Oracle Linux: Security Guide For Release 6

Oracle® Linux
Security Guide for Release 6
E36387-05
July 2013
Oracle® Linux: Security Guide for Release 6
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Abstract
This manual provides security guidelines for the Oracle Linux 6 operating system.
Document generated on: 2013-07-04 (revision: 1081)

Table of Contents
Preface .............................................................................................................................................. v
1. Oracle Linux Security Overview ...................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Basic Security Considerations .............................................................................................. 1
1.1.1. Keep Software up to Date ......................................................................................... 1
1.1.2. Restrict Network Access to Critical Services ............................................................... 1
1.1.3. Follow the Principle of Least Privilege ........................................................................ 1
1.1.4. Monitor System Activity ............................................................................................. 2
1.1.5. Keep up to Date on the Latest Security Information .................................................... 2
1.2. The Oracle Linux Security Model .......................................................................................... 2
1.3. Overview of Oracle Linux Security ........................................................................................ 2
1.4. Understanding the Oracle Linux Environment ........................................................................ 3
1.5. Recommended Deployment Configurations ........................................................................... 3
1.6. Component Security ............................................................................................................ 4
1.7. References .......................................................................................................................... 4
2. Secure Installation and Configuration .............................................................................................. 7
2.1. Pre-Installation Tasks ........................................................................................................... 7
2.2. Installing Oracle Linux ......................................................................................................... 7
2.2.1. Shadow Passwords and Hashing Algorithms .............................................................. 8
2.2.2. Strong Passwords ..................................................................................................... 8
2.2.3. Separate Disk Partitions ............................................................................................ 8
2.2.4. Encrypted Disk Partitions .......................................................................................... 8
2.2.5. Software Selection .................................................................................................... 9
2.2.6. Network Time Service ............................................................................................... 9
2.3. Post-Installation Tasks ......................................................................................................... 9
3. Implementing Oracle Linux Security .............................................................................................. 11
3.1. Configuring and Using Data Encryption ............................................................................... 11
3.2. Configuring a GRUB Password .......................................................................................... 12
3.3. Configuring and Using Certificate Management ................................................................... 13
3.3.1. About the openssl Command ................................................................................... 14
3.3.2. About the keytool Command ................................................................................... 16
3.4. Configuring and Using Authentication ................................................................................. 17
3.4.1. About Local Oracle Linux Authentication .................................................................. 18
3.4.2. About IPA ............................................................................................................... 18
3.4.3. About LDAP Authentication ..................................................................................... 19
3.4.4. About NIS Authentication ......................................................................................... 20
3.4.5. About Winbind Authentication .................................................................................. 20
3.4.6. About Kerberos Authentication ................................................................................. 21
3.5. Configuring and Using Pluggable Authentication Modules .................................................... 22
3.6. Configuring and Using Access Control Lists ........................................................................ 24
3.7. Configuring and Using SELinux .......................................................................................... 24
3.7.1. About SELinux Administration .................................................................................. 26
3.7.2. About SELinux Modes ............................................................................................. 27
3.7.3. Setting SELinux Modes ........................................................................................... 27
3.7.4. About SELinux Policies ........................................................................................... 28
3.7.5. About SELinux Context ........................................................................................... 29
3.7.6. About SELinux Users .............................................................................................. 32
3.8. Configuring and Using Auditing .......................................................................................... 33
3.9. Configuring and Using System Logging .............................................................................. 34
3.10. Configuring and Using Process Accounting ....................................................................... 37
3.11. Configuring and Using Software Management ................................................................... 37
3.11.1. Configuring Update and Patch Management ........................................................... 39
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Oracle® Linux
3.11.2. Installing and Using the Yum Security Plugin .......................................................... 39

3.12. Configuring Access to Network Services ........................................................................... 42
3.12.1. Configuring and Using Packet-filtering Firewalls ...................................................... 43
3.12.2. Configuring and Using TCP Wrappers .................................................................... 46
3.13. Configuring and Using Chroot Jails ................................................................................... 47
3.13.1. Running DNS and FTP Services in a Chroot Jail .................................................... 47
3.13.2. Creating a Chroot Jail ........................................................................................... 47
3.13.3. Using a Chroot Jail ............................................................................................... 48
3.14. Configuring and Using Linux Containers ........................................................................... 48
3.15. Configuring and Using Kernel Security Mechanisms .......................................................... 49
3.15.1. Address Space Layout Randomization ................................................................... 49
3.15.2. Data Execution Prevention .................................................................................... 49
3.15.3. Position Independent Executables .......................................................................... 50
4. Security Considerations for Developers ......................................................................................... 51
4.1. Design Principles for Secure Coding ................................................................................... 51
4.2. General Guidelines for Secure Coding ................................................................................ 52
4.3. General Guidelines for Network Programs .......................................................................... 53
5. Secure Deployment Checklist ........................................................................................................ 55
5.1. Minimizing the Software Footprint ....................................................................................... 55
5.2. Configuring System Logging ............................................................................................... 56
5.3. Disabling Core Dumps ....................................................................................................... 57
5.4. Minimizing Active Services ................................................................................................. 57
5.5. Locking Down Network Services ......................................................................................... 60
5.6. Configuring a Packet-filtering Firewall ................................................................................. 61
5.7. Configuring TCP Wrappers ................................................................................................. 61
5.8. Configuring Kernel Parameters ........................................................................................... 61
5.9. Restricting Access to SSH Connections .............................................................................. 62
5.10. Configuring File System Mounts, File Permissions, and File Ownerships ............................. 62
5.11. Checking User Accounts and Privileges ............................................................................ 64
iv
Preface
The Oracle Linux Security Guide provides security guidelines for the Oracle Linux 6 operating system. The
guide presents steps that you can take to harden an Oracle Linux system and the features that you can
use to protect your data and applications. You can tailor the recommendations in the guide to suit your site
security policy.
Audience
This document is intended for administrators who analyze security requirements, implement site security
policy, install and configure the Oracle Linux operating system, and maintain system and network security.
It is assumed that readers have a general knowledge of Linux administration, a good foundation in
software security, and knowledge of your organization's site security policy.
Document Organization
The document is organized as follows:
• Chapter 1, Oracle Linux Security Overview provides an overview of Oracle Linux security.
• Chapter 2, Secure Installation and Configuration outlines the planning process for a secure installation
and describes how the choices that you make during installation affect system security.
• Chapter 3, Implementing Oracle Linux Security describes the various ways in which you can configure
the security of an Oracle Linux system.
• Chapter 4, Security Considerations for Developers provides information for developers about how to
create secure applications for Oracle Linux, and how to extend Oracle Linux to access external systems
without compromising security.
• Chapter 5, Secure Deployment Checklist provide guidelines that help secure your Oracle Linux system.
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Related Documents
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vi
Chapter 1. Oracle Linux Security Overview
Table of Contents
1.1. Basic Security Considerations ...................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1. Keep Software up to Date ................................................................................................. 1
1.1.2. Restrict Network Access to Critical Services ....................................................................... 1
1.1.3. Follow the Principle of Least Privilege ................................................................................ 1
1.1.4. Monitor System Activity ..................................................................................................... 2
1.1.5. Keep up to Date on the Latest Security Information ............................................................ 2
1.2. The Oracle Linux Security Model ................................................................................................. 2
1.3. Overview of Oracle Linux Security ................................................................................................ 2
1.4. Understanding the Oracle Linux Environment ................................................................................ 3
1.5. Recommended Deployment Configurations ................................................................................... 3
1.6. Component Security .................................................................................................................... 4
1.7. References .................................................................................................................................. 4
This chapter provides an overview of Oracle Linux security.
1.1. Basic Security Considerations

The following sections list the fundamental principles for using Oracle Linux securely.
1.1.1. Keep Software up to Date

One of the principles of good security practice is to keep all software versions and patches up to date.
Throughout this document, we assume a maintenance level of Oracle Linux Release 6 or later.
For more information, see Section 3.11, “Configuring and Using Software Management”
1.1.2. Restrict Network Access to Critical Services

Keep both middle-tier applications and databases behind a firewall. In addition, place a firewall between
middle-tier applications and databases if these are hosted on separate servers. The firewalls provide
assurance that access to these systems is restricted to a known network route, which can be monitored
and restricted, if necessary. As an alternative, a firewall router substitutes for multiple, independent
firewalls.
If firewalls cannot be used, restrict access based upon IP address. Restricting database access by IP
address often causes application client/server programs to fail for DHCP clients. To resolve this, consider
using static IP addresses, a software/hardware VPN or Windows Terminal Services or its equivalent.
For more information, see Section 3.12, “Configuring Access to Network Services”.
1.1.3. Follow the Principle of Least Privilege

The principle of least privilege states that users should be given the least amount of privilege to perform
their jobs. Over ambitious granting of responsibilities, roles, grants, and so on, especially early on in an
organization’s life cycle when people are few and work needs to be done quickly, often leaves a system
wide open for abuse. User privileges should be reviewed periodically to determine relevance to current job
responsibilities.
1
Monitor System Activity
For more information, see Section 5.11, “Checking User Accounts and Privileges”.
1.1.4. Monitor System Activity

System security stands on three legs: good security protocols, proper system configuration, and system
monitoring. Auditing and reviewing audit records address the third requirement. Each component within
a system has some degree of monitoring capability. Follow audit advice in this document and regularly
monitor audit records.
For more information, see Section 3.8, “Configuring and Using Auditing”.
1.1.5. Keep up to Date on the Latest Security Information

Oracle continually improves its software and documentation. Check regularly on the Oracle Technology
Network at http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/server-storage/linux for revisions.
1.2. The Oracle Linux Security Model

Oracle Linux provides a complete security stack, from network firewall control to access control security
policies, and is designed to be secure by default.
Traditional Linux security is based on a Discretionary Access Control (DAC) policy, which provides minimal
protection from broken software or from malware that is running as a normal user or as root. The SELinux
enhancement to the Linux kernel implements the Mandatory Access Control (MAC) policy, which allows
you to define a security policy that provides granular permissions for all users, programs, processes,
files, and devices. The kernel's access control decisions are based on all the security relevant information
available, and not solely on the authenticated user identity. By default, SELinux is enabled when you install
an Oracle Linux system.
For more information, see Section 3.7, “Configuring and Using SELinux”.
1.3. Overview of Oracle Linux Security

Oracle Linux has evolved into a secure enterprise-class operating system that can provide the
performance, data integrity, and application uptime necessary for business-critical production
environments.
Thousands of production systems at Oracle run Oracle Linux and numerous internal developers use it
as their development platform. Oracle Linux is also at the heart of several Oracle engineered systems,
including the Oracle Exadata Database Machine, Oracle Exalytics In-Memory Machine, Oracle Exalogic
Elastic Cloud, and Oracle Database Appliance.
Oracle On Demand services, which deliver software as a service (SaaS) at a customer's site, via an Oracle
data center, or at a partner site, use Oracle Linux at the foundation of their solution architectures. Backed
by Oracle support, these mission-critical systems and deployments depend fundamentally on the built-in
security and reliability features of the Oracle Linux operating system.
Released under an open-source license, Oracle Linux includes the Unbreakable Enterprise Kernel that
provides the latest Linux innovations while offering tested performance and stability. Oracle has been
a key participant in the Linux community, contributing code enhancements such as Oracle Cluster File
System and the Btrfs file system. From a security perspective, having roots in open source is a significant
advantage. The Linux community, which includes many experienced developers and security experts,
reviews posted Linux code extensively prior to its testing and release. The open-source Linux community
2
Understanding the Oracle Linux Environment
has supplied many security improvements over time, including access control lists (ACLs), cryptographic
libraries, and trusted utilities.
1.4. Understanding the Oracle Linux Environment

To better understand your security needs, ask yourself the following questions:
Which resources am I Many resources in the production environment can be protected,

protecting? including information in databases accessed by WebLogic Server and
the availability, performance, applications, and the integrity of the Web
site. Consider the resources you want to protect when deciding the level
of security you must provide.
From whom am I protecting the For most Web sites, resources must be protected from everyone on the
resources? Internet. But should the Web site be protected from the employees on
the intranet in your enterprise? Should your employees have access
to all resources within the WebLogic Server environment? Should
the system administrators have access to all WebLogic resources?
Should the system administrators be able to access all data? You might
consider giving access to highly confidential data or strategic resources
to only a few well trusted system administrators. Perhaps it would be
best to allow no system administrators access to the data or resources.
What will happen if the In some cases, a fault in your security scheme is easily detected and
protections on strategic considered nothing more than an inconvenience. In other cases, a fault
resources fail? might cause great damage to companies or individual clients that use
the Web site. Understanding the security ramifications of each resource
will help you protect it properly.
1.5. Recommended Deployment Configurations

This section describes recommended architectures for deploying Oracle products with secure Internet
access.
Figure 1.1, “Simple Firewall Deployment Configuration” shows a simple deployment architecture.
Figure 1.1. Simple Firewall Deployment Configuration
This single-computer deployment may be cost effective for small organizations. However, it cannot provide
high availability because all components are stored on the same computer.
Figure 1.2, “DMZ Deployment Configuration” shows the recommended configuration, which uses the well-
known and generally accepted Internet-Firewall-DMZ-Firewall-Intranet architecture.
3
Component Security
Figure 1.2. DMZ Deployment Configuration
A demilitarized zone (DMZ) refers to a server that is isolated by firewalls from both the Internet and the
intranet, and which acts a buffer between them. The firewalls that separate DMZ zones provide two
essential functions:
• Block any traffic types that are not permitted.
• Provide intrusion containment in the event that successful intrusions take over processes or processors.
1.6. Component Security

Each application software component usually has its own security considerations that you should take into
account independently of those that apply to the operating system. Refer to the security guidelines for each
component to determine how best to configure it for the requirements of security at your site.
1.7. References
For more information on the security topics covered in this guide, see the following references:
NIST Checklist Details for DoD Consensus Security Configuration Checklist for Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5
2.0: http://web.nvd.nist.gov/view/ncp/repository/checklistDetail?id=294.
NIST SCAP: Guide To The Secure Configuration of Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5: http://nvd.nist.gov/scap/
content/stylesheet/scap-rhel5-document.htm.
NSA Guide to the Secure Configuration of Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5: http://www.nsa.gov/ia/_files/os/
redhat/NSA_RHEL_5_GUIDE_v4.2.pdf.
NSA Hardening Tips For Default Installation of Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5: http://www.nsa.gov/ia/_files/
factsheets/rhel5-pamphlet-i731.pdf.
NSA Meeting Critical Security Objectives with Security-Enhanced Linux by Peter A. Loscocco and Stephen
D. Smalley: http://www.nsa.gov/research/_files/selinux/papers/ottawa01/index.shtml.
4
References
NSA SELinux Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ): http://www.nsa.gov/research/selinux/faqs.shtml.
Oracle Tips for Hardening an Oracle Linux Server by Lenz Grimmer and James Morris: http://
www.oracle.com/technetwork/articles/servers-storage-admin/tips-harden-oracle-linux-1695888.html.
Oracle Tips for Securing an Oracle Linux Environment by Ginny Henningsen, James Morris, and
Lenz Grimmer: http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/articles/servers-storage-admin/secure-linux-
env-1841089.html.
SELinux Project Wiki: http://selinuxproject.org/page/Main_Page.
Note
The most up-to-date advice that is available from some of the sources applies to
Oracle Linux 5. However, most of the advice is also applicable to Oracle Linux 6.
5
6
Chapter 2. Secure Installation and Configuration
Table of Contents
2.1. Pre-Installation Tasks ................................................................................................................... 7
2.2. Installing Oracle Linux ................................................................................................................. 7
2.2.1. Shadow Passwords and Hashing Algorithms ...................................................................... 8
2.2.2. Strong Passwords ............................................................................................................. 8
2.2.3. Separate Disk Partitions .................................................................................................... 8
2.2.4. Encrypted Disk Partitions .................................................................................................. 8
2.2.5. Software Selection ............................................................................................................ 9
2.2.6. Network Time Service ....................................................................................................... 9
2.3. Post-Installation Tasks ................................................................................................................. 9
This chapter outlines the planning process for a secure installation and describes how the choices that you
make during installation affect system security.
2.1. Pre-Installation Tasks

An important consideration is the security of the physical system on which you will install Oracle Linux.
If possible, keep server systems in a locked data center and limit access to authorized personnel. Such
personnel should also receive appropriate administrative training as human error is often the cause of
a security breach. For more information about the available Oracle Linux coursework and certification
options, see http://education.oracle.com.
Aside from the risks of theft and data compromise, physical security is critical because it prevents an
unauthorized user from possibly modifying the system BIOS, altering the boot device, and booting from an
alternate medium. If a system is not kept in a locked data center, consider password-protecting the BIOS.
Consult the system manufacturer's documentation for information on setting a BIOS password. Edit the
BIOS settings to disable booting from the CD-ROM drive, floppy disk drive, USB ports, and other external
devices. In addition, you can configure disk encryption during installation, or password-protect the GRUB
boot loader after installation.
Note
Setting a BIOS, encrypted disk, or boot-loader password requires you to enter

the password whenever you reboot the system. Only disk encryption can prevent
access to the data on disk when an attacker uses techniques such as resetting the
BIOS, accessing the disk by booting an operating system from a memory stick, or
simply removing the hard drive to read its contents on another system.
2.2. Installing Oracle Linux

When you install Oracle Linux, you can reduce the attack surface by installing only the software packages
that are required for operation. Software packages are a potential source of setuid programs, network
services, and libraries that an attacker can potentially use to gain access illegitimately and compromise a
system.
You can use a pretested Kickstart profile to provide consistent and precise control over what is installed.
Automated installation using a Kickstart profile reduces both security risk and administrative effort.
Alternatively, you can use Oracle Enterprise Manager Ops Center, which supports the import of OS images
and explicit provisioning profiles. For more information, refer to the Oracle Enterprise Manager Ops Center
documentation.
7
Shadow Passwords and Hashing Algorithms
2.2.1. Shadow Passwords and Hashing Algorithms

By default, an Oracle Linux system is configured to use password hashes that are stored in the /etc/
shadow file rather than in the world-readable /etc/passwd file. If shadow passwords were not used,
an attacker is much more likely to be able to discover a password by applying cracking software to the
hashes. Similarly, using a password-hashing algorithm that is weaker than SHA-512 would make it much
easier to find likely candidates that match a hash value.
2.2.2. Strong Passwords

During installation, you are prompted to enter passwords for root and one additional user, if you choose
the user to be authenticated locally rather than over the network. The passwords that you enter should
be strong in that they should be extremely difficult to deduce by guesswork or by other means, such
as automated FTP or SSH logins. By default, the installation process rejects null passwords and warns
about weak passwords, but it does not enforce strong passwords. It is your responsibility to ensure that
passwords are sufficiently strong.
Some general guidelines for creating a strong password are:
• Make the password at least eight characters long.
• Use a mixture of lower and upper case letters, numbers, and other characters.
• Do not include whole words from English, LEET speak, or any other language or technology, even if you
spell the words in reverse order. Password cracking programs are more sophisticated that one might
naively assume.
• Do not include personal information such as names, dates, addresses, email addresses, or telephone
numbers.
• Do not use well-known acronyms, abbreviations, or character sequences such as QWERTY.
• Do not use a password that is the same as or very similar to a password that you used previously on the
system.
• Use a password for root that is different from the password for any other user.
2.2.3. Separate Disk Partitions

The National Security Agency (NSA) recommendations state that you should set up user-writable file
systems such as /home, /tmp, and /var/tmp on partitions that are separate from /. In addition, /boot
must be a dedicated file system if you encrypt the root file system.
For more information, see http://www.nsa.gov/ia/_files/factsheets/rhel5-pamphlet-i731.pdf.
2.2.4. Encrypted Disk Partitions

When choosing a disk layout, you have the option of encrypting disk partitions with the Linux Unified Key
Setup (LUKS) format. As for any other password, ensure that you enter a strong passphrase if you choose
to encrypt any partitions.
Note
The /boot file system cannot be encrypted.
8
Software Selection
2.2.5. Software Selection

If you choose to customize the software to be installed on a system, you can select or deselect packages
from the default set. For example, the basic server configuration does not install the Gnome and KDE
desktop software and the X Windows System packages from the Desktops section. Additional packages
that you might want to install on a server systems are available under the Servers, Web Services,
Databases, and other section headings.
2.2.6. Network Time Service

If you select to synchronize the data and time over the network, the system is configured as an NTP client
that uses the [012].rhel.pool.ntp.org public servers by default. If your systems rely on Kerberos
authentication, which requires close synchronization of the clocks on each participating system, you might
prefer to configure your systems to use a local NTP server instead.
2.3. Post-Installation Tasks

For information about the way that you can configure the security of an Oracle Linux system, see
Chapter 3, Implementing Oracle Linux Security.
For guidelines about hardening an Oracle Linux system, see Chapter 5, Secure Deployment Checklist.
9
10
Chapter 3. Implementing Oracle Linux Security
Table of Contents
3.1. Configuring and Using Data Encryption ....................................................................................... 11
3.2. Configuring a GRUB Password .................................................................................................. 12
3.3. Configuring and Using Certificate Management ........................................................................... 13
3.3.1. About the openssl Command ........................................................................................... 14
3.3.2. About the keytool Command ........................................................................................... 16
3.4. Configuring and Using Authentication ......................................................................................... 17
3.4.1. About Local Oracle Linux Authentication .......................................................................... 18
3.4.2. About IPA ....................................................................................................................... 18
3.4.3. About LDAP Authentication ............................................................................................. 19
3.4.4. About NIS Authentication ................................................................................................ 20
3.4.5. About Winbind Authentication .......................................................................................... 20
3.4.6. About Kerberos Authentication ......................................................................................... 21
3.5. Configuring and Using Pluggable Authentication Modules ............................................................ 22
3.6. Configuring and Using Access Control Lists ................................................................................ 24
3.7. Configuring and Using SELinux .................................................................................................. 24
3.7.1. About SELinux Administration .......................................................................................... 26
3.7.2. About SELinux Modes ..................................................................................................... 27
3.7.3. Setting SELinux Modes ................................................................................................... 27
3.7.4. About SELinux Policies ................................................................................................... 28
3.7.5. About SELinux Context ................................................................................................... 29
3.7.6. About SELinux Users ...................................................................................................... 32
3.8. Configuring and Using Auditing .................................................................................................. 33
3.9. Configuring and Using System Logging ...................................................................................... 34
3.10. Configuring and Using Process Accounting ............................................................................... 37
3.11. Configuring and Using Software Management ........................................................................... 37
3.11.1. Configuring Update and Patch Management ................................................................... 39
3.11.2. Installing and Using the Yum Security Plugin .................................................................. 39
3.12. Configuring Access to Network Services ................................................................................... 42
3.12.1. Configuring and Using Packet-filtering Firewalls .............................................................. 43
3.12.2. Configuring and Using TCP Wrappers ............................................................................ 46
3.13. Configuring and Using Chroot Jails ........................................................................................... 47
3.13.1. Running DNS and FTP Services in a Chroot Jail ............................................................ 47
3.13.2. Creating a Chroot Jail ................................................................................................... 47
3.13.3. Using a Chroot Jail ....................................................................................................... 48
3.14. Configuring and Using Linux Containers ................................................................................... 48
3.15. Configuring and Using Kernel Security Mechanisms .................................................................. 49
3.15.1. Address Space Layout Randomization ........................................................................... 49
3.15.2. Data Execution Prevention ............................................................................................ 49
3.15.3. Position Independent Executables .................................................................................. 50
This chapter describes the various ways in which you can configure the security of an Oracle Linux system.
3.1. Configuring and Using Data Encryption

You can use data encryption to protect data that is stored or that is being transmitted. Data on storage
devices and media can be at risk of theft or device loss. Data being transmitted over local area networks
and the Internet can be intercepted or altered. In addition, data encryption to protect privacy and personal
11
Configuring a GRUB Password
data is increasingly being made a mandatory requirement of corporate security policy and by governmental
regulations (for example, HIPAA, GLBA, SOX, and PCI DSS).
Oracle Linux systems provide several strategies for protecting data:
• When installing systems and application software, only accept RPM packages that have been digitally
signed. To ensure that downloaded software packages are signed, set gpgcheck=1 in the repository
configuration file and import the GPG key provided by the software supplier. You can also install RPMs
using the Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) protocol, which uses encryption to protect the communications
channel.
• To protect against data theft, consider using full-disk encryption, especially on laptops, external
hard drives, or removable devices such as USB memory sticks. Oracle Linux supports block device
encryption using dm-crypt and the Linux Unified Key Setup (LUKS) format. The cryptsetup
administration command is available in the cryptsetup-luks package. These technologies encrypt
device partitions so that the data is inaccessible when a system is turned off. When the system boots
and you supply the appropriate passphrase, the device is decrypted and its data is accessible. For more
infomation, see the cryptsetup(8) manual page.
• An alternative approach for protecting data on a device is to use the eCryptfs utilities to encrypt a file
system. The eCryptfs utilities are available in the ecryptfs-utils package. Unlike dm-crypt, which
encrypts block devices, eCryptfs encrypts data at the file-system level, and you can also use it to protect
individual files and directories. For more information, see the ecryptfs(7), ecryptfs-setup-
private(1), ecryptfs-mount-private(1), and ecryptfs-umount-private(1) manual
pages.
• Oracle Linux uses encryption to support Virtual Private Networks (VPN), Secure Shell (ssh), and
password protection. By default, Oracle Linux uses a strong password hashing algorithm (SHA-512) and
stores hashed passwords in the /etc/shadow file.
• Oracle Linux takes advantage of hardware-accelerated encryption on Intel CPUs that support the
Advanced Encryption Standard New Instructions (AES-NI) instruction set, which speeds up the
execution of AES algorithms as well as SHA-1 and RC4 algorithms on x86 and x86_64 architectures.
3.2. Configuring a GRUB Password

If a system is not kept in a locked data center, and as an alternative to using any password protection
mechanism built into the BIOS, you can add a degree of protection to the system by requiring a valid
password be provided to the GRUB boot loader.
Note
Password protecting GRUB access prevents unauthorized users from entering

single user mode and changing settings at boot time. It does not prevent someone
from accessing data on the hard drive by booting into an operating system from
a memory stick, or physically removing the drive to read its contents on another
system.
To configure a GRUB password:
1. Use the following command to generate the MD5 hash of your password:
# /sbin/grub-md5-crypt
Password: clydenw
Retype password: clydenw
$1$qhqh.1$7MQxS6GHg4IlOFMdnDx9S.
12
Configuring and Using Certificate Management
2. Edit /boot/grub/grub.conf, and add a password entry below the timeout entry near the top of
the file, for example:
timeout=5
password --md5 pwhash
where pwhash is the hash value that grub-md5-crypt returned.
3. If GRUB has been configured to boot multiple operating systems on the same machine, add a lock
entry to after the title entry for each operating system, for example:
title Windows
lock
When you reboot the machine, you must press P and enter the password before you can access the GRUB
command interface.
For more information, use the info grub command to access the GRUB manual.
3.3. Configuring and Using Certificate Management

Public-key cryptography allows secure communication on an insecure public network and verification of
the identity of the entity at the other end of a network connection. Public-key cryptography is based on
establishing pairs of secret and public keys. Either key can be used to encrypt some data, and the other
key can then be used to decrypt that data. You cannot use just one of the keys to perform both operations
on the same data. Because of the asymmetric nature of the key operations, you can distribute the public
key without fear of compromising security. Possession of the private key is required to be able to read
messages that are encrypted with the public key.
However, if you receive a public key, this in itself does not establish the identity of the sender. A public-
key infrastructure implements digital certificates that allow public keys to be distributed in a hierarchy
of trusted relationships. A Certification Authority (CA) acts as a trusted third party that can issue signed
certificates on behalf of another entity on a network. The CA uses its own private key to encrypt the
certificate, which contains the entity's public key together with other information about the entity (subject),
the CA (issuer), the period of validity of the certificate, and the cryptographic algorithms used. Assuming
that you trust the CA, you can also trust the entity's public key stored in the certificate. Decrypting the
certificate with the CA's public key yields the entity's public key, and this key can be used to establish a
secure communications channel.
For the Internet, there are many public top-level (root) CAs and there are also many intermediate CAs
that are trusted by a root CA to issue certificates on behalf of entities. An intermediate CA usually returns
a certificate chain, where each certificate in the chain authenticates the public key of the signer of the
previous certificate in the chain up to and including a root CA. The secure communication channels that
are required for website security usually use the Transport Layer Security (TLS) or Secure Sockets Layer
(SSL) cryptographic protocols. Because most financial transactions on the Internet rely on TLS and SSL, a
more limited number of CAs are permitted to issue TLS/SSL certificates that web browsers trust, and these
CAs are regularly audited for security.
OpenSSL is an open-source implementation of the TLS and SSL protocols. If a hierarchy of trust is
confined to your organization's intranet, you can use OpenSSL to generate a root certificate and set up
a CA for that domain. However, unless you install this self-signed root certificate on each system in your
organization, browsers, LDAP or IPA authentication, and other software that use certificates will prompt the
user about the potentially untrusted relationship. If you use certificates for your domain that are validated
by a root or intermediate-level CA, you do not need to distribute a root certificate as the appropriate
certificate should already be present on each system.
13
About the openssl Command
Typically, TLS/SSL certificates expire after one year. Other certificates, including root certificates that are
distributed with web browsers, and which are issued by root and intermediate CAs usually expire after a
period from five to 10 years. To avoid applications displaying warnings about out-of-date certificates, you
should plan to replace TLS/SSL certificates before they expire. For root certificates, this is not usually a
problem as you would typically update the software before the certificate would expire.
If you request a signed certificate from a CA for which a root certificate or certificate chain that
authenticates the CA's public key does not already exist on your system, obtain a trusted root certificate
from the CA. To avoid a potential man-in-the-middle attack, verify the authenticity of the root certificate
before importing it. Check that the certificate's fingerprint matches the fingerprint that the CA publishes.
The openssl command allows you to generate self-signed certificates that web browsers can use. You
can also use the keytool command to generate self-signed certificates, but this command's primary
purpose is to install and manage JSSE (Java Secure Socket Extension) digital certificates for use with
Java applications.
Note
For production environments, you should obtain external CA-signed certificates,

which can be revoked if the private key is compromised. Self-signed certificates
cannot be revoked, and should only be used when developing, testing, or
demonstrating software.
For more information about using TLS/SSL and certificates with the Apache HTTP server, see the Apache
documentation at http://httpd.apache.org/docs.
3.3.1. About the openssl Command

The openssl command, which is included in the openssl package, allows you to perform various
cryptography functions from the OpenSSL library including:
• Creating and managing pairs of private and public keys.
• Performing public key cryptographic operations.
• Creating self-signed certificates.
• Creating certificate signing requests (CSRs).
• Creating certificate revocation lists (CRLs).
• Converting certificate files between various formats.
• Calculating message digests.
• Encrypting and decrypting files.
• Testing both client-side and server-side TLS/SSL with HTTP and SMTP servers.
• Verifying, encrypting and signing S/MIME email.
• Generating and testing prime numbers, and generating pseudo-random data.
The following are some sample openssl commands.
Create a self-signed X.509 certificate that is valid for 365 days, writing the unencrypted private key to
prikey.pem and the certificate to cert.pem.
14
About the openssl Command
# openssl req -x509 -nodes -days 365 -subj '/C=US/ST=Ca/L=Sunnydale/CN=www.unserdom.com' \

-newkey rsa:1024 -keyout prikey.pem -out cert.pem
Test a self-signed certificate by launching a server that listens on port 443.

# openssl s_server -accept 443 -cert cert.pem -key prikey.pem -www
Test the client side of a connection. This command returns information about the connection including the
certificate, and allows you to directly input HTTP commands.
# openssl s_client -connect server:443 -CAfile cert.pem
Convert a root certificate to a form that can be published on a web site for downloading by a browser.
# openssl x509 -in cert.pem -out rootcert.crt
Extract a certificate from a server.

# echo | openssl s_client -connect server:443 2>/dev/null | \
sed -ne '/BEGIN CERT/,/END CERT/p' > svrcert.pem
Display the information contained in an X.509 certificate.

# openssl x509 -text -noout -in svrcert.pem
Display the SHA1 fingerprint of a certificate.

# openssl x509 -sha1 -noout -fingerprint -in cert.pem
Generate a CSR, writing the unencrypted private key to prikey.pem and the request to csr.pem for
submission to a CA. The CA signs and returns a certificate or a certificate chain that authenticates your
public key.
# openssl req -new -nodes '/CN=www.unserdom.com/O=Unser Dom, Corp./C=US/ST=Ca/L=Sunnydale' \
-newkey rsa:1024 -keyout prikey.pem -out csr.pem
Display the information contained in a CSR.

# openssl req -in csr.pem -noout -text
Verify a certificate including the signing authority, signing chain, and period of validity.
# openssl verify cert.pem
Display the directory that holds information about the CAs trusted by your system. By default, this directory
is /etc/pki/tls. The /etc/pki/tls/certs subdirectory contains trusted certificates.
# openssl version -d
Create an SHA1 digest of a file.

# openssl dgst -sha1 file
Sign the SHA1 digest of a file using the private key stored in the file prikey.pem.
# openssl dgst -sha1 -sign prikey.pem -out file.sha1 file
Verify the signed digest for a file using the public key stored in the file pubkey.pem.
# openssl dgst -sha1 -verify pubkey.pem -signature file.sha1 file
15
About the keytool Command
List all available ciphers.

# openssl list-cipher-commands
Encrypt a file using Blowfish.

# openssl enc -blowfish -salt -in file -out file.enc
Decrypt a Blowfish-encrypted file.

# openssl enc -d -blowfish -in file.enc -out file.dec
Convert a base 64 encoded certificate (also referred to as PEM or RFC 1421) to binary DER format.
# openssl x509 -in cert.pem -outform der -out certificate.der
Convert the base 64 encoded certificates for an entity and its CA to a single PKCS7 format certificate.
# openssl crl2pkcs7 -nocrl -certfile entCert.cer -certfile CACert.cer -out certificate.p7b
For more information, see the openssl(1), ciphers(1), dgst(1), enc(1), req(1), s_client(1),
s_server(1), verify(1), and x509(1) manual pages.
3.3.2. About the keytool Command

Most Java applications use the keystore that is supplied with the JDK to store cryptographic keys, X.509
certificate chain information, and trusted certificates. The default JDK keystore on Oracle Linux is the file /
etc/pki/java/cacerts. You can use the keytool command to generate self-signed certificates and
to install and manage certificates in the keystore. Note that the keytool command syntax changed in
Java SE 6. The examples given here are for that version of keytool.
The following are some sample keytool commands.
List the contents of the keystore /etc/pki/java/cacerts. The default keystore password is
changeit. If specified, the verbose option -v displays detailed information.
# keytool -list [-v] -keystore /etc/pki/java/cacerts
Change the password for a keystore (for example, /etc/pki/java/cacerts).

# keytool -storepasswd -keystore /etc/pki/java/cacerts
Create a new keystore keystore.jks for managing your public/private key pairs and certificates from
entities that you trust, generate a public/private key pair using the RSA algorithm and a key length of 1024
bits, and create a self-signed certificate that includes the public key and the specified distinguished name
information. pkpassword is the private key password and storepassword is the keystore password.
The certificate is valid for 100 days and is associated with the private key in a keystore entry that has the
alias engineering.
# keytool -genkeypair -alias mycert -keyalg RSA -keysize 1024 \
-dname "CN=www.unserdom.com, OU=Eng, O=Unser Dom Corp, C=US, ST=Ca, L=Sunnydale" \
-alias engineering -keypass pkpassword -keystore keystore.jks \
-storepass storepassword -validity 100
Print the contents of a certificate file in a human-readable form. If specified, the verbose option -v displays
detailed information.
# keytool -printcert [-v] -file cert.cer
16
Configuring and Using Authentication
Generate a CSR in the file carequest.csr for submission to a CA. The CA signs and returns a certificate
or a certificate chain that authenticates your public key.
# keytool -certreq -file carequest.csr
Import the root certificate or certificate chain for the CA from the file ACME.cer into the keystore
keystore.jks and give it the alias acmeca. If specified, the -trustcacerts option instructs keytool
to add the certificate only if it can validate the chain of trust against the existing root CA certificates in the
cacerts keystore. Alternatively, use the keytool -printcert command to check that the certificate's
fingerprint matches the fingerprint that the CA publishes.
# keytool -importcert -alias acmeca [-trustcacerts] -file ACME.cer \

-keystore keystore.jks -storepass storepassword
Import the signed certificate for your organization after you have received it from the CA. In this example,
the file containing the certificate is ACMEdom.cer. The -alias option specifies the entry for the first entity
in the CA's root certificate chain. The signed certificate is added to the front of the chain and becomes the
entity that is addressed by the alias name.
# keytool -importcert -v -trustcacerts -alias acmeca -file ACMEdom.cer \

Delete the certificate with the alias aliasname from the keystore keystore.jks.
# keytool -delete -alias aliasname -keystore keystore.jks -storepass storepassword
Export the certificate with the alias aliasname as a binary PKCS7 format file, which includes the
supporting certificate chain as well as the issued certificate.
# keytool -exportcert -noprompt -alias aliasname -file output.p7b \

Export the certificate with the alias aliasname as a base 64 encoded text file (also referred to as
PEM or RFC 1421). For a certificate chain. the file includes only the first certificate in the chain, which
authenticates the public key of the aliased entity.
# keytool -exportcert -noprompt -rfc -alias aliasname -file output.pem \

For more information, see the keytool(1) manual page.
3.4. Configuring and Using Authentication

Authentication is the verification of the identity of a user. A user logs in by providing a user name and
a password, and the operating system authenticates the user's identity by comparing this information
to data stored on the system. If the login credentials match and the user account is active, the user is
authenticated and can successfully access the system.
The information that verifies a user's identity can either be located on the local system in the /etc/
passwd and /etc/shadow files, or on remote systems using Identity Policy Audit (IPA), the Lightweight
Directory Access Protocol (LDAP), the Network Information Service (NIS), or Winbind. In addition, IPSv2,
LDAP, and NIS data files can use the Kerberos authentication protocol, which allows nodes communicating
over a non-secure network to prove their identity to one another in a secure manner.
You can use the Authentication Configuration GUI (system-config-authentication) to select the
authentication mechanism and to configure any associated authentication options. Alternatively, you can
17
About Local Oracle Linux Authentication
use the authconfig command. Both the Authentication Configuration GUI and authconfig adjust
settings in the PAM configuration files that are located in the /etc/pam.d directory.
3.4.1. About Local Oracle Linux Authentication

You can use the User Manager GUI (system-config-users) to add or delete users and groups and to
modify settings such as passwords, home directories, login shells, and group membership. Alternatively,
you can use commands such as useradd and groupadd.
Unless you select a different authentication mechanism during installation or by using the Authentication
Configuration GUI or the authconfig command, Oracle Linux verifies a user's identity by using the
information that is stored in the /etc/passwd and /etc/shadow files.
The /etc/passwd file stores account information for each user such as his or her unique user ID (or UID,
which is an integer), user name, home directory, and login shell. A user logs in using his or her user name,
but the operating system uses the associated UID. When the user logs in, he or she is placed in his or her
home directory and his or her login shell runs.
The /etc/group file stores information about groups of users. A user also belongs to one or more
groups, and each group can contain one or more users. If you can grant access privileges to a group, all
members of the group receive the same access privileges. Each group account has a unique group ID
(GID, again an integer) and an associated group name.
Oracle Linux implements the user private group (UPG) scheme where adding a user account also creates
a corresponding UPG with the same name as the user, and of which the user is the only member.
Only the root user can add, modify, or delete user and group accounts. By default, both users and groups
use shadow passwords, which are cryptographically hashed and stored in /etc/shadow and /etc/
gshadow respectively. These shadow password files are readable only by the root user. root can set a
group password that a user must enter to become a member of the group by using the newgrp command.
If a group does not have a password, a user can only join the group by root adding him or her as a
member.
The /etc/login.defs file defines parameters for password aging and related security policies.
For more information about the content of these files, see the group(5), gshadow(5), login.defs(5),
passwd(5), and shadow(5) manual pages.
3.4.2. About IPA

IPA allows you to set up a domain controller for DNS, Kerberos, and authorization policies as an alternative
to Active Directory Services. You can enrol client machines with an IPA domain so that they can access
information for single sign-on authentication. IPA combines the capabilities of existing well-known
technologies such as certificate services, DNS, LDAP, Kerberos, LDAP, and NTP.
To be able to configure IPA authentication, use yum to install the ipa-client and ipa-admintools
packages.
If you use the Authentication Configuration GUI and select IPA v2 as the user account database, you are
prompted to enter the names of the IPA domain, realm, and server. You can also select to configure NTP
so that the system time is consistent with the IPA server. If you have initialized Kerberos, you can click
Join Domain to create a machine account on the IPA server and grant permission to join the domain.
For more information about configuring IPA, see http://freeipa.org/page/Documentation.
18
About LDAP Authentication
3.4.3. About LDAP Authentication

LDAP allows systems to access centrally stored information over a network. LDAP servers store the
information in directory-based database that is optimized for searching. Directory entries are arranged in
a hierarchical tree-like structure that can store a variety of information such as names, addresses, phone
numbers, authentication data, network services, printers, and many other types of data. LDAP can also be
used to authenticate users, allowing users to access their account from any machine on the LDAP network.
An entry is the basic unit of information within an LDAP directory. Each entry has one or more attributes.
Each attribute has a name, a type or description, and one or more values. Examples of types are cn for
common name and mail for an email address. In addition, the objectClass attribute allows you to
control which attributes are required and which are optional. The values of objectClass determine the
schema rules that an entry must obey.
Each entry in an LDAP directory is uniquely identified and referenced by its Distinguished Name
(DN). The DN is constructed by taking the name of the entry itself (called the Relative Distinguished
Name or RDN) and concatenating the names of its ancestor entries, known as the LDAP Search
Base DN. For example, the DN for a user with an RDN of uid=gab451 might be similar to
uid=gab451,ou=People,dc=mydomain,dc=com, where ou=People,dc=mydomain,dc=com is the
LDAP Search base DN, ou stands for Organizational Unit and dc stands for Domain Component.
To be able to configure LDAP authentication, use yum to install the openldap-clients package.
If you use the Authentication Configuration GUI and select LDAP as the user account database, you are
prompted to enter the LDAP Search Base DN and the URL of the LDAP server including the port number
(for example, ldap://ldap-svr.mydomain.com:389).
You can configure LDAP to use either LDAP authentication or Kerberos authentication. LDAP
authentication requires that you use either LDAP over SSL (ldaps) or Transport Layer Security (TLS)
to secure the connection to the LDAP server. If you use TLS, you must enter the URL from which to
download the CA certificate that provides the basis for authentication within the domain.
You can also enable and configure LDAP by using the authconfig command.
To use LDAP as the authentication source, specify the --enableldapauth option together with the full
LDAP server URL (including the port number) and the LDAP Search Base DN, as shown in the following
example:.
# authconfig --enableldap --enableldapauth \
--ldapserver=ldap://ldap-svr.mydomain.com:389 \
--ldapbasedn="ou=people,dc=mydomain,dc=com" \
--update
If you want to use TLS, additionally specify the --enableldaptls option and the download URL of the
CA certificate:
# authconfig --enableldap --enableldapauth \
--ldapserver=ldap://ldap-svr.mydomain.com:389 \
--ldapbasedn="ou=people,dc=mydomain,dc=com" \
--enableldaptls \
--ldaploadcacert=https://ca-server.mydomain.com/caCert.crt \
--update
For information about using Kerberos authentication with LDAP, see Section 3.4.6, “About Kerberos
Authentication”.
For more information, see the authconfig(8) manual page.
For more information about LDAP, see the ldap(3) manual page.
19
About NIS Authentication
3.4.4. About NIS Authentication

NIS stores administrative information such as user names, passwords, and host names on a centralized
server. Client systems on the network can access this common data. This configuration allows to move
from machine to machine without having to remember different passwords and copy data from one
machine to another. Storing administrative information centrally, and providing a means of accessing it
from networked systems, also ensures the consistency of that data. NIS also reduces the overhead of
maintaining administration files such as /etc/passwd on each system.
A network of NIS systems is a NIS domain. Each system within the domain has the same NIS domain
name, which is different from a DNS domain name. The DNS domain is used throughout the Internet to
refer to a group of systems. A NIS domain is used to identify systems that use files on a NIS server. A NIS
domain must have exactly one master server but can have multiple slave servers.
To be able to configure NIS authentication, use yum to install the yp-tools and ypbind packages.
If you use the Authentication Configuration GUI and select NIS as the user account database, you are
prompted to enter the names of the NIS Domain and the NIS master server.
You can configure NIS to use either NIS authentication or Kerberos authentication.
Warning
NIS authentication is deprecated as it has security issues, including a lack of

protection of authentication data.
For information about using Kerberos authentication with NIS, see Section 3.4.6, “About Kerberos
Authentication”.
3.4.5. About Winbind Authentication

Winbind is a client-side service that resolves user and group information on a Windows server, and allows
Oracle Linux to understand Windows users and groups. To be able to configure Winbind authentication,
use yum to install the samba-winbind package. This package includes the winbindd daemon that
implements the winbind service.
If you use the Authentication Configuration GUI and select Winbind as the user account database, you
are prompted for the information that is required to connect to a Microsoft workgroup, Active Directory, or
Windows NT domain controller. Enter the name of the Winbind domain and select the security model for
the Samba server:
ads In the Activity Directory Server (ADS) security model, Samba acts as a domain member in
an ADS realm, and clients use Kerberos tickets for Active Directory authentication. You must
configure Kerberos and join the server to the domain, which creates a machine account for your
server on the domain controller.
domain In the domain security model, the local Samba server has a machine account (a domain security
trust account) and Samba authenticates user names and passwords with a domain controller in
a domain that implements Windows NT4 security.
Warning
If the local machine acts as a Primary or Backup Domain Controller, do

not use the domain security model. Use the user security model instead.
server In the server security model, the local Samba server authenticates user names and passwords
with another server, such as a Windows NT server.
20
About Kerberos Authentication
Warning
The server security model is deprecated as it has numerous security

issues.
user In the user security model, a client must log in with a valid user name and password. This model
supports encrypted passwords. If the server successfully validates the client's user name and
password, the client can mount multiple shares without being required to specify a password.
Depending on the security model that you choose, you might also need to specify the following information:
• The name of the ADS realm that the Samba server is to join (ADS security model only).
• The names of the domain controllers. If there are several domain controllers, separate the names with
spaces.
• The login template shell to use for the Windows NT user account (ADS and domain security models
only).
• Whether to allow user authentication using information that has been cached by the System Security
Services Daemon (SSSD) if the domain controllers are offline.
Your selection updates the security directive in the [global] section of the /etc/samba/smb.conf
configuration file.
If you have initialized Kerberos, you can click Join Domain to create a machine account on the Active
Directory server and grant permission for the Samba domain member server to join the domain.
You can also use the authconfig command to configure Winbind authentication. To use the user-
level security models, specify the name of the domain or workgroup and the host names of the domain
controllers. for example:
# authconfig --enablewinbind --enablewinbindauth --smbsecurity user \
[--enablewinbindoffline] --smbservers="ad1.mydomain.com ad2.mydomain.com" \
--smbworkgroup=MYDOMAIN --update
To allow user authentication using information that has been cached by the System Security Services
Daemon (SSSD) if the domain controllers are offline, specify the --enablewinbindoffline option.
For the domain security model, additionally specify the template shell, for example:
# authconfig --enablewinbind --enablewinbindauth --smbsecurity domain \

--smbworkgroup=MYDOMAIN --update --winbindtemplateshell=/bin/bash --update
For the ADS security model, additionally specify the ADS realm and template shell, for example:
# authconfig --enablewinbind --enablewinbindauth --smbsecurity ads \

--smbworkgroup=MYDOMAIN --update --smbrealm MYDOMAIN.COM \
--winbindtemplateshell=/bin/bash --update
3.4.6. About Kerberos Authentication

Both LDAP and NIS authentication optionally support Kerberos authentication. (In the case of IPA,
Kerberos is fully integrated.) Kerberos provides a secure connection over standard ports, and it also allows
offline logins by using credential caching with SSSD.
21
Configuring and Using Pluggable Authentication Modules
To be able to use Kerberos authentication, use yum to install the krb5-libs and krb5-workstation
packages.
If you use the Authentication Configuration GUI and select LDAP or NIS as the user account database,
select Kerberos password as the authentication method. You are prompted for the following information
that is required to connect to the Kerberos realm:
• The name of the Kerberos realm.
• A comma-separated list of Key Distribution Center (KDC) servers that can issue Kerberos tickets.
• A comma-separated list of Kerberos Administration Servers.
You can also select whether Kerberos should use DNS to resolve the host names of Kerberos servers and
to search for KDCs within the realm. DNS domains are typically coterminous with Kerberos realms.
You can use the following options with the authconfig command to configure Kerberos authentication
with LDAP or NIS:
--enablekrb5 Use Kerberos authentication. (Specify instead of --enableldapauth

for LDAP.)
--enablekrb5kdcdns Use DNS to resolve the host names of Kerberos servers.
--enablekrb5realmdns Use DNS to search for KDCs within a Kerberos realm.
--krb5adminserver=server Specify a Kerberos Administration Server.
--krb5kdc=server Specify a KDC server.
--krb5realm=realm Specify the name of the Kerberos realm.
3.5. Configuring and Using Pluggable Authentication Modules

The Pluggable Authentication Modules (PAM) feature is an authentication mechanism that allows you to
configure how applications use authentication to verify the identity of a user. The PAM configuration files,
which are located in the /etc/pam.d directory, describe the authentication procedure for an application.
The name of each configuration file is the same as, or is similar to, the name of the application for which
the module provides authentication. For example, the configuration files for passwd and sudo are named
passwd and sudo.
Each configuration file contains a list (stack) of calls to authentication modules. For example, the following
is the content of the login configuration file:
#%PAM-1.0
auth [user_unknown=ignore success=ok ignore=ignore default=bad] pam_securetty.so
auth include system-auth
account required pam_nologin.so
account include system-auth
password include system-auth
# pam_selinux.so close should be the first session rule
session required pam_selinux.so close
session required pam_loginuid.so
session optional pam_console.so
# pam_selinux.so open should only be followed by sessions to be executed in the user context
session required pam_selinux.so open
session required pam_namespace.so
session optional pam_keyinit.so force revoke
22
Configuring and Using Pluggable Authentication Modules
session include system-auth

-session optional pam_ck_connector.so
Comments in the file start with a # character. The remaining lines each define an operation type, a control
flag, the name of a module such as pam_rootok.so or the name of an included configuration file such as
system-auth, and any arguments to the module. PAM provides authentication modules as 32 and 64-bit
shared libraries in /lib/security and /lib64/security respectively.
For a particular operation type, PAM reads the stack from top to bottom and calls the modules listed in the
configuration file. Each module generates a success or failure result when called.
The following operation types are defined for use:
auth The module tests whether a user is authenticated or authorized to use a service or
application. For example, the module might request and verify a password. Such modules can
also set credentials, such as a group membership or a Kerberos ticket.
account The module tests whether an authenticated user is allowed access to a service or application.
For example, the module might check if a user account has expired or if a user is allowed to
use a service at a given time.
password The module handles updates to an authentication token.
session The module configures and manages user sessions, performing tasks such as mounting or
unmounting a user's home directory.
If the operation type is preceded with a dash (-), PAM does not add an create a system log entry if the
module is missing.
With the exception of include, the control flags tell PAM what to do with the result of running a module.
The following control flags are defined for use:
optional The module is required for authentication if it is the only module listed for a service.
required The module must succeed for access to be granted. PAM continues to execute the
remaining modules in the stack whether the module succeeds or fails. PAM does not
immediately inform the user of the failure.
requisite The module must succeed for access to be granted. If the module succeeds, PAM
continues to execute the remaining modules in the stack. However, if the module fails,
PAM notifies the user immediately and does not continue to execute the remaining
modules in the stack.
sufficient If the module succeeds, PAM does not process any remaining modules of the same
operation type. If the module fails, PAM processes the remaining modules of the same
operation type to determine overall success or failure.
The control flag field can also define one or more rules that specify the action that PAM should take
depending on the value that a module returns. Each rule takes the form value=action, and the rules are
enclosed in square brackets, for example:
[user_unknown=ignore success=ok ignore=ignore default=bad]
If the result returned by a module matches a value, PAM uses the corresponding action, or, if there is no
match, it uses the default action.
The include flag specifies that PAM must also consult the PAM configuration file specified as the
argument.
23
Configuring and Using Access Control Lists
Most authentication modules and PAM configuration files have their own manual pages. In addition, the
/usr/share/doc/pam-version directory contains the PAM System Administrator’s Guide (html/
Linux-PAM_SAG.html or Linux-PAM_SAG.txt) and a copy of the PAM standard (rfc86.0.txt).
For more information, see the pam(8) manual page. In addition, each PAM module has its own manual
page, for example pam_unix(8).
3.6. Configuring and Using Access Control Lists

POSIX Access Control Lists (ACLs) provide a richer access control model than traditional UNIX
Discretionary Access Control (DAC) that sets read, write, and execute permissions for the owner, group,
and all other system users. You can configure ACLs that define access rights for more than just a single
user or group, and specify rights for programs, processes, files, and directories. If you set a default ACL
on a directory, its descendents inherit the same rights automatically. The kernel provides ACL support for
ext3, ext4, and NFS-exported file systems.
The following are examples of setting and displaying ACLs for directories and files.
Grant read access to a file or directory by a user.

# setfacl -m u:user:r file
Display the name, owner, group, and ACL for a file or directory.
# getfacl file
Remove write access to a file for all groups and users by modifying the effective rights mask rather than
the ACL.
# setfacl -m m::rx file
Remove the entry for a group from the ACL of a file.

# setfacl -x g:group file
Copy the ACL of file f1 to file f2.

# getfacl f1 | setfacl --set-file=- f2
Promote the ACL settings of a directory to default ACL settings that can be inherited.
# getfacl --access dir | setfacl -d -M- dir
For more information on how to manage ACLs, see the setfacl(1) and getfacl(1) manual pages.
3.7. Configuring and Using SELinux

Traditional Linux security is based on a Discretionary Access Control (DAC) policy, which provides minimal
protection from broken software or from malware that is running as a normal user or as root. Access
to files and devices is based solely on user identity and ownership. Malware or broken software can do
anything with files and resources that the user that started the process can do. If the user is root or the
application is setuid or setgid to root, the process can have root-access control over the entire file
system.
The National Security Agency created Security Enhanced Linux (SELinux) to provide a finer-grained
level of control over files, processes, users and applications in the Linux operating system. The SELinux
enhancement to the Linux kernel implements the Mandatory Access Control (MAC) policy, which allows
24
Configuring and Using SELinux
you to define a security policy that provides granular permissions for all users, programs, processes,
files, and devices. The kernel's access control decisions are based on all the security relevant information
available, and not solely on the authenticated user identity.
When security-relevant access occurs, such as when a process attempts to open a file, SELinux intercepts
the operation in the kernel. If a MAC policy rule allows the operation, it continues; otherwise, SELinux
blocks the operation and returns an error to the process. The kernel checks and enforces DAC policy rules
before MAC rules, so it does not check SELinux policy rules if DAC rules have already denied access to a
resource.
The following table describes the SELinux packages that are installed by default with Oracle Linux:
Package Description
policycoreutils Provides utilities such as load_policy, restorecon, secon, setfiles,
semodule, sestatus, and setsebool for operating and managing
SELinux.
libselinux Provides the API that SELinux applications use to get and set process and
file security contexts, and to obtain security policy decisions.
selinux-policy Provides the SELinux Reference Policy, which is used as the basis for other
policies, such as the SELinux targeted policy.
selinux-policy- Provides support for the SELinux targeted policy, where objects outside the
targeted targeted domains run under DAC.
libselinux-python Contains Python bindings for developing SELinux applications.
libselinux-utils Provides the avcstat, getenforce, getsebool, matchpathcon,
selinuxconlist, selinuxdefcon, selinuxenabled, setenforce,
and togglesebool utilities.
The following table describes a selection of useful SELinux packages that are not installed by default:
Package Description
mcstrans Translates SELinux levels, such as s0-s0:c0.c1023, to an easier-to-read
form, such as SystemLow-SystemHigh.
policycoreutils-gui Provides a GUI (system-config-selinux) that you can use to manage
SELinux. For example, you can use the GUI to set the system default
enforcing mode and policy type.
policycoreutils- Provides additional Python utilities for operating SELinux, such as
python audit2allow, audit2why, chcat, and semanage.
selinux-policy-mls Provides support for the strict Multilevel Security (MLS) policy as an
alternative to the SELinux targeted policy.
setroubleshoot Provides the GUI that allows you to view setroubleshoot-server
messages using the sealert command.
setroubleshoot- Translates access-denial messages from SELinux into detailed descriptions
server that you can view on the command line using the sealert command.
setools-console Provides the Tresys Technology SETools distribution of tools and libraries,
which you can use to analyze and query policies, monitor and report audit
logs, and manage file context.
Use yum or another suitable package manager to install the SELinux packages that you require on your
system.
25
About SELinux Administration
For more information about SELinux, refer to the SELinux Project Wiki, the selinux(8) manual page,
and the manual pages for the SELinux commands.
3.7.1. About SELinux Administration

The following table describes the utilities that you can use to administer SELinux, and the packages that
contain each utility.
Utility Package Description

audit2allow policycoreutils- Generates SELinux policy allow_audit rules from
python logs of denied operations.
audit2why policycoreutils- Generates SELinux policy don’t_audit rules from
python logs of denied operations.
avcstat libselinux-utils Displays statistics for the SELinux Access Vector
Cache (AVC).
chcat policycoreutils- Changes or removes the security category for a file
python or user.
findcon setools-console Searches for file context.
fixfiles policycoreutils Fixes the security context for file systems.
getenforce libselinux-utils Reports the current SELinux mode.
getsebool libselinux-utils Reports SELinux boolean values.
indexcon setools-console Indexes file context.
load_policy policycoreutils Loads a new SELinux policy into the kernel.
matchpathcon libselinux-utils Queries the system policy and displays the default
security context that is associated with the file path.
replcon setools-console Replaces file context.
restorecon policycoreutils Resets the security context on one or more files.
restorecond policycoreutils Daemon that watches for file creation and sets the
default file context.
sandbox policycoreutils- Runs a command in an SELinux sandbox.
python
sealert setroubleshoot- Acts as the user interface to the setroubleshoot
server, system, which diagnoses and explains SELinux
setroubleshoot AVC denials and provides recommendations on how
to prevent such denials.
seaudit-report setools-console Reports from the SELinux audit log.
sechecker setools-console Checks SELinux policies.
secon policycoreutils Displays the SELinux context from a file, program,
or user input.
sediff setools-console Compares SELinux polices.
seinfo setools-console Queries SELinux policies.
selinuxconlist libselinux-utils Displays all SELinux contexts that are reachable by
a user.
selinuxdefcon libselinux-utils Displays the default SELinux context for a user.
selinuxenabled libselinux-utils Indicates whether SELinux is enabled.
26
About SELinux Modes
Utility Package Description

semanage policycoreutils- Manages SELinux policies.
python
semodule policycoreutils Manages SELinux policy modules.
semodule_deps policycoreutils Displays the dependencies between SELinux policy
packages.
semodule_expand policycoreutils Expands a SELinux policy module package.
semodule_link policycoreutils Links SELinux policy module packages together.
semodule_package policycoreutils Creates a SELinux policy module package.
sesearch setools-console Queries SELinux policies.
sestatus policycoreutils Displays the SELinux mode and the SELinux policy
that are in use.
setenforce libselinux-utils Modifies the SELinux mode.
setsebool policycoreutils Sets SELinux boolean values.
setfiles policycoreutils Sets the security context for one or more files.
system-config- policycoreutils-gui Provides a GUI that you can use to manage
selinux SELinux.
togglesebool libselinux-utils Flips the current value of an SELinux boolean.
3.7.2. About SELinux Modes

SELinux runs in one of three modes.
Disabled The kernel uses only DAC rules for access control. SELinux does not enforce any security
policy because no policy is loaded into the kernel.
Enforcing The kernel denies access to users and programs unless permitted by SELinux security
policy rules. All denial messages are logged as AVC (Access Vector Cache) denials. This
is the default mode that enforces SELinux security policy.
Permissive The kernel does not enforce security policy rules but SELinux sends denial messages to
a log file. This allows you to see what actions would have been denied if SELinux were
running in enforcing mode. This mode is intended to used for diagnosing the behavior of
SELinux.
3.7.3. Setting SELinux Modes

You can set the default and current SELinux mode in the Status view of the SELinux Administration GUI.
Alternatively, to display the current mode, use the getenforce command:

# getenforce
Enforcing
To set the current mode to Enforcing, enter:

# setenforce Enforcing
To set the current mode to Permissive, enter:

# setenforce Permissive
27
About SELinux Policies
The current value that you set for a mode using setenforce does not persist across reboots. To
configure the default SELinux mode, edit the configuration file for SELinux, /etc/selinux/config, and
set the value of the SELINUX directive to disabled, enabled, or permissive.
3.7.4. About SELinux Policies

An SELinux policy describes the access permissions for all users, programs, processes, and files, and
for the devices upon which they act. You can configure SELinux to implement either Targeted Policy or
Multilevel Security (MLS) Policy.
3.7.4.1. Targeted Policy

Applies access controls to a limited number of processes that are believed to be most likely to be the
targets of an attack on the system. Targeted processes run in their own SELinux domain, known as a
confined domain, which restricts access to files that an attacker could exploit. If SELinux detects that a
targeted process is trying to access resources outside the confined domain, it denies access to those
resources and logs the denial. Only specific services run in confined domains. Examples are services that
listen on a network for client requests, such as httpd, named, and sshd, and processes that run as root
to perform tasks on behalf of users, such as passwd. Other processes, including most user processes, run
in an unconfined domain where only DAC rules apply. If an attack compromises an unconfined process,
SELinux does not prevent access to system resources and data.
The following table lists examples of unconfined SELinux domains.
Unconfined Domain Description

initrc_t init and processes executed by init
kernel_t Kernel processes
unconfined_t Processes executed by Oracle Linux users
3.7.4.2. Multilevel Security (MLS) Policy

Applies access controls to multiple levels of processes with each level having different rules for user
access. Users cannot obtain access to information if they do not have the correct authorization to run
a process at a specific level. In SELinux, MLS implements the Bell–LaPadula (BLP) model for system
security, which applies labels to files, processes and other system objects to control the flow of information
between security levels. In a typical implementation, the labels for security levels might range from the
most secure, top secret, through secret, and classified, to the least secure, unclassified. For
example, under MLS, you might configure a program labelled secret to be able to write to a file that is
labelled top secret, but not to be able to read from it. Similarly, you would permit the same program to
read from and write to a file labelled secret, but only to read classified or unclassified files. As
a result, information that passes through the program can flow upwards through the hierarchy of security
levels, but not downwards.
Note
You must install the selinux-policy-mls package if you want to be able to

apply the MLS policy.
3.7.4.3. Setting SELinux Policies

Note
You cannot change the policy type of a running system.
28
About SELinux Context
You can set the default policy type in the Status view of the SELinux Administration GUI.
Alternatively, to configure the default policy type, edit /etc/selinux/config and set the value of the
SELINUXTYPE directive to targeted or mls.
3.7.4.4. Customizing SELinux Policies

You can customize an SELinux policy by enabling or disabling the members of a set of boolean values.
Any changes that you make take effect immediately and do not require a reboot.
You can set the boolean values in the Boolean view of the SELinux Administration GUI.
Alternatively, to display all boolean values together with a short description, use the following command:
# semanage boolean -l
SELinux boolean State Default Description
ftp_home_dir (off , off) Allow ftp to read and write files in the user home ...
smartmon_3ware (off , off) Enable additional permissions needed to support dev...
xdm_sysadm_login (off , off) Allow xdm logins as sysadm
.
.
.
You can use the getsebool and setsebool commands to display and set the value of a specific
boolean.
# getsebool boolean
# setsebool boolean on|off
For example, to display and set the value of the ftp_home_dir boolean:
# getsebool ftp_home_dir
ftp_home_dir --> off
# setsebool ftp_home_dir on
ftp_home_dir --> on
To toggle the value of a boolean, use the togglesebool command as shown in this example:
# togglesebool ftp_home_dir
ftp_home_dir: inactive
To make the value of a boolean persist across reboots, specify the -P option to setsebool, for example:
# setsebool -P ftp_home_dir on
ftp_home_dir --> on
3.7.5. About SELinux Context

Under SELinux, all file systems, files, directories, devices, and processes have an associated security
context. For files, SELinux stores a context label in the extended attributes of the file system. The context
contains additional information about a system object: the SELinux user, their role, their type, and the
security level. SELinux uses this context information to control access by processes, Linux users, and files.
You can specify the -Z option to certain commands (ls, ps, and id) to display the SELinux context with
the following syntax:
SELinux user:Role:Type:Level
where the fields are as follows:
29
SELinux user An SELinux user account compliments a regular Linux user account. SELinux maps
every Linux user to an SELinux user identity that is used in the SELinux context for the
processes in a user session.
Role In the Role-Based Access Control (RBAC) security model, a role acts as an intermediary
abstraction layer between SELinux process domains or file types and an SELinux
user. Processes run in specific SELinux domains, and file system objects are assigned
SELinux file types. SELinux users are authorized to perform specified roles, and roles
are authorized for specified SELinux domains and file types. A user's role determines
which process domains and file types he or she can access, and hence, which
processes and files, he or she can access.
Type A type defines an SELinux file type or an SELinux process domain. Processes are
separated from each other by running in their own domains. This separation prevents
processes from accessing files that other processes use, and prevents processes from
accessing other processes. The SELinux policy rules define the access that process
domains have to file types and to other process domains.
Level A level is an attribute of Multilevel Security (MLS) and Multicategory Security (MCS).
An MLS range is a pair of sensitivity levels, written as low_level-high_level. The
range can be abbreviated as low_level if the levels are identical. For example, s0
is the same as s0-s0. Each level has an optional set of security categories to which it
applies. If the set is contiguous, it can be abbreviated. For example, s0:c0.c3 is the
same as s0:c0,c1,c2,c3.
3.7.5.1. Displaying SELinux User Mapping

To display the mapping between SELinux and Linux user accounts, select the User Mapping view in the
the SELinux Administration GUI.
Alternatively, enter the following command to display the user mapping:

# semanage login -l
Login Name SELinux User MLS/MCS Range
__default__ unconfined_u s0-s0:c0.c1023

root unconfined_u s0-s0:c0.c1023
system_u system_u s0-s0:c0.c1023
By default, SELinux maps Linux users other than root and the default system-level user, system_u, to
the Linux __default__ user, and in turn to the SELinux unconfined_u user. The MLS/MCS Range is
the security level used by Multilevel Security (MLS) and Multicategory Security (MCS).
3.7.5.2. Displaying SELinux Context Information

To display the context information that is associated with files, use the ls -Z command:
# ls -Z
-rw-------. root root system_u:object_r:admin_home_t:s0 anaconda-ks.cfg
drwx------. root root unconfined_u:object_r:admin_home_t:s0 Desktop
-rw-r--r--. root root system_u:object_r:admin_home_t:s0 install.log
-rw-r--r--. root root system_u:object_r:admin_home_t:s0 install.log.syslog
To display the context information that is associated with a specified file or directory:
# ls -Z /etc/selinux/config
-rw-r--r--. root root system_u:object_r:selinux_config_t:s0 /etc/selinux/config
30
To display the context information that is associated with processes, use the ps -Z command:
# ps -Z
LABEL PID TTY TIME CMD
unconfined_u:unconfined_r:unconfined_t:s0-s0:c0.c1023 3038 pts/0 00:00:00 su
unconfined_u:unconfined_r:unconfined_t:s0-s0:c0.c1023 3044 pts/0 00:00:00 bash
unconfined_u:unconfined_r:unconfined_t:s0-s0:c0.c1023 3322 pts/0 00:00:00 ps
To display the context information that is associated with the current user, use the id -Z command:
# id -Z
unconfined_u:unconfined_r:unconfined_t:s0-s0:c0.c1023
3.7.5.3. Changing the Default File Type

Under some circumstances, you might need to change the default file type for a file system hierarchy. For
example, you might want to use a DocumentRoot directory other than /var/www/html with httpd.
To change the default file type of the directory hierarchy /var/webcontent as httpd_sys_content_t:
1. Use the semanage command to define the file type httpd_sys_content_t for the directory
hierarchy:
# /usr/sbin/semanage fcontext -a -t httpd_sys_content_t "/var/webcontent(/.*)?"
This command adds the following entry to the file /etc/selinux/targeted/contexts/files/

file_contexts.local:
/var/webcontent(/.*)? system_u:object_r:httpd_sys_content_t:s0
2. Use the restorecon command to apply the new file type to the entire directory hierarchy.
# /sbin/restorecon -R -v /var/webcontent
3.7.5.4. Restoring the Default File Type

To restore the default file type of the directory hierarchy /var/webcontent after previously changing it to
httpd_sys_content_t:
1. Use the semanage command to delete the file type definition for the directory hierarchy from the file /
etc/selinux/targeted/contexts/files/file_contexts.local:
# /usr/sbin/semanage fcontext -d "/var/webcontent(/.*)?"
2. Use the restorecon command to apply the default file type to the entire directory hierarchy.
# /sbin/restorecon -R -v /var/webcontent
3.7.5.5. Relabelling a File System

If you see an error message that contains the string file_t, the problem usually lies with a file system
having an incorrect context label.
To relabel a file system, use one of the following methods:
• In the Status view of the SELinux Administration GUI, select the Relabel on next reboot option.
• Create the file /.autorelabel and reboot the system.
• Run the fixfiles onboot command and reboot the system.
31
About SELinux Users
3.7.6. About SELinux Users

As described in Section 3.7.5, “About SELinux Context”, each SELinux user account compliments a regular
Oracle Linux user account. SELinux maps every Oracle Linux user to an SELinux user identity that is used
in the SELinux context for the processes in a user session.
SELinux users form part of a SELinux policy that is authorized for a specific set of roles and for a specific
MLS (Multi-Level Security) range, and each Oracle Linux user is mapped to an SELinux user as part of
the policy. As a result, Linux users inherit the restrictions and security rules and mechanisms placed on
SELinux users. To define the roles and levels of users, the mapped SELinux user identity is used in the
SELinux context for processes in a session. You can display user mapping in the User Mapping view of
the SELinux Administration GUI. You can also view the mapping between SELinux and Oracle Linux user
accounts from the command line:
# semanage login –l
Login Name SELinux User MLS/MCS Range
_default_ unconfined_u s0-s0:c0.c1023
root unconfined_u s0-s0:c0.c1023
system_u system_u s0-s0:c0.c1023
The MLS/MCS Range column displays the level used by MLS and MCS.
By default, Oracle Linux users are mapped to the SELinux user unconfined_u.
You can configure SELinux to confine Oracle Linux users by mapping them to SELinux users in confined
domains, which have predefined security rules and mechanisms as listed in the following table.
SELinux User SELinux Permit Permit Network Permit Logging Permit Executing
Domain Running Access? in Using Applications in
su? X Window $HOME and /tmp?
System?
guest_u guest_t No No No No
staff_u staff_t Yes Yes Yes Yes
user_u user_t No Yes Yes Yes
xguest_x xguest_t No Firefox only Yes No
3.7.6.1. Mapping Oracle Linux Users to SELinux Users

To map an Oracle Linux user oluser to an SELinux user such as user_u, use the semanage command:
# semanage login -a -s user_u oluser
3.7.6.2. Configuring the Behavior of Application Execution for Users

To help prevent flawed or malicious applications from modifying a user's files, you can use booleans to
specify whether users are permitted to run applications in directories to which they have write access, such
as in their home directory hierarchy and /tmp.
To allow Oracle Linux users in the guest_t and xguest_t domains to execute applications in directories
to which they have write access:
# setsebool -P allow_guest_exec_content on
# setsebool -P allow_xguest_exec_content on
To prevent Linux users in the staff_t and user_t domains from executing applications in directories to
which they have write access:
32
Configuring and Using Auditing
# setsebool -P allow_staff_exec_content off

# setsebool -P allow_user_exec_content off
3.8. Configuring and Using Auditing

Auditing collects data at the kernel level that you can analyze to identify unauthorized activity. Auditing
collects more data in greater detail than system logging, but most audited events are uninteresting
and insignificant. The process of examining audit trails to locate events of interest can be a significant
challenge that you will probably need to automate.
The audit configuration file, /etc/audit/auditd.conf, defines the data retention policy, the maximum
size of the audit volume, the action to take if the capacity of the audit volume is exceeded, and the
locations of local and remote audit trail volumes. The default audit trail volume is /var/log/audit/
audit.log. For more information, see the auditd.conf(5) manual page.
By default, auditing captures specific events such as system logins, modifications to accounts, and sudo
actions. You can also configure auditing to capture detailed system call activity or modifications to certain
files. The kernel audit daemon (auditd) records the events that you configure, including the event type, a
time stamp, the associated user ID, and success or failure of the system call.
The entries in the audit rules file, /etc/audit/audit.rules, determine which events are audited. Each
rule is a command-line option that is passed to the auditctl command. You should typically configure
this file to match your site's security policy.
The following are examples of rules that you might set in the /etc/audit/audit.rules file.
Record all unsuccessful exits from open and truncate system calls for files in the /etc directory
hierarchy.
-a exit,always -S open -S truncate -F /etc -F success=0
Record all files opened by a user with UID 10.

-a exit,always -S open -F uid=10
Record all files that have been written to or that have their attributes changed by any user who originally
logged in with a UID of 500 or greater.
-a exit,always -S open -F auid>=500 -F perm=wa
Record requests for write or file attribute change access to /etc/sudoers, and tag such record with the
string sudoers-change.
-w /etc/sudoers -p wa -k sudoers-change
Record requests for write and file attribute change access to the /etc directory hierarchy.
-w /etc/ -p wa
Require a reboot after changing the audit configuration. If specified, this rule should appear at the end of
the /etc/audit/audit.rules file.
-e 2
You can find more examples of audit rules in /usr/share/doc/audit-version/stig.rules, and in

the auditctl(8) and audit.rules(7) manual pages.
Stringent auditing requirements can impose a significant performance overhead and generate large
amounts of audit data. Some site security policies stipulate that a system must shut down if events cannot
33
Configuring and Using System Logging
be recorded because the audit volumes have exceeded their capacity. As a general rule, you should direct
audit data to separate file systems in rotation to prevent overspill and to facilitate backups.
You can use the -k option to tag audit records so that you can locate them more easily in an audit volume
with the ausearch command. For example, to examine records tagged with the string sudoers-change,
you would enter:
# ausearch -k sudoers-change
The aureport command generates summaries of audit data. You can set up cron jobs that run
aureport periodically to generate reports of interest. For example, the following command generates a
reports that shows every login event from 1 second after midnight on the previous day until the current
time:
# aureport -l -i -ts yesterday -te now
For more information, see the ausearch(8) and aureport(8) manual pages.
3.9. Configuring and Using System Logging

The log files contain messages about the system, kernel, services, and applications. For those files
that are controlled by the system logging daemon rsyslogd, the main configuration file is /etc/
rsyslog.conf, which contains global directives, module directives, and rules.
Global directives specify configuration options that apply to the rsyslogd daemon. All configuration
directives must start with a dollar sign ($) and only one directive can be specified on each line. The
following example specifies the maximum size of the rsyslog message queue:
$MainMsgQueueSize 50000
The available configuration directives are described in the file /usr/share/doc/rsyslog-version-

number/rsyslog_conf_global.html.
The design of rsyslog allows its functionality to be dynamically loaded from modules, which provide
configuration directives. To load a module, specify the following directive:
$ModLoad MODULE_name
Modules have the following main categories:
• Input modules gather messages from various sources. Input module names always start with the im
prefix (examples include imfile and imrelp).
• Filter modules allow rsyslogd to filter messages according to specified rules. The name of a filter
module always starts with the fm prefix.
• Library modules provide functionality for other loadable modules. rsyslogd loads library modules
automatically when required. You cannot configure the loading of library modules.
• Output modules provide the facility to store messages in a database or on other servers in a network, or
to encrypt them. Output module names always starts with the om prefix (examples include omsnmp and
omrelp).
• Message modification modules change the content of an rsyslog message.
• Parser modules allow rsyslogd to parse the message content of messages that it receives. The name
of a parser module always starts with the pm prefix.
34
• String generator modules generate strings based on the content of messages in cooperation with
rsyslog's template feature. The name of a string generator module always starts with the sm prefix.
Input modules receive messages, which pass them to one or more parser modules. A parser module
creates a representation of a message in memory, possibly modifying the message, and passes the
internal representation to output modules, which can also modify the content before outputting the
message.
A description of the available modules can be found at http://www.rsyslog.com/doc/

rsyslog_conf_modules.html.
An rsyslog rule consists of a filter part, which selects a subset of messages, and an action part,
which specifies what to do with the selected messages. To define a rule in the /etc/rsyslog.conf
configuration file, specify a filter and an action on a single line, separated by one or more tabs or spaces.
You can configure rsyslog to filter messages according to various properties. The most commonly used
filters are:
• Expression-based filters, written in the rsyslog scripting language, select messages according to
arithmetic, boolean, or string values.
• Facility/priority-based filters filter messages based on facility and priority values that take the form
facility.priority.
• Property-based filters filter messages by properties such as timegenerated or syslogtag.
The following table lists the available facility keywords for facility/priority-based filters:
Facility Keyword Description

auth, authpriv Security, authentication, or authorization messages.
cron crond messages.
daemon Messages from system daemons other than crond and rsyslogd.
kern Kernel messages.
lpr Line printer subsystem.
mail Mail system.
news Network news subsystem.
syslog Messages generated internally by rsyslogd.
user User-level messages.
UUCP UUCP subsystem.
local0 - local7 Local use.
The following table lists the available priority keywords for facility/priority-based filters, in ascending order
of importance:
Priority Keyword Description

debug Debug-level messages.
info Informational messages.
notice Normal but significant condition.
warning Warning conditions.
35
Priority Keyword Description

err Error conditions.
crit Critical conditions.
alert Immediate action required.
emerg System is unstable.
All messages of the specified priority and higher are logged according to the specified action. An asterisk
(*) wildcard specifies all facilities or priorities. Separate the names of multiple facilities and priorities on a
line with commas (,). Separate multiple filters on one line with semicolons (;). Precede a priority with an
exclamation mark (!) to select all messages except those with that priority.
The following are examples of facility/priority-based filters.
Select all kernel messages with any priority.

kern.*
Select all mail messages with crit or higher priority.

mail.crit
Select all daemon and kern messages with warning or err priority.
daemon,kern.warning,err
Select all cron messages except those with info or debug priority.
cron.!info,!debug
By default, /etc/rsyslog.conf includes the following rules:

# Log all kernel messages to the console.
# Logging much else clutters up the screen.
#kern.* /dev/console
# Log anything (except mail) of level info or higher.

# Don't log private authentication messages!
*.info;mail.none;authpriv.none;cron.none /var/log/messages
# The authpriv file has restricted access.

authpriv.* /var/log/secure
# Log all the mail messages in one place.

mail.* -/var/log/maillog
# Log cron stuff

cron.* /var/log/cron
# Everybody gets emergency messages

*.emerg *
# Save news errors of level crit and higher in a special file.

uucp,news.crit /var/log/spooler
# Save boot messages also to boot.log

local7.* /var/log/boot.log
You can send the logs to a central log server over TCP by adding the following entry to the forwarding
rules section of /etc/rsyslog.conf on each log client:
*.* @@logsvr:port
36
Configuring and Using Process Accounting
where logsvr is the domain name or IP address of the log server and port is the port number (usually,
514).
On the log server, add the following entry to the MODULES section of /etc/rsyslog.conf:
$ModLoad imtcp
$InputTCPServerRun port
where port corresponds to the port number that you set on the log clients.
To manage the rotation and archival of the correct logs, edit /etc/logrotate.d/syslog so that it
references each of the log files that are defined in the RULES section of /etc/rsyslog.conf. You can
configure how often the logs are rotated and how many past copies of the logs are archived by editing /
etc/logrotate.conf.
It is recommended that you configure Logwatch on your log server to monitor the logs for suspicious
messages, and disable Logwatch on log clients. However, if you do use Logwatch, disable high precision
timestamps by adding the following entry to the GLOBAL DIRECTIVES section of /etc/rsyslog.conf
on each system:
$ActionFileDefaultTemplate RSYSLOG_TraditionalFileFormat
For more information, see the logrotate(8), logwatch(8), rsyslogd(8) and rsyslog.conf(5)
manual pages, the HTML documentation in the /usr/share/doc/rsyslog-5.8.10 directory, and the
documentation at http://www.rsyslog.com/doc/manual.html.
3.10. Configuring and Using Process Accounting

The psacct package implements the process accounting service in addition to the following utilities that
you can use to monitor process activities:
ac Displays connection times in hours for a user as recorded in the wtmp file (by default, /var/
log/wtmp).
accton Turns on process accounting to the specified file. If you do not specify a file name argument,
process accounting is stopped. The default system accounting file is /var/account/pacct.
lastcomm Displays information about previously executed commands as recorded in the system
accounting file.
sa Summarizes information about previously executed commands as recorded in the system

accounting file.
Note
As for any logging activity, ensure that the file system has enough space to
store the system accounting and wtmp files. Monitor the size of the files and, if
necessary, truncate them.
For more information, see the ac(1), accton(8), lastcomm(1), and sa(8) manual pages.
3.11. Configuring and Using Software Management

Oracle Linux provides the yum utility which you can use to install or upgrade RPM packages. The main
benefit of using yum is that it also installs or upgrades any package dependencies. yum downloads
packages from repositories such as those that are available on the Oracle public yum server and the
37
Configuring and Using Software Management
Unbreakable Linux Network (ULN), but you can also set up your own repositories on systems that do not
have Internet access.
The Oracle public yum server is a convenient way to install Oracle Linux packages rather than installing
them from installation media. You can also subscribe to the Oracle Linux errata mailing list, and obtain bug
fixes, security fixes and enhancements. You can access the server at http://public-yum.oracle.com/.
If you have registered your system with ULN, you can use yum with the ULN channels to maintain the
software on your system
You can use the RPM package manager to verify the integrity of installed system files. The rpm -V
package and rpm -Vf filename commands verify packages and files respectively by comparing
them with package metadata in the RPM database. The verify operation compares file size, MD5 sum,
permissions, type, owner, and group and displays any discrepancies. To see more verbose information,
specify the -v option. You can use the rpm -qa command to verify the integrity of all the packages that
are installed on a system, for example:
# for i in `rpm -qa`
> do
> rpm -V $i > .tmp || echo -e "\nDiscepancies for package $i" && cat .tmp
> rm -f .tmp
> done
Discepancies for package gdm-2.30.4-33.0.1.el6_2.x86_64

.M....G.. /var/log/gdm
.M....... /var/run/gdm
missing /var/run/gdm/greeter
Discepancies for package libgcj-4.4.6-4.el6.x86_64

..5....T. c /usr/lib64/security/classpath.security
Discepancies for package sudo-1.7.4p5-12.el6_3.x86_64

S.5....T. c /etc/sudoers
Discepancies for package libcgroup-0.37-4.el6.x86_64

S.5....T. c /etc/cgconfig.conf
Discepancies for package yum-3.2.29-30.0.1.el6.noarch

.......T. c /etc/yum.conf
Discepancies for package kernel-2.6.32-279.el6.x86_64

.......T. /etc/ld.so.conf.d/kernel-2.6.32-279.el6.x86_64.conf
...
A string of character codes indicates the discrepancies between an installed file and the metadata for that
file. The following table lists the meanings of the character codes in the output from rpm -V:
Code Description of Difference

5 MD5 sum.
D Device major or minor number.
G Group ownership.
L Symbolic link path.
M Mode including permissions or file type.
P Capabilities.
S File size.
T Modification time.
U User ownership.
38
Configuring Update and Patch Management
Code Description of Difference

. None (test passed).
? Unknown (test could not be performed).
If displayed, a single character code preceding the affected file denotes the file type, and can take the
values shown in the following table:
Code Description
c Configuration file.
d Documentation file.
g Ghost file, whose file contents are not included in the package payload.
l License file.
r Readme file.
Most discrepancies are caused by editing the configuration files of subsystems. To see which files change
over time, create a baseline file of discrepancies immediately after installation, and diff this file against
the results found by rpm -V at a later date.
You can also use a file integrity checker to test whether a system has been compromised. There are
several available open source and commercial file integrity checking tools, including AIDE (Advanced
Intrusion Detection Environment) and Tripwire. AIDE and Tripwire are intrusion detection systems that
scan file systems and record cryptographic hashes of each file in a database. After creating the database,
you should then move it to a read-only medium to avoid tampering. On subsequent file system checks, the
tool alerts you if the stored checksums do not match those for the current files. For more information, see
the AIDE or Tripwire websites.
For more information about using yum, see the yum(8) manual page and the Oracle Linux Administrator's
Solutions Guide.
3.11.1. Configuring Update and Patch Management

Effective security practice relies on keeping system software up to date. It is therefore essential to apply
system security updates as soon as they are published. It is strongly recommended that you register every
IT system with an update management infrastructure. For Oracle Linux systems, the Unbreakable Linux
Network (ULN) tracks system software release levels, and advises you as soon as critical updates become
available. Updates and errata are also available at no charge from the Oracle public yum repository.
Updating the kernel or core system libraries typically requires a system reboot. In mission-critical enterprise
and cloud environments, crucial updates might not get installed until you reboot the systems during a
scheduled maintenance window. As a result, systems that support critical business applications could
be running while they are not protected from known vulnerabilities. To tackle this problem, Oracle Linux
Premier Support includes access to Ksplice Uptrack, which is an innovative technology that allows
administrators to apply security updates, patches, and critical bug fixes to the running kernel without
requiring a reboot. Ksplice Uptrack improves the security, reliability, and availability of Oracle Linux
systems by enabling zero downtime updates, helping to keep systems up to date without downtime or
service disruption.
For more information about Ksplice, see https://oss.oracle.com/ksplice/docs/ksplice-quickstart.pdf.
3.11.2. Installing and Using the Yum Security Plugin

The yum-plugin-security package allows you to use yum to obtain a list of all of the errata that are
available for your system, including security updates. You can also use Oracle Enterprise Manager 12c
39
Installing and Using the Yum Security Plugin
Cloud Control or management tools such as Katello, Pulp, Red Hat Satellite, Spacewalk, and SUSE
Manager to extract and display information about errata.
To install the yum-plugin-security package, enter the following command:

# yum install yum-plugin-security
To list the errata that are available for your system, enter:
# yum updateinfo list
Loaded plugins: refresh-packagekit, rhnplugin, security
ELBA-2012-1518 bugfix NetworkManager-1:0.8.1-34.el6_3.x86_64
ELBA-2012-1518 bugfix NetworkManager-glib-1:0.8.1-34.el6_3.x86_64
ELBA-2012-1518 bugfix NetworkManager-gnome-1:0.8.1-34.el6_3.x86_64
ELBA-2012-1457 bugfix ORBit2-2.14.17-3.2.el6_3.x86_64
ELBA-2012-1457 bugfix ORBit2-devel-2.14.17-3.2.el6_3.x86_64
ELSA-2013-0215 Important/Sec. abrt-2.0.8-6.0.1.el6_3.2.x86_64
ELSA-2013-0215 Important/Sec. abrt-addon-ccpp-2.0.8-6.0.1.el6_3.2.x86_64
ELSA-2013-0215 Important/Sec. abrt-addon-kerneloops-2.0.8-6.0.1.el6_3.2.x86_64
ELSA-2013-0215 Important/Sec. abrt-addon-python-2.0.8-6.0.1.el6_3.2.x86_64
ELSA-2013-0215 Important/Sec. abrt-cli-2.0.8-6.0.1.el6_3.2.x86_64
ELSA-2013-0215 Important/Sec. abrt-desktop-2.0.8-6.0.1.el6_3.2.x86_64
...
The output from the command sorts the available errata in order of their IDs, and it also specifies whether
each erratum is a security patch (severity/Sec.), a bug fix (bugfix), or a feature enhancement
(enhancement). Security patches are listed by their severity: Important, Moderate, or Low.
You can use the --sec-severity option to filter the security errata by severity, for example:
# yum updateinfo list --sec-severity=Moderate
ELSA-2013-0269 Moderate/Sec. axis-1.2.1-7.3.el6_3.noarch
ELSA-2013-0668 Moderate/Sec. boost-1.41.0-15.el6_4.x86_64
ELSA-2013-0668 Moderate/Sec. boost-date-time-1.41.0-15.el6_4.x86_64
ELSA-2013-0668 Moderate/Sec. boost-devel-1.41.0-15.el6_4.x86_64
ELSA-2013-0668 Moderate/Sec. boost-filesystem-1.41.0-15.el6_4.x86_64
ELSA-2013-0668 Moderate/Sec. boost-graph-1.41.0-15.el6_4.x86_64
ELSA-2013-0668 Moderate/Sec. boost-iostreams-1.41.0-15.el6_4.x86_64
ELSA-2013-0668 Moderate/Sec. boost-program-options-1.41.0-15.el6_4.x86_64
ELSA-2013-0668 Moderate/Sec. boost-python-1.41.0-15.el6_4.x86_64
...
To list the security errata by their Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures (CVE) IDs instead of their errata
IDs, specify the keyword cves as an argument:
# yum updateinfo list cves
CVE-2012-5659 Important/Sec. abrt-2.0.8-6.0.1.el6_3.2.x86_64
CVE-2012-5660 Important/Sec. abrt-2.0.8-6.0.1.el6_3.2.x86_64
CVE-2012-5659 Important/Sec. abrt-addon-ccpp-2.0.8-6.0.1.el6_3.2.x86_64
CVE-2012-5660 Important/Sec. abrt-addon-ccpp-2.0.8-6.0.1.el6_3.2.x86_64
CVE-2012-5659 Important/Sec. abrt-addon-kerneloops-2.0.8-6.0.1.el6_3.2.x86_64
CVE-2012-5660 Important/Sec. abrt-addon-kerneloops-2.0.8-6.0.1.el6_3.2.x86_64
CVE-2012-5659 Important/Sec. abrt-addon-python-2.0.8-6.0.1.el6_3.2.x86_64
CVE-2012-5660 Important/Sec. abrt-addon-python-2.0.8-6.0.1.el6_3.2.x86_64
...
Similarly, the keywords bugfix, enhancement, and security filter the list for all bug fixes,
enhancements, and security errata.
You can use the --cve option to display the errata that correspond to a specified CVE, for example:
# yum updateinfo list --cve CVE-2012-2677
40
Installing and Using the Yum Security Plugin
ELSA-2013-0668 Moderate/Sec. boost-1.41.0-15.el6_4.x86_64

ELSA-2013-0668 Moderate/Sec. boost-date-time-1.41.0-15.el6_4.x86_64
ELSA-2013-0668 Moderate/Sec. boost-devel-1.41.0-15.el6_4.x86_64
ELSA-2013-0668 Moderate/Sec. boost-filesystem-1.41.0-15.el6_4.x86_64
ELSA-2013-0668 Moderate/Sec. boost-graph-1.41.0-15.el6_4.x86_64
ELSA-2013-0668 Moderate/Sec. boost-iostreams-1.41.0-15.el6_4.x86_64
ELSA-2013-0668 Moderate/Sec. boost-program-options-1.41.0-15.el6_4.x86_64
ELSA-2013-0668 Moderate/Sec. boost-python-1.41.0-15.el6_4.x86_64
ELSA-2013-0668 Moderate/Sec. boost-regex-1.41.0-15.el6_4.x86_64
ELSA-2013-0668 Moderate/Sec. boost-serialization-1.41.0-15.el6_4.x86_64
ELSA-2013-0668 Moderate/Sec. boost-signals-1.41.0-15.el6_4.x86_64
ELSA-2013-0668 Moderate/Sec. boost-system-1.41.0-15.el6_4.x86_64
ELSA-2013-0668 Moderate/Sec. boost-test-1.41.0-15.el6_4.x86_64
ELSA-2013-0668 Moderate/Sec. boost-thread-1.41.0-15.el6_4.x86_64
ELSA-2013-0668 Moderate/Sec. boost-wave-1.41.0-15.el6_4.x86_64
updateinfo list done
To display more information, specify info instead of list, for example:

# yum updateinfo info --cve CVE-2012-2677
===============================================================================
boost security update
===============================================================================
Update ID : ELSA-2013-0668
Release : Oracle Linux 6
Type : security
Status : final
Issued : 2013-03-21
CVEs : CVE-2012-2677
Description : [1.41.0-15]
: - Add in explicit dependences between some boost
: subpackages
:
: [1.41.0-14]
: - Build with -fno-strict-aliasing
:
: [1.41.0-13]
: - In Boost.Pool, be careful not to overflow
: allocated chunk size (boost-1.41.0-pool.patch)
:
: [1.41.0-12]
: - Add an upstream patch that fixes computation of
: CRC in zlib streams.
: - Resolves: #707624
Severity : Moderate
updateinfo info done
To update all packages for which security-related errata are available to the latest versions of the
packages, even if those packages include bug fixes or new features but not security errata, enter:
# yum --security update
To update all packages to the latest versions that contain security errata, ignoring any newer packages that
do not contain security errata, enter:
# yum --security update-minimal
To update all kernel packages to the latest versions that contain security errata, enter:
# yum --security update-minimal kernel*
You can also update only those packages that correspond to a CVE or erratum, for example:
# yum update --cve CVE-2012-3954
41
Configuring Access to Network Services
# yum update --advisory ELSA-2012-1141
Note
Some updates might require you to reboot the system. By default, the boot
manager will automatically enable the most recent kernel version.
For more information, see the yum-security(8) manual page.
3.12. Configuring Access to Network Services

As networks are usually the primary point of entry point into IT systems, you can use network intrusion
prevention and detection tools to help avert or uncover a security breach. You can then take steps such as
disabling unused network services and configure a packet-filtering firewall and TCP wrappers.
There are several open-source tools for performing packet logging and analysis. For example, tcpdump
and Snort capture TCP traffic and analyze it for suspicious usage patterns, such as those that typically
occur with port scans or network DoS attacks. Sguil incorporates tcpdump, Snort, and the Wireshark
protocol analyzer to provide a network intrusion and detection system that simplifies log analysis and
reporting.
You can check what services are running on a system by using port scanning utilities. The following
examples show the information that the netstat, lsof, and nmap commands return about open TCP
ports and the associated services:
# netstat -tulp
Active Internet connections (only servers)
Proto Recv-Q Send-Q Local Address Foreign Address State PID/Program name
tcp 0 0 localhost:ipp *:* LISTEN 1657/cupsd
tcp 0 0 localhost:smtp *:* LISTEN 1987/master
tcp 0 0 localhost:29754 *:* LISTEN 2072/vpnagentd
tcp 0 0 *:amqp *:* LISTEN 2030/qpidd
tcp 0 0 *:56652 *:* LISTEN 1605/rpc.statd
tcp 0 0 *:sunrpc *:* LISTEN 1542/rpcbind
tcp 0 0 *:ssh *:* LISTEN 1887/sshd
tcp 0 0 localhost:ipp *:* LISTEN 1657/cupsd
tcp 0 0 localhost:smtp *:* LISTEN 1987/master
tcp 0 0 *:45534 *:* LISTEN 1605/rpc.statd
tcp 0 0 *:amqp *:* LISTEN 2030/qpidd
tcp 0 0 *:sunrpc *:* LISTEN 1542/rpcbind
tcp 0 0 localhost:47314 *:* LISTEN 2873/java
tcp 0 0 *:ssh *:* LISTEN 1887/sshd
udp 0 0 *:bootpc *:* 1584/dhclient
udp 0 0 *:44127 *:* 1605/rpc.statd
udp 0 0 *:sunrpc *:* 1542/rpcbind
udp 0 0 10.0.2.15:ntp *:* 1895/ntpd
udp 0 0 localhost:ntp *:* 1895/ntpd
udp 0 0 *:ntp *:* 1895/ntpd
udp 0 0 *:mdns *:* 1580/avahi-daemon
udp 0 0 *:ipp *:* 1657/cupsd
udp 0 0 *:869 *:* 1542/rpcbind
udp 0 0 *:33669 *:* 1580/avahi-daemon
udp 0 0 *:933 *:* 1605/rpc.statd
udp 0 0 *:sunrpc *:* 1542/rpcbind
udp 0 0 localhost:ntp *:* 1895/ntpd
udp 0 0 fe80::a00:27ff:fe16:c333:ntp *:* 1895/ntpd
udp 0 0 *:ntp *:* 1895/ntpd
udp 0 0 *:44822 *:* 1605/rpc.statd
udp 0 0 *:869 *:* 1542/rpcbind
# lsof -iTCP -sTCP:LISTEN

COMMAND PID USER FD TYPE DEVICE SIZE/OFF NODE NAME
rpcbind 1542 rpc 8u IPv4 11032 0t0 TCP *:sunrpc (LISTEN)
42
Configuring and Using Packet-filtering Firewalls
rpcbind 1542 rpc 11u IPv6 11037 0t0 TCP *:sunrpc (LISTEN)
rpc.statd 1605 rpcuser 9u IPv4 11201 0t0 TCP *:56652 (LISTEN)
rpc.statd 1605 rpcuser 11u IPv6 11207 0t0 TCP *:45534 (LISTEN)
cupsd 1657 root 6u IPv6 12375 0t0 TCP localhost:ipp (LISTEN)
cupsd 1657 root 7u IPv4 12376 0t0 TCP localhost:ipp (LISTEN)
sshd 1887 root 3u IPv4 13541 0t0 TCP *:ssh (LISTEN)
sshd 1887 root 4u IPv6 13543 0t0 TCP *:ssh (LISTEN)
master 1987 root 12u IPv4 13081 0t0 TCP localhost:smtp (LISTEN)
master 1987 root 13u IPv6 13083 0t0 TCP localhost:smtp (LISTEN)
qpidd 2030 qpidd 10u IPv4 13257 0t0 TCP *:amqp (LISTEN)
qpidd 2030 qpidd 11u IPv6 13258 0t0 TCP *:amqp (LISTEN)
vpnagentd 2072 root 15u IPv4 13823 0t0 TCP localhost:29754 (LISTEN)
java 2873 guest 7u IPv6 20694 0t0 TCP localhost:47314 (LISTEN)
# nmap -sTU 10.0.2.15
Starting Nmap 5.51 ( http://nmap.org ) at 2012-12-10 09:37 GMT

Nmap scan report for 10.0.2.15
Host is up (0.0017s latency).
Not shown: 1993 closed ports
PORT STATE SERVICE
22/tcp open ssh
111/tcp open rpcbind
68/udp open|filtered dhcpc
111/udp open rpcbind
123/udp open ntp
631/udp open|filtered ipp
5353/udp open|filtered zeroconf
Nmap done: 1 IP address (1 host up) scanned in 12.66 seconds
For more information, see the lsof(8), netstat(8), and nmap(1) manual pages.
Caution
Before installing or using the nmap command, check the local legislation relating
to port scanning software. In some jurisdictions, the possession or use of port
scanning software is considered as unlawful criminal activity. Some ISPs might also
have acceptable use policies that forbid using such software outside of your private
networks.
3.12.1. Configuring and Using Packet-filtering Firewalls

A packet filtering firewall filters incoming and outgoing network packets based on the packet header
information. You can create packet filter rules that determine whether packets are accepted or rejected.
For example, if you create a rule to block a port, any request is made to that port that is blocked by the
firewall, and the request is ignored. Any service that is listening on a blocked port is effectively disabled.
The Oracle Linux kernel uses the Netfilter feature to provide packet filtering functionality for IPv4 and IPv6
packets respectively.
Netfilter consist of two components:
• A netfilter kernel component consisting of a set of tables in memory for the rules that the kernel
uses to control network packet filtering.
• The iptables and ip6tables utilities to create, maintain, and display the rules that netfilter
stores.
To implement a simple, general-purpose firewall, you can use the Firewall Configuration GUI (system-
config-firewall) to create basic Netfilter rules. To create a more complex firewall configuration, use
the iptables and ip6tables utilities to configure the packet filtering rules.
43
Netfilter records the packet filtering rules in the /etc/sysconfig/iptables and /etc/sysconfig/
ip6tables files, which netfilter reads when it is initialized.
The netfilter tables include:
Filter The default table, which is mainly used to drop or accept packets based on their content.
Mangle This table is used to alter certain fields in a packet.
NAT The Network Address Translation table is used to route packets that create new connections.
The kernel uses the rules stored in these tables to make decisions about network packet filtering. Each
rule consists of one or more criteria and a single action. If a criterion in a rule matches the information in a
network packet header, the kernel applies the action to the packet. Examples of actions include:
ACCEPT Continue processing the packet.
DROP End the packet’s life without notice.
REJECT As DROP, and additionally notify the sending system that the packet was blocked.
Rules are stored in chains, where each chain is composed of a default policy plus zero or more rules. The
kernel applies each rule in a chain to a packet until a match is found. If there is no matching rule, the kernel
applies the chain’s default action (policy) to the packet.
Each netfilter table has several predefined chains. The filter table contains the following chains:
FORWARD Packets that are not addressed to the local system pass through this chain.
INPUT Inbound packets to the local system pass through this chain.
OUTPUT Locally created packets pass through this chain.
The chains are permanent and you cannot delete them. However, you can create additional chains in the
filter table.
For more information, see the iptables(8) and ip6tables(8) manual pages.
3.12.1.1. Listing Firewall Rules

Use the iptables -L command to list firewall rules for the chains of the filter table. The following
example shows the default rules for a newly installed system:
# iptables -L
Chain INPUT (policy ACCEPT)
target prot opt source destination
ACCEPT all -- anywhere anywhere state RELATED,ESTABLISHED
ACCEPT icmp -- anywhere anywhere
ACCEPT all -- anywhere anywhere
ACCEPT tcp -- anywhere anywhere state NEW tcp dpt:ssh
ACCEPT udp -- anywhere anywhere state NEW udp dpt:ipp
ACCEPT udp -- anywhere 224.0.0.251 state NEW udp dpt:mdns
ACCEPT tcp -- anywhere anywhere state NEW tcp dpt:ipp
ACCEPT udp -- anywhere anywhere state NEW udp dpt:ipp
REJECT all -- anywhere anywhere reject-with icmp-host-prohibited
Chain FORWARD (policy ACCEPT)

REJECT all -- anywhere anywhere reject-with icmp-host-prohibited
Chain OUTPUT (policy ACCEPT)

44
In this example, the default policy for each chain is ACCEPT. A more secure system could have a default
policy of DROP, and the additional rules would only allow specific packets on a case-by-case basis.
If you want to modify the chains, specify the --line-numbers option to see how the rules are numbered.
# iptables -L --line-numbers
num target prot opt source destination
1 ACCEPT all -- anywhere anywhere state RELATED,ESTABLISHED
2 ACCEPT icmp -- anywhere anywhere
3 ACCEPT all -- anywhere anywhere
4 ACCEPT tcp -- anywhere anywhere state NEW tcp dpt:ssh
5 ACCEPT udp -- anywhere anywhere state NEW udp dpt:ipp
6 ACCEPT udp -- anywhere 224.0.0.251 state NEW udp dpt:mdns
7 ACCEPT tcp -- anywhere anywhere state NEW tcp dpt:ipp
9 REJECT all -- anywhere anywhere reject-with icmp-host-prohibited


3.12.1.2. Inserting Rules in a Chain

Use the iptables -I command to insert a rule in a chain. For example, the following command inserts a
rule in the INPUT chain to allow access by TCP on port 80:
# iptables -I INPUT 4 -p tcp -m tcp --dport 80 -j ACCEPT
# iptables -L --line-numbers
1 ACCEPT all -- anywhere anywhere state RELATED,ESTABLISHED
2 ACCEPT icmp -- anywhere anywhere
3 ACCEPT all -- anywhere anywhere
4 ACCEPT tcp -- anywhere anywhere tcp dpt:http
5 ACCEPT tcp -- anywhere anywhere state NEW tcp dpt:ssh
7 ACCEPT udp -- anywhere 224.0.0.251 state NEW udp dpt:mdns
8 ACCEPT tcp -- anywhere anywhere state NEW tcp dpt:ipp


The output from iptables -L shows that the new entry has been inserted as rule 4, and the old rules
4 through 9 are pushed down to positions 5 through 10. The TCP destination port of 80 is represented as
http, which corresponds to the following definition in the /etc/services file (the HTTP daemon listens
for client requests on port 80):
http 80/tcp www www-http # WorldWideWeb HTTP
3.12.1.3. Deleting Rules in a Chain

Use the iptables -D command to delete a rule in a chain. For example, the following command deletes
rule 4 from the INPUT chain:
45
Configuring and Using TCP Wrappers
# iptables -D INPUT 4
3.12.2. Configuring and Using TCP Wrappers

TCP wrappers provide basic filtering of incoming network traffic. You can allow or deny access from other
systems to certain wrapped network services running on a Linux server. A wrapped network service is one
that has been compiled against the libwrap.a library. You can use the ldd command to determine if a
network service has been wrapped as shown in the following example for the sshd daemon:
# ldd /usr/sbin/sshd | grep libwrap
libwrap.so.0 => /lib64/libwrap.so.0 (0x00007f877de07000)
When a remote client attempts to connect to a network service on the system, the wrapper consults the
rules in the configuration files /etc/hosts.allow and /etc/hosts.deny files to determine if access is
permitted.
The wrapper for a service first reads /etc/hosts.allow from top to bottom. If the daemon and client
combination matches an entry in the file, access is allowed. If the wrapper does not find a match in /etc/
hosts.allow, it reads /etc/hosts.deny from top to bottom. If the daemon and client combination
matches and entry in the file, access is denied. If no rules for the daemon and client combination are found
in either file, or if neither file exists, access to the service is allowed.
The wrapper first applies the rules specified in /etc/hosts.allow, so these rules take precedence over
the rules specified in /etc/hosts.deny. If a rule defined in /etc/hosts.allow permits access to a
service, any rule in /etc/hosts.deny that forbids access to the same service is ignored.
The rules take the following form:

daemon_list : client_list [: command] [: deny]
where daemon_list and client_list are comma-separated lists of daemons and clients, and
the optional command is run when a client tries to access a daemon. You can use the keyword ALL to
represent all daemons or all clients. Subnets can be represented by using the * wildcard, for example
192.168.2.*. Domains can be represented by prefixing the domain name with a period (.), for example
.mydomain.com. The optional deny keyword causes a connection to be denied even for rules specified in
the /etc/hosts.allow file.
The following are some sample rules.
Match all clients for scp, sftp, and ssh access (sshd).
sshd : ALL
Match all clients on the 192.168.2 subnet for FTP access (vsftpd).
vsftpd : 192.168.2.*
Match all clients in the mydomain.com domain for access to all wrapped services.
ALL : .mydomain.com
Match all clients for FTP access, and displays the contents of the banner file /etc/banners/vsftpd (the
banner file must have the same name as the daemon).
vsftpd : ALL : banners /etc/banners/
Match all clients on the 200.182.68 subnet for all wrapped services, and logs all such events. The %c and
%d tokens are expanded to the names of the client and the daemon.
46
Configuring and Using Chroot Jails
ALL : 200.182.68.* : spawn /bin/echo `date` “Attempt by %c to connect to %d" >> /var/log/tcpwrappers.log
Match all clients for scp, sftp, and ssh access, and logs the event as an emerg message, which is
displayed on the console.
sshd : ALL : severity emerg
Match all clients in the forbidden.com domain for scp, sftp, and ssh access, logs the event, and deny
access (even if the rule appears in /etc/hosts.allow).
sshd : .forbidden.com : spawn /bin/echo `date` "sshd access denied for %c" >>/var/log/sshd.log : deny
For more information, see the hosts_access(5) manual page.
3.13. Configuring and Using Chroot Jails

A chroot operation changes the apparent root directory for a running process and its children. It allows
you to run a program with a root directory other than /. The program cannot see or access files outside the
designated directory tree. Such an artificial root directory is called a chroot jail, and its purpose is to limit
the directory access of a potential attacker. The chroot jail locks down a given process and any user ID that
it is using so that all they see is the directory in which the process is running. To the process, it appears
that the directory in which it is running is the root directory.
Note
The chroot mechanism cannot defend against intentional tampering or low-level

access to system devices by privileged users. For example, a chroot root user
could create device nodes and mount file systems on them. A program can also
break out of a chroot jail if it can gain root privilege and use chroot() to change
its current working directory to the real root directory. For this reason, you should
ensure that a chroot jail does not contain any setuid or setgid executables that
are owned by root.
For a chroot process to be able to start successfully, you must populate the chroot directory with all
required program files, configuration files, device nodes, and shared libraries at their expected locations
relative to the level of the chroot directory.
3.13.1. Running DNS and FTP Services in a Chroot Jail

If the DNS name service daemon (named) runs in a chroot jail, any hacker that enters your system via a
BIND exploit is isolated to the files under the chroot jail directory. Installing the bind-chroot package
creates the /var/named/chroot directory, which becomes the chroot jail for all BIND files.
You can configure the vsftpd FTP server to automatically start chroot jails for clients. By default,
anonymous users are placed in a chroot jail. However, local users that access an vsftpd FTP server
are placed in their home directory. Specify the chroot_local_user=YES option in the /etc/vsftpd/
vsftpd.conf file to place local users in a chroot jail based on their home directory.
3.13.2. Creating a Chroot Jail

To create a chroot jail:
1. Create the directory that will become the root directory of the chroot jail, for example:
# mkdir /home/oracle/jail
47
Using a Chroot Jail
2. Use the ldd command to find out which libraries are required by the command that you intend to run in
the chroot jail, for example /bin/bash:
# ldd /bin/bash
linux-vdso.so.1 => (0x00007fff56fcc000)
libtinfo.so.5 => /lib64/libtinfo.so.5 (0x0000003ad1200000)
libdl.so.2 => /lib64/libdl.so.2 (0x0000003abe600000)
libc.so.6 => /lib64/libc.so.6 (0x0000003abe200000)
/lib64/ld-linux-x86-64.so.2 (0x0000003abde00000)
3. Create subdirectories of the chroot jail's root directory that have the same relative paths as the
command binary and its required libraries have to the real root directory, for example:
# mkdir /home/oracle/jail/bin
# mkdir /home/oracle/jail/lib64
4. Copy the binary and the shared libraries to the directories under the chroot jail's root directory, for
example:
# cp /bin/bash /home/oracle/jail/bin
# cp /lib64/{libtinfo.so.5,libdl.so.2,libc.so.6,ld-linux-x86-64.so.2} \
/home/oracle/jail/lib64
3.13.3. Using a Chroot Jail

To run a command in a chroot jail in an existing directory (chroot_jail), use the following command:
# chroot chroot_jail command
If you do not specify a command argument, chroot runs the value of the SHELL environment variable or /
bin/sh if SHELL is not set.
For example, to run /bin/bash in a chroot jail (having previously set it up as described in Section 3.13.2,
“Creating a Chroot Jail”):
# chroot /home/oracle/jail
bash-4.1# pwd
/
bash-4.1# ls
bash: ls: command not found
bash-4.1# exit
exit
#
You can run built-in shell commands such as pwd in this shell, but not other commands unless you have
copied their binaries and any required shared libraries to the chroot jail.
For more information, see the chroot(1) manual page.
3.14. Configuring and Using Linux Containers

Note
Linux Containers (LXC) are available in Oracle Linux 6 with the Unbreakable
Enterprise Kernel (2.6.29 or above). LXC is a Technology Preview feature that is
made available for testing and evaluation purposes, but is not recommended for
production systems.
The LXC feature provides a way to isolate a group of processes from other processes that are running
on an Oracle Linux system. LXC is a lightweight operating system virtualization technology that uses the
48
Configuring and Using Kernel Security Mechanisms
control group (cgroup) feature to provide resource management and namespace isolation in a similar
manner to chroot. Within a container, processes can have their own private view of the operating system
with its own process ID space, file system structure, and network interfaces.
See the Oracle Linux Administrator's Solutions Guide for more information on how to configure and use
Linux Containers.
3.15. Configuring and Using Kernel Security Mechanisms

The Linux kernel features some additional security mechanisms that you can use to enhance the security
of a system. These mechanisms randomize the layout of a process's address space or prevent code from
being executed in non-executable memory.
3.15.1. Address Space Layout Randomization

Address Space Layout Randomization (ASLR) can help defeat certain types of buffer overflow attacks.
ASLR can locate the base, libraries, heap, and stack at random positions in a process's address
space, which makes it difficult for an attacking program to predict the memory address of the next
instruction. ASLR is built into the Linux kernel and is controlled by the parameter /proc/sys/kernel/
randomize_va_space. The randomize_va_space parameter can take the following values:
0 Disable ASLR. This setting is applied if the kernel is booted with the norandmaps boot parameter.
1 Randomize the positions of the stack, virtual dynamic shared object (VDSO) page, and shared memory
regions. The base address of the data segment is located immediately after the end of the executable
code segment.
2 Randomize the positions of the stack, VDSO page, shared memory regions, and the data segment.
This is the default setting.
You can change the setting temporarily by writing a new value to /proc/sys/kernel/
randomize_va_space, for example:
# echo value > /proc/sys/kernel/randomize_va_space
To change the value permanently, add the setting to /etc/sysctl.conf, for example:
kernel.randomize_va_space = value
and run the sysctl -p command.
If you change the value of randomize_va_space, you should test your application stack to ensure that it
is compatible with the new setting.
If necessary, you can disable ASLR for a specific program and its child processes by using the following
command:
% setarch `uname -m` -R program [args ...]
3.15.2. Data Execution Prevention

The Data Execution Prevention (DEP) feature prevents an application or service from executing code
in a non-executable memory region. Hardware-enforced DEP works in conjunction with the NX (Never
eXecute) bit on compatible CPUs. Oracle Linux does not emulate the NX bit in software for CPUs that do
not implement the NX bit in hardware.
You cannot disable the DEP feature.
49
Position Independent Executables
3.15.3. Position Independent Executables

The Position Independent Executables (PIE) feature loads executable binaries at random memory
addresses so that the kernel can disallow text relocation. To generate a position-independent binary:
• Specify the -fpie option to gcc when compiling.
• Specify the -pie option to ld when linking.
To test whether a binary or library is relocatable, use the following command:

# readelf -d elfname | grep TEXTREL
50
Chapter 4. Security Considerations for Developers
Table of Contents
4.1. Design Principles for Secure Coding ........................................................................................... 51
4.2. General Guidelines for Secure Coding ........................................................................................ 52
4.3. General Guidelines for Network Programs .................................................................................. 53
This chapter provides information for developers about how to create secure applications for Oracle Linux,
and how to extend Oracle Linux to access external systems without compromising security.
4.1. Design Principles for Secure Coding

The following well-established design principles are recommended for secure coding:
Least privilege A process or user should be given only those privileges that are
necessary to complete a task. User privileges should be assigned
according to their role, but not otherwise. To create a minimal protection
domain, assign rights when a process or thread requires them and
remove them afterwards. This principle limits the potential damage that
can result from attacks and user errors.
Economy of mechanism Keep the design simple. There is less to go wrong, fewer
inconsistencies are possible, and the code is easier to understand and
debug.
Complete mediation Check every attempt to access to a resource, not just the first. For
example, Linux checks access permissions when a process opens a file
but not thereafter. If a file's permissions change while a process has the
file open, unauthorized access can result. Ideally, one could argue that
the permissions should be checked whenever an open file is accessed.
In practise, such checking is considered to be an unnecessary overhead
given the circumstances under which access was first obtained.
Open design Security should not depend on the secrecy of the code's design or
implementation, sometimes referred to as security through obscurity.
For example, an open back door to a system is only as secure as the
knowledge of its existence. Of course, this principle does not apply
to information such as passwords or cryptographic keys, knowledge
of which should also be shared among as few people as possible.
For this reason, many secure authentication schemes also rely on
biometric identification or the possession of a physical artifact such a
hardware token or smart card, in addition to knowledge of a PIN code or
password.
Separation of privilege Divide the code into modules, where each module requires a specific,
limited set of privileges to perform a specific task. Typically, multiple
privileges should be required to grant access to a sensitive operation.
This principle ensures separation of duty and provides defense in depth.
For example, a main thread that has no privileges can generate a
privileged thread to perform a task. A successful attack against the main
thread thus gains minimal access to the system.
51
General Guidelines for Secure Coding
Least common mechanism A system should isolate users and their activities from each other. Users
should not share processes or threads and information channels should
not be shared between users.
Fail-safe defaults The default action should be to deny access to an operation. Should an
attempt to perform an operation be denied, the system is as secure as it
was before the operation started.
Accountability Log the user and their privileges for each action that he or she attempts
to perform. Any logs should be capable of being rotated and archived to
avoid filling up a file system.
Psychological acceptability Security mechanisms should be easy to install, configure, and use so
that a user is less tempted to try to bypass them.
4.2. General Guidelines for Secure Coding

The following coding practices are recommended:
• Check that input data is what the program expects by performing type, length, and bound checking.
Inputs include command-line arguments and environment variables in addition to data that a user enters.
• Check input data for the inclusion of constructs such as shell commands, SQL statements, and XML and
HTML code that might be used in an injection attack.
• Check the type, length, and bounds of arguments to system calls and library routines. If possible, use
library routines that guard against buffer overflows.
• Use full pathnames for file-name arguments, do not use files in world-writable directories, verify that a file
being written to is not actually a symbolic link, and protect against the unintended overwriting of existing
files.
• Check the type, length, and bounds of values returned by system calls and library routines. Make the
code respond appropriately to any error codes that system calls and library functions set or return.
• Do not assume the state of the shell environment. Check any settings that a program inherits from the
shell, such as the user file-creation mask, signal handling, file descriptors, current working directory, and
environment variables, especially PATH and IFS . Reset the settings if necessary.
• Perform assert checking on variables that can take a finite set of values.
• Log information about privileged actions and error conditions. Do not allow the program to dump a core
file on an end-user system.
• Do not echo passwords to the screen, or transmit or store them as clear text. Before transmitting or
storing a password, combine it with a salt value and use a secure one-way algorithm such as SHA-512
to create a hash.
• If your program uses a pseudo-random number generating routine, verify that the numbers that it
generates are sufficiently random for your requirements. You should also use a good random seed that a
potential attacker should not be able to predict. See RFC 4086, Randomness Requirements for Security,
for more information.
• It is recommended that Address Space Layout Randomization (ASLR) is enabled on the host system as
this feature can help defeat certain types of buffer overflow attacks. See Section 3.15.1, “Address Space
Layout Randomization”.
52
General Guidelines for Network Programs
• When compiling and linking your program, use the Position Independent Executables (PIE) feature to
generate a position-independent binary. See Section 3.15.3, “Position Independent Executables”.
• Consider using chroot() to confine the operating boundary of your program to a specified location
within a file system.
• Do not execute a shell command by calling popen() or syscall() from within a program, especially
from a setuid or setgid program.
The following guidelines apply if your program has its setuid or setgid bit set so that it can perform
privileged actions on behalf of a user who does not possess those privileges:
• Do not set the setuid or setgid bit on shell scripts. However, if you use Perl scripts that are setuid
or setgid, perl runs in taint mode, which is claimed to be more secure than using the equivalent C
code. See the perlsec(1) manual page for details.
• Restrict the use of the privilege that setuid or setgid grants to the functionality that requires it, and
then return the effective UID or GID to that of the user. If possible, perform the privileged functionality in
a separate, closely-monitored thread or process.
• Do not allow a setuid or setgid program to execute child processes using execlp() or execvp(),
which use the PATH environment variable.
4.3. General Guidelines for Network Programs

The following coding practices are recommended for network programs:
• Perform a reverse lookup on an IP address to obtain the fully qualified domain name, and then use that
domain name look up the IP address. The two IP addresses should be identical.
• Protect a service against Denial of Service (DoS) attacks by allowing it to stop processing requests if it
becomes overloaded.
• Set timeouts on read and write requests over the network.
• Check the content, bounds, value, and type of data received over the network, and reject any data that
does not conform to what the program expects.
• Use certificates or preshared keys to authenticate the local and remote ends of the network connection.
• Use a well-established technology such as TLS or SSL to encrypt data sent over the network
connection.
• Wherever possible, use existing networking protocols and technologies whose security characteristics
are well known.
• Log information about successful and unsuccessful connection attempts, data reception and
transmission errors, and changes to the service state.
53
54
Chapter 5. Secure Deployment Checklist
Table of Contents
5.1. Minimizing the Software Footprint ............................................................................................... 55
5.2. Configuring System Logging ....................................................................................................... 56
5.3. Disabling Core Dumps ............................................................................................................... 57
5.4. Minimizing Active Services ......................................................................................................... 57
5.5. Locking Down Network Services ................................................................................................ 60
5.6. Configuring a Packet-filtering Firewall ......................................................................................... 61
5.7. Configuring TCP Wrappers ........................................................................................................ 61
5.8. Configuring Kernel Parameters ................................................................................................... 61
5.9. Restricting Access to SSH Connections ...................................................................................... 62
5.10. Configuring File System Mounts, File Permissions, and File Ownerships ..................................... 62
5.11. Checking User Accounts and Privileges .................................................................................... 64
The sections in this chapter provide guidelines that help secure your Oracle Linux system.
5.1. Minimizing the Software Footprint

On systems on which Oracle Linux has been installed, remove unneeded RPMs to minimize the software
footprint. For example, you could uninstall the X Windows package (xorg-x11-server-Xorg) if it is not
required on a server system.
To discover which package provides a given command or file, use the yum provides command as
shown in the following example:
# yum provides /usr/sbin/sestatus
...
policycoreutils-2.0.83-19.24.0.1.el6.x86_64 : SELinux policy core utilities
Repo : installed
Matched from:
Other : Provides-match: /usr/sbin/sestatus
To display the files that a package provides, use the repoquery utility, which is included in the yum-
utils package. For example, the following command lists the files that the btrfs-progs package
provides.
# repoquery -l btrfs-progs
/sbin/btrfs
/sbin/btrfs-convert
/sbin/btrfs-debug-tree
.
.
.
To uninstall a package, use the yum remove command, as shown in this example:
# yum remove xinetd
Loaded plugins: refresh-packagekit, security
Setting up Remove Process
Resolving Dependencies
--> Running transaction check
---> Package xinetd.x86_64 2:2.3.14-35.el6_3 will be erased
--> Finished Dependency Resolution
Dependencies Resolved
================================================================================
55
Configuring System Logging
Package Arch Version Repository Size

================================================================================
Removing:
xinetd x86_64 2:2.3.14-35.el6_3 @ol6_latest 259 k
Transaction Summary
================================================================================
Remove 1 Package(s)
Installed size: 259 k

Is this ok [y/N]: y
Downloading Packages:
Running rpm_check_debug
Running Transaction Test
Transaction Test Succeeded
Running Transaction
Erasing : 2:xinetd-2.3.14-35.el6_3.x86_64 1/1
Verifying : 2:xinetd-2.3.14-35.el6_3.x86_64 1/1
Removed:
xinetd.x86_64 2:2.3.14-35.el6_3
Complete!
The following table lists packages that you should not install or that you should remove using yum remove
if they are already installed.
Package Description
krb5-appl-clients Kerberos versions of ftp, rcp, rlogin, rsh and telnet. If
possible, use SSH instead.
rsh, rsh-server rcp, rlogin, and rsh use unencrypted communication that
can be snooped. Use SSH instead.
samba Network services used by Samba. Remove this package if the
system is not acting as an Active Directory server, a domain
controller, or as a domain member, and it does not provide
Microsoft Windows file and print sharing functionality.
talk, talk-server talk is considered obsolete.
telnet, telnet-server telnet uses unencrypted communication that can be
snooped. Use SSH instead.
tftp, tftp-server TFTP uses unencrypted communication that can be snooped.
Use only if required to support legacy hardware. If possible,
use SSH or other secure protocol instead.
xinetd The security model used by the Internet listener daemon is
deprecated.
ypbind, ypserv The security model used by NIS is inherently flawed. Use an
alternative such as LDAP or Kerberos instead.
5.2. Configuring System Logging

Verify that the system logging service rsyslog is running:
# service rsyslog status
rsyslogd (pid 1632) is running...
If the service is not running, start it and enable it to start when the system is rebooted:
# service rsyslog start
56
Disabling Core Dumps
# chkconfig rsyslog on
Ensure that each log file referenced in /etc/rsyslog.conf exists and is owned and only readable by
root:
# touch logfile
# chown root:root logfile
# chmod 0600 logfile
It is also recommended that you use a central log server and that you configure Logwatch on that server.
See Section 3.9, “Configuring and Using System Logging”.
5.3. Disabling Core Dumps

Core dumps can contain information that an attacker might be able to exploit and they take up a large
amount of disk space. To prevent the system creating core dumps when the operating system terminates a
program due to a segment violation or other unexpected error, add the following line to /etc/security/
limits.conf:
* hard core 0
You can restrict access to core dumps to certain users or groups, as described in the limits.conf(5)
manual page.
By default, the system prevents setuid and setgid programs, programs that have changed credentials,
and programs whose binaries do not have read permission from dumping core. To ensure that the setting
is permanently recorded, add the following lines to /etc/sysctl.conf:
# Disallow core dumping by setuid and setgid programs
fs.suid_dumpable = 0
and then run the sysctl -p command.
Note
A value of 1 permits core dumps that are readable by the owner of the dumping
process. A value of 2 permits core dumps that are readable only by root for
debugging purposes.
5.4. Minimizing Active Services

Restrict services to only those that a server requires. The default installation for an Oracle Linux server
configures a minimal set of services:
cupsd and lpd (print services)
sendmail (email delivery service)
sshd (openSSH services)
If possible, configure one type of service per physical machine, virtual machine, or Linux Container. This
technique limits exposure if a system is compromised.
If a service is not used, remove the software packages that are associated with the service. If it is not
possible to remove a service because of software dependencies, use the chkconfig and service
commands to disable the service.
For services that are in use, apply the latest Oracle support patches and security updates to keep software
packages up to date. To protect against unauthorized changes, ensure that the /etc/services file is
owned by root and writable only by root.
57
Minimizing Active Services
# ls -Z /etc/services
-rw-r--r--. root root system_u:object_r:etc_t:SystemLow /etc/services
Unless specifically stated otherwise, consider disabling the services in the following table if they are not
used on your system:
Service Description
anacron Executes commands periodically. Primarily intended for use on laptop and user
desktop machines that do not run continuously.
apmd (Advanced Power Management Daemon) Provides information on power
management and battery status, and allows programmed response to power
management events. Primarily intended for use on laptop machines.
automount Manages mount points for the automatic file-system mounter. Disable this
service on servers that do not require automounter functionality.
bluetooth Supports the connections of Bluetooth devices. Primarily intended for use on
laptop and user desktop machines. Bluetooth provides an additional potential
attack surface. Disable this service on servers that do not require Bluetooth
functionality.
firstboot Configures a system when you first log in after installation. Controlled by the
/etc/rc.d/init.d/firstboot script. firstboot does not run unless
RUN_FIRSTBOOT=YES is set in /etc/sysconfig/firstboot. If /etc/
reconfigSys exists or if you specify reconfig in the kernel boot arguments,
firstboot runs in reconfiguration mode. Disable this service on servers
following successful installation.
gpm (General Purpose Mouse) Provides support for the mouse pointer in a text
console.
haldaemon (Hardware Abstraction Layer Daemon) Maintains a real-time database of the
devices that are connected to a system. Applications can use the HAL API to
discover and interact with newly attached devices. Primarily intended for use
on laptop and user desktop machines to support hot-plug devices.
Caution
Do not disable this service. Many applications rely on

this functionality.
hidd (Bluetooth Human Interface Device daemon) Provides support for Bluetooth
input devices such as a keyboard or mouse. Primarily intended for use on
laptop and user desktop machines. Bluetooth provides an additional potential
attack surface. Disable this service on servers that do not require Bluetooth
functionality.
irqbalance Distributes hardware interrupts across processors on a multiprocessor system.
Disable this service on servers that do not require this functionality.
iscsi Controls logging in to iSCSI targets and scanning of iSCSI devices. Disable this
service on servers that do not access iSCSI devices.
iscsid Implements control and management for the iSCSI protocol. Disable this
service on servers that do not access iSCSI devices.
kdump Allows a kdump kernel to be loaded into memory at boot time or a kernel dump
to be saved if the system panics. Disable this service on servers that you do
not use for debugging or testing.
mcstrans Controls the SELinux Context Translation System service.
58
Minimizing Active Services
Service Description
mdmonitor Checks the status of all software RAID arrays on the system. Disable this
service on servers that do not use software RAID.
messagebus Broadcasts notifications of system events and other messages relating to
hardware events via the system-wide D-BUS message bus.
Caution
Do not disable this service. Many applications rely on

this functionality.
microcode_ctl Runs microcode that is required for IA32 processors only. Disable this service
on servers that do not have such processors.
pcscd (PC/SC Smart Card Daemon) Supports communication with smart-card
readers. Primarily intended for use on laptop and user desktop machines to
support smart-card authentication. Disable this service on servers that do not
use smart-card authentication.
sandbox Sets up /tmp, /var/tmp, and home directories to be used with the
pam_namespace, sandbox, and xguest application confinement utilities.
Disable this service if you do not use these programs.
setroubleshoot Controls the SELinux Troubleshooting service, which provides information
about SELinux Access Vector Cache (AVC) denials to the sealert tool.
smartd Communicates with the Self-Monitoring, Analysis and Reporting Technology
(SMART) systems that are integrated into many ATA-3 and later, and SCSI-3
disk drives. SMART systems monitor disk drives to measure reliability, predict
disk degradation and failure, and perform drive testing.
xfs Caches fonts in memory to improve the performance of X Window System
applications.
You should consider disabling the following network services if they are not used on your system:
Service Description
avahi-daemon Implements Apple's Zero configuration networking (also known as Rendezvous
or Bonjour). Primarily intended for use on laptop and user desktop machines
to support music and file sharing. Disable this service on servers that do not
require this functionality.
cups Implements the Common UNIX Printing System. Disable this service on
servers that do not need to provide this functionality.
hplip Implements HP Linux Imaging and Printing to support faxing, printing, and
scanning operations on HP inkjet and laser printers. Disable this service on
servers that do not require this functionality.
isdn (Integrated Services Digital Network) Provides support for network connections
over ISDN devices. Disable this service on servers that do not directly control
ISDN devices.
netfs Mounts and unmounts network file systems, including NCP, NFS, and SMB.
Disable this service on servers that do not require this functionality.
network Activates all network interfaces that are configured to start at boot time.
NetworkManager Switches network connections automatically to use the best connection that is
available.
59
Locking Down Network Services
Service Description
nfslock Implements the Network Status Monitor (NSM) used by NFS. Disable this
service on servers that do not require this functionality.
nmb Provides NetBIOS name services used by Samba. Disable this service and
remove the samba package if the system is not acting as an Active Directory
server, a domain controller, or as a domain member, and it does not provide
portmap Implements Remote Procedure Call (RPC) support for NFS. Disable this
service on servers that do not require this functionality.
rhnsd Queries the Unbreakable Linux Network (ULN) for updates and information.
rpcgssd Used by NFS. Disable this service on servers that do not require this
functionality.
rpcidmapd Used by NFS. Disable this service on servers that do not require this
functionality.
smb Provides SMB network services used by Samba. Disable this service and
remove the samba package if the system is not acting as an Active Directory
server, a domain controller, or as a domain member, and it does not provide
To stop a service and prevent it from starting when you reboot the system, used the following commands:
# service service_name stop
# chkconfig service_name off
Alternatively, use the Service Configuration GUI (system-config-services) to configure services.
5.5. Locking Down Network Services

Note
It is recommended that you do not install the xinetd Internet listener daemon.
If you do not need this service, remove the package altogether by using the yum
remove xinetd command.
If you must enable xinetd on your system, minimize the network services that xinetd can launch by
disabling those services that are defined in the configuration files in /etc/xinetd.d and which are not
needed.
To counter potential Denial of Service (DoS) attacks, you can configure the resource limits for such
services by editing /etc/xinetd.conf and related configuration files. For example, you can set limits for
the connection rate, the number of connection instances to a service, and the number of connections from
an IP address:
# Maximum number of connections per second and
# number of seconds for which a service is disabled
# if the maximum number of connections is exceeded
cps = 50 10
# Maximum number of connections to a service

instances = 50
# Maximum number of connections from an IP address

per_source = 10
For more information, see the xinetd(8) and /etc/xinetd.conf(5) manual pages.
60
Configuring a Packet-filtering Firewall
5.6. Configuring a Packet-filtering Firewall

You can configure the Netfilter feature to act as a packet-filtering firewall that uses rules to determine
whether network packets are received, dropped, or forwarded.
The primary interfaces for configuring the packet-filter rules are the iptables and ip6tables utilities
and the Firewall Configuration Tool GUI (system-config-firewall). By default, the rules should drop
any packets that are not destined for a service that the server hosts or that originate from networks other
than those to which you want to allow access.
In addition, Netfilter provides Network Address Translation (NAT) to hide IP addresses behind a public IP
address, and IP masquerading to alter IP header information for routed packets. You can also set rule-
based packet logging and define a dedicated log file in /etc/syslog.conf.
For more information, see Section 3.12.1, “Configuring and Using Packet-filtering Firewalls”.
5.7. Configuring TCP Wrappers

The TCP wrappers feature mediates requests from clients to services, and control access based on rules
that you define in the /etc/hosts.deny and /etc/hosts.allow files. You can restrict and permit
service access for specific hosts or whole networks. A common way of using TCP wrappers is to detect
intrusion attempts. For example, if a known malicious host or network attempts to access a service, you
can deny access and send a warning message about the event to a log file or to the system console.
For more information, see Section 3.12.2, “Configuring and Using TCP Wrappers”.
5.8. Configuring Kernel Parameters

You can use several kernel parameters to counteract various kinds of attack.
kernel.randomize_va_space controls Address Space Layout Randomization (ASLR), which can help
defeat certain types of buffer overflow attacks. A value of 0 disables ASLR, 1 randomizes the positions of
the stack, virtual dynamic shared object (VDSO) page, and shared memory regions, and 2 randomizes
the positions of the stack, VDSO page, shared memory regions, and the data segment. The default and
recommended setting is 2.
net.ipv4.conf.all.accept_source_route controls the handling of source-routed packets, which

might have been generated outside the local network. A value of 0 rejects such packets, and 1 accepts
them. The default and recommended setting is 0.
net.ipv4.conf.all.rp_filter controls reversed-path filtering of received packets to counter IP

address spoofing. A value of 0 disables source validation, 1 causes packets to be dropped if the routing
table entry for their source address does not match the network interface on which they arrive, and 2
causes packets to be dropped if source validation by reversed path fails (see RFC 1812). The default
setting is 0. A value of 2 can cause otherwise valid packets to be dropped if the local network topology is
complex and RIP or static routes are used.
net.ipv4.icmp_echo_ignore_broadcasts controls whether ICMP broadcasts are ignored to protect

against Smurf DoS attacks. A value of 1 ignores such broadcasts, and 0 accepts them. The default and
net.ipv4.icmp_ignore_bogus_error_message controls whether ICMP bogus error message

responses are ignored. A value of 1 ignores such messages, and 0 accepts them. The default and
61
Restricting Access to SSH Connections
To change the value of a kernel parameter, add the setting to /etc/sysctl.conf, for example:
kernel.randomize_va_space = 1
and then run the sysctl -p command.
5.9. Restricting Access to SSH Connections

The Secure Shell (SSH) allows protected, encrypted communication with other systems. As SSH
is an entry point into the system, disable it if it is not required, or alternatively, edit the /etc/ssh/
sshd_config file to restrict its use.
For example, the following setting does not allow root to log in using SSH:
PermitRootLogin no
You can restrict remote access to certain users and groups by specifying the AllowUsers,
AllowGroups, DenyUsers, and DenyGroups settings, for example:
DenyUsers carol dan
AllowUsers alice bob
The ClientAliveInterval and ClientAliveCountMax settings cause the SSH client to time out
automatically after a period of inactivity, for example:
# Disconnect client after 300 seconds of inactivity
ClientAliveCountMax 0
ClientAliveInterval 300
After making changes to the configuration file, restart the sshd service for your changes to take effect.
For more information, see the sshd_config(5) manual page.
5.10. Configuring File System Mounts, File Permissions, and File

Ownerships
Use separate disk partitions for operating system and user data to prevent a file system full issue from
impacting the operation of a server. For example, you might create separate partitions for /home, /tmp, p,
/oracle, and so on.
Establish disk quotas to prevent a user from accidentally or intentionally filling up a file system and denying
access to other users.
To prevent the operating system files and utilities from being altered during an attack, mount the /usr file
system read-only. If you need to update any RPMs on the file system, use the -o remount,rw option
with the mount command to remount /usr for both read and write access. After performing the update,
use the -o remount,ro option to return the /usr file system to read-only mode.
To limit user access to non-root local file systems such as /tmp or removable storage partitions, specify
the -o noexec, nosuid, nodev options to mount. These option prevent the execution of binaries (but
not scripts), prevent the setuid bit from having any effect, and prevent the use of device files.
Use the find command to check for unowned files and directories on each file system, for example:
# find mount_point -mount -type f -nouser -o -nogroup -exec ls -l {} \;
# find mount_point -mount -type d -nouser -o -nogroup -exec ls -l {} \;
62
Configuring File System Mounts, File Permissions, and File Ownerships
Unowned files and directories might be associated with a deleted user account, they might indicate an
error with software installation or deleting, or they might a sign of an intrusion on the system. Correct
the permissions and ownership of the files and directories that you find, or remove them. If possible,
investigate and correct the problem that led to their creation.
Use the find command to check for world-writable directories on each file system, for example:
# find mount_point -mount -type d -perm /o+w -exec ls -l {} \;
Investigate any world-writable directory that is owned by a user other than a system user. The user can
remove or change any file that other users write to the directory. Correct the permissions and ownership of
the directories that you find, or remove them.
You can also use find to check for setuid and setgid executables.
# find path -type f $ -perm -4000 -o -perm -2000 $ -exec ls -l {} \;
If the setuid and setgid bits are set, an executable can perform a task that requires other rights, such
as root privileges. However, buffer overrun attacks can exploit such executables to run unauthorized code
with the rights of the exploited process.
If you want to stop a setuid and setgid executable from being used by non-root users, you can use
the following commands to unset the setuid or setgid bit:
# chmod u-s file
# chmod g-s file
For example, you could use the chmod command to unset the setuid bit for the /bin/ping6 command:
# ls -al /bin/ping6
-rwsr-xr-x. 1 root root 36488 May 20 2011 /bin/ping6
# chmod u-s /bin/ping6
# ls -al /bin/ping6
-rwxr-xr-x. 1 root root 36488 May 20 2011 /bin/ping6
The following table lists programs for which you might want to consider unsetting setuid and setgid:
Program File Bit Set Description of Usage

/bin/ping setuid Sends an ICMP ECHO_REQUEST to a network host.
/bin/ping6 setuid Sends an ICMPv6 ECHO_REQUEST to a network host.
/bin/cgexec setgid Runs a task in a control group.
/sbin/mount.nfs setuid Mounts an NFS file system.
Note
/sbin/mount.nfs4, /sbin/
umount.nfs, and /sbin/
umount.nfs4 are symbolic links to this
file.
/sbin/netreport setgid Requests notification of changes to network interfaces.
/usr/bin/chage setuid Finds out password aging information (via the -l option).
/usr/bin/chfn setuid Changes finger information.
/usr/bin/chsh setuid Changes the login shell.
/usr/bin/crontab setuid Edits, lists, or removes a crontab file.
63
Checking User Accounts and Privileges
Program File Bit Set Description of Usage

/usr/bin/wall setgid Sends a system-wide message.
/usr/bin/write setgid Sends a message to another user.
/usr/bin/Xorg setuid Invokes the X Windows server.
/usr/libexec/openssh/ setuid Runs the SSH helper program for host-based authentication.
ssh-keysign
/usr/sbin/suexec setuid Switches user before executing external CGI and SSI
programs. This program is intended to be used by the
Apache HTTP server. For more information, see http://
httpd.apache.org/docs/2.2/suexec.html.
/usr/sbin/usernetctl setuid Controls network interfaces. Permission for a user to alter the
state of a network inerface also requires USERCTL=yes to be
set in the interface file. You can also grant users and groups
the privilege to run the ip command by creating a suitable
entry in the /etc/sudoers file.
Note
This list is not exhaustive as many optional packages contain setuid and setgid
programs.
5.11. Checking User Accounts and Privileges

Check the system for unlocked user accounts on a regular basis, for example using a command such as
the following:
# for u in `cat /etc/passwd | cut -d: -f1 | sort`; do passwd -S $u; done
abrt LK 2012-06-28 0 99999 7 -1 (Password locked.)
adm LK 2011-10-13 0 99999 7 -1 (Alternate authentication scheme in use.)
apache LK 2012-06-28 0 99999 7 -1 (Password locked.)
avahi LK 2012-06-28 0 99999 7 -1 (Password locked.)
avahi-autoipd LK 2012-06-28 0 99999 7 -1 (Password locked.)
bin LK 2011-10-13 0 99999 7 -1 (Alternate authentication scheme in use.)
...
In the output from this command, the second field shows if a user account is locked (LK), does not have a
password (NP), or has a valid password (PS). The third field shows the date on which the user last changed
their password. The remaining fields show the minimum age, maximum age, warning period, and inactivity
period for the password and additional information about the password's status. The unit of time is days.
Use the passwd command to set passwords on any accounts that are not protected.
Use passwd -l to lock unused accounts. Alternatively, use userdel to remove the accounts entirely.
For more information, see the passwd(1) and userdel(8) manual pages.
To specify how users' passwords are aged, edit the following settings in the /etc/login.defs file:
Setting Description
PASS_MAX_DAYS Maximum number of days for which a password can be used before it must be
changed. The default value is 99,999 days.
PASS_MIN_DAYS Minimum number of days that is allowed between password changes. The
default value is 0 days.
64
Setting Description
PASS_WARN_AGE Number of days warning that is given before a password expires. The default
value is 7 days.
For more information, see the login.defs(5) manual page.
To change how long a user's account can be inactive before it is locked, use the usermod command. For
example, to set the inactivity period to 30 days:
# usermod -f 30 username
To change the default inactivity period for new user accounts, use the useradd command:
# useradd -D -f 30
A value of -1 specifies that user accounts are not locked due to inactivity.
For more information, see the useradd(8) and usermod(8) manual pages.
Verify that no user accounts other than root have a user ID of 0.

# awk -F":" '$3 == 0 { print $1 }' /etc/passwd
root
If you install software that creates a default user account and password, change the vendor's default
password immediately. Centralized user authentication using an LDAP implementation such as OpenLDAP
can help to simplify user authentication and management tasks, and also reduces the risk arising from
unused accounts or accounts without a password.
By default, an Oracle Linux system is configured so that you cannot log in directly as root. You must log
in as a named user before using either su or sudo to perform tasks as root. This configuration allows
system accounting to trace the original login name of any user who performs a privileged administrative
action. If you want to grant certain users authority to be able to perform specific administrative tasks via
sudo, use the visudo command to modify the /etc/sudoers file. For example, the following entry
grants the user erin the same privileges as root when using sudo, but defines a limited set of privileges
to frank so that he can run commands such as chkconfig, service, rpm, and yum:
erin ALL=(ALL) ALL
frank ALL= SERVICES, SOFTWARE
Oracle Linux supports the pluggable authentication modules (PAM) feature, which makes it easier to
enforce strong user authentication and password policies, including rules for password complexity, length,
age, expiration and the reuse of previous passwords. You can configure PAM to block user access after
too many failed login attempts, after normal working hours, or if too many concurrent sessions are opened.
PAM is highly customizable by its use of different modules with customisable parameters. For example,
the default password integrity checking module pam_cracklib.so tests password strength. The PAM
configuration file (/etc/pam.d/system-auth) contains the following default entries for testing a
password's strength:
password requisite pam_cracklib.so try_first_pass retry=3 type=
password sufficient pam_unix.so sha512 shadow nullok try_first_pass use_authtok
password required pam_deny.so
The line for pam_cracklib.so defines that a user gets three attempts to choose a good password.
From the module's default settings, the password length must a minimum of six characters, of which three
characters must be different from the previous password.
65
The line for pam_unix.so specifies that the module is not to perform password checking (pam_cracklib
will already have performed such checks), to use SHA-512 password hashing, to allow access if the
existing password is null, and to use the /etc/shadow file.
You can modify the control flags and module parameters to change the checking that is performed when a
user changes his or her password, for example:
password required pam_cracklib.so retry=3 minlen=8 difok=5 minclass=-1
password required pam_unix.so use_authtok sha512 shadow remember=5
password required pam_deny.so
The line for pam_cracklib.so defines that a user gets three attempts to choose a good password with
a minimum of eight characters, of which five characters must be different from the previous password, and
which must contain at least one upper case letter, one lower case letter, one numeric digit, and one non-
alphanumeric character.
The line for pam_unix.so specifies that the module is not to perform password checking, to use
SHA-512 password hashing, to use the /etc/shadow file, and to save information about the previous five
passwords for each user in the /etc/security/opasswd file. As nullok is not specified, a user cannot
change his or her password if the existing password is null.
The omission of the try_first_pass keyword means that the user is always asked for their existing
password, even if he or she entered it for the same module or for a previous module in the stack.
Alternative modules are available for password checking, such as pam_passwdqc.so.
For more information, see Section 3.5, “Configuring and Using Pluggable Authentication Modules” and the
pam_cracklib(8), pam_deny(8), pam_passwdqc(8), and pam_unix(8) manual pages.
66

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3.11.2. Installing and Using the Yum Security Plugin .......................................................... 39

Access to Oracle Support

This chapter provides an overview of Oracle Linux security.

1.1. Basic Security Considerations

1.1.1. Keep Software up to Date

1.1.2. Restrict Network Access to Critical Services

1.1.3. Follow the Principle of Least Privilege

1.1.4. Monitor System Activity

1.1.5. Keep up to Date on the Latest Security Information

1.2. The Oracle Linux Security Model

1.3. Overview of Oracle Linux Security

1.4. Understanding the Oracle Linux Environment

Which resources am I Many resources in the production environment can be protected,

1.5. Recommended Deployment Configurations

Figure 1.1. Simple Firewall Deployment Configuration

Figure 1.2. DMZ Deployment Configuration

• Block any traffic types that are not permitted.

1.6. Component Security

NSA SELinux Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ): http://www.nsa.gov/research/selinux/faqs.shtml.

SELinux Project Wiki: http://selinuxproject.org/page/Main_Page.

2.1. Pre-Installation Tasks

Setting a BIOS, encrypted disk, or boot-loader password requires you to enter

2.2. Installing Oracle Linux

2.2.1. Shadow Passwords and Hashing Algorithms

2.2.2. Strong Passwords

Some general guidelines for creating a strong password are:

• Make the password at least eight characters long.

• Do not use well-known acronyms, abbreviations, or character sequences such as QWERTY.

2.2.3. Separate Disk Partitions

For more information, see http://www.nsa.gov/ia/_files/factsheets/rhel5-pamphlet-i731.pdf.

2.2.4. Encrypted Disk Partitions

The /boot file system cannot be encrypted.

2.2.5. Software Selection

2.2.6. Network Time Service

2.3. Post-Installation Tasks

3.1. Configuring and Using Data Encryption

Oracle Linux systems provide several strategies for protecting data:

3.2. Configuring a GRUB Password

Password protecting GRUB access prevents unauthorized users from entering

To configure a GRUB password:

where pwhash is the hash value that grub-md5-crypt returned.

3.3. Configuring and Using Certificate Management

For production environments, you should obtain external CA-signed certificates,

3.3.1. About the openssl Command

• Creating and managing pairs of private and public keys.

• Performing public key cryptographic operations.

• Creating self-signed certificates.

• Creating certificate signing requests (CSRs).

• Creating certificate revocation lists (CRLs).

• Converting certificate files between various formats.

• Calculating message digests.

• Encrypting and decrypting files.

• Verifying, encrypting and signing S/MIME email.

• Generating and testing prime numbers, and generating pseudo-random data.

The following are some sample openssl commands.

# openssl req -x509 -nodes -days 365 -subj '/C=US/ST=Ca/L=Sunnydale/CN=www.unserdom.com' \