CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Sodium cooled Fast breeder Reactors (SFR) have primary, secondary

and auxiliary circuits with liquid sodium as the coolant. The safe and economic
operation of the fast breeder reactor systems depends on the successful monitoring
of flow and other process parameters accurately in different circuits. The specific
focus of the research topic is on the advancements in flow measurement techniques
in the pipelines of primary, secondary and auxiliary sodium circuits of fast
reactors.

1.1 Sodium Cooled Fast Breeder Reactors

Development of sustainable energy resources with minimum

environmental impact is very much essential for future generation. Along with other
sustainable energy sources, nuclear power is an inevitable option for producing
electricity without carbon dioxide emission. Electricity from commercial nuclear
power plants is a significant contributor towards meeting the energy needs
throughout the world. Around 11 % of the electrical energy generated in the world
today is from nuclear reactors [1]. To harness energy from abundantly available
fertile isotopes, fast neutron reactors with closed fuel cycle are being deployed.
Fast neutron reactors, when fueled with plutonium, have the potential for breeding
new fuel by neutron capture in uranium-238 isotope which forms 99.3% of natural
uranium and Thorium-232. In the Indian context, development of fast breeder
reactor technology, which is capable to convert the large resources of fertile
Thorium available in the country to fissile Uranium-233 isotope, is essential.

Breeding ratio is an important parameter in fast breeder reactors and is

defined as the ratio of fissile isotopes produced to the fissile isotopes consumed.
A breeding ratio of upto 1.2 can be achieved by selecting suitable combination of

1
fuel, coolant, structural materials and core configurations. Power generated per unit
volume in fast reactor is high and hence liquid metal is the preferred coolant. The
Generation IV International Forum (GIF) with thirteen countries as members has a
co-operative international endeavor to carry out research and development (R&D)
needed to establish the feasibility and performance capabilities of the next
generation nuclear energy systems [2]. GIF selected six reactor technologies for
further research and development, which include SFR. This shows the
international importance of SFR. SFRs are generally classified into two types.
They are loop type and pool type. Figure 1.1 gives schematic Fast breeder test
reactor (FBTR) which is a loop type SFR of 40 MWt and 15 MWe [3]. In the loop
type design of SFR, the reactor vessel, primary sodium pumps and intermediate heat
exchangers (IHX) are installed separately and connected by double wall piping.
The heat generated by fission reaction in the reactor core is transferred to liquid
sodium circulated through the core by the primary centrifugal sodium pumps. Hot
radioactive sodium coming out of the reactor vessel is passed through the IHXs,
where it transfers heat to the secondary non radioactive sodium passing through
the tube side of IHXs. Non radioactive, hot secondary sodium is admitted to sodium
heated steam generators, where water in the tube side is heated and superheated
steam is produced. The superheated steam is admitted to the turbine which is
coupled to the alternator to produce electricity.

FBTR

PFBR

Fig. 1.1: Schematic of FBTR [3]

Figure 1.2 is the schematic of Prototype fast breeder reactor (PFBR)

which is a pool type reactor of 1250 MWth and 500 MWe capacity [4]. In the pool

2
type design, primary sodium pumps, intermediate heat exchangers and the reactor
core are inside the sodium pool within reactor main vessel. An inner vessel inside
the reactor separates the cold and hot sodium pools. Sodium from the cold pool is
sucked by the centrifugal sodium pumps and discharged through the pump
discharge pipe and admitted to a high pressure header known as the grid plate
on which fuel subassemblies are vertically positioned. The hot sodium coming out
of the reactor core is admitted to the IHXs where heat is transferred to the non
radioactive secondary sodium passing through the tube side of IHXs. Hot non
radioactive secondary sodium coming out of IHXs is admitted to steam generator,
where water in the tube side is heated and superheated steam is produced for
electricity generation.

Fig. 1.2: Schematic of PFBR [4]

1.2 Sodium as a Fast Reactor Coolant

Liquid sodium is used as the coolant in sodium cooled fast reactors due
to its favorable nuclear properties and excellent heat transfer properties. Sodium
cooling allows the reactor to be at atmospheric pressure even at high temperature.
Physical properties of sodium are given in Table 1.2.

3
 Table 1.1: Physical properties of sodium

Sl. No Property Value

1. Atomic number 11
2. Melting point (760 mm Hg) 97.8 °C
3. Boiling point (760 mm Hg) 883 °C
4. Volume change on melting 2.7 %
5. Heat of fusion at 97.8 °C 113.3 kJ/kg
6. Heat of vaporization at 883 °C 3,750 kJ/kg
7. Density of solid at 20 °C 0.968 g/cc
Density of liquid at 100 °C 0.927 g/cc
8. Viscosity at 100 °C 0.670 cps
Viscosity at 400 °C 0.281 cps
9. Surface tension at 100 °C 192 dynes/cm
10. Vapor pressure at 600 °C 24.6 Hg
11. Specific heat of solid at 25 °C 1.22 kJ/kg/°C
12. Specific heat of liquid at 100 °C 1.38 kJ/kg/°C
13. Thermal conductivity at 300 °C 76 W/m/°C
-8
a. Electrical resistivity at 20 °C 4.88 x 10 Ω m
-8
b. Electrical resistivity at 100 °C 9.67 x 10 Ω m
-8
c. Electrical resistivity at 555 °C 30×10 Ω m

1.3 Parameters to be Measured in SFRs

Sodium temperature, flow rate, level, purity and leakage are the
important process parameters to be measured/detected in SFRs. The chemically
reactive nature of sodium and the all welded construction approach followed to
eliminate the possibility of sodium leak, prevent conventional methods of process
instrumentation for their direct use in sodium systems. In addition, the high
operating temperature of 550 ºC and the nuclear radiation environment make the
measurement of process parameters in SFR a complex and challenging task.

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1.4 Challenges in Sodium Flow Measurement

Sodium, which is chemically reactive with air and water, requires special
sensors for measurement of process parameters such as flow. Sodium is chemically
reactive to many conventional materials used in process sensors. The sensors for
SFRs are to be operated normally up to 550 ºC and in transient conditions the
temperature may go up to 600 ºC. In the primary sodium system of SFR, sodium is
radioactive and the sensors should be able to withstand radiation without
degradation of the characteristics of the sensors. The sensors deployed are designed
for a life of 40 years. Provision should be available for easy removal for
maintenance and replacement. Non invasive sensors are desirable to meet these
requirements. Sodium as a metal is a good conductor of electricity and this property
is effectively utilized for developing process sensors for SFRs.

1.5 Need for Core Flow Measurement

Information on the flow rate of sodium through SFR core is an important

parameter for monitoring core cooling. It has both operational and protective
(safety) functions, as given below:

1.5.1 Operational functions

a) Flow monitoring is required to check the performance of the

primary sodium pumps and intermediate heat exchangers.

b) After a reactor scram, core flow is reduced rapidly to mitigate

avoid thermal shocks on the components. For this, flow rate is
required to be known and controlled.

1.5.2 Protective functions

The flow rates are continuously monitored for initiating safety related
actions for the following events:

a) Primary pump trip

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 b) Primary pump seizure

c) Transient over-power during low power operation/startup

d) Transient over-power during power operation

e) Off-site power failure

f) Rupture of the pipe joining the primary pump to the grid plate

g) Changes in the speed of the pump

The ratio of the neutronic power (P) to the flow through the core (Q), P/Q
is one of the parameters used to initiate reactor shutdown (SCRAM), as it provides
protection against both transient over-power and under cooling. Core temperature
signals also initiate safety actions in case of insufficient core cooling. But, due to the
large time constant (6+2s) of the thermocouples, there is some time delay in
initiating the safety actions [5]. Flow monitoring serves as a fast and diverse signal
for core monitoring and reactor protection during such events.

1.6 Need for Circuit Flow Measurement

In secondary circuits of SFR, the performance of the mechanical type

sodium pump in the main secondary circuit is assessed based on flow measurement
in large single wall secondary pipes. In the safety grade decay heat removal
(SGDHR) circuits, the effectiveness of natural convection for decay heat removal is
also to be confirmed by measuring sodium flow in the circuit. Auxiliary circuits
of primary and secondary sodium systems such as sodium purification circuit and
steam generator leak detection circuit in SFR, need flow measurement to assess the
system performance. For the radioactive primary main and auxiliary circuits in the
case of loop type reactor and in the radioactive primary auxiliary circuits in the
case of pool type reactors, double wall pipelines with inert nitrogen gas in the
annular space is used to mitigate the effects of sodium leak if any from the inner
pipe. The pipeline flow meters required for sodium flow measurement in these
circuits also must be of double wall type to ensure continuity of the inert
nitrogen system.

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1.7 Electromagnetic Flow Meters

Electrically conducting material moving in a magnetic field experiences

an electromotive force acting in a direction perpendicular both to the motion and to
the magnetic field. This discovery is one of the foundations of electromagnetism.
The fact that it would happen even when the material is fluid did not escape the
attention of early investigators such as Faraday, who reported to the Royal Society
of London in 1832, how he had tried vainly to measure the voltage induced across
the river Thames by the motion of the water in the vertical component of the earth’s
magnetic field [12]. The measurement is made between large electrodes, lowered
into the river from Waterloo bridge. The signals he had detected are found to be
spurious due to electro chemical and thermoelectric effects, two factors which can
still trouble, when the principle of electromagnetic induction is applied for
measuring a fluid velocity or flow rate. Faraday’s experiments failed mainly
because, the river bed short-circuited much of the signal. Later, electromagnetic
flow meters are well developed and found wide applications in many types of
industries [12]. For measuring instantaneous blood flow in arteries, electromagnetic
flow measurement principle provided an attractive solution [12]. The great
advantage of an electromagnetic flow meter is its response, which is rapid enough to
indicate the details of blood-flow pulsations.

There have been proposals to use AC rather than DC fields in EM flow

meters. The main reason or this was to avoid polarization at the electrodes and
DC potentials due to thermoelectric and electrochemical effects.

With liquid metals, these troubles do not occur significantly and DC

fields are usually employed. With electrolytic conductors, AC operation is
essential. For example, it is a standard practice among physiologists to use AC flow
meters to measure the flow of blood [12] There are other advantages for AC as
distinct from DC operation. An important one is the readiness with which AC
signals may be amplified. AC flow meters have been used very successfully to
measure remarkably small flow rates and also the flow of very weakly conducting
liquids.

7
 Electromagnetic (EM) flow meters used for sodium flow measurements
in sodium cooled fast reactors are classified into different categories based on the
methods by which a signal indicative of sodium flow rate is derived from a flow
meter. Electromagnetic flow meters are broadly classified into two different
categories:

a) EM flow meters based on induced voltage

b) EM flow meters based on magnetic field distortion

1.7.1 EM flow meters based on induced voltage

An electromagnetic flow meter based on induced voltage basically

consists of a pipe made of a non-magnetic material (SS) mounted in the transverse
magnetic field between the two poles of a permanent magnet or electromagnet
structure. In electromagnet type flow meter, the field can be generated by an
electromagnet or a permanent magnet. If the field is produced by coils embedded on
the pipeline with suitable structures and powered with DC power supply, it is called
saddle coil type EM flow meter. If the field is generated by a permanent magnet
structure, it is called permanent magnet flow meter (PMFM). Both these types work
on the principle of DC generator and are based on the Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction. Electrical contacts (electrodes) positioned diametrically
opposite to each other are welded to the outer surface of the pipe, with their central
axis oriented normal to the direction of the lines of magnetic field and sodium flow.
A small DC voltage is developed across the electrodes as conductive liquid metal
(sodium) flows through perpendicular magnetic field. The magnitude of DC voltage
depends on velocity profile of the liquid metal and magnetic field profile in the pipe
and the polarity is determined by the direction of liquid flow. Figure 1.3 is the
schematic of a typical EM flow meter. An isometric view of a typical PMFM is
shown in Fig. 1.4. The magnetic field established by permanent magnet is
perpendicular to the direction of sodium flow in the pipeline. The induced
electro motive force (EMF) is the signal output and is in the direction mutually
perpendicular to both flow and magnetic field, as shown in Figs. 1.3 and 1.4.

8
 Fig. 1.3:
1.3 Magnetic flow meter principle

PMFM is a non
non-invasive
invasive and passive device for sodium flow
measurement [6].
]. Critical part of the PMFM is the permanent magnet assembly to
produce required magnetic field
field, as shown in Fig. 1.4. Cast Alnico-V, is used as
permanent magnet material due to its superior magnetic properties like high
remanance, coercive force, curie temperature and high temperature stability.
stability
Maximum sodium temperature during normal operation is 550 °C.
C. As the sodium
pipe is thermally insulated, maximum temperature of the magnet during operation
of flow meter is less than 100 °C in most of the cases. Permanent magnet based flow
meters do not require any active power supply for producing magnetic field and is
a passive device. A few limitations arise in permanent magnet based flow meters
due to increase in size and weight of the magnet assembly for large
largerr pipes.

Fig. 1.4
1.4: Permanent magnet flow meter [6]

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1.7.1.1 Advantages of EM flow meters

The following are the advantages of the electro magnetic flow meters [6, 7]

a) All welded construction requirement is easily attainable

b) No additional piping is required

c) It is non invasive, without any penetrations or contact with sodium

d) Has no moving parts

e) Very little maintenance only is required

f) Size and weight are low for small diameter pipes

g) Introduces negligible pressure drop in the system

h) It can withstand high temperature

i) Simple DC milli volt indicator is only required as external device

j) It has wide dynamic range

k) Fast response

l) Linear output with flow

m) Reasonable level of DC output and easy transmission of the signal

n) Multiple signal output is possible from the same sensor

o) Inherent reliability of flow indication is high

p) High accuracy can be achieved

q) Accuracy of calibration from theoretical and by numerical

modeling is high

r) Internal impedance is low and is comparable with thermocouples

s) In-situ calibration is possible by signal analysis techniques

All the advantages of EM flow meters are applicable to permanent

magnet flow meters also.

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1.7.1.2 Additional advantages of PMFM

The following are the additional advantages of PMFM over saddle coil
flow meters

a) Improved reliability.

b) Passive in nature as it does not require power supply.

c) Enhanced long term stability can be achieved by proper

stabilization of magnet assembly.

d) No operating power costs.

e) No heat dissipation and cooling requirements.

f) Less possibility of field interruption.

g) No electrical insulation required.

h) Immune to problems of moisture and electrical short circuit.

i) Magnet can be replaced without replacing the pipe if a C shaped

magnet is used.

1.7.1.3 Disadvantages of EM flow meters

a) The accuracy of flow measurement depends on precise

measurement of flux density.

b) The presence of magnetic field or magnetic material affects the

sensitivity.

c) Output depends on wetting of the sodium to pipe wall.

d) The output varies with the electrical resistivity of pipe and fluid.

e) Pipe should have high resistivity compared to fluid to minimize

pipe shunting effect.

f) Minimum upstream and downstream straight pipe lengths have to

be maintained to achieve axial symmetric velocity profile and
thereby accuracy.

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1.7.1.4 Disadvantages specific to saddle coil type EM flow meter

a) Large saddle coil size and large space requirements

b) High DC current and reliable power supply requirements

c) Fluctuations and ripples in DC power supply as it is derived from

AC supply

d) Reliability of power supply

e) Problems associated with heat dissipation, insulation failure and

moisture ingress

1.7.1.5 Disadvantages specific to permanent magnet flow meters

a) The instrument is temperature sensitive and hence, the output varies

with magnet temperature and fluid temperature.

b) The output is sensitive to orientation. of the magnet assembly to

pipe

c) Difficult to regulate field and clean the magnets.

d) Long term stability of the magnet to provide stable field. Periodical

checking of the magnet flux density is required to confirm flux
density.

e) The magnet assembly is bulky and heavy for large size pipes.

1.7.2 EM flow meters based on magnetic field distortion

The eddy-current flow meters (ECFM) [8, 9] utilize the distortion of the
imposed magnetic field as the means of measuring flow rate. As shown in Fig. 1.5,
the ECFM consists of a primary winding energized by an alternating current
source. Primary winding is surrounded by two identical secondary windings S1 and
S2 on either side [10]. When sodium is static, the alternating flux produced by the
primary winding induces equal voltages in both the secondary windings due to

12
transformer action. When sodium
sodium flows, motion voltage is produced in both the
secondary coils. The motion voltage is subtractive to transformer voltage in
upstream coil (S1) and additive to transformer voltage in downstream coil ((S2).
ECFM output is the voltage difference between the two coils and is proportional to
the sodium velocity around the sensor.

When the temperature of the surrounding sodium increases, its electrical

resistivity increases resulting in less eddy currents and hence an increase in both
Etrans and Emotion voltages [11].
]. The effect of temperature is compensated by using
normalized signal which is a function of velocity only. Thus we have

S2 = Etrans + Emotion

S1 = Etrans - Emotion

ECFM output = (S2– S1)/(S1+S2 )= Emotion/ Etrans

Primary winding is made with MgO insulated SS sheathed (MI) cable

with copper conductor and secondary winding is made of MI cables with Nichrome
conductor. Nichrome conductor has very low temperature coefficient of resistance.
Current
rent through secondary coil is negligible during measurement. The coils are
wound over a bobbin
in (pure iron) and the bobbin is encapsulated in a stainless steel
(SS) pocket.

Fig. 1.5: Schematic of ECFM

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1.8 International Experience in Sodium Flow Measurement in SFRs

Theory for measuring the flow of electrically conducting fluids in pipes

is first developed by Shercliff [12]. He developed two dimensional weight functions
to represent the contribution of fluid velocity profile to flow meter voltage signal
developed across pipe cross sections of different shapes. The short circuiting effect
of pipe wall conductivity on flow meter voltage signal and effect of finite length of
magnetic field were studied by Hemp and Versteeg [13]. Electromagnetic flow
meters used to measure the flow of liquid metals encounter the problem of magnetic
field distortion due to currents induced in liquid metals [14].

Invasive and non invasive type flow meters have been used in FBRs.
Invasive flow meters such as eddy current flow meters and probe type permanent
magnet flow meters have been used in primary sodium circuits [7]. Saddle coil flow
meters have been used in PFR [15, 16] and JOYO reactors [17] for pipeline flow
measurement. Permanent magnet flow meters which are of non invasive type were
used in BN-350, BN-600, FFTF, Phenix, Super-Phenix, SNR-300, KNK and FBTR
reactors for pipeline flow measurement [7].

1.8.1 Core flow measurement in pool type reactors

Table 1.3 gives the methods of primary sodium flow monitoring adopted
in the pool type fast reactors [7]. In BN 600 reactor, PM flow meters are provided in
core bypass line. This line originating from the core inlet plenum is routed out of
reactor vessel (RV) and flow meters are provided on roof slab. Figure 1.6 is the
schematic of flow meter in the core bypass line. This arrangement needs special
shielding and precautions against leakage of radioactive sodium.

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 Fig. 1.6: Schematic of flow meter in core bypass line [4]

In BN 800 reactor being constructed in Russia, PM flow meters are

provided on a bypass line at pump discharge [18], as depicted in Fig. 1.7. A
bypass taping is taken from the pump discharge line and a PMFM is installed in
the bypass line. The inlet and outlet of the bypass circuit are configured in such a
way that the maximum velocity head is available for establishing flow in the bypass
circuit.

In Phenix and Super Phenix reactors, pump discharge flow was monitored
using bypass type permanent magnet flow meters at discharge of the pumps. These
flow meters have been made as part of the pumps and are removable along with the
pumps. In Phenix reactor, for in-situ calibration of the flow meters, a core inlet
pressure transducer was provided in the core in the form of a subassembly.
Pressure transducers were also provided at the pump discharge [19, 20].

15
 Fig. 1.7: Bypass flow meter at primary pump discharge of BN 600 [18]

In EBR II reactor, flow meters working on venturi tube principles and

electromagnetic principles were provided on the pump discharge lines and core
outlet lines [7]. In PFR reactor, probe type eddy current flow meters were used in
the pump discharge ducts [15]. Figure 1.8 is the schematic of the same. ECFM
provided in the pipe between pump discharge and core inlet plenum measures the
velocity in the pipeline from which the core flow is estimated.

16
Fig. 1.8: Eddy current type flow meter at pump discharge pipe in PFR [15]

17
 Table 1.2: Primary sodium flow measurement in pool type reactors

SL.No Reactor Type of flow meter Nos. and Location

1. EBR II a) Electromagnetic 5 Nos. (Pump discharge
lines + core outlet line)
b) Venturi tube type 5 Nos. (Pump discharge
lines + core outlet line)
c) Ultrasonic (later addition) 4 Nos. in pump discharge
lines (For testing)
d) Differential pressure type (later 1 No. Core outlet
addition)
2. Phenix a) Bypass type PM flow meter 1 No. at each pump
discharge
3. b) Pressure transducer 1 No. at each pump
discharge
4. PFR Probe type Eddy current flow meter 1 No. at each pump
discharge
5. SPX-1 Bypass PM flow meter 1 No. at each pump
discharge
6. CDFR Probe type Eddy current flow meters At pump discharge

7. BN-600 Bypass PM flow meters 4 Nos. In the core bypass

line brought out of RV
8. BN- 800 Bypass PM flow meters At pump discharge
9. EFR a) Eddy current flow meter Not known
b) Ultrasonic flow meter

In CDFR, probe type eddy current flow meters were proposed at pump
discharge ducts [7, 21]. In EFR reactor it was proposed to provide probe type eddy
current flow meters and ultrasonic flow meters for primary circuit flow monitoring
[22]. In USA, EPRI had conducted detailed studies on design of large pool type fast
reactors of 1000 MWe capacity. M/s. Rockwell International and M/s. Bechtel
Corporation have proposed bypass type PM flow meters at pump discharge and on
core bypass line [23]. The flow meters at pump discharge are removable with the
pump. The core bypass line originating from the core inlet plenum is to be routed
out of reactor vessel and flow meters have to be located in the deck structure. The
report submitted by M/s. General Electric Company has proposed flow

18
measurements by static pressure measurements at reactor inlet plenum and reactor
outlet plenum [24]. M/s. General Electric has also proposed that flow through the
reactor could be computed from the pump speed, pump outlet pressure, reactor
pressure drop and eddy current probes at core outlets [25].

1.8.2 Flow measurement in SFR circuits

In loop type of reactor, the core flow has to be measured by measuring

flow in the double wall primary system piping. In pool type and loop type concepts,
flow in the large single wall pipes of secondary circuit also has to be measured.
Auxiliary circuits of primary system need double wall flow meters whereas auxiliary
circuits of secondary system need single wall flow meters. Table 1.4 gives the
methods used for flow measurement in circuits of different reactors [7, 26, 27].

Table 1.3: Sodium flow measurement in reactor circuits

Sl.No Reactor Country Type of flow Meter Type of reactor

1. Rapsodie France EM & PMFM Loop
2. Phenix France PMFM on bypass line Pool
3. Super Phenix France PMFM on bypass line Pool
4. PFR UK Saddle coil EM flow meter Pool
5. CFR UK Saddle coil EM flow meter Pool
6. KNK FRG PMFM Loop
7. SNR 300 FRG PMFM Loop
8. Joyo Japan Saddle coil EM flow meter Loop
9. Monju Japan PMFM Loop
10. FFTF US PMFM Loop
11. BN350 Russia EM & PMFM Loop
12. BN800 Russia PMFM Pool

International development and production units and laboratories such as

ANL, Westinghouse, GAAA, GEC, PNC and INTERATOM have studied

19
various types of flow measurement techniques for large diameter pipelines. Most
of these studies conclude with a need for focused effort towards development of
permanent magnet flow meters.

Detailed study on flow measurement methods adopted in FBTR is

required to understand the difficulties faced and experience gained. In depth
study on sodium flow measurement techniques followed in PFBR, which is in an
advanced stage of construction is essential to understand the associated challenges
which are to be met, to ensure operating and safety requirements. Moreover, the
improvements, new designs and the methods developed as part of the this research
would find application in future reactors which in an advanced stage of design.

1.9 Sodium Flow Measurement in FBTR

FBTR is a loop type reactor which is in operation at IGCAR Kalpakkam

since 1985. FBTR lay out with sodium flow meters is shown in Fig. 1.9 [3].
Permanent magnet type EM flow meters are used for flow measurement in FBTR
both in primary and secondary circuits. There are 31 flow meters for pipe sizes
ranging from 15 NB to 200 NB. The permanent magnet material used is Ticonel-E
which is equivalent to Alnico–V. Primary main circuit is made up of 200 NB
double wall pipe. The size of the inner pipe is 200 NB and the size of the outer
pipe is 250 NB. Two permanent magnet flow meters each with three pairs of
electrodes are provided at the reactor inlet line for core flow measurement. Two
flow meters are provided for achieving redundancy. The auxiliary primary circuit
such as purification system is also made up of double wall pipes and double wall
flow meters are provided in these lines. Main secondary line is provided with
200 NB single wall permanent magnet flow meter. The main primary and
secondary pipeline flow meters are calibrated up to a flow rate of 180 m3/h to an
accuracy of ±3%. Flow meters of sizes ranging from 80 NB to 15 NB are used in
primary and secondary auxiliary circuits and are calibrated to an accuracy of ±3%
over their full range, before their installation in the reactor circuits. The
performance of these flow meters is found to be satisfactory.

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 Fig. 1.9: FBTR lay out with sodium flow meters [3]

1.10 Sodium Flow Measurement in PFBR

Fig. 1.10: PFBR layout with sodium flow meters

PFBR is a pool type reactor which is in an advanced stage of

construction at Kalpakkam, India. Figure 1.10 shows the layout of PFBR with
locations of sodium flow meters. The requirements of PFBR are met basically with

21
two type of flow meters,, ECFM and PMFM. These primary flow meters are
configured suitably to meet all the requirements.
requirements

1.10.1 Primary pump flow measurement

Schematic of the ECFM configutation in Primary Sodium Pump (PSP)

(
of PFBR is shown in Fig. 1.11. In PFBR, two vertical primary sodium pumps
p are
used to circulate sodium through the reactor core. The pump outlet is connected to a
spherical header. Two discharge lin
lines from the spherical header are connected to
the plenum below grid plate
plate, as shown in Fig. 1.11. Sodium flow through the core is
measured at the PSP using ECFM, located in a bypass line from the pump
discharge to suction. Each pump is provided with two probes and each probe has
two ECFM sensors of 14 mm diameter. Overall length of the probe is 9.3 m but the
length of the sensor region is only 200 mm. Long length facilitates the
installation and removal of the probe from the reactor top. A magnetic sheild is
used around ECFM to avoid the influence of external flow. Figure 1.12 shows the
ECFM sensor made for PFBR pump.

Fig. 1.11:: Schematic of ECFM in primary pumps

Fig. 1.12:: ECFM sensor made for PFBR primay sodium pump

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1.10.2 Subassembly flow measurement

In-core flow measurement before every start-up of the reactor is oriental

to ensure that each subassembly receives the required flow, as reduction in sodium
flow results in decrease of heat removal from the core of the reactor [28]. This
measurement is done by Core Flow Monitoring Mechanisms (CFMM-1 & 2) with
ECFM sensors. The CFMM-1 mounted on central canal will be used for fuel
subassembly flow measurement and CFMM-2 mounted on observatory canal will be
used to measure blanket and storage subassembly flows. The sensors are calibrated
in sodium at different temperatures and at different flow rates covering the
operating range. During the flow measurement in the reactor, CFMM will be made
to seat on the subassembly head as shown in Fig. 1.13 and flow passing around the
sensor will be measured by ECFM sensor. Extensive modeling and experimental
studies are carried out to assess the leakage flow at the CFMM seat on the
subassembly top.

Fig. 1.13: CFMM seating on subassembly top during flow measurement in

reactor

23
1.10.3 Flow measurement in single wall pipelines

Conventional PMFM with Alnico

Alnico-V
V based magnet assemblies are used
for flow measurement in PFBR from 15 NB to 200 NB pipe size. Magnet blocks of
C shape, U shape and rectangular blocks are used for manufacturing the
assemblies for pipe sizes upto 80 NB. For flow meters above 80 NB size, C shaped
magnet structure with two parallel magnet
magnetic circuits is selected. Two parallel
magnetic circuits are required to get the adequate flux density
density. The pipes of PMFM
are of SS316LN, meeting the specification of PFBR pipes. SS sheathed MgO
insulated cable is used as electrode. The electrode conductor is made of same
material as the pipe to minimize thermal EMF
EMF. Flow meters are covered with
nonmagnetic SS
S perforated sheets for ventilation. Thermal insulation is provided
between the pipe support and magnet to limit the temperature of magnet during
operation. All the assemblies are provided with a reference point near the pole face
center to monitor the
he flux density during service.. There are 61 single wall flow
meters in PFBR in 12 different pipe sizes. The largest single wall flow meter is of
200 mm is of 200 mm size ((Fig. 1.14)

Fig. 1.14: 200 NB pipe p

permanet magnet flow meter

1.10.4 Flow measurement in FFLM

Three numbers of Failed Fuel Localization Modules (FFLM) are

provided in PFBR to identify the fuel subassembly with failed fuel clad. These
modules, suck sodium from each subassembly outlet one by one, using a sodium

24
submersible DC conduction type electromagnetic pump and circulates through the
delayed neutron detector. Sodium flow through the FFLM has to be measured to
confirm the performance of the system. A compact special PMFM is developed and
manufactured for this appl
pplication. Small duct of size 10 mm OD/8 mm ID,
ID high
ambient temperature of 465 °C, operating in sodium mist atmosphere, two pairs of
electrodes and long electrode cable of 3 m length are the specialties of the FFLM
flow meter. The magnet
agnet assembly is made with a single C shape magnet.
agnet. The
magnet is magnetized, electrically and thermally stabilized at 500°C. The magnet is
subjected to endurance test at 465 °C for 10000 hrs and it is confirmed that
magnetic flux density is stable at the operating conditions. Sensitivity of the flow
3
meter is estimated to be 11.5 mV/m /h. Figure 1.15 is the photograph of FFLM
flow meter assembly with 3 m long electrode cable.

Fig. 1.15: FFLM flow meter with 3m long electrode cable

1.10.5 Flow measurement in double wall pipes

A stream of the primary radioactive sodium is taken out of the reactor

vessel for purification and is returned to the reactor vessel through double wall
piping. Double wall PMFMs are used for flow measurement in these circuits.
The flow meter consists of two concentric pipes, magnet assembly, electrodes and
supporting mechanisms. The outer pipe is fabricated in two halves. The magnet
m
assembly is placed over the outer pipe assembly. One end of the inner pipe has
fixed support with outer pipe and the other end has a sliding support. The inner
i
pipe carries sodium at 550 °C, whereas the annular space between the inner pipe and

25
the outer pipe contains nitrogen at relatively lower temperature. Arrangement for
supporting the outer and inner pipes, accommodating the differential thermal
expansion between them and retaining them as an integral part are the challenges
involved in design and development of the double wall flow meters. Three pairs of
electrodes are welded to the inner pipe, routed through the annular space
penetrating the outer pipe to reach the terminal box. Figure 1.16 is the schematic
with details of the inner pipe, outer pipe, supporting arrangement and the electrode
routing of double
ouble wall flow meters. The electrodes are mineral insulated, SS
sheathed, SS conductor cable of 4 mm outer diameter. Photograph
hotograph of a typical
double wall PM flow meter for pipe size 100 NB is depicted in Fig. 1.17.

Fig. 1.16: Details of inner and outer pipe of double wall PM flow meter

Fig. 1.17: 100 NB size d

double wall PM flow meter

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1.10.6 Flow measurement in PFBR secondary main circuit

In PFBR secondary main circuit, the largest pipe in which sodium flow
is to be measured is of 800 NB and flow in this pipe is measured by means of a
bypass flow meter at the secondary pump suction line. A conventional PMFM is
used for measuring the flow in the bypass circuit. This flow meter is installed in the
vertical suction line of the secon
secondary pump (Fig. 1.18). Main flow can be estimated
from the previously determined ratio of main flow to bypass flow. Rated flow in the
pump suction line is of the order of 12700 m3/h. The velocity head available in the
main line enables circulation of a flow in the bypass circuit. The rate of bypass
flow to main flow was found to be a function of flow rate.

Fig. 1.18: Bypass flow meter arrangement at PFBR secondary pump suction line

Based on the literature survey

survey, areas for further experimental and
theoretical investigations, including modeling, application of advanced materials,
implementation of innovative designs and techniques and optimization of the
existing designs are indentified as detailed in the next paragraph.

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1.11 Advancements in Sodium Flow Measurement

The scheme for the measurement of sodium flow in pipelines using

electromagnetic flow meters has been established and they have also been put to use
for reactor applications. However, the following are a few of the problems currently
faced in the pipeline flow meters.

a) The ability of the Alnico-V magnet assembly to provide stable field

is not known

b) They are bulky and heavy for large size pipes

c) Their sensitivity is relatively low for large size pipes

d) Sodium calibration of permanent magnet flow meter (PMFM) is

costly and time consuming

e) Conventional PMFMs are not suitable for large pipe sizes

Improvements are required in sodium flow measurement methods in

pipelines to achieve compactness, high sensitivity, better accuracy, stability and
economy and they form the objective/goal of the present work.

The weight and sensitivity of the flow meters for single wall (SW) and
double wall (DW) pipe sizes varying from 15 nominal bore (NB) to 200 nominal
bore (NB), with Alnico-V permanent magnet assembly are given in Table 1.1.
From the table, it is clear that the weight of large pipe size (100 NB and above) flow
meters are very high and their sensitivity is relatively low.

Cast Alnico-V is currently used in PMFMs due to their superior magnetic

properties. From Table 1.1, it is also clear that the flow meter with Alnico-V
permanent magnet assembly can be used for smaller pipes (below 100 NB) with
relatively low weight, compactness and adequate sensitivity. However, capability
of the magnet assembly to provide stable magnetic field at the operating
environment over the design life has to be established. The sodium calibration
method followed today for accurate sensitivity determination is costly and time

28
consuming. Modeling and simulation of flow meters to predict the sensitivity and
its experimental validation would be a major advancement in this area of work.

Table 1.4: Weight and sensitivity of flow meters with Alnico-V magnet assembly

Total assembly Sensitivity

S. No Title of Flow meter
weight (kg) (mV/m3/h)
1 15 NB 14.1 11
2 20 NB 14.5 2.5
3 32 NB 28.6 0.8
4 50 NB 41.3 0.5
5 100 NB Single wall 109.6 0.14
6 100 NB Double wall 255.5 0.174
7 200 NB Single wall 289.1 0.066

The present research is focused to address specific problems currently

faced with pipeline flow meters in various circuits of SFR. In addition,
advancements and improvements are aimed in design configuration, modeling,
analysis and calibration. Alternative methods are developed for flow measurement
in large size pipelines. For large pipes, higher weight of the Alnico-V based flow
meters is due to usage of large volume of magnetic material along with larger pole
face and connecting pieces made of mild steel. PMFM with suitable high energy
rare-earth magnets such as Samarium-Cobalt based magnets will provide high
magnetic flux density and make the flow meter more sensitive and compact. For
large sodium pipes, it is also desirable to develop redundant and diverse flow
measurement techniques. Side wall type PMFM is an alternative. For main
secondary pipelines, conventional permanent magnet flow meters become inaccurate
as the minimum upstream and downstream straight length requirement is difficult to
achieve. The bypass flow meter which is in use currently needs optimization to
reduce the flow ratio and to get better resolution and accuracy in the flow
measurement. Techniques for in-situ calibration of flow meters by noise analysis
techniques such as cross correlation will be very useful to confirm consistency

29
and repeatability of flow meter sensitivity during operation. Hence, these studies
have been taken up in this thesis.

The following are the key areas, where research work of the thesis is
focused:

a) Studies on Alnico-V based pipeline flow meters, factors affecting

the sensitivity, establishing sodium calibration method and error
estimation for the sensitivity determined by calibration method.

b) Development of in-situ calibration techniques by cross correlation

of noise signals from different pairs of electrodes of the same flow
meter

c) Studies on loss of magnetism, stabilization of magnet assemblies

of PMFM and stability studies at accelerated conditions.

d) Analysis, design and development of Samarium Cobalt based

PMFM with the objective of compactness and improved
sensitivity.

e) Analysis, design development, and testing of side wall type

permanent magnet flow meter for sodium flow measurement in
large pipes.

f) Modeling, design, optimization and validation of bypass flow

meters to improve accuracy and resolution specifically for the
main secondary circuit flow measurement.

1.12 Thesis Organization

Chapter 2 of the thesis covers the studies carried out on Alnico-V based
permanent magnet sodium flow meters. The procedure followed for analytical
estimation of the sensitivity and various factors affecting the sensitivity are
identified. The setup used for sodium calibration, determination of sensitivity and
the calibration procedure are highlighted. The methodology followed for calibration

30
error analysis is described and the calibration error is estimated. In-situ calibration
method developed for PMFM is described. Chapter 3 deals with stability studies
carried out on a magnet assembly of Alnico-V based PMFM. Chapter 4 contains
details of design, development, analysis and experimental investigation carried out
on Samarium Cobalt based permanent magnet flow meters. Chapter 5 describes the
design and analysis of compact side wall flow meters, their modelling and
validation by calibration experiments. Chapter 6 of the thesis deals with the
design, analysis and experimental validation of the bypass type flow meter used for
PFBR and the optimisation of the bypass flow meter circuit for future SFRs. Chapter 7
summarizes the advancements and improvements made in the area of sodium flow
measurement in pipelines in this thesis and highlights of the research findings and
scope for future work.

31