LIQUID METAL FAST BREEDER REACTOR

SEMINAR REPORT

Submitted by

MONA MARY VARGHESE

REG. NO: GCAOCAP008

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

Of

MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY

IN

COMPUTER AIDED PROCESS DESIGN

GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE KOZHIKODE

(Affiliated to University of Calicut)

2014-2015

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 ABSTRACT

A breeder reactor is a nuclear reactor capable of generating more fissile material than it
consumes. These devices are able to achieve this because their neutron economy is high enough
to breed more fissile fuel than they use from fertile material such as uranium238 or thorium232.
Breeders were at first found attractive because their fuel economy was better than light water
reactors, but interest declined after the 1960s as more uranium reserves were found, and new
methods of uranium enrichment reduced fuel costs. Breeder reactors could, in principle, extract
almost all of the energy contained in uranium or thorium, decreasing fuel requirements by a
factor of 100 compared to widely use once through light water reactors, which extract less than
1% of the energy in the uranium mined from the earth. The high fuel efficiency of breeder
reactors could greatly reduce concerns about fuel supply or energy used in mining. Adherent’s
claim that with seawater uranium extraction, there would be enough fuel for breeder reactors to
satisfy our energy needs for 5 billion years at 1983's total energy consumption rate, thus making
nuclear energy effectively a renewable energy. Nuclear waste became a greater concern by the
1990s. In broad terms, spent nuclear fuel has two main components. The first consists of fission
products, the leftover fragments of fuel atoms after they have been split to release energy. The
second main component of spent fuel is transuranics (atoms heavier than uranium), which are
generated from uranium or heavier atoms in the fuel when they absorb neutrons but do not
undergo fission. All transuranic isotopes fall within the actinide series on the periodic table, and
so they are frequently referred to as the actinides. The physical behavior of the fission products is
markedly different from that of the transuranics. In particular, fission products do not themselves
undergo fission, and therefore cannot be used for nuclear weapons. Furthermore, only seven
long-lived fission product isotopes have half-lives longer than a hundred years, which makes
their geological storage or disposal less problematic than for transuranic materials. Breeder
reactors are designed to fission the actinide wastes as fuel, and thus convert them to more fission
products. After "spent nuclear fuel" is removed from a light water reactor, it undergoes a
complex decay profile as each nuclide decays at a different rate.

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 CONTENTS

SL NO: CONTENTS PAGE NO:

1 Introduction 4
1.1 Breeder reactor 4
1.2 Breeder reactor fuel cycle 5
1.3 Fast Vs Thermal breeder reactors 5

2 Working of Breeder reactor 8

3 Liquid metal fast Breeder Reactor 9
3.1 Salient features 9
3.2 General principles of Fast breeder 10
Reactor.
3.3 Types of Sodium Cooled Fast Breeder 12
Reactor.
3.4 Sodium as a coolant 14
4 Advantages 16
5 Disadvantages 17
6 Summary Conclusion & Future 18
Scope of breeder reactor.
7 References 19

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 1. INTRODUCTION

In light of the scientific evidence for changes in the climate caused by greenhouse-gas emissions
from human activities, the world is in ever more desperate need of new, inexhaustible, safe and
clean primary energy sources. A viable solution to this problem is the widespread adoption of
nuclear breeder reactor technology. Innovative breeder reactor concepts using liquid-metal
coolants such as sodium or lead will be able to utilize the waste produced by the current light
water reactor fuel cycle to meet global energy demand for several centuries to come.
World energy and electricity demand are expected to rise steeply over the coming decades, as
population numbers soar and nations such as China and India continue to expand their economies
and raise their populations out of poverty. By 2035, global primary energy demand is expected to
have risen by 40% and electricity consumption by 67% compared to today. Following the
reference scenario of the US Energy Information Administration (EIA), greenhouse-gas (GHG)
emitting fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas will continue to provide around 80% of the primary
energy. For a sustainable future, a majority of the world energy supply will need to be replaced
by clean new energy sources such as new nuclear and renewable, as existing fossil plants and
older nuclear plants are phased out. Around 40% of world energy is supplied by the burning of
coal. Apart from being a major contributor to global warming by GHG-emissions, coal power
plant emissions such as sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) take a significant roll on
the health and longevity of millions of people around the world.

1.1. WHAT IS BREEDER REACTOR?

A breeder reactor is a nuclear reactor that creates more fissile material than it consumes. It
requires an initial charge of fissile material, such as highly enriched uranium or plutonium, and a
supply of fertile material, such as natural uranium, depleted uranium or thorium. Excess neutrons
generated in the fission reaction are absorbed by the fertile isotope, which is transmuted to a
fissile isotope.
Breeder reactors can utilize nearly 100% of the energy contained in uranium and thorium ores,
while the reactors currently used for nuclear power generation can use at most 1%. They can also
reuse waste from existing reactors as fuel, until nothing but fission products is left.

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1.1.1. BREEDER REACTOR DEFINITION:
All reactors produce new fissile material. However, most of them do this at the cost of
consuming an even greater quantity of fissile fuel. A true breeder reactor produces more new fuel
than it consumes. Its effectiveness is measured by the breeding ratio B which is defined as the
number of new fissile atoms formed per atom of existing fuel consumed. If B = 1 fuel is
replaced, if B > 1 the amount of fuel is increased and if B < 1 there is a net decrease.
1.2. BREEDER REACTOR FUEL CYCLES:
There are two fuel cycles investigated for use with breeder reactors:
1.2.1. Uranium-plutonium fuel cycle.
The fertile material is uranium238, the major isotope in natural uranium. The fissile
material is plutonium.
1.2.2. Thorium-uranium fuel cycle.
The fertile material is thorium232, the only naturally occurring isotope of thorium. The
fissile material is uranium233.
Both cycles have advantages and disadvantages, especially depending on the kind of
reactor used.
1.3. Fast Vs Thermal Breeder Reactors
These reactors were considered to "breed" more fissile material by neutron capture than was
present in the original core loading, by surrounding the core with a blanket of "fertile" material.
The term "fast" comes from the fact that the majority of the fission events are caused by fast
neutrons, rather than slow or thermal neutrons. In fact no moderator is present at all to slow
down the fast neutrons.
Almost all fast breeder reactors are cooled by liquid sodium rather than water. Examples of this
type of reactor are the Enrico Fermi 1 station near Monroe, Michigan, now decommissioned; the
prototype fast reactor at Dounreay Scotland; and the Phenix and superphenix reactors in France.

Thermal breeder reactors primarily operate on the basis of neutron absorption by fertile isotopes
in a thermal spectrum, producing more fissile fuel than they consume. Earlier studies on breeders
have shown that the absorption cross-section is an important factor in choosing fertile material
for the core. The fact that Th232 breeds U233 through neutron absorption and successive beta

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decays with higher neutron absorption cross section than U238 was an overriding factor favoring
thorium in thermal breeders.
Fast Vs thermal neutrons have different probabilities of impacting atoms, and have different
probabilities on impact of whether causing a fission event or some other event. Uranium235
fissions easily with slow (thermal) neutrons, as does Uranium233.
Fast neutrons are less likely to hit a nucleus but when they do hit, are more likely to cause
fission. Fast neutrons are more efficient at converting uranium238 into plutonium.
Three of the proposed generation IV reactor types of FBRs are:
a. Gas Cooled Fast Reactor (GFR) cooled by helium.
b. Sodium Cooled Fast Reactor (SFR) based on the existing Liquid Metal FBR (LMFBR)
and Integral Fast Reactor designs.
c. Lead Cooled Fast Reactor (LFR) based on Soviet naval propulsion units.
The Liquid Fluoride Reactor was also developed as a thermal breeder. Liquid fluoride reactors
have many attractive features, such as deep inherent safety (due to their strong negative
temperature coefficient of reactivity and their ability to drain their liquid fuel into a passively
cooled and noncritical configuration) and ease of operation.
TYPES OF FAST BREEDER REACTORS
A fast reactor directly uses the fast neutrons emitted by fission, without moderation. Unlike
thermal neutron reactors, fast neutron reactors can be configured to "burn", or fission, all
actinides, and given enough time, therefore drastically reduce the actinides fraction in spent
nuclear fuel produced by the present world fleet of thermal neutron light water reactors, thus
closing the nuclear fuel cycle. Alternatively, if configured differently, they can also breed more
actinide fuel than they consume.
Gas cooled fast reactor (GFR)
The gas cooled fast reactor (GFR) system features a fast neutron spectrum and closed fuel cycle
for efficient conversion of fertile uranium and management of actinides. The reactor is helium
cooled and with an outlet temperature of 850 °C it is an evolution of the very high temperature
reactor (VHTR) to a more sustainable fuel cycle. It will use a direct Brayton cycle gas turbine for
high thermal efficiency. Several fuel forms are being considered for their potential to operate at
very high temperatures and to ensure an excellent retention of fission products: composite
ceramic fuel, advanced fuel particles, or ceramic clad elements of actinide compounds. Core

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configurations are being considered based on pinor plate based fuel assemblies or prismatic
blocks.

Sodium cooled Fast Reactor (SFR)

The SFR is a project that builds on two closely related existing projects, the liquid metal fast
breeder reactor and the integral fast reactor. The goals are to increase the efficiency of uranium
usage by breeding plutonium and eliminating the need for transuranic isotopes ever to leave the
site. The reactor design uses an unmoderated core running on fast neutrons, designed to allow
any transuranic isotope to be consumed (and in some cases used as fuel). In addition to the
benefits of removing the long half-life transuranics from the waste cycle, the SFR fuel expands
when the reactor overheats, and the chain reaction automatically slows down. In this manner, it is
passively safe.

Lead cooled Fast Reactor (LFR)

The lead cooled fast reactor features a fast neutron spectrum lead or lead/bismuth eutectic (LBE)
liquid metal cooled reactor with a closed fuel cycle. Options include a range of plant ratings,
including a "battery" of 50 to 150 MW of electricity that features a very long refueling interval, a
modular system rated at 300 to 400 MW, and a large monolithic plant option at 1,200 MW. (The
term battery refers to the long life, factory fabricated core, not to any provision for
electrochemical energy conversion.) The fuel is metal or nitride based containing fertile uranium
and transuranics.
The LFR is cooled by natural convection with a reactor outlet coolant temperature of 550 °C,
possibly ranging up to 800 °C with advanced materials. The higher temperature enables the
production of hydrogen by thermo chemical processes.

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2. WORKING OF BREEDER REACTOR
A fast breeder nuclear reactor produces more fuel than it consumes, while generating energy.
Conventional reactors use uranium as fuel and produce some plutonium. Breeders produce much
more plutonium, which can be separated and reused as fuel.
1) The core of breeder reactor contains fissile uranium and plutonium atoms that splits easily and
release energy as heat and radiation. Neutrons released during this reaction are absorbed by a
“blanket” of fertile uranium surrounding the core. The Fertile uranium harder to split than fissile
uranium, turns into plutonium when it absorbs neutrons.
2) Unlike conventional reactor that uses water to transfer heat, a breeder uses liquid sodium. The
sodium does not slow the neutrons like water and high energy neutrons are more readily
absorbed by the fertile uranium to create plutonium.
3) The sodium surrounding the core flows through a heat exchanger, a cluster of thin walled
metal tubes, and transfer its energy to a separate stream of sodium.
4) The heat then passes through a steam generator. If there is a leak and sodium comes in contact
with water or air, it burns.
5) The steam drives the turbine and generates electricity.

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3. LIQUID METAL FAST BREEDER REACTOR
3.1. Salient features
Fast reactors generate energy from nuclear fuel through their irradiation with fast neutrons. In a
thermal reactor, neutrons produced as a result of neutron absorption in fuel possess high kinetic
energy of the order of MeV. These are slowed by elastic collision with moderator resulting in
thermal neutrons with energies as low as 0.025 eV. Since the fast reactor utilizes fast neutrons,
moderation is not required. To be precise, moderation is undesirable in a fast reactor. Hence fast
reactors do not contain moderating materials like water, heavy water and graphite in the core.

The fission cross section of U-235 in fast spectrum is low, compared to that of Pu- 239. Hence
Pu-239 is used as the main fissile isotope, though enriched U-235 is used at the start to initiate
the chain reaction. Fast reactors are normally configured for breeding. This requires absorption
of neutrons by a blanket of fertile material. Also neutron losses in structural components are to
be minimized. Hence layers of blankets containing fertile material are used, to ensure that more
fuel is breed than that burnt, qualifying the definition of a breeder.
The most common coolants like water and heavy water cannot be used as coolants in a fast
reactor. Non-moderating materials like Helium and liquid metals like sodium, lead, lead-bismuth
eutectic qualify to be coolants owing to their non-moderating nature.
Based on the coolant, fast (breeder) reactors are further classified as follows:
(i) Sodium cooled fast reactor
(ii) Lead cooled fast reactor
(iii) Helium cooled fast reactor
Both sodium cooled fast reactor and lead cooled fast reactor are called Liquid Metal Cooled Fast
Breeder Reactor (LMFBR).
Due to better transport and neutronic properties, sodium is the most preferred choice for coolant.
One of the advantages of using sodium as coolant is the possibility of achieving a high coolant
(sodium) outlet temperature, while maintaining a pressure much lower than those maintained for
light water and heavy water reactors. This is due to the high boiling point of sodium even at
atmospheric pressure. Hence problems associated with high pressures are circumvented to a
large extent.

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Sodium cooled fast breeder reactors use two cycles of coolant flows. The primary circuit
involves the circulation of sodium through the core. Relatively low temperature sodium enters
the core at the bottom and leaves at the top at higher temperature. This sodium, called primary
sodium is radioactive due to exposure to neutrons while passing through the core.
Another circuit involves heat transfer between the radioactive primary sodium and secondary
sodium in separate heat exchangers. The secondary sodium in turn transfers heat to water in
steam generator, thus producing steam. The use of secondary coolant between primary coolant
and steam is aimed at preventing contact of radioactive sodium with water in case of leakage.
While it is to be noted that sodium water reaction itself is exothermic and needs to be prevented,
contact of radioactive sodium with water would also involve concerns with radioactivity. Hence
preventing contact between radioactive sodium and water eliminates the radioactivity concerns.

3.2. GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF FAST BREEDER REACTOR

The fission process is based on the fact that when a neutron is captured by the nucleus of an atom
of fissile material, that atom splits or fissions. The energy released as a result of this process is
used in power reactors to produce steam, which can then be made to drive a turbine and generate
electricity. There are only four heavy isotopes that effectively undergo fission, uranium-233,
uranium-235, plutonium-239 and plutonium-241 Of these only uranium-235 exists in any
quantity in nature (it constitutes about 0.7% of natural uranium) and existing power reactors are
based on its use Considerable quantities of the other three fissile isotopes, however, are produced
when neutrons are absorbed by certain isotopes of thorium and uranium.

Materials which become fissile upon absorbing neutrons are known as "primary fuel" materials
or "fertile" materials. In the case of fast breeder reactors it is uranium-238 which is the most
interesting fertile material, and it is converted into the fissile isotope plutonium-239 through
neutron absorption. Natural uranium contains more than 99% uranium-238, while in depleted
uranium, which accumulates at plants that enrich uranium for existing nuclear power stations, the
proportion is nearly 100%.

When nuclei undergo fission they release more neutrons than are required to sustain the chain
reaction. A characteristic feature of fast breeders is the fact that while producing energy they also

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produce more fissile material than they consume, and hence the name "breeder". A liquid metal
fast breeder reactor is so named because during conversion of the fertile material into fissile
material use is made of high-energy ("fast") neutrons and the coolant employed is sodium, which
remains in the liquid state ("liquid metal") at the prevailing high working temperatures.

In a fast breeder reactor there is fertile material (uranium-238) in the core and in the blanket
around the core. The core consists of a mixture of plutonium oxide and uranium oxide. Fission
takes place chiefly in the reactor core, while the conversion of uranium-238 to plutonium-239
through capture of excess neutrons occurs in both areas of the reactor. The fuel assemblies in the
blanket consist of rods filled with material of uniform composition. Those of the core consist of
rods whose central sections are filled with fissile material, while the end sections contain fertile
material. Hence the entire reactor core is surrounded by blanket zones. When spent fuel
assemblies and blanket assemblies have been removed from the reactor, plutonium is separated
from them during reprocessing and can then be used for the manufacture of fuel elements for fast
breeder reactors or for nuclear power plants of some other kind.
In many respects fast breeder reactors are similar to the power reactors in operation at the present
time. However, the core of a fast breeder has to be much more compact than that of a light-water
reactor. Plutonium or more highly enriched uranium is used as fuel, the fuel elements are smaller
in diameter, and they are clad with stainless steel instead of Zircaloy Since water rapidly
decelerates the fast-moving neutrons produced during fission to less than the energy level
required for breeding, it cannot be used in fast breeders. Thus, in a fast breeder reactor we have
to remove a large amount of heat from a small volume of fuel and at the same time use a coolant
that does not reduce the" neutron energy unacceptably.
In practice it is only certain liquid metals or pressurized helium that are suitable as coolants for
fast breeder reactors. Heat transfer is better with liquid metals than with pressurized helium, but
the latter does not slow the neutrons down to the same extent as do liquid metals. Small fast
breeder reactor cores require high fuel density which favours the use of liquid metals as coolant
in the restricted space available; large fast breeder cores for commercial-size power plants
require less fuel density and in this case the available space in the core is sufficient to permit
cooling by pressurized helium. Over many years however, liquid metals (i.e. mercury,
sodium/potassium mixtures and sodium) have been used as coolants for the successive

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experimental fast breeders that have been constructed and operated throughout the world, so that
experience has been accumulated in their favour.
3.3. Types of sodium cooled fast breeder reactor
There are two types of sodium cooled fast breeder reactor: loop-type reactor, pooltype reactor.
This classification is based on the location of (primary) heat exchanger used for transferring heat
from primary sodium to secondary sodium.
3.3.1 Loop-type fast reactor
The schematic diagram of a loop-type fast reactor is shown in Figure 1. In loop-type reactor (see
figure 1), the heat exchanger used for heat transfer from primary to secondary sodium and the
primary sodium pumps is located outside the reactor vessel, but with a biological shield.

Fig 1.Schematic diagram of loop type fast reactor

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3.3.2. POOL TYPE FAST REACTOR
In pool-type reactor (see figure 2), the primary heat exchanger and pumps for primary sodium
are placed inside the reactor tank. As a result, the diameter of reactor tank is higher for the pool
design compared to that of loop design.
Also, the thermal inertia of sodium is higher in pool type reactors compared to that in loop-type
reactors. For example, when there is a drop in the rate of circulation of primary sodium in the
core, the temperature of the coolant due to this transient will slowly increase from the steady-
state temperature due to higher heat capacity (product of specific heat and mass). Hence the
higher mass of sodium in the pool contributes to the higher thermal inertia.
Other advantages of pool type reactors over loop type reactors are:
1. Radioactive materials are confined within a single vessel
2. Availability of independent and dedicated sodium loop for removing decay
heat reliably
3. Reduction in the amount of external piping
4. No penetrations leading to higher structural integrity of the vessel
5. Lower neutron dose
6. Sodium leakage will not result in Loss of Coolant Accident (LOCA)
leading to higher reliability.

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Fig.2. Schematic diagram of pool type fast reactor. Note the presence of heat exchangers inside
the large pool of sodium

3.4. SODIUM AS A COOLANT

Advantage
An advantage of liquid metal coolants is high heat capacity which provides thermal inertia
against overheating. Water is difficult to use as a coolant for a fast reactor because water acts as
a neutron moderator that slows the fast neutrons into thermal neutrons. While it may be possible
to use supercritical water as a coolant in a fast reactor, this would require a very high pressure. In
contrast, sodium atoms are much heavier than both the oxygen and hydrogen atoms found in
water, and therefore the neutrons lose less energy in collisions with sodium atoms. Sodium also
need not be pressurized since its boiling point is much higher than the reactor's operating
temperature, and sodium does not corrode steel reactor parts. The high temperatures reached by
the coolant (up to 550 °C) permit a higher thermodynamic efficiency than in water cooled
reactors. The molten sodium, being electrically conductive, can be pumped by electromagnetic
pumps.

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Disadvantage
A disadvantage of sodium is its chemical reactivity, which requires special precautions to
prevent and suppress fires. If sodium comes into contact with water it explodes, and it burns
when in contact with air. In addition, neutrons cause it to become radioactive; However,
activated sodium has a half-life of only 15 hours

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4. ADVANTAGES
 A breeder reactor creates 30% more fuel than it consumes. After an initial introduction of
enriched uranium, the reactor only needs infrequent addition of stable uranium, which is
then converted into the fuel.
 It can generate much more energy than traditional coal power plants. Even 3 g of
uranium, on undergoing fission, can release ten times the energy produced by a ton of
coal.
 Breeder reactors can even use the uranium waste from uranium processing plants and
spent fuel from traditional fission reactors, along with depleted uranium from nuclear
weapons.
 Uranium235 used by lightwater reactors is rare on Earth, and its reserves are likely to run
out within 100 years. On the other side, uranium238 used by breeder reactors is plentiful;
in fact as common as tin. In the US alone, its reserves are expected to last for at least
1,000 years.
 Since it reuses fuel, the expenses for mining, milling, and processing of uranium ore are
minimized.
 Fuel prices of breeder reactors will remain fairly stable because of the abundance of
uranium238 on Earth.
 This technology does not contribute to air pollution, except during the mining and
processing of uranium ore.
 Breeder reactors can use a small core, which is important to sustain chain reactions.
Besides, they do not even need moderators for slowing down neutrons, as they use fast
neutrons.

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5. DISADVANTAGES
 Breeder reactors use highly enriched fuels, which pose the danger of critical accidents.
They also work at a very high temperature and a fast pace.
 The byproducts formed during the fission of plutonium have to be removed by
reprocessing, as they slow down the neutrons and reduce efficiency. However, this step
of reprocessing produces a very pure strain of plutonium, which is ideal for use in nuclear
weapons. This poses a risk, as in, terrorists may attempt to sabotage or steal the
plutonium.
 Plutonium persists for a long time in the environment, with a half-life of 24,000 years,
and is highly toxic, causing lung cancer even if a small amount is inhaled.
 In practice, a breeder reactor requires 30 years to produce as much plutonium as it utilizes
in its operation.
 It requires liquefied sodium or potassium metal as a coolant, as water would slow down
the neutrons. These metals can cause a mishap, as they react violently when exposed to
water or air.
 The construction and operation is very costly. Between $4 to $8 billion is required in the
construction alone.
 These reactors are complex to operate. Moreover, even minor malfunctions can cause
prolonged shutdowns. Their repair is tedious and expensive too.
 Breeder reactors have had several accidents.

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 6. SUMMARY CONCLUSION & FUTURE SCOPE OF BREEDER
REACTORS
The studies presented in this dissertation have attempted to tackle some of the major challenges
present in large liquid-metal cooled reactor design. Fast breeder reactors with closed fuel cycle
are an inevitable technology option to the energy security for India. Fast breeder test reactor is
serving as an excellent facility for research and development for irradiation of fuel and structural
materials, and enhancing confidence in sodium technology. Further, the roadmap for large scale
deployment of FBR towards ensuring energy security for the country is planned through the
metallic fuel reactors with emphasis on breeding gain.

FUTURE SCOPE:
 Next generation may use noble gases such as helium or argon instead of sodium
 Increase in the breeding ratio
 Believed that a ratio of 1.3 will be possible
 Smaller reactors
 Lower maintenance and repair costs
 Higher reactor temperatures
 Can be used for thermo chemical hydrogen production.

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7. REFERENCES

 Jay Newman (2012).physics of the life sciences.

 “Reactor protection and engineering safety feature system”, the nuclear tourist.

Retrieved 25 Sept. 2013

 www.howstuffworks.com
 http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Nuclear-Fuel-Cycle/Power-Reactors/Nuclear-Power-
Reactors/

 http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-ref/students/reactors.html

 http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/nucene/reactor.html
 IAEA Education and Training Seminar/Workshop on Fast Reactor .Science and
Technology, October 1 – 5, 2014 Centro Atomico Bariloche, Argentina , The Gas-Cooled
Fast Reactor: History, Core design and Main Systems.
 The Health and Environment Alliance. THE UNPAID HEALTH BILL, How coal
Power plants make us sick. Tech. rep. HEALS, 2013.

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