ roles and are many
and varied. Some of the most significant functions, and the
soils, both in terms of quantity and main biotic groups that carry them out are:
• Primary production [plants, cyanobacteria, algae]
in variety. • Secondary production [herbivores]
• Primary decomposition [bacteria, archaea, fungi, some
fauna]
• Secondary decomposition [some microbes, protozoa,
nematodes, worms, insects, arachnids, molluscs]
• Soil structural dynamics [bacteria, fungi, cyanobacteria;
algae, worms, insects, mammals]
• Suppression of pests and diseases [bacteria, actinomycetes,
Approximate number and diversity of organisms typically found in fungi, protozoa, nematodes, insects]
a handful of temperate grassland soil (KR & JJIM). • Symbioses [bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi (notably
mycorrhizae) ]
The ecological value of soil biodiversity is increasingly • Soil organic matter formation, stabilisation and C
sequestration [virtually all groups, directly or indirectly]
appreciated as we understand more about its origins and
• Atmospheric gas dynamics, including generation and
consequences. The monetary value of ecosystem goods and sequestration of greenhouse gases [bacteria for nitrous
services provided by soils and their associated terrestrial oxides, methane; all biota for CO2]
systems, an entirely human construct which assists putting • Soil formation [bacteria, fungi]
their significance into an economic context, was estimated
in 1997 to be thirteen trillion US dollars ($13 x 1012). The
soil biota underwrites much of this value.
Repertoire: for a biologically-mediated process to occur,
Threats to soil biodiversity organisms that carry out that process must be present;
Interactions: most soil organisms have the capacity to
A healthy soil biota needs an appropriate habitat. In soil, directly or indirectly influence other organisms, either
Soil contains a huge variety of life ranging from microbes, worms this is essentially the space denoted by the complex positively or negatively;
and insects to mammals. This picture illustrates the diversity architecture of the pore network, and the associated supply Redundancy: the more organisms there are that can carry
within soil mites (DW). and dynamics of gases, water, solutes and substrates that out a function in a particular soil, the more likely it is that
this framework supports. Hence threats to soil such as if some are incapacitated or removed the process will
The nature of soil biodiversity erosion, contamination, salinisation and sealing all serve to remain unaffected; those that remain fill the gap.
threaten soil biodiversity by compromising or destroying the
Soil biodiversity is a term used to describe the variety of life habitat of the soil biota. Management practices that reduce There is evidence that soil biotic communities are coupled to
below-ground. The concept is conventionally used in a the deposition or persistence of organic matter in soils, or their associated vegetation, such that there is a mutual
genetic sense and denotes the number of distinct species bypass biologically-mediated nutrient cycling also tend to dependence between above-ground and below-ground
(richness) and their proportional abundance (evenness) reduce the size and complexity of soil communities. It is communities, and hence that compromised soil communities
present in a system, but may be extended to encompass however notable that even polluted or severely disturbed may curtail particular plant assemblages from forming.
phenotypic (expressed), functional, structural or trophic soils still support relatively high levels of microbial diversity
diversity. The total biomass below-ground generally equals at least. Specific groups may be more susceptible to certain Consequences of decline in soil biodiversity
or exceeds that above-ground, whilst the biodiversity in the pollutants or stresses than others, for example nitrogen-
soil always exceeds that on the associated surface by orders fixing bacteria that are symbiotic to legumes are It is apparent that from a functional perspective, species
of magnitude, particularly at the microbial scale. A handful particularly sensitive to copper; colonial ants tend not to richness per se is of little consequence; rather it is the
of grassland soil will typically support tens of thousands of prevail in frequently-tilled soils due to the repeated functional repertoire of the soil biota that is critical. For
genetically distinct prokaryotes (bacteria, archaea) and disruption of their nests; soil mites are a generally very processes such as decomposition, there is evidence that
hundreds of eukaryotic species across many taxonomic robust group. there is a high degree of redundancy at a microbial level.
groups. Other processes, such as nitrification (the oxidation of
Consequences of soil biodiversity ammonium), are carried out by a narrower range of bacteria
The soil biota plays many fundamental roles in delivering and there is less redundancy in this group, whereas for
key ecosystem goods and services, and is both directly and The relationships between biodiversity and function are highly specific symbiotic associations, such as those
indirectly responsible for carrying out many important complex and somewhat poorly understood, even in above- between orchids and certain mycorrhizal fungi, there is
functions (see Boxes). ground situations. The exceptional complexity of below- total dependence and hence zero redundancy. A depletion
ground communities further confounds our understanding of biodiversity will therefore have differing consequences in
Ecosystems goods and services provided by soil biota of soil systems. Three important mechanisms underlying relation to different processes. In some circumstances it has
relationships between biodiversity and function are: been demonstrated that there are threshold levels of soil
Goods: diversity below which processes are impaired, although
• food production these are usually related to narrow processes and are
• fibre production manifest under experimentally constructed systems of
• provision of secondary compounds exceptionally low levels of diversity, as opposed to natural
(e.g. pharmaceuticals / agrochemicals) systems. From the intrinsic and bequest perspective, any loss
Services: of biodiversity is undesirable. Given our limited state of
• driving nutrient cycling
understanding of the consequences of soil biodiversity, it is
• regulation of water flow and storage
• regulation of soil and sediment movement
common sense that a strong precautionary principle needs
• regulation of other biota (including pests and diseases) to be applied.
• detoxification of xenobiotics and pollutants
• regulation of atmospheric composition
The value of soil biodiversity
Soil biodiversity carries a range of values that depend on the

perspective from which they are being considered. These
include:
• Functional value, relating to the natural services that the

soil biota provides, the associated preservation of ecosystem
structure and integrity, and ultimately the functioning of
the planetary system via connections with the atmosphere
and hydrosphere Some examples of the major groups of the microbial soil biota
• Utilitarian (“direct use”) value, which covers the visualised in situ in arable soil. From top left: Fungus (filamentous
hyphae and spores); fungus (spore-bearing perithecium in Simplified soil food web. Energy and nutrient elements are
commercial and subsistence benefits of soil organisms to
decomposing root); protozoa (naked amoeba); protozoa (testate transferred from one trophic level to another. Note that there is
humankind. also a continual movement of material from all trophic levels
amoebae); bacteria (large colony in vicinity of food source);
• Intrinsic (“non-use”) value, which comprises social, bacteria (small colony isolated in soil matrix). As well as great back to the detritus/organic matter pool and the base of the
aesthetic, cultural and ethical benefits species diversity, the physical form that soil organisms take is also series (Tugel, A.J. & A.M. Lewandowski, eds., Soil Biology Primer.
• Bequest (“serependic”) value, relating to future but as yet extremely diverse, from long filaments, to naked cytoplasm, Available on-line from:
unknown value of biodiversity to future planetary function through silica-encased cells to minute single cells ñ the bacteria http://soils.usda.gov/sqi/concepts/soil_biology/soil_food_web.htm
or generations of humankind. in the bottom image are 1 µm in diameter [KR].
113

Contamination
CONTAMINATION is the occurrence The management of contaminated sites is designed to

remediate any adverse effects where impairment of the
of a substance in soil above a certain environment has been proved and to minimise potential
threats. Provision of public and private money for
level. Contamination can be diffuse remediation, as well as restrictions on land use and the use
or local and is due to many of groundwater and surface water, are particularly
important responses to deal with the existing contaminated
anthropogenic activities, such as sites. Although the “polluter-pays” principle is generally
industrial production, traffic, farming applied, a huge sum of public money must be provided to
fund necessary remediation activities. A problem can arise
practices and waste disposal. when the polluter is not financially liquid or the polluter can
not be made liable! Even though a considerable amount of
money has been spent on remediation activities already, the The application of new legislation at national and EU level (e.g. the
share compared to the total estimated remediation costs is Landfill Directive, Water Framework Directive, Environmental
Liability Directive, Integrated Pollution and Prevention Control
relatively low (only around 8%).
Directive) should result in better operational and technical
requirements on waste and landfills (AJ).
Contamination from diffuse sources
can retain, the excess may be leached from the soil, eroded
Intensive agriculture, forestry, mining, transport, or washed off into ground waters and/or surface waters.
industrialization and urbanization in densely populated Besides over-application of fertilizers, accumulation of
areas in Europe have led to inter-related problems of nitrogen can be caused by wet and dry nitrogen deposition.
contamination and other forms of land degradation. Elevated nitrogen content in forest soils can negatively
Transport of acidifying and eutrophying components as well affect the vitality of European forests. According to
as potentially harmful elements by wind has led to soil estimations based on critical load data the excess deposition
degradation even in distant areas. Additionally, certain of nutrient nitrogen will be much lower by 2010 in
agricultural practices cause diffuse soil contamination by comparison to 1990, but still in some areas of central and
direct application of pesticides, sewage sludge, compost, western Europe only less than 10% of the ecosystems will be
fertilisers and manure. protected against negative effects of eutrophication.
Continued contamination can lead to an accumulation of Deposition of heavy metals and other potentially harmful
hazardous substances in top soils. Soil functions most elements cause diffuse soil contamination throughout
affected by contamination are buffering, filtering and Europe. In forest soils, contamination is generally linked to
Pesticides, used to protect crops from insects and diseases, can in
transforming capacities. When the buffering capacity of soil atmospheric deposition. In agricultural soils, heavy metals and
certain circumstances lead to diffuse pollution of soils (AJ).
with respect to a certain substance is exceeded, the other contaminants enter ecosystems as a result of the
Soil acts as a sink for almost all substances released into the substance is released to the environment, causing application of fertilizers and animal manure, compost and
environment by human activities. Therefore, many impairment of groundwater and/or surface water. Currently, pesticides. The application of contaminated sewage sludge
pollutants accumulate in the soil due to the specific filtering the most important problems from diffuse sources are has the potential to create a threat to soil ecosystems due to
and buffering properties of the soil. On the other hand, acidification, the effects of a surplus of nutrients and input of heavy metals, organic compounds and pathogens. In
many substances occur naturally in soil (e.g. heavy metals). contamination by heavy metals. Eastern and Northern Europe, the fallout from Chernobyl can
If the concentration of these substances is above a defined be still identified as a diffuse radioactive contamination of
background value or so high that it potentially causes a risk Emissions of acidifying sulphur and nitrogen compounds surface soil, but at a lower value than in the late 1980's.
to human health, plants, animals, ecosystems or other media from industry and transport have led to soil acidification Much attention has been paid so far to diffuse contamination
(e.g. water), the soil is regarded as "contaminated". Many and pose threats to forest health and the quality of surface by cadmium, lead and mercury. Other potentially harmful
parts of Europe are contaminated by a range of and/or groundwater. Aluminium, cadmium and many other elements include arsenic, chromium, copper, nickel, zinc and
contaminants. They originate from either local or diffuse metals are more mobile in acid soils causing risk of damage several persistent organic pollutants (POPs).
sources of human activity. to plant roots and contamination of drinking water. Sulphur
emissions and deposition have declined substantially. Reductions in heavy metal deposition can be expected
Contamination from localised sources Excesses of acidifying components in terrestrial ecosystems throughout Europe as the result of the implementation of
are at present dominated by nitrogen deposition, although lead-free petrol and the application of industrial techniques
Soil contamination from localised sources is often related to the situation is not homogenous throughout Europe. of emission reduction. Concerning direct input of
industrial plants that are no longer in operation, accidents Nitrogen and phosphorus are essential elements for plant contaminants to agricultural soils, common Good Agricultural
or improper waste disposals. At industrial plants that are still growth and are added to soil by fertilization. However, if Practices and water protection legislation have to consider
operating, soil contamination may have its origin in the past fertilizers are applied beyond what plants can use and soils avoidance of soil contamination and related EU legislation.
but current activities still have significant impacts.
Contaminated sites are the legacy of a long period of

industrialisation involving uncontrolled production and
handling of hazardous substances and unregulated dumping
of wastes. The expansion of industry and subsequent
increase in the amount of industrial wastes have led to
considerable environmental problems. Mining activities and
former military sites are also giving rise to severe
contamination problems.
Contaminated sites considerably endanger human health

and the environment. Pollution of drinking water, uptake of
pollutants in plants, exposure to contaminated soil due to
direct contact, inhalation and ingestion are major threats.
Soil and groundwater contamination can be caused by
losses during production, industrial accidents and leaching
of hazardous substances at waste disposal sites. Major
pollutants include organic contaminants such as chlorinated
hydrocarbons, mineral oil and heavy metals.
Assuming that areas with a high probability for soil

contamination from local sources are concentrated in
densely populated and industrialised regions, the largest and
probably most heavily affected areas are concentrated
around the industries from the Nord-Pas de Calais in France
to the Rhine-Ruhr region in Germany, across Belgium and
the Netherlands and the large cities of the UK (see
population density map on Page 123).
Other areas where the probability of local soil contamination is

high include the Saar region in Germany; northern Italy, north
of the river Po area, from Milan to Padua; the so-called Black
Triangle region located at the corner of Poland, the Czech
Republic and the Slovak Republic. However, contaminated areas The risk of soil contamination from mining activities is associated with the storage or disposal of tailings, acid mine drainage and the use
exist around most major cities and some individual of certain chemical reagents in the processing of metal ores. This striking photograph shows an old copper mine in the UK more than 100
contaminated sites also exist in sparsely populated areas. years after the mine was abandoned. Notice the lack of vegetation on the soil heaps. The pH of some of the old tailing ponds can be as
low as 2.5, strong sulphuric acid! (AJ).
114

Compaction
SOIL COMPACTION is the term for

the deterioration of soil structure
(loss of soil features) by mechanistic
pressure, predominantly from
agricultural practices. Bending
earthworm
channels in the
platy structure
Compaction leads to a deterioration in conditions for soil fauna

(JJHVDA).
A classic example of compacted topsoil. Note how the soil

structure in the upper part of the profile has completely collapsed.
This limits root growth and exploitation of soil water and
nutrients by crops (JJHVDA).
Scale
All agricultural soils in developed countries display some

Driving heavy tractors on the subsoil during ploughing and degree of subsoil compaction. Estimates in 1991 suggest
harvesting is a major cause of subsoil compaction. The picture that the area of degradation attributable to soil compaction
clearly shows how the wheels on one side of the tractor are driven in Europe may equal or exceed 33 million hectares (ha).
in the plough furrow and press directly on the subsoil (JJHVDA). Recent research has showed that compaction is the most
widespread kind of soil physical soil degradation in central
Definition of the problem and eastern Europe. About 25 million ha were deemed to be
lightly compacted while a further 36 million ha were more Areas degraded by soil compaction are increasing because wheel
Soil compaction is a form of physical degradation resulting severely affected. loads in agriculture are still increasing. Twenty years ago wheel
in densification and distortion of the soil where biological loads of 50 kN (5000 kg) were considered very high. Nowadays
activity, porosity and permeability are reduced, strength is Well-structured soils combine good physical soil properties wheel loads of up to 130 kN are used during the harvesting of
increased and soil structure partly destroyed. Compaction with high strength. Sandy soils with a single grain structure sugar beet. Modern self-propelled slurry tankers with injection
can reduce water infiltration capacity and increase erosion and compacted massive soils can be very strong. However,
equipment with wheel loads of 90 – 120 kN are used in early
risk by accelerating run-off. The compaction process can be spring on wet soils. Large tyres with an inflation pressure of about
rootability and soil physical properties are then often bad. 200 kPa are needed to carry such high wheel loads. Even on
initiated by wheels, tracks, rollers or by the passage of Roots have a binding action and increase the elasticity and
animals. moderate strong soil, compaction of up to 80 cm below the
resistance of a soil to compaction. surface have been measured under such loads. The result is that
the soil is increasingly compacted to ever-greater depth. The
Some soils are naturally compacted, strongly cemented or Soil moisture has a dominant influence on soil conclusion is that European soil is more threatened than ever
have a thin topsoil layer on rock subsoil. Soils can vary from compactibility. Dry structured soils are strong with low (JJHVDA).
being sufficiently strong to resist all likely applied loads to compactibilty. However, extremely dry sandy soils can be
being so weak that they are compacted by even light loads. deformed and compacted rather easily. As the moisture Subsoil compaction should be prevented instead of being
content increases, compactibility increases until the repaired or compensated. Even on weak soils, relatively high
In arable land with annual ploughing, both topsoil and moisture content is approximately at the field capacity wheel loads are possible by using large tyres with low
subsoil compaction is possible. A feature of compacted soils point, when a condition known as the optimum moisture inflation pressures or well-designed tracks. Subsoil
is the formation of a pan-layer, caused by the tractor tyres content for compaction is reached. At still higher moisture compaction during ploughing can be prevented by using
driving directly on the subsoil during ploughing (above). The content, the soil becomes increasingly incompactible as improved steering systems and adapted ploughs allowing
pan-layer is less permeable for roots, water and oxygen than water fills ever more pore space. Although the compaction the tractor to drive with all wheels on the untilled land. It
the soil below and is a bottleneck for the function of the of an overloaded wet soil may be minimal, plastic flow may is also possible to concentrate wheel loads on permanent
subsoil. Unlike topsoil, the subsoil is not loosened annually, result in the complete destruction of soil structure and traffic lanes and limit the compaction to these sacrificed
compaction becomes cumulative and over time, a macro-pores. wheel ways. By using gantries, the sacrificed area can be
homogeneous compacted layer is created. limited. However, these solutions are rarely used because of
Increasing the organic matter content tends to reduce soil short-term economical constraints, lack of awareness, and
compactibility and to increase its elasticity. negligence because the damage to the subsoil is not readily
The Impact visible. Also the limited knowledge and data on soil strength
Solution under dynamic loading makes prevention of subsoil
Large spaces in soils are known as macro pores and are compaction difficult.
created by plant roots, burrowing creatures and shrinkage It is almost impossible to avoid topsoil compaction. On the
caused by the drying of wet soil. These macro pores are other hand, tillage and natural processes can re-loosen the
usually continuous and form “highways” for air and water to topsoil. Subsoil compaction is much more persistent and
travel deep into the soil. To an extent, continuous macro difficult to remove. Artificial loosening of the subsoil has
pores determine the soil’s physical and soil biological quality. proven to be disappointing. The loosened subsoil is
Macro pores are the most vulnerable pores to soil recompacted very easily and many physical properties are
compaction. strongly reduced.
The loss of macro porosity and pore continuity reduces
strongly the ability of the soil to conduct water and air.
• Reduced infiltration capacity results in surface run-off,
leading eventually to flooding, erosion and transport of
nutrients and agrochemicals to open water.
• A poor aeration of the soil reduces plant growth and
induces loss of soil nitrogen and production of greenhouse
gases through denitrification in anaerobic sites.
Deformation of soil aggregates and higher bulk density

increase the strength of the soil. This limits root growth
which can result in a higher vulnerability of the crop to
diseases. Subsoil compaction is a hidden form of soil
degradation that can affect all the agricultural areas and
results in gradually decreasing yields and gradually
increasing problems with waterlogging.
The impact of subsoil compaction is most prominent in years

with extreme dry or wet periods. Crop yield reductions of
more than 35% have been measured. Subsoil compaction
proves to be very persistent, even in subsoils with shrinkage
and swelling or annual deep freezing. Reduced crop yields Provisional map of inherent susceptibility of subsoil in Europe to compaction, based on soil properties alone. Further input data are required
and reduced nitrogen content in crops were detected 17 on climate and land use before vulnerability to compaction of subsoil in Europe can be inferred from the susceptibilities shown here. Some
of the very high areas (red) correspond to peat soils that are not subjected to “normal” agricultural practices. However, it is worth including
years after a single compaction event with wheel loads of
the peat heaths and forests of Europe as they are often used for forestry and can be compacted by heavy timber harvesting machines and
50 kN or 5,000 kg. off-road vehicles (RJ).
115

Hydro-geological risks
HYDRO-GEOLOGICAL RISKS refer to

floods and landslides related to soil
and land management.
A landslide is the down slope movement of terrain due to a failure

of the material composing the landscape. Landslides may be
induced by physical processes such as earthquakes or caused by
human interference on slope stability. Landslides, mudflows and
other mass movement events are both erosional and depositional
events (EM).
When river banks are overtopped through rising flood

waters, the results can be devastating. In the last decade
Europe has experienced a number of unusually long-lasting
rainfall events that produced severe floods, For example, in
the Netherlands, Belgium, France and Germany (1993,
1995), the Czech Republic, Poland and Germany (1997), in
northern Italy (1994, 2000) and in the UK (1998, 2000,
2004). The trend seems to be continuing.
According to the World Meteorological Office review of the

year 2001, the 24-months period ending in March 2001 was
the wettest in the 236-year time series of precipitation in
England and Wales. From October 2000 to March 2001,
precipitation was also exceptional in the Bretagne (France),
where the normal annual rainfall was exceeded by 20 to
40% in parts of the region. A third consecutive year of
severe flooding occurred in Hungary and parts of Eastern
Europe in March 2001 where the Tisza river reached its
highest level since 1888 while two weeks of heavy rain
during in June 2001 produced Poland’s worst flood since
1997. In August 2002 devastating and costly floods in the
Elbe and the Danube rivers were observed with further
extreme precipitation and flooding in southern France, (ADR) The main objective of efficient soil moisture control is to
where almost half of the normal annual rainfall fell in just increase the water storage within the soil in a form that is
one day! The main hydro-physical characteristics of soils include available to plants without any unfavourable
particle-size distribution, saturation percentage, bulk environmental consequences. Such measures should:
Prolonged periods of moderate rainfall can lead to “plain density, aggregate state and stability, porosity, pore-size
floods” that build up over days and can affect large areas, distribution, water storage capacity, field capacity, wilting • reduce evaporation, surface runoff and filtration losses of
whereas short-lasting but very intense rainfalls cause “flash percentage, available moisture range, infiltration rate, water (atmospheric precipitation and irrigation);
floods”, that can develop within a few hours only, are very permeability, saturated and unsaturated hydraulic • increase the available moisture range of the soil (to help
localised, and because of their sudden development and conductivity. The values of these parameters for a large infiltration into the soil, increase the water storage
violence represent a particular problem for civil protection. number of European soils are stored in the HYPRES database capacity, reduce the immobile moisture content);
(see Page 99). • improve drainage conditions of the soil profile (reduce
According to climate modellers, the probability, frequency, over-saturation and waterlogging).
duration, intensity (seriousness) of extreme weather events Floods and landslides are natural hazards intimately related to
(extreme temperatures and rainfall) are increasing and will soil and land management. Floods and mass movements of soil
cause erosion, pollution and loss of soil resources with often
It is important to stress that most of these measures are also
be more common in the future. If these weather features are important elements of water conservation and
catastrophic impacts for human activities and lives, damage to
combined with hilly landscapes, a lack of permanent and buildings and infrastructures and loss of agricultural land. environment protection. What is good for the soil is good
dense vegetation cover, inefficient land management Floods can, in some cases, result from soil not performing its for the land.
practices and soils with unfavourable physical properties, role of controlling the water cycle due to compaction or sealing.
then increased extreme soil moisture situations, be it either
waterlogging or drought, may develop. The former will lead Such events are occurring more frequently in areas with highly
to higher surface runoff and flood events while the latter erodable soil, steep slopes and intense precipitation, such as the
will cause crop failure, reduced drinking water supplies and Alpine and the Mediterranean regions. In Italy more than 50%
a breakdown of soil properties. The impact of such events of the territory has been classified as having a high or very high
hydro-geological risk, affecting 60% of the population or 34
depends greatly on the physical and hydro-physical
million inhabitants. More than 15% of the territory and 26% of
properties of soils. the population are subjected to a very high risk. The impacts on
population and the economic damage are relevant. In Italy over
The main factors affecting soil moisture are: the last 20 years, floods and landslides had an impact on more
• the depth, thickness and sequence of various soil horizons than 70 000 people and caused economic damage of at least 11
within the soil profile between the surface and the billion euro.
groundwater table;
• the hydro-physical characteristics of these soil layers; This photograph shows the power of a large flood in the Ossola
• the quantity, status, energy, relations, chemical Valley of northwest Italy. A torrential and prolonged rain storm
in 2000 completely destroyed one of the main highways
composition and vertical or horizontal movement of soil
between Italy and Switzerland (RJ).
moisture.
116

Salinisation
Two main types of salt accumulation in soil can be
distinguished in Europe:
SALINISATION is the accumulation
of soluble salts of sodium, • Continental salt accumulation due to intense weathering
and arid climate or due to hydro-geological conditions
magnesium and calcium in soil to the (e.g. closed evaporative basins).
• Human induced salt accumulation due to improper land
extent that soil fertility is severely use (e.g. irrigation, fertilizer application).
reduced.
The Carpathian Basin in Hungary is a good example of the
first case. Surface runoff, seepage and groundwater
transport soluble weathering products from a large water
catchment area to the lowest part of the basin where
subsurface waters, enriched with sodium, calcium and
magnesium carbonate (salts), accumulate in a thick One of the main characteristics of salt affected soils is their
continuous aquifer. In poorly drained, low lying areas, temporal variability. Prolonged rainfall can lead to a temporary
capillary flow transports high amounts of water soluble leaching of salt from the surface layers. In many salt affected
salts from the shallow, stagnant groundwater to the areas, small ponds are dug to drain the saline water from the soil
overlying soil horizons. Due to the chemistry of the soil thus allowing limited agriculture on other parts of the land. The
white deposits on the bank of the pond are evaporated salt
solution (strongly alkaline), the sodium is the dominant
crystals (EM).
element in the migrating waters. High sodium saturation of
heavy-textured soil with large amount of expanding clay Salinization processes are near to irreversible in the case of
minerals results in unfavourable soil properties and limits heavy-textured soils with high levels of swelling clay.
Salt affected soil often exhibits a white or grey salt crust on the their fertility, productivity and agricultural utility. Although a combination of efficient drainage and flushing
ground. The pH of the soil is around 8.5 and the salt interferes of the soil by water is often used, the leaching of salts from
with the growth of all but the most specially adapted plants (ED).
the profile is rarely effective
Salinity as an environmental stress and limiting factor for
Salinisation, also known as alkalisation or sodification, is agriculture. Because the reclamation, improvement and management of
often associated with irrigated areas where low rainfall,
salt affected soils necessitates complex and expensive
high evapotranspiration rates or soil textural characteristics The accumulation of salts, particularly sodium salts, are one technologies, all efforts must be taken for the efficient
impede the washing out of the salts which subsequently the main physiological threats to ecosystems. Salt prevents, prevention of these harmful processes. Permanent care and
build-up in the soil surface layers. Irrigation with high salt limits or disturbs the normal metabolism, water quality and proper control actions are required. Adequate soil and
content waters dramatically worsens the problem. nutrient uptake of plants and soil biota. When water water conservation practices, based on a comprehensive soil
containing a large amount of dissolved salt is brought into or land degradation assessment, can provide an “early
In coastal areas, salinisation can be associated with the over contact with a plant cell, the protoplasmic lining will shrink. warning system” that provides possibilities for efficient
exploitation of groundwater caused by the demands of This action, known as plasmolysis, increases with the salinity (or alkalinity) control, the prevention of these
growing urbanisation, industry and agriculture. Over concentration of the salt solution. The cell then collapses. environmental stresses and their undesirable ecological,
extraction of groundwater can lower the normal water In addition, sodium salts can be both caustic (corrosive) and economical and social consequences.
table and lead to the intrusion of marine water. Natural toxic (poisonous) to organic tissue. The nature of the salt,
disasters in coastal areas, such as tsunamis, can cause severe the plant species and even the individuality of the plant
salinisation problems with several years of low fertility of (e.g. structure and depth of the root system) determine the What is salinity?
the affected soil before recovery. concentration of soil-salt levels at which a crop or plants
will succumb. Examples of plants and crops with a high Salinity is the degree to which water contains dissolved
In Nordic countries, the de-icing of roads with salts can lead tolerance to salt include bermuda grass, cotton, date palm, salts. Salinity is usually expressed in parts per thousand or
to localised salinisation. peas, rape and sugar beet while apples, lemons, oranges, grams per thousand grams. Normal seawater has a salinity
potatoes and most clovers have a very low tolerance. of 33 parts per thousand. This rises to 40 parts per
Salinity is one of the most widespread soil degradation thousand in the Red Sea.
processes on the Earth. According to some estimates, the total
area of salt affected soil is about one billion hectares. They
occur mainly in the arid–semiarid regions of Asia, Australia Soil salinisation in coastal areas affected by tsunami tidal waves
and South America. In Europe, salt affected soil occurs in the
Caspian Basin, the Ukraine, the Carpathian Basin and the on One of the long term effects of tsunami waves is the deposition of salty seawater on large flooded areas with consequent salinisation of soils.
the Iberian Peninsula. Soil salinity affects an estimated 1 Depending on the climatic conditions, these effects can be temporary and the soils may recover rapidly by washing out the infiltrated salt
million hectares in the European Union, mainly in the deposits through heavy rainfall. In more arid or sub-humid areas the salinisation effects can on the other hand last for several years. Depending
on the type of crops cultivated in the area and their resistance to salinisation there can be serious consequences on long term agricultural
Mediterranean countries, and is a major cause of production and food security in the affected area.
desertification. In Spain 3% of the 3.5 million hectares of
irrigated land is severely affected, reducing markedly its The 9 magnitude earthquake that occurred at 00.58 UTC on 26th December 2004 at the interface between the India and Burma plates off the
agricultural potential while another 15 % is under serious risk. west coast of Northern Sumatra, Indonesia, triggered massive tsunamis that affected several countries throughout south and south east Asia
(India, Bangladesh, Mynamar, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Maldives and Thailand) as well as in East Africa (Somalia, Kenya, and Tanzania). The total
inundated zone is estimated at ca. 60 000 sq. km. Soils of these areas have been affected by erosion and scouring that modifies the topography,
Salt affected soil can be divided into five main groups:
land leveling and the elimination of bunds (for paddy fields), soil fertility losses when upper layer is washed away, deposition of salted
sediment, salt infiltration and trash and debris accumulation. Recovery of the affected areas will require several years in some areas lacking
• Saline soil (Solonchak) with high amount of water sufficient rainfall for rapid outwash of accumulated salts and will be an additional burden to the local population.
soluble soils.
• Alkaline soil (Solonetz), high alkalinity and high
exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP).
• Magnesium soil: high magnesium content in the soil
solution.
• Gypsiferous soil: strong gypsum or calcium sulphate
(CaSO4) accumulation.
• Acid sulphate soil: highly acidic iron or aluminium
sulphate accumulation.
In Europe, the first two groups are the most significant (see
Page 16 and the section in the Atlas on the major soil types
of Europe for more details on saline soil).
The factors that determine the accumulation of salt in a soil

are as follows:
• source of salt (local weathering, surface and subsurface

waters, human activities);
• transporting agents accumulating salts from large areas
to smaller deposits as well as from thick geological
strata to thinner horizons (usually water, wind);
• limited vertical or horizontal drainage conditions;
• driving force for movement of solution, usually relief
(surface runoff), hydraulic gradient (groundwater flow),
suction (capillary transport) or concentration gradient
(diffusion);
• negative water balance (evapotranspiration greater than
precipitation).
117

Protecting soil in the European Union
The above picture shows the soil habitat at different scales: from left, field scale, ped scale, root scale, microbial scale. Each panel from left to right represents an approximate 10-fold magnification in scale (KR).
A reduction in the use of pesticides, as well as a phase-out of the use of certain dangerous substances in pesticides, is necessary to minimise the problems relating to the quality of agricultural soils. Soil protection
policies include the decline in biodiversity, the processes of physical and chemical degradation triggered by erosion, desertification, pollution and the decline in organic matter (EM).
118

Conclusions
The Way Forward
Soil is considered to be a non renewable resource of

common interest for the European Union. Indeed, it is
recognised that the European Unionís sustainable
development depends on many of the uses and functions of
soil being preserved and managed carefully. In the 6th
Environment Action Program, the European Union stressed
the need to protect such a common resource putting
forward actions to protect and improve soil quality.
It was decided do so through the development of a Thematic

Strategy on soil protection and sustainable use of soil. In
2002, the European Commission adopted a Communication
ìTowards a Thematic Strategy on Soil Protectionî identifying
the main 8 threats to soil and recognising the importance of
integrating soil protection aspects in other EU policies. This
Communication was followed by a very broad consultation
with stakeholders and experts, who produced a set of
reports and recommendations.
Our improved knowledge of the environment, ecosystems

and natural cycles has shown that many impacts on soil do
have transboundary consequences. Thus issues related to soil
are not as ‘static’ as we may have thought in the past.
Moreover, soil degradation or soil quality improvements have

strong impacts on Europeís long term competitivity and on
areas already considered of common interest such as water
protection, human health, climate change, nature and
biodiversity protection, food safety. The fact that there has
not yet been specific EU legislation for soil protection does
not mean that Member States have not tackled the issue at
national level. Indeed some of them have very advanced soil
protection policies.
Hence due to the importance of land use for almost all

economic sectors, it has to be ensured through EU action that
we establish a level playing field, where the differences in soil
protection of national regimes do not create a distortion of
competition for economic operators. All these arguments
advocate for a comprehensive action at EU level. However,
such action would have to identify the best level of
Above and below: An Umbrisol from Italy supporting a mixed woodland habitat (EM). Soil protection has both a national and community- intervention for the different measures that could be
wide dimension and requires that European Union Member States implement national and community relevant policy. Ensuring a soil proposed. Indeed, many of the measures needed to achieve
protection dimension in all policies will benefit the whole of Europe and not only those regions facing severe environmental problems.
soil protection would better be taken at national, regional or
local level due to the enormous specificity of soil.
The presentation of the Thematic Strategy on soil by the

Commission towards the end of 2005 will not be the end of
the process but rather another stage in the development of
soil protection policy in the European Union. The goal is to
set up a roadmap to preserve and restore soil, soil functions
and to prevent the soil threats. To protect European soil
quality is a long term objective which all Member States
have to embrace wholeheartedly.
Conclusions
Soil supports human life. Being a natural, non-renewable

resource with variable characteristics, such a statement
means that soil must be managed in a sustainable manner
throughout Europe.
Traditional users of the land had a clear view of the key role
of the soil in their lives; many modern users of soil are often
strong followers of short-term productive goals, ignoring
the effects of their practices on the environment.
In developing the soil protection strategy, the Commission is

placing soil alongside water and air as environmental media
to be protected for the future. The strategy takes a
pragmatic approach towards the adjustment of existing
policies relevant to soil by taking both a preventative
approach through the development of new environmental
legislation and an integrational approach for sectoral
policies of particular relevance for soil.
In addition the Commission has established the need to

provide a more solid base through monitoring for actions in
the future. These actions will be beneficial not only to soil,
but will also contribute to reducing water and food
contamination by hazardous pollutants and will therefore
contribute to the limitation of environmental impact on
human health.
We hope that this SOIL ATLAS will be a positive contribution

to the process to protect soil in Europe.
119
Additional Information
This section of the Atlas presents a series of thematic maps

that aim to provide the reader with additional information
to understand the factors affecting soil development and
the threats to soil described over the previous pages.
The fascinating photographs (EM) on this page show

clearly the close inter-relationships between biodiversity
and soil formation.
The above picture and the one to the right show a nest
made by Weaver Birds in Namibia. If you look closely, you
can see that the ground underneath the nest has a
different texture and colour from the surrounding soil. This
is due to the bird droppings that fall out of the nest on to
the ground.
The picture below is a close up of the soil profile directly

below the nest. The ground is covered by bird droppings
(the white flakes). Over time, these droppings have
accumulated to form a thin but highly organic layer on top
of local soil. The darker patches above the gravel layer are
the result of the mixing of the surface layer into the soil by
burrowing animals.
120
Supporting maps
Elevation
This map shows changes in elevation of land surface as depicted by a digital elevation model or DEM. A DEM is a digital representation of topography through a regular grid of cells that indicate the average
altitude of the land surface within the area covered by the cell. The size of the cells used in the above DEM is 1 km. The green colours represent areas of low altitude while the brown colours highlight the
mountainous regions of Europe (HR).
Major parent material of soil
This map shows the major types of soil parent material across
Europe (JDN). The term clastic refers to sedimentary deposits
that are composed of fragments of broken rocks that have
been eroded, transported and re-deposited at another site (e.g.
conglomerates, sandstone). The term chemical sedimentary
rocks indicate that the deposits were chemically precipitated,
evaporated or organogenic in origin (e.g. limestone, chalk,
gypsum). Igneous rocks are formed from crystallised magma
and include granite, basalt and volcanic material.
Metamorphic rocks have undergone a change in chemical and
physical properties due to exposure to high temperature and/or
pressure after they were formed (e.g. marble, slate).
Unconsolidated deposits are the most recent geological
deposits and consist of alluvium, weathering residuum and
slope deposits (e.g. river terraces). The dark blue areas on the
map indicate areas affected by glacial or periglacial conditions
that are characterised by glacial till, boulder clay and glacio-
fluvial sands and gravels. Eolian deposits are wind deposited
materials such as loess while typical organic parent materials
are peat and coal.
121
Supporting maps
mm Average Rainfall
Value
The dark blue tones indicate areas of high rainfall. There is a strong relationship between the amount of rainfall and the characteristics of the soil. The blocky nature of the map is due to the fact that the
rainfall data are representative for 50 km cells (UNEP).
Yearly average of ambient

temperature (1995-2003)
This map shows the yearly average of the ambient temperature for period 1995-2003 (degrees C) across Europe. The map represents interpolated data from the MARS database. Dark blue areas indicate
cooler temperatures whilst the yellows and red of the Mediterranean region indicate warmer conditions (MS).
122
Supporting maps
GLC2000 Global Legend
This map shows land cover of Europe from the GLOBAL LAND COVER 2000 Project. This map has been derived from data acquired by the VEGETATION sensor on board the SPOT 4 satellite. The map has a
nominal resolution of 1 km (AB).
Population density
People per square km
This map shows the population density of Europe in terms of people per square kilometre. The dark red areas on the map indicate the densely populated urban areas where soil sealing is an issue (UNEP).
123
Supporting maps
Soil Education
This publication clearly sets out the importance of

understanding our soil. Along with air and water , soil is a
fundamental element of the world around us. If we are to
manage the Earthís resources in a responsible and
sustainable manner then soil education must be introduced
from an early age.
Several resources in particular set out to do this. The Soil-

Net initiative, found at www.soil-net.com provides
information and resources aimed at teachers and school
students from 5 to 16 years old while the Soil Exhibition at
Osnabruck in Germany, www.bgr.de/schoelerberg/start.htm,
provides visitors with a unique insight in to the soil habitat.
This map show the extent of the last ice age in Europe. A major factor that defines the parent material and characteristics of many soil types
in northern and central Europe (SB).
Soil Texture
The map to the right shows the distribution of sandy topsoil
As described in the introduction to the Atlas, soil texture is across western Europe (RH). The dark red areas indicate regions
an important parameter that can govern soil forming where the sand content of the topsoil is high.
processes, soil structure and how the soil can be used. Soil
texture is a measure of the size of the different mineral
particles ñ the main size grades being sand, silt and clay. Silt
and clay are determined by sedimentation by immersing air-
dried soil in a column of distilled water, organic matter and
carbonate being removed first. Sand is determined by using
a stack of sieves that become finer towards the base. The
sieves are vibrated allowing the smallest particles to fall to
the bottom. The proportion of sand retained on each sieve is
then weighed.
The particle size-grades most commonly used by soil

scientists throughout the world are defined according to the
equivalent spherical diameter as follows: gravel 2 mm-2 cm,
coarse sand 0.5-2 mm, medium sand 0.2-0.5 mm, fine sand
0.2-0.05 mm, silt 0.05-0.002 mm, clay <0.002 mm.
The soil texture class can then be represented on a triangular

diagram as percentages of sand, silt and clay. For example,
a soil sample with 40% sand, 30% silt and 30% clay is
described as medium texture according to the FAO texture
triangle below, or a clay loam on a more detailed texture
triangle in use by national soil surveys.
124
Further reading Additional Information

This page contains references and web links to additional information on Etudes Agronomiques Mediterranéennes (CIHEAM). Paris, France. ISBN: 2-853552- Eidukeviciene, M. & V. Vasiliauskiene (eds). (2001) Soils of Lithuania: “Lietuvos mokslas”,
the soil resources of Europe. Some of these documents are in the language 261-X Book 32, 1244pp. (In Lithuanian, Summaries in English). ISBN 9986-795-11-7. ISSN
Zdruli, P. (2005). Soil Survey in Albania. In: Soil Resources of Europe: second edition. 1392-4044.
of the country and the research reports of the European Soil Bureau are
available at: http://eusoils.jrc.it/ ESB-RR9, p.39-45. Soils of Lithuania. (2000). Monograph. Vilnius, Lietuvos mokslas. Kn. 32. 1244.
AUSTRIA [Additional soil information at http://www.bodeninfo.net] Lithuanian, Summary - English.
EUROPEAN SOIL BUREAU RESEARCH REPORTS
Blum, W.E.H., Englisch, M. Freudenschuß, A., Nelhiebel, P., Pock, H., Schneider, W., LUXEMBOURG
No.1 European Land Information Systems for Agro-environmental Monitoring. D. King,
Schwarz, S., Wagner, J. & Wandl, M. (2005). Soil Survey and Soil Data in Austria. ESB- Soil information for Luxembourg at http://www.environnement.public.lu/
R.J.A. Jones & A.J. Thomasson (eds). EUR 16232 EN, 284pp. (1995). Office for the
RR9, p.47-61. MACEDONIA (Republic of)
Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg.
Raschauer, B. (2003). Bodenschutzkompetenzen im Österreichischen Rechtssystem. Mitt. Filpovski, G. (1995, 1996, 1997, 1999, 2001). Soils of the Republic of Macedonia, vol. I,
No.2 Soil Databases to support sustainable development. C. Le Bas & M. Jamagne (eds).
d. österr. Bodenkundl. Ges. Heft 66.Blum W.E.H. (2004). Die Entwicklung der II, III IV & V, Macedonian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Skopje.
EUR 16371 EN, 149pp. (1996). Office for Official Publications of the European
Bodenkunde in Österreich in Wissenschaft und Praxis. Mittlg. d. Österr. Bodenkundl.
Communities, Luxembourg. Mitkova, T. & Mitrikeski, J. (2005). Soils of the Republic of Macedonia: Present Situation
Ges., 71, 215-219, Wien.
No.3 The use of pedotransfer in soil hydrology research in Europe. A. Bruand, O. Duval, and Future Prospects. ESB-RR9, p.225-234.
BELGIUM
H.Wösten & A. Lilly (eds). EUR 17307 EN, 211pp. (1997). Office for Official MALTA [Additional soil information at http://mrae.gov.mt/]
Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg. Tavernier, R. & Maréchal, R., (1962). Soil survey and soil classification in Belgium,
Transactions International Soil Conference, New Zea-land, p. 3-11. Lang D.M. (1960). Soils of Malta and Gozo, Colonial Office Colonial Research Studies
No.4 Land Information Systems: Developments for planning the sustainable use of land report No. 29, HMSO, London.
resources. H.J. Heineke, W. Eckelmann, A.J. Thomasson, R.J.A. Jones, L. Montanarella Dudal, R., Deckers, J., Van Orshoven, J.& Van Ranst, E. (2005). Soil Survey in Belgium and
its Applications. ESB-RR9, p.63-71. Vella J. S. Soil Survey and Soil Mapping in the Maltese Islands: the 2003 Position. ESB-
& B. Buckley (eds). EUR 17729 EN, 546pp. (1998). Office for Official Publications of
RR9, p.235-244.
the European Communities, Luxembourg. Van Ranst, E.& Sys, C. (2000). Eénduidige legende van de digitale bodemkaart van
Vlaanderen (schaal 1:20.000), VLM, Brussel (België) op CD-Rom, 269 pp. NETHERLANDS [Additional soil information at http://www.bodemdata.nl.]
No.5 Georeferenced Soil Database for Europe: Manual of Procedures Version 1.0.
European Soil Bureau, Scientific Committee. EUR 18092 EN, 184pp. (1998). Office BOSNIA HERZEGOVINA Steur, G.G.L. en Heijink, W., 1991. Bodemkaart van Nederland, Schaal 1:50.000.
for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg. Algemene begrippen en indelingen. Wageningen, Staring Centrum, 65 pp.
H. Custovic (2005). An overview of general Land and Soil Water Conditions in Bosnia
-- Database Georeferenziato dei Suoli Europei, Manuale delle Procedure Versione 1.1. and Herzegovina. ESB-RR9, p.73-82. Steur, G.G.L., Vries, F. de en Wallenburg, C. van., 1985. Bodemkaart van Nederland,
Edito dal Comitato Scientifico dell’European Soil Bureau, Versione italiano a cura di Schaal 1:250.000. Beknopte beschrijving van de kaarteenheden. Wageningen,
BULGARIA Stichting voor Bodemkartering, 52 pp.
Edoardo A.C. Costantini. EUR 18092 IT, 170pp. (1999). Office for Official Publications
of the European Communities, Luxembourg. Koinov, V. and Tanov, E. (1956). Soil Map of Bulgaria at scale 1:200,000. GUGK, Sofia, Van der Pouw, B.J.A. & Finke, P.A. (2005). Development and Perspective of Soil Survey in
Bulgaria. the Netherlands. ESB-RR9, p.245-255.
-- Una Base de Datos de Suelos Georeferenciada para Europa, Manual de
Procedimientos Version 1.1. Editado por el Comité Científico del Buró Europeo de Koinov, V. (Ed.) (1973). Soil Map of Bulgaria. In: A. Beshkov (Ed.), Atlas of Bulgaria. BAN, NORWAY [Additional soil information at http://jord.nijos.no]
Suelos, edición en Castellano. EUR 18092 ES, 206pp. (1999). Office for Official GUGK, Sofia, Bulgaria.
Arnoldussen, A.H. (2005). Soil Survey in Norway. ESB-RR9, p.257-262.
Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg. Kolchakov, I., Rousseva, S., Georgiev, B. & Stoychev, D. (2005). Soil Survey and Soil
Mapping in Bulgaria. ESB-RR9, p.83-87. POLAND
-- Base de données géoréférencée des sols pour l’Europe, Manuel de Procédures
Version. 1.1. Edité par le Bureau Europeen des Sols. Version française de J.J. Lambert. CROATIA Bialousz, S. (1994). Soil Map of Poland 1:1500,000, Genetic Classification. Atlas of
EUR 18092 FR, 174pp. (2001). Office for Official Publications of the European Poland, PPWK Warszawa
Basic, F. (2005). Soil Resources of Croatia. EEB-RR9, p.89-96.
Communities, Luxembourg. Bialousz, S. J., Marcinek, Stuczynski, T. & Turski, R. (2005). Soil Survey, Soil Monitoring
Bogunovic, M., Vidacek, Z., Husnjak, S. and Sraka, M. (1997). Namjenska pedoloska karta and Soil Databases in Poland. ESB-RR9, p.263-273.
No.6 Soil Resources of Europe. P. Bullock, R.J.A. Jones & L. Montanarella (eds). EUR
Republike Hrvatske i njena uporaba, Agronom-ski glasnik, 5-6, Zagreb.
18991 EN, 202pp. (1999). Office for Official Publications of the European PORTUGAL [Additional soil information at http://www.mcalhdr.gov.pt]
Communities, Luxembourg. CYPRUS [Additional soil information can be found at http://www.ari.gov.cy/]
Cardoso, J. Carvalho (1965). Os Solos de Portugal. I. A Sul do Rio Tejo. Direcção Geral
No.7 Soil Classification 2001. Erika Micheli, Freddy O. Nachtergaele, Robert J.A. Jones & Hadjiparaskevas, C. (2005). Soil Survey and Monitoring in Cyprus. ESB-RR9, p.97-101. dos Serviços Agrícolas, Lisboa. 310 pp.
Luca Montanarella. EUR 20398 EN, 248pp. (2002). Office for Official Publications of CZECH REPUBLIC [Additional soil information at http://www.af.czu.cz/] Cardoso, J. Carvalho, Teixeira Bessa, M & Marado, M.O.B. (1973). Carta dos Solos de
the European Communities, Luxembourg.
Nemecek, J. et al. (1967). Handbook of the large-scale mapping of agricultural soils in Portugal (1: 1,000,000). Agronomia Lusitana, Vol. XXXIII, Tomos I-IV, Oeiras, 481-602.
No.8 Soil Geographical Database for Eurasia & The Mediterranean: Instructions Guide Czechoslovakia. Vol 1. Ministerstvo zemedelství a vyzivy, 246pp. Gonçalves, M.C. Reis, L.C.L. & Pereira, M.V. (2005). Progress of Soil Survey in Portugal.
for Elaboration at scale 1:1,000,000. Version 4.0. J.J. Lambert, J. Daroussin, M.
Nemecek, J. and Tomásek, M. (1983). Geography of soils of the Czech Republic. In: ESB-RR9, p.275-279.
Eimberck, C. Le Bas, M. Jamagne, D. King & L. Montanarella. EUR 20422 EN, 64pp.
Academia, Studie CSAV, 100pp. ROMANIA
(2003). Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg.
Nemecek, J. & Kozák, J. (2005). Status of Soil Surveys, Inventory and Soil Monitoring in Murgoci-Munteanu Gh. (1911). Zonele naturale de soluri din Romania. An. Inst.
No.9 Soil Resources of Europe: second edition. R.J.A. Jones, B. Houskova, L. Montanarella
the Czech Republic. ESB-RR9, p.103-109. Geol.Rom. vol IV (1910) fascic. 1.
& P. Bullock, (eds). EUR 20559 EN,. (2004). Office for Official Publications of the
European Communities, Luxembourg. DENMARK Munteanu I., Gastescu P., Olteanu M., Coldea Gh. & Vajdea V. (1994b). Harta
No.16 Pan-European Soil Erosion Risk Assessment: The PESERA Map, Version 1 October Greve, M.H. & Breuning-Madsen, H. (2005). Soil Mapping in Denmark. ESB-RR9, p.111- Ecoregiunilor Romaniei la sc. 1:1,000,000. Ecoregions map of Romania at the scale
2003. Explanation of Special Publication Ispra 2004 No.73 (S.P.I.04.73). M.J. Kirkby, 119. 1:1,000,000.
R.J.A. Jones, B., Irvine, A. Gobin, G. Govers, O. Cerdan, A.J.J. Van Rompaey, Y. Le Madsen, H. Breuning, Nørr, A.H. & Holst, K.Å. (1992): The Danish Soil Classification. Atlas Munteanu, I., Dumitru, M., Florea, N., Canarache, A., Lacatusu, R., Vlad, V., Simota, C.,
Bisson-nais, J. Daroussin, D. King, L. Montanarella, M. Grimm, V. Vieillefont, J. of Denmark I, 3. The Royal Danish Geo-graphical Society, C.A. Reitzel, Copenhagen, Ciobanu, C. & Rosu, C. (2005). Status of Soil Mapping, Monitoring, and Database
Puigdefabregas, M. Boer, C. Kosmas, N. Yassoglou, M. Tsara, S. Mantel, G.J. Van pp56. Compilation in Romania at the beginning of the 21st century. ESB-RR9, p.281-296.
Lynden & J Huting. EUR 21176 EN, 20pp. and 1 map in ISO B1 format. (2004). Office
for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg. ESTONIA SERBIA
No.17 The map of organic carbon in topsoils in Europe, Version 1.2 September 2003: Kõlli, R. & Lemetti, I. (1999). Eesti muldade lühiiseloomustus. I. Normaalsed Antonovic, M.G., Milivojevic, J., Miladinovic, M., Sevarlic, M., Ljesevic, M., Protic, N.,
Explanation of Special Publication Ispra 2004 No.72 (S.P.I.04.72). R.J.A. Jones, R. mineraalmullad. ISBN 9985–882–42–3. Eesti Põllumajandusülikool, Tartu, 122 lk. Djorovic, M., Radojevic, R., Stojanovic, S., Rudic, D., Spasov, P., Andric, S. and Kuburic,
Hiederer, E. Rusco, P.J. Loveland, & L. Montanarella. EUR 21209 EN, 26pp. and 1 map Reintam, L. & Kokk, R. 1995. Mullastik. Rmt.: Raukas, A. (toimetaja). Eesti. Loodus, lk. J. (1997). Metodologija za izradu Osnova zastite, koriscenja i uredjenja
in ISO B1 for-mat. (2004). Office for Official Publications of the European 418–439; 566–567; 593–595. ISBN 5–440–01355–5. Valgus, Eesti poljoprivrednog zemljista, Jugoslovenska autorska agencija, S-25/97, Beograd, p.1-
Communities, Luxembourg. Entsüklopeediakirjastus, Tallinn. 470.
EUROPE Reintam, L., Rooma, I. Kull, A. & Kõlli, R. (2005). Soil Information and Its Application in Protic, N., Martinovic, L., Milicic, B., Stevanovic, D. & Mojasevic, M. (2005). The Status of
Estonia. ESB-RR9, p.121-132. Soil Surveys in Serbia and Montenegro. ESB-RR9, p.297-315.
CEC 1985. Soil Map of the European Communities, 1:1,000,000. 124pp. and 7 maps.
Office for Official Publications of the European Com-munities, Luxembourg. FINLAND [Additional soil information at http://www.mtt.fi/] SLOVAKIA
EC (2002). Communication of 16 April 2002 from the Commission to the Council, the Sippola, J. & Yli-Halla, M. (2005). Status of Soil Mapping in Finland. ESB-RR9, p.133- Bielek, P., Curlík, J., Fulajtár, E., B. Housková, B., Ilavská, B. & Kobza, J. (2005). Soil Survey
European Parliament, the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the 138. and Managing of Soil Data in Slovakia. ESB-RR9, p.317-329.
Regions: Towards a Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection [COM (2002) 179 final]. Talkkari, A. and Nevalainen, R. (2003). Georeferenced 1:250,000 soil database for Landscape Atlas of the Slovak Republic. (2002). 1ST Edition. Bratislava: Ministry of
(At: http://europa.eu.int/scadplus/printversion/en//lvb/l28122.htm; last accessed: Finland-an approach based on multisource geological and soil data. In: 4th European Environment of the Slovak Republic. Banska Bystrica: Slovak Environmental Agency
11.11.2004). Congress on Regional Geoscientific Cartography and Information Systems: 2002, 344pp. ISBN 80-88833-27-2.
FAO-UNESCO (1974). FAO-UNESCO Soil Map of the World: Vol. 1, Legend. UNESCO, Geoscientific Information for Spatial Planning, Bologna, Italy, June 17th-20th 2003. Sály, R., Surina, B., 2002: Pôdy – Soils 1:500 000. In: Atlas krajiny Slovenskej republiky,
Paris. 276-279. kap. IV. MZP-SR Bratislava.
FAO-UNESCO-ISRIC. (1990). FAO-UNESCO Soil Map of the World: Revised Legend. FRANCE [Additional soil information at http://w3.inra.fr/] SLOVENIA [Additional soil information at http://www.bf.uni-lj.si/cpvo/;
World Soil Resources Report 60, 88pp. FAO, Rome. Bornand, M., Arrouays, D., Baize, D. and Jamagne, M. (1989). Méthodologie d’une http://wwww.gov.si/svo; http://www.arso.gov.si]
FAO (1998). World Reference Base for Soil Resources. World Soils Report No.84, 88pp. cartographie régionale des sols à l'échelle du 1:250,000. Science du Sol. 27(1), 17- Vidic, N. J., Vrscaj, B., Lobnik, F., Prus, T. & Zupan, M. (1998). Genesis of Slovenian - Soils
Rome. 20. Géneses des sols de Slovénie. V: 16e Congress Mondial de Science du Sol, France
FAO/EC/ISRIC (2000). World Soil Resources Map, Jamagne, M., Hardy, R., King, D. and Bornand, M. (1995). La base de données Montpellier, 20-26.8.1998 : Actes : Proceedings. [S.l.: s.n.], 1998, p.1-7.
Hodgson, J.M. (Ed.) (1991). Soil Survey – a basis for European soil protection. Soil and géographique des sols de France. Etude et Gestion des Sols. 2(3), 153-172. Vrscaj, B., Prus, T. & Lobnik, F. (2005). Soil Information and Soil Data Use in Slovenia.
Groundwater Report 1. EUR 13340 EN, 214pp. Office for Official Publications of the King, D., Jamagne, M., Arrouays, A., Bornand, M., Favrot, J.-C., Hardy, R., Le Bas, C. and ESB-RR9, p.331-344.
European Communities, Luxembourg. Stengel, P. (1999). Inventaire cartographique et surveillance des sols en France. Etude Vrscaj, B. & Lobnik, F. (1999). Establishment of Digital Soil Map of Slovenia in the scale
Jones, R.J.A. & Biagi, B. (eds) (1989). Agriculture: Computerization of land use data. EUR et Gestion des Sols, 6(4), 215-228. 1:25.000. Zb. Bioteh. fak. Univ. Ljubl., Kmet. (1990), 1999, 73 (Issue 2), p. 287-300.
11151 EN, 156pp. Office for Official Publica-tions of the European Communities, King, D. Stengel, P., Jamagne, M., Le Bas, C. & Arrouays. D. (2005). Soil Mapping and Soil SPAIN
Luxembourg. Monitoring: State of Progress and Use in France. ESB-RR9, p.139-146. CSIC. 1968. Mapa de suelos de España. E. 1:1.000.000. Península y Baleares. Instituto
Jones, R.J.A., Spoor, G. & Thomasson, A.J. (2003). Assessing the vulnerability of subsoils GERMANY [Additional soil information at http://www.bgr.de/saf_boden/] Nacional de Edafología y Agrobiología. Madrid. 117pp.
in Europe to compaction: a preliminary analysis. Soil & Tillage Research 73, 131-143. Eckelmann, W. (2005). Soil Information for Germany: the 2004 Position. ESB-RR9, Ibáñez, J.J., Sánchez Díaz, J., de Alba, S., López Árias, M. & Boixadera J. (2005). Collection
King, D., Daroussin, J. & Tavernier, R. 1994. Development of a soil geographical database p.147-157. of Soil Information in Spain: A review in 2003. ESB-RR9, p.345-356.
from the soil map of the European Communities. Catena, 21, 37-56. Hartwich, R., Behrens, J., Eckelmann, W., Haase, G., Richter, A., Roeschmann, G. & Porta, J., Alcañiz, J., Castells, E., Cruañas, R., Danés, R., Felipó, M.T., Sánchez, J. & Teixidor,
Madsen, H. Breuning & Jones, R.J.A. (1995). Soil Profile Analytical Database for the Schmidt, R. (1995): Bodenübersichtskarte der Bundesrepublik Deutschland N. (1987). Introducció al coneixement dels sòls dels Països Catalans. Fundació
European Union. Danish Journal of Geography (Ge-ografisk Tidesskrift), 95: 49-57. 1:1.000.000 (BÜK1000). - Erläuterungen und Textlegende (Beiheft zur Karte). - Enciclopèdia Catalana, AEAC. Barcelona. 170 pp.
Montanarella, L., Jones, R.J.A., Grimm, M., Hollis, J.M., Jones, A.R. & Daroussin, J. (2001). Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe, Hannover. SWEDEN [Additional soil information at http://www.sml.slu.se/]
Soil Map for Europe: Soil classification ac-cording to the World Reference Base for Heinecke, H.J., Eckelmann, W., Thomasson, A.J., Jones, R.J.A., Montanarella, L. & Buckley, Olsson, M. (2005). Soil Survey in Sweden. ESB-RR9, p.357-363.
Soil Resources, large format map (1065mm x 965mm) scale 1:4,500,000. DG-JRC, B. (eds). (1998): EUR 17729 EN, 564 pp.;
European Commission. Rasmussen, K., Sippola, J., Låg. L., Troredsson, T. & Wiberg, M. (1991). Soil map of
GREECE [Additional soil information at http://webspace.bee.gr/org/nagref/] Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden, scale 1:2,000,000. Landbruksforlaget, Oslo.
Montanarella L. (2001). The European Soil Information System (EUSIS). In: Theocharopoulos, S.P., Papadopulos, N.Th. & Papademos, G. (1992). Management soil
Desertification Convention: data and Information Require-ments for Troedsson, T. & Wiberg, M. (1986). Soil map of Sweden. The Royal Swedish Academy of
database (SOILDB). Agr. Research 16, 1-12 (Grk). Agriculture and Forestry, Stockholm.
Interdisciplinary Research, G. Enne, D. Peter, D. Pottier (eds), EUR 19496 EN.
Yassoglou, N. (2005). Soil Survey in Greece. ESB-RR9, p.159-168. SWITZERLAND
Soil Survey Staff. (1999). Soil Taxonomy: A basic system of soil classification for making
and interpreting soil surveys. Second Edition. USDA-NRCS, Agriculture Handbook HUNGARY Bonnard, L-F. (2005). Soil Survey in Switzerland. ESB-RR9, p.365-370.
No. 436, 869pp. Washington DC. Várallyay, G. (2005). Soil Survey and Soil Monitoring in Hungary. ESB-RR9, p.169-179. Frei, E., Juhasz, P., & Bach, R. (1966). Bodenkarte der Schweiz 1:1,000,000.
Stolbovoi V., L. Montanarella, V. Medvedev, N. Smeyan, L. Shishov, V. Unguryan, G. Varallyay, G., Szabo, J., Pasztor, L., Micheli, E. (1994). SOTER Soil and Terrain Digital Erläuterungen zur Karte und zur Systematik der Böden der Schweiz. Schweiz. landw.
Dobrovol’skii, M. Jamagne, D. king, V. Rozhkov, I. Savin. (2001). Integration of Data Database) 1:500 000 and its application in Hungary. Agrokemia es Talajtan 43. (1-2) Forschung V, 3/4, 537-551.
on the Soils of Russia, Belarus, Moldova and Ukraine into the Soil Geographic 87-108. TURKEY
Database of the European Community. Eurasian Soil Science, Vol. 34, No. 7, 2001, ICELAND
p.687-703. Dinç, U., Senol, S., Cangir, C., Dinç, A. O., Akça, E., Dingil, M., Oztekin, E., Kapur, B. &
Arnalds, O. (2005). Soil Survey and Databases in Iceland. ESB-RR9, p.181-186. Kapur, S. (2005). Soil Survey and Soil Database of Turkey. ESB-RR9, p.371-375.
UNEP-ISSS-ISRIC-FAO. (1995) Global and National Soils and Terrain Digital Databases
(SOTER) Procedures Manual. World Soil Re-sources Report No. 74. FAO, Rome. Nygard, I.J., & Johannesson, B. (1959). Soil map of Iceland. University Research Institute, Dinç, U, Kapur, S., Akça, E., Özden, M.,Senol, S., Dingil, M., Öztekin, E., Kczclarslanoglu,
Reykjavik, Iceland. Printed by the U.S. Geological Survey. H.A. & Keskin, S. (2001). History and Status of Soil Survey Programmes in Turkey and
Van Lanen, H.A.J. & Bregt, A.K. (eds.) (1989). Application of computerized EC Soil Map and Suggestions on land Management. In: P. Zdruli, P. Steduto, C. Lacirignola, L.
climate data. Proceedings of a workshop in the Community programme for co- IRELAND [Additional soil information at http://www.teagasc.ie/index.html]
Montanarella. Soil resources of Southern and Eastern Mediterranean Countries.
ordination of agricultural research, 15-16 November 1988, Wageningen. EUR 12039 Gardiner, M.J. and Radford, T. 1980a. Ireland: General Soil Map. 2nd Edition. Teagasc, Options Mediterraneennes, Serie B. n. 34, 263-273.
EN. Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg. 254 pp. Dublin, Ireland.
UNITED KINGDOM
Lee, J. & Coulter, B. (2005). Application of Soils Data to Land Use and Environmental
Problems in Ireland. ESB-RR9, p.187-191. Cruikshank, J.G. (1997). Soil and Environment: Northern Ireland. DANI & Queen’s
Full citation for papers on soils in the Member States, Candidate and Neighbouring University, Belfast, UK, 214pp.
Countries in European Soil Bureau Research Report No.9 is: In: Soil Resources of ITALY
Europe: second edition. R.J.A. Jones, B. Houskova, P. Bullock, & L. Montanarella (eds). Soil Survey Staff (1983). The National Soil Map of England and Wales, 1:250,000 scale
Costantini, E.A.C., Jardin, L.& Pagliai, M. (1999). Advances in Soil Survey, Monitoring and (in six sheets) and Legend. Ordnance Survey (Crown Copyright), Southampton, UK.
European Soil Bureau Research Report No.9, EUR 20559 EN, p…... Office for Official Applications in Italy. ESB-RR6, p.103-109.
Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg. Soil Survey Staff (1984). Organization and Methods of the 1:250,000 Soil Survey of
Filippi, N. & Italian Regional Soil Services. (2005). Soil Mapping and Soil Monitoring: Scotland. Handbook 8. Macaulay Institute for Soil Research, Aberdeen, UK, 81pp.
In the country list below this publication is referred to as ESB RR9, followed by page State of Progress and Use in Italy. ESB-RR9, p.193-200.
numbers of the specific article. These reports and additional soil information can be Thompson, T.R.E., Bradley, R.I., Hollis, J.M., Bellamy, P.H. & Dufour, M.J.D. (2005). Soil
found on the web site: http://eusoils.jrc.it/ (last accessed 01/08/2005) Rusco, E., Filippi, N., Marchetti, M. and Montanarella, L. (2003). Carta Ecopedologica Information and its Application in the United Kingdom: An Update. ESB-RR9, p.377-
d’Italia, scala 1:250.000. Relazione divulgativa. IES, CCR, CE, EUR 20774 IT, 2003, 393.
ALBANIA 45pp.
Zdruli, P., Lushaj, Sh., Pezzuto, A., Fanelli, D., D’Amico, O., Filomeno, O., De Santis, S., LATVIA [Additional soil information at http://www.llu.lv/]
Todorovic, M., Nerilli, E., Dedaj, K. and Seferi, B. (2003). Preparing a georeferenced soil Web sites on this page last accessed May 2005.
database for Albania at scale 1:250,000 using the European Soil Bureau Manual of Karklins, A. (2005). Soil information in Latvia. ESB-RR9, p.201-209.
Procedures 1.1. In: OPTIONS Méditerranéennes. SERIE A: Mediterranean Seminars, LITHUANIA
Volume A 54. Zdruli, P., Steduto, P. & Kapur, S. (eds). Centre International de Hautes Buivydaite, V.V. (2005). Soil Survey and Available Soil Data in Lithuania. ESB-RR9, p.211-223.
125
or from the reprecipitation of the products of decomposition of a primary mineral.
Glossary of soil terms grey colours stemming from the reduction, under anaerobic conditions, of ferric iron
to the ferrous state. silt: Soil particles between 0.002 mm and 0.05 mm (in some countries 0.06 mm is the
ground water: That portion of the water below the surface of the ground at a pressure upper size limit), with high or medium-high specific area influencing stability of soil
absorption: Uptake of matter or energy by a substance
equal to, or greater than, that of the atmosphere. See also water table. structure; also used as a texture class name for medium and medium-fine soil
acid soil: Soil with a pH value less than 7.0. materials.
gully: Channel resulting from erosion and caused by the concentrated but
acidification: Process whereby soil becomes acid (pH < 7) because acid parent intermittent flow of water during and immediately following heavy rainfall; gullies are sodic soil: Soil with excess of sodium, pH is higher than 7, usually in the range 8 - 10,
material is present or in regions with high rainfall, where soil leaching occurs. deep enough (usually >0.5 m) to interfere with, but not obliterated by, normal tillage exchangeable sodium percentage, ESP> 15 and very poor soil structure. These soils
Acidification can be accelerated by human activities (use of fertilisers, deposition of operations. need special management and are not used for agriculture; non-sodic soils are
industrial and vehicular pollutants). without excess of sodium.
horizon: Single layer in soil profile with similar properties or material but which differs
adsorption: Process by which atoms, molecules or ions are retained on the surfaces of at least in one property, e.g. colour or texture from adjacent horizons above or below soil biology: A scientific discipline dealing with living components of soils, which are
solids by chemical or physical bonding. in the profile; diagnostic horizon: Dominant soil property or material defines name of represented mainly by bacteria, fungi, protozoa, nematodes, arthropods and
aeration of soil: Amount of air-filled pores in the soil, expressed as the volume horizon, e.g. gypsic horizon having distinct calcium sulfate (gypsum: CaSO4) earthworms as well as by mammals.
difference between total porosity and actual soil moisture. Optimum soil aeration is enrichment; genetic horizon depending on the type of pedogenesis. soil chemistry: A scientific discipline dealing with chemical properties of soils and
30% but strongly depends on the structure and packing state of soil particles; 15–20% humification: Process whereby the carbon of organic residues is transformed and studies on the influence of fertilizers, pesticides and the other chemical substances
is normally satisfactory for the growth of grasses and cereals; below 10% is not good converted to humic substances through biochemical and abiotic processes. applied on or into the soil on soil behaviour and fertility.
for plant growth.
humus: Organic compounds in soil, exclusive of undecayed plant and animal tissues, soil classification: Also termed soil taxonomy, is the scientific discipline dealing with
aggregate: Soil aggregate consisting of two or more soil particles bound together by their partial decomposition products, and the soil biomass; a term often used grouping of soils into soil morphological units or soil types, according to similar or
various forces. synonymously with soil organic matter, its structure is amorphous, specific weight is comparable soil forming properties. Many countries in the world have national soil
aggregation: Process whereby primary soil particles (sand, silt, clay) are bound low and surface area high. Humus is important for soil fertility, and helps to bind soil classification systems but those of FAO, WRB and USDA are used internationally. For
together, usually by natural forces and substances derived from root exudates and particles and aggregates together. transnational comparisons, an international soil classification system, into which the
microbial activity. Soil aggregates are arranged to form soil peds, units of soil majority of national systems can be translated, is needed. In future, this will be the
hydromorphic soils: Formed under conditions of poor drainage in marshes, swamps, WRB.
structure, classified by size, shape (platy, prismatic, columnar, angular, subangular, seepage areas or flats.
blocky, granular…) and grade (single-grain, massive, weak, moderate, strong). From an soil colour: soil colour is one of the indicators of soil status and depends on many
agronomical point of view, the most important soil aggregates are in range 3 – 1 mm. ion: Electrically charged atom or group of atoms. factors, mainly on the amount and state of organic matter and iron oxide, as well as
anion: Particle with a negative charge. See also ion, cation. karst: Topography with sinkholes, caves and underground drainage that is formed in amount of air and water in soil pores; In general, dark soils have high organic matter
limestone, gypsum or other rocks by dissolution (dissolving). content, grey soils are waterlogged or anaerobic, brown soils are well-drained and
anion exchange capacity: Sum of exchangeable anions that a soil can adsorb. Usually aerated soils. Soil colour is measured using Munsell Soil Color charts.
expressed as centimoles, or millimoles, of charge per kilogram of soil (or of other landslide: A general term for a mass movement landform and a process characterized
adsorbing material such as clay). by moderately rapid to rapid (greater than 30 cm per year) downslope transport by soil compaction: changing the nature of the soil such that there is a decrease in the
means of gravitational stresses, of a mass of rock and regolith that may or may not be volume of voids between soil particles or aggregates; it is manifest as an increase in
arable land: Agricultural land that is cultivated by ploughing, usually to 20 or 30 cm water saturated. bulk density and a severely compacted soil can become effectively impermeable. Some
depth. More than 30 cm represents deep ploughing. soils are naturally compacted, e.g. very heavy textured soils (fine textured). Man-made
leaching: Removal of soluble materials from one zone in soil to another via water
Black Earth: Term synonymous with Chernozem used (e.g. in Australia) to describe compaction is caused by the passage of heavy machinery and very intensive soil
movement in the profile.
self-mulching black clays. exploitation.
loess: Material transported and deposited by wind and consisting of predominantly
bog: Wetland that has no significant inflows or outflows, supports acidophilic mosses, soil cracks: Openings in horizontal (mm or several cm) and vertical (cm or several m)
silt-sized particles, forming important fertile soils.
particularly Sphagnum and in which peat is accumulating. Similar to: fen, marsh, orientation, mainly affecting soil hydraulic properties, arising from swelling and
pocosin, swamp, and wetland. map scale: Relationship between a certain distance on the map and the corresponding shrinking processes. Heavy clay soils are more susceptible to cracks formation than
distance on the ground (e.g. 1:10,000, which means 1 cm on the map equals to loamy soils whereas in sandy soils cracks do not form or they are very small and
boulder clay: Unstratified glacial deposits laid down directly beneath the ice or 10,000 cm or 100 m on the ground); the scale is usually located in the legend box of a map. unstable. Soil cultivation destroys crack system, mainly by tillage.
dropped from the surface as the ice melted; boulder clay and till are synonymous
terms for this unsorted material which ranges from rock flour to rocks and boulders marsh: A transition zone between water and land usually covered by grass. soil degradation: Negative process often accelerated by human activities (improper
of great size, according to the nature of the bedrock mass movement: Dislodgement and downslope transport of soil and rock material as soil use and cultivation practices, building areas) that leads to deterioration of soil
a unit under direct gravitational stress; includes slow displacements, such as creep and properties and functions or destruction of soil as a whole, e.g. compaction, erosion,
calcification: Process whereby the soil is kept sufficiently supplied with calcium to
solifluction, and rapid movements such as landslides, rock slides, earthflows, debris salinisation.
saturate the soil cation exchange sites.
flows and avalanches; water, ice and to a lesser extent air usually play an important soil depth: depth of soil profile from the top to parent material or bedrock or to the
capillary water: Water in capillary pores influenced by forces that hold water in soils role in the process. layer of obstacles for roots. It differs significantly for different soil types. It is one of
against a tension usually greater than 60cm. Capillary water can move upwards
moderately-fine textured: Texture group consisting of clay loam, sandy clay loam and basic criterions used in soil classification. Soils can be very shallow (less than 25 cm),
against gravity.
silty clay loam textures; see also soil texture. shallow (25 cm-50 cm), moderately deep (50 cm-90 cm), deep (90cm-150 cm) and
carbon cycle: Sequence of transformations whereby carbon dioxide is converted to very deep (more than 150 cm).
organic forms by photosynthesis or chemosynthesis, recycled through the biosphere monolith: Representative vertical section taken from vertical face of a soil profile pit
or section, which represents arrangement of soil horizons; there are various methods soil fertility: A measure of the ability of soil to provide plants with sufficient amount
(with partial incorporation into sediments), and ultimately returned to its original
of how to take and conserve soil monoliths. of nutrients and water, and a suitable medium for root development to assure proper
state through respiration or combustion.
plant growth and maturity.
cation: Particle with positive charge; reactions between anions and cations create Munsell Color System: Colour designation system that specifies the relative degrees
of the three simple variables of colour: hue (wavelength), value (degree of lightness or soil geography: Scientific discipline dealing with distribution of soil types in
electrical forces.
darkness), and chroma (purity or strength). For example: 10YR 6/4 is a colour (of soil) landscapes, describing this distribution according to geographical rules.
cation exchange: Interchange between a cation in solution and another cation in the with a hue = 10YR, value = 6, and chroma = 4. soil micro-organisms: Represented by protozoa, viruses, bacteria, fungi and algae. The
boundary layer between the solution and surface of negatively charged material such
organic soil material: Consists of organic debris that accumulates at the surface most prevalent are bacteria and fungi, and depending on conditions (water and
as clay or organic matter.
under either wet or dry conditions and in which any mineral component present does nutrients content, temperature, etc.) they can be in an active or non-active state.
clay: Soil particle smaller than 0.002mm or 2µm, with high specific area mainly not significantly affect the soil properties. Organic soil material must have organic According to nutrient (and oxygen) demand, micro-organisms are divided to
influencing soil colloidal properties (see also colloid) as well as stability of soil carbon (organic matter) contents as follows: (1) if saturated with water for long autotropic and heterotrophic, (aerobic and anaerobic) groups. Micro-organisms are a
structure: high stability in both wet and dry conditions; also a soil texture class. periods (unless artificially drained), and excluding live roots, either: 18 % organic good indicator of soil status and quality.
clay coating/film: Coatings of oriented clay on the surfaces of peds and mineral grains carbon (30 % organic matter) or more if the mineral fraction comprise 60 % or more soil monitoring: Repeated observation and measurement of selected soil properties
and lining pores, also called clay skins, clay flows, illuviation cutans, or argillans. clay; or 12 % organic carbon (20 % organic matter) or more if the mineral fraction and functions, mainly for studying changes in soil conditions.
clay loam: Soil texture class. See also soil texture. has no clay; or a proportional lower limit of organic carbon content between 12 and
soil morphology: Form and arrangement of pedological features.
18 % if the clay content of the mineral fraction is between 0 and 60 %; or (2) if never
clay minerals: Clay-sized hydrous aluminium silicates having a large interlayer space saturated with water for more than a few days, 20 % or more organic carbon. soil organic matter: The organic fraction of the soil exclusively comprising undecayed
that can hold significant amounts of water and other substances; they have large a plant and animal residues. See also humus.
surface area allowing swelling and shrinking; examples are montmorillonite or organic soil: A soil in which the sum of the thicknesses of layers comprising organic
soil materials is generally greater than the sum of the thicknesses of mineral layers. soil physics: Scientific discipline dealing with physical properties of soil (density,
smectite and kaolinite.
porosity, water retention and permeability, hydraulic conductivity etc.).
coating: Layer of a substance completely or partly covering a surface of soil material; parent material: Mineral or rock material on and/or from which soils are formed
during pedogenesis (soil formation process); parent material is one of the five major soil porosity: Volume of water and air that can be held in a soil; ratio of the volume
coatings can comprise clay, calcite, gypsum, iron, organic material, salt, etc.
soil forming factors. of voids to the total volume of the soil.
colloid: Particle, which may be a molecular aggregate, with a diameter of 0.1 to 0.001
pasture: Grassland used for grazing of mainly domestic herbivores. soil profile: Vertical section of soil horizons from upper layer to the parent material,
µm; clay and soil organic matter are often called soil colloids because they have
showing the arrangement (configuration) of soil horizons typical for single soil types
particle sizes that are within, or approach, colloidal dimensions. peat: Organic soil material with more than 50% of organic matter derived from plant
and used as a basis for soil classification.
colluvial: Pertaining to material or processes associated with transportation and/or residues with not fully destroyed structure. Peat forms in a wet soil environment or
below the water table where mineralisation of organic matter comes close to zero; a soil sorption: Selective process, which occurs on soil particles smaller than 0.002mm
deposition by mass movement (direct gravitational action) and local, unconcentrated
peat horizon or layer is normally more than 30cm thick. (<2µm); these small particles have colloidal properties, are able to hold and exchange
runoff on slopes and/or at the base of slopes.
ions, water or gases.
colluvium: Unconsolidated, unsorted colluvial material. peatland: A generic term for any wetland where partially decayed plant matter
accumulates; mire, moor and muskeg are terms used for peatlands in Europe and soil texture: Numerical proportion (% by wt.) of sand, silt and clay in a soil. Sand, silt
decalcification: Removal of calcium carbonate or calcium ions from the soil by Canada; see also bog and fen. and clay content are estimated in the field, and/or quantitatively in the laboratory,
leaching. and then placed within the texture triangle to determine soil texture class. Texture can
pedogenesis: Process of soil formation and development by soil forming factors:
diagnostic horizon: see horizon. be coarse (sand particles predominate), medium (silt particles predominate), or fine
climate (mainly temperature and precipitation), parent material, living organisms
(clay particles predominate).
electrical conductivity (EC): Conduction of electricity through water or a solution of (plants and biota), topography, time, water and Man.
soil, commonly used to estimate the soluble salt content in solution, e.g. soil solution. 2 stoniness: It is the relative proportion (vol %) of coarse particles (larger than 2 mm
pedon: A three-dimensional body of soil with lateral dimensions (1 to 10 m ) large diameter) in the soil or on soil surface; 15% stones is a high value and can hinder
erosion: The wearing away of the land surface by water, wind, ice, gravity or other enough to permit the study of horizon shapes and relations. cultivation and reduce water holding capacity.
natural or anthropogenic agents that abrade, detach and remove soil particles or rock
periglacial: Pertaining to processes, conditions, areas, climates and topographic surface soil: the layer of soil occurring on the surface, synonym topsoil.
material from one point on the earth's surface, for deposition elsewhere, including
features occurring at the immediate margins of glaciers and ice sheets and influenced
gravitational creep and so-called tillage erosion. swamp: Seasonally flooded low land. Similar to marsh, but with more woody plants
by cold temperature of the ice.
feldspar: Group of hard crystalline minerals that consist of aluminum silicates of and to bog but with better drainage.
permafrost: (i) permanently frozen subsurface material underlying the solum; (ii)
sodium or calcium or barium. swelling and shrinking: Two opposite processes of soil volume change. Swelling,
perennially frozen soil horizon where temperature remains below 0°C throughout the
fen: Flat and swampy land, usually low in altitude and similar to a bog or marsh. year and in which Cryosols form. increase of soil volume, shrinking, decrease of soil volume. These processes are
influenced by actual water content and presence of clay minerals, which are able to
fertilization: Application of mainly mineral compounds, in order to increase soil permanent grassland: Natural (mainly steppe areas) or agricultural soils with grass take or to lose water in their interlayer spaces. Difference in volume can range from
fertility. In some cases, (e.g. liming) the purpose of fertilization is also to improve cover not normally ploughed. 5% to more than 100% depending on quality and quantity of clay minerals.
specific soil properties (pH, stability of soil structure).
ploughing (tillage): mechanical cultivation of agricultural soils by the plough to tidal flats: Nearly flat areas, periodically covered by tidal (periodical) waters, not
field capacity: Field capacity has been defined as the soil moisture state when, 48 different depths (20 – 30cm) deep, creating arable land. suitable for agricultural use.
hours after saturation or heavy rain, all downward movement of water has ceased. It
pocosin: A bog formed in shallow depressions with poor drainage, supporting till: see boulder clay
is the water content retained at low suctions (5-33kPa) depending on soil type, and is
predominantly evergreen shrubs or small trees.
the upper limit of plant available water. tillage: see ploughing.
primary mineral: A mineral that has not been altered chemically since crystallization
fine texture: (i) A broad group of textures consisting of, or containing, large quantities topsoil: (i) The surface soil horizon (A) which is modified when cultivated, and
and deposition from molten lava. See also secondary mineral.
of fine fractions, particularly silt and clay. Includes sandy clay, silty clay, and clay designated Ap. See also surface soil. (ii) Fertile soil material used to topdress
texture classes. (ii) When used in reference to family particle-size classes in U.S. and protection of soil: Conscious process necessary for soil and soil properties preservation roadbanks, gardens, and lawns.
FAO soil taxonomy, is specifically defined as having 35 to 60 percent clay. See also soil realised at different levels (personal, local, national, continental) and using
information obtained by soil research. Sustainability is the result of this process. vadose water: Water in the vadose zone.
texture.
regolith: The unconsolidated mantle of weathered rock and soil material on the vadose zone: The aerated region of soil above the permanent water table.
fluvioglacial deposits: Material moved from the margins of glaciers and subsequently
sorted and deposited by streams flowing from the melting ice. Earth's surface, sometimes considered to be loose earth materials above solid rock. water retention: The ability of soil to hold water for a period that is longer than
root exudates: Substances released from plant root system in drops or small quantities infiltration, normally 48h in a freely draining soil. It strongly depends on organic
geomorphology: Science of landforms that studies the evolution of the Earth's
of carbohydrates, organic acids, vitamins and many other substances essential for life matter and bulk density. Soil texture also has an influence on water retention.
surface and interprets landforms as records of geological history.
of soil micro-organisms. water table: The upper surface of ground water or that level in the ground where the
gibbsite: Al(OH)3. Mineral with a platy structure, that occurs in highly weathered soils
saline soil: A non-sodic soil (see sodic soil) containing sufficient soluble salt to water is at atmospheric pressure.
and in laterite.
adversely affect the growth of most crop plants. The lower limit of electrical weathering: The breakdown and changes in rocks and sediments at or near the Earth's
glacial drift: Unstratified deposits laid down directly beneath the ice or dropped from conductivity in the saturation extract of such soils is conventionally set at 4 dS m-1(at surface produced by biological, chemical, and physical agents or combinations of
the surface as the ice melted. 25˚C), though sensitive plants are affected at about half this salinity and highly them.
glaciers: Large masses of ice that form by the compaction and recrystallization of tolerant ones at about twice this salinity. wetland: A transitional area between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems that is
snow under freezing conditions; glaciers often move downslope or outward in all saline-sodic soil: Salt-affected soils with a high exchangeable sodium percentage inundated or saturated with water for long enough periods to produce hydric soils and
directions because of the stress of their own weight; they may be stagnant or (ESP) greater than 15%, pH usually less than 8.5; in general these soils are not suitable support hydrophytic vegetation. See also bay, bog, fen, marsh, pocosin, swamp, and
retreating under warming conditions. for agriculture. tidal flats.
glaciofluvial deposits: Material moved by glaciers and subsequently sorted and sand: Soil particles between 0.05 mm and 2 mm (in some countries 0.06 mm is the wilting point: Soil moisture content when the rate of absorption of water by plant
deposited by streams flowing from the melting ice. The deposits are stratified and may lower size limit), with low specific area and also used as a texture class name for coarse roots is too slow to maintain plant turgidity and permanent wilting occurs. The
occur in the form of outwash plains, deltas, kames, eskers, and kame terraces. See also soil materials. Unlike clays, sandy soils do not shrink and swell on drying and wetting average moisture tension at the outside surface of the moisture film around soil
glacial drift and till. and, unless artificially compacted, are rapidly permeable. particles when permanent wilting occurs is 15 atmospheres or 1500kPa.
glaciolacustrine deposits: Material ranging from fine clay to sand derived from salt-affected soil: Soil that has been adversely affected by the presence of soluble
glaciers and deposited in glacial lakes by water originating mainly from the melting of salts, with or without high amounts of exchangeable sodium. See also saline soil,
glacial ice; many such deposits are bedded or laminated with varves. saline-sodic soil, and sodic soil.
gley soil: Soil formed under naturally wet or waterlogged conditions as evidenced by secondary mineral: A mineral resulting from the decomposition of a primary mineral
126
The Joint Research Centre
The mission of the JRC is to provide customer-driven scientific and technical support for the
conception, development, implementation and monitoring of EU policies.
As a service of the European Commission, the JRC functions as a reference centre of science and The Institute for Environment and Sustainability
technology for the Union. Close to the policy-making process, it serves the common interest of the Located in Ispra (Italy), the Institute for Environment and
Member States, while being independent of special interests, whether private or national. Sustainability (IES) is one of the institutes that constitute
the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission.
The JRC In line with the JRC mission, the aim of IES is to provide
scientific and technical support to European Union
Europe faces public concern about complex issues such as The Joint Research Centre is a research based policy strategies for the protection of the environment
food contamination, genetic modification, chemical support organisation and an integral part of the European contributing to a sustainable development.
hazards, global change, environment and health, and Commission. We are a Directorate General, providing the
nuclear safety. The Joint Research Centre (JRC) supports EU scientific advice and technical know-how to support EU IES works in close collaboration with official laboratories,
policy makers in the conception, development, policies. Our status as a Commission service, which research centres and industries of the EU's Member States,
implementation and monitoring of policies to tackle such guarantees our independence from private or national creating a bridge between the EU's policies and the
trans-national and global problems. In effect, the JRC is a interests, is crucial for pursuing our mission. European citizen.
research-based policy support organisation working for the
EU policy-maker. Our institutes carry out extensive research of direct concern The combination of complementary expertise in the fields of
to European citizens and industry. Over the years, the JRC experimental sciences, modelling, geomatics and remote
A research-based policy support organisation has developed special skills and unique tools to provide sensing puts the IES in a strong position to contribute to the
More than 25% of EU legislation has a technical or scientific autonomous and Europe-wide expertise to improve implementation of the European Research Area and to the
basis and this trend is likely to grow as increasingly policies understanding of the links between technology, the achievement of a sustainable environment.
cut across several disciplines. The JRC as the Commission's economy and society. Our activities range from the
in-house research based policy support centre works to assessment of safety standards for children’s toys and The mission of the Institute for Environment and
provide such support throughout the policy process, while improved biomaterials for hip implants to new technologies Sustainability is to provide scientific and technical
maintaining a strong science base. The JRC's Multi-Annual for recycling water and the use of satellite systems to support to EU policies for the protection of the
Workprogramme for the Sixth Framework Programme, monitor land use and deforestation. environment contributing to a sustainable development
adopted in March 2003, reflects this user emphasis while in Europe.
also allowing the development of new scientific Our work is split between institutional research in support
competence to meet emerging trends. of Commission policymaking, direct support for specific
Directorates-General (DGs) and competitive activities in Institute for Environment and Sustainability
Examples of JRC support include the following: strategic relationships with the scientific and business Joint Research Centre of the European Commission
Support to the new Chemicals policy, jointly led by the communities. Our guideline is that of ‘adding value’ where TP 263
Commission's Environment and Enterprise DGs. JRC is appropriate, rather than competing directly with Via Fermium
helping to develop the guidance documents, software tools establishments in the EU Member States. I 21020 Ispra (VA)
and infrastructure for REACH (Registration, Evaluation and
Authorisation of Chemicals). The JRC consists of seven different institutes, each with its
own focus of expertise, on five separate sites around Europe.
As the Community Reference Laboratory (CRL) for GMOs, The Institutional and Scientific relations provides co-
JRC provides support to implementing EU policy on GM ordination and serves as a link between the institutes and
food and feed. JRC is assisted in this task by the European the policymakers.
Network of GMO Laboratories.
With DG Environment, JRC has developed the European http://jrc.cec.eu.int/

Forest Fire Information System (EFFIS), a coherent fire
information system across Europe. A European flood
forecasting system is also under development.
Contributing to ERA
The JRC is contributing to the goals of the European Director: Manfred GRASSERBAUER
Research Area (ERA). This contribution is built around five http://ies.jrc.cec.eu.int/
major activities:
- common scientific reference systems,

- networking,
- training and mobility,
- access and use of research infrastructures,
- enlargement
These activities are embedded in the JRC's own

workprogramme and form the basis of JRC's ERA Action
Plan. The Action Plan sets a number of strategic goals for
the JRC, with particular focus on the JRC's role in the
European Research Area (ERA). Based upon this strategy the
Plan identifies a set of actions and targets to be undertaken
in order to position the JRC as a prominent research
organisation within the ERA. These actions and targets have
been defined to ensure an integrated and coherent
approach towards the ERA, and address the whole range of
the JRC’s work for period 2003 – 2006.
Supporting EU enlargement
The JRC supports Enlargement Action works to provide
support to the scientific and technical aspects underpinning
EU legislation in the fields of environment, health, food,
renewable energy, chemicals, agriculture and nuclear safety.
This work is aimed at accelerating uptake of the 'acquis

communautaire' the body of EU legislation which new
Member States must adopt and implement. JRC is actively
assisted in this Action, through National Contact Points,
scientific attachés, and participants from the JRC Board of
Governors from the new Member States.
Initiatives undertaken by JRC include programmes of

workshops and training courses, hosting scientists at JRC
sites and information events.
127
If you are interested in learning more about the soils of your M. Yli Halla Erika Micheli
country or other countries, this page lists the contact details Institute of Soils and Environment Szent Istvan University
Agricultural Research Centre Pater K.1.
of the European Soil Bureau Network. SF-31600 Jokioinen H - 2100 Godollo
FINLAND HUNGARY
Secretary: Luca Montanarella email: [email protected] email: [email protected]
European Commission
Joint Research Centre John Hollis Tatjana Mitkova
T.P. 280 National Soil Resources Institute University St. Ciril and Methodius - Skopje Faculty of Agriculture
I-21020 Ispra (VA) Cranfield University Department of Soil Science
ITALY UK - MK45 4DT Silsoe Bul. Alexander Makedonski
email: [email protected] UNITED KINGDOM MK-910 00 Skopje
email: [email protected] REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA
O. Arnalds email: [email protected]
Agricultural Research Institute RALA Sigbert Huber
Keldnaholti Umweltbundesamt GmbH Gerben Mol
IS-112 Reykjavik Alterra Green World Research
Spittelauer Lände 5
ICELAND Droevendaalsesteeg 3
A - 1090 Vienna
email: [email protected] NL - 6708 PB Wageningen
AUSTRIA
THE NETHERLANDS
email: [email protected]
Arnold Arnoldussen email: [email protected]
Norwegian Institute of Land Inventory Juan-Jose Ibanez
PB 115 Christian Muller
Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Ministry of Environment
N-1431 Ås Cientificas
NORWAY 18, Montée de la Pétrusse
Serrano 115 dpdo. L - 2918 Luxembourg
email: [email protected] E - 28010 Madrid LUXEMBOURG
SPAIN email: [email protected]
Ferdo Basic email: [email protected]
Faculty of Agriculture
Ioan Munteanu
Deptartment of General Agronomy Selim Kapur Research Institute for Soil Science and Agrochemistry
Svetosimunska c. 25 University of Cukurova Bd. Marasti 61
HR-10 000 Zagreb Department of Soil Science RO-71331 Bucharest 32
CROATIA TR - 01330 Adana ROMANIA
email: [email protected] TURKEY email: [email protected], [email protected]
Stanislaw Bialousz Jakob Nievergelt
Warsaw University of Technology Aldis Karklins Swiss Federal Research Station for Agroecology and Agriculture
Plac Politechniki 1 Latvia University of Agriculture Reckenholzstrasse 191, CH-8046 Zürich
PL - 00-661 Warsaw 2 Liela Street SWITZERLAND
POLAND LV - LV-3001 Jelgava email: [email protected]
email: [email protected] LATVIA
email: [email protected] Mats Olsson
Pavol Bielek Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences
Soil Science and Conservation Research Inst. Mark Kibblewhite Deptartment of Forest Soils
Gagarinova 10 National Soil Resources Institute Box 7001
SK-82713 Bratislava Cranfield University S-75007 Uppsala
SLOVAKIA UK - MK45 4DT Silsoe SWEDEN
email: [email protected] UNITED KINGDOM email: [email protected]
Winfried Blum Loit Reintam
University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences (BOKU) Dominique King Estonian Agricultural University
Gregor Mendel-Str. 33 Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique Viljandi Rd., Eerika
A-1180 Vienna EST - 51014 Tartu
Unite de Science du Sol
AUSTRIA ESTONIA
Av. Pomme de Pin BP 20619, Ardon
email: [email protected] email: [email protected]
F-45160 Olivet
FRANCE
Jaume Boixadera Husnija Resulovic
email: [email protected] Faculty of Agriculture
Generalitat Servei d'Agricultura DARP
Seccio d'Avaluacio de Recursos i Noves Tecnologies Institute for Soil Science and Land Reclamation
Nikola Kolev Dolina 6
Alcade Rovira Roure 177 Institute of Soil Science N. Poushkarov
E-25006 Lleida BA-71 000 Sarajevo
Shosse Bankya Str. 7 BOSNIA HERZEGOVINA
SPAIN BG-1080 Sofia email: [email protected]
email: [email protected] BULGARIA
email: [email protected] Sonya Sammut
Henrik Breuning-Madsen
Ministry for Rural Affairs and the Environment
Kobenhavns Universitet S. Kostadinov Ghammieri
Geografisk Institut Faculty of Forestry Belgrade Univ. M - MRS02 Marsa
Oster Volgade 10 Department of Soil Erosion Control MALTA
DK-1350 Kobenhavn Kneza Viseslava 1 email: [email protected]
DENMARK YO-11 030 Belgrade
email: [email protected] SERBIA & MONTENEGRO Vladimir Stolbovoy
email: [email protected] Department of Geography and Classification
Vanda Valerija Buivydaite Dokuchaev Soil Institute,
Soil Science and Agrochemistry Department Josef Kozak 109017 Pyzhevski 7, Moscow
Lithuanian University of Agriculture Czech University of Agriculture RUSSIA
Studentu St 11-22, Kamycka 129 email: [email protected]
LT-53361 Akademija, Kaunas R. CZ - 165 21 Prague
LITHUANIA CZECH REPUBLIC Jan J.H. Van den Akker
email: [email protected] email: [email protected] Alterra, Wageningen UR
P.O. Box 47
Raoul Dudal Christine Le Bas NL - 6700 AA Wageningen
Institute Land and Water Management Unite de Science du Sol, INFOSOL THE NETHERLANDS
Vital Decosterstraat 102 Av. Pomme de Pin BP 20619, Ardon email: [email protected]
B - 3000 Leuven F-45160 Olivet
BELGIUM FRANCE Eric Van Ranst
email: [email protected] email: [email protected] Ghent University
Krijgslaan 281 (S8)
Wolf Eckelmann B - 9000 Ghent
Sherif Lushaj
Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe BELGIUM
Soil Science Institute
Stilleweg 2 email: [email protected]
Instituti i Studimit të Tokave
D-30655 Hannover Tirana
GERMANY György Várallyay
ALBANIA
email: [email protected] Research Institute for Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry
e-mail: [email protected] Herman Ottó út 15.
Alexandra Freudenschuß H - H-1022 Budapest
John Lee HUNGARY
Umweltbundesamt GmbH Teagasc
Spittelauer Lände 5 email: [email protected]
Soils and Environment Centre
A - 1090 Vienna Johnstown Castle Henk Wösten
AUSTRIA Wexford Alterra, Wageningen UR
email: [email protected] IRELAND P.O. Box 47
email: [email protected] NL - 6700 AA Wageningen
Maria da Conceição Gonçalves THE NETHERLANDS
Estação Agronómica Nacional Franc Lobnik email: [email protected]
Departamento de Ciência do Solo University of Ljubljana
Av. República 2784 Jamnikarjeva 101 Nicholas Yassoglou
P - 505 Oeiras SLO - 1000 Ljubljana National Agricultural Reseach Foundation
PORTUGAL SLOVENIA Agricultural University of Athens
email: [email protected] email: [email protected] 20 Vrilision
GR-15236 Old Penteli
C. Hadjiparaskevas Donatello Magaldi GREECE
Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources & Environment Universitá di L'Aquila email: [email protected]
Deptartment of Agriculture Piazzale Pontieri,1
3 Rafina I - 67040 L'Aquila Pandi Zdruli
Cy-2039 Strovolos ITALY CIHEAM-IAMB
CYPRUS email: [email protected] Via Ceglie 9
email: [email protected] I - 70010 Valenzano (BA)
ITALY
128

Soil Atlas of Europe I

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Soil Atlas of Europe I

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Soil Atlas of Europe I

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

JRC Soils Atlas 3/8/05 2:57 pm Page 1

European Soils Bureau Network

The citation for this document is:

© European Communities, 2005

Catalogue Number LB-37-01-744-EN-C

All Rights Reserved

Printed in Belgium and Italy.

Cover: The different colours on the map correspond to the

Soil Data: European Soil Bureau Network. For additional

Maps produced by the Soil and Waste Unit, Institute for

Final design and graphical support by Lovell Johns Limited,

Every effort has been made to trace copyright holders.

Authors and Contributors 3

Preface and Foreward 7

Scope of the Atlas 9

The role and importance of soil 12

Soil forming processes 14

The soil in your garden 18

Soil and agriculture 20

Soil and cultural heritage 21

Soil as a source of raw material 23

The soil of Europe 24

The major soil types of Europe 28

Soil maps of Europe 38

The soil of Europe 42

Index of regional maps 44

European soil: a global perspective 80

Soil of the Mediterranean Region 86

A Soil Database of Europe 96

Geographical Information Systems 97

Soil Geographical Databases of Europe 98

Soil properties maps 100

Using the soil database 102

European Soil Bureau Network 104

European Soil Information System 105

Nested soil data 106

Key threats to soil in Europe 108

Soil sealing 110

Loss of organic matter 112

Decline in biodiversity 113

Hydro-geological risks 116

Protecting soil in the European Union 118

The way forward 119

Additional Information 120

Supporting maps 121

Further reading 125

Glossary of soil terms 126

The Joint Research Centre 127

ESB Network 128

PREFACE FOREWORD INTRODUCTION FROM CHAIR OF EUROPEAN

Professor Mark Kibblewhite

1. COM 179 (2002) see http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/soil/index.htm

Simply put, without soil, the Earth and society as we know

In order to perform its many functions, soil condition must

The famous scientist, Gallileo said, "What greater stupidity

Soil should be regarded as a material that has chemical composition,

Unfortunately, the careful use and management of soil has

For this reason, the European Union has decided to protect

One of the primary aims of the Soil Atlas of Europe is to