Utah State University

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All Graduate Plan B and other Reports Graduate Studies

5-1975

1. History of the Development of the Violin 2.

Construction of the Violin 3. Repairs of the Violin
String Instruments
Carl David Nyman
Utah State University

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Nyman, Carl David, "1. History of the Development of the Violin 2. Construction of the Violin 3. Repairs of the Violin String
Instruments" (1975). All Graduate Plan B and other Reports. 750.
https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/gradreports/750

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 HISTORY OF THE DEV E L OP~1EN T OF THE VIOLIN
II
CON STRUCTION OF THE VIOLIN
III
REPAIRS OF TH E VIOLIN (STRING INSTRUMENTS)
by
Car l David Nyman

Subm itted in part i al fulfi ll ment of the

requirements for the degree

of
~1AS TER OF ~1USIC

in
~1USIC EDUCATION

Approved:

UTAH STATE UN IVERS ITY

LOGAN, UTAH
 ii

ACKNOI,!LEDGME NTS

I would like to exoress my ap preciation to Professor ~alph

MaLesky for his encourageme nt, adv ice, and friendship . would also

like to express my gratitude to the other members of my committee:

Glen Fifield and Malcom Allred. I would be remiss if I di d not specifica l ly
acknowledge Mr. Ray Miller, Luthier, whose knowlege and craftsmanship at
violin making and repairinq I used in completing this paper.

Carl David Nyman

I!
 iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOvJLEDGt1ENTS . . . ii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS iv

DEVELOPMENT OF THE VIOLIN

CONSTRUCTION OF THE VIOLIN 16

REPAIRS OF THE VIOLI N (STRING INSTRUMENTS) 49

EP ILOGUE 78
GLOSSARY. 78
INDEX 80
VITA 82
 iv

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

I.llustration Page
1. Violi n Form . . . . 21
~. Placement of cor ner and end blocks 23
3. Bending Iron 25
4. Out line of the model an the slab 26
5. Wood cut on the quarter and s l ab 27

6. Back and top wood ~8

7. Groove marker and qroove cleaner 29

8. Groove for purfling 30

9. Direction for cutting F-holes 31

10. Thi ck ness chart for top and back 3~

11. Str adivar i F-hol e design 33

12. F-h ol es of famous makers 34

13. Ribs for a one and two piece back 36

14 . Bass bar .. . . . 3/

15. Location of bass bar 38

16. Component parts of the finished belly 39

17. Cross section of a finished edge 40

18. Temp l ates for scroll 41

19. Sadd 1e and nut 44
20 . Loca tion of nut at top of fingerboard 45
21 . Pos i tio n of sadd l e 48
22 . fJrappinq the t ai l pi ece gut 51
23. Attach inq the strinq to the tai l piece 52
24. Hi ndi ng the string in the peq box . . 53
 LIST OF ILLUSTKATIONS (Cont inu ed)

25. Clamp i ng the nut 5~

26. Sadd l e placement 57

27 . Str ips for regluinq a fingerboard 59

28 . Clamping the fingerboard 60
29 . Br idq e placement . . . . 61
30. Sound post and post setter 65
31. Peg shaper and peg hole reamer 67

n. Clamp ing open edqe 69

33. Constr uct i on of edge clamps 70
34. Replaci ng the spread wedge . 72
35. Patches in side the in strument 74
36 . Clamp ing the neck 76
HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE VIOLIN
 THE DEVELOPIIENT OF THE VIOLI N

The origin of al l stringed instruments is lost in the midst of

time, and despi te the most patient and l abor ious research on the part
of famous savants, no positive information has as yet been furnished
regarding this po int . Knowledge of the subject is more or l ess con-
jectural, and all that has been definitely establ i shed is the exis -
tence of the predecessors of th e vi olin - the English crewth, a si x
stringed bowed instrument which i s con spicuous for its rectangular
shape, which is strongly remini scent of the Greek kithara; the rebec,
an in strument in the shape of an el ongated pear having two strings
tuned a fifth apart and played with a bow; the viol da Gamba , an
instrument held on or between th e l egs and played with a bow and
usually having six strings; the Ara bi an r ebab, an instrument that
is found in various shapes, e.g. el ongated boat , halved pear, trap-
esoid, rectangle, and usually with three str ings; the viell e played
with the bow, having four strings and a drone string; and the organ-
istrum, a med ieva l stringed instrume nt, shaped somewhat like a lute
or viol, whose strings were put in vibration by a rotating rosined
wheel. This instrument usually had four unfingered strings wbich
produced a drone,and two fin gered str i ngs .
Caspar S. Duiffopruggar, named Tieffenbrucker, a Bavarian who
became a nationalized Frenchman, l·tas 1ong reputed to be the first
maker of violins, but according to Vi da l, !lachmann (1925) all the so-
called Duiffopruggar violins are spurious , having been made by Vuillaume,
who in 1827, conceived the idea of ma king violins after the pattern of
 2

a viola d 'amour bui lt by the forme r. Vid al ex ti ma tes that Duiffopruggar

work ed in Paris from approximat ely 151 5 to 1530 , but in spite of th e
contentions that he was a wonderful artist at inlay work , there is
absolute ly no proof existing of the auth enticity of the violins he is
said t o have made .
The creation of the violin as it i s today concerning its shape is
veiled in a mystery which the most ard ent discussions on the part of
specialists have not been able to so l ve. It is possible th e paternity
of the vio lin may be conceded to Gasparo da Sa l o, although i t i s mo r e
probable that Amat i of Cremona and Magg ini of Bresc ia may be consider ed
the first to give the violin its present form; and in all events , the
in strument s made by the famous builders acco rding to Bachmann (1925)
are authentic in all their parts .
According to Farga (1940) it is ~1ith Gasparo da Salo that we enter
for the first ti me t he field of recorded history in violin-making. That
da Sa lo made instrume nts at Bresc ia from 1560 to the year of his death,
1609 , is indi sputable. Whether the f irst vio lins were made by Magg in i ,
da Salo, or by Andrea Amat i, the fact remains that they originated during
that peri od. The violins of da Sa l o were well built, although their
appearance does not show the perfection of the later makers. His violins
have backs of first class maple, l ow ribs, large F-hole s , and a dark
brown translucent varnish .
Giovann i Paolo f1ag gini was the mos t important of da Salo ' s pupi l s.
Farga {1940) states that he took ov er da Sa lo's workshop after the l att er's
death. By that ti me , the name of Brescia had become fa mous all over the
world owing to da Salo's in struments . Maggini never ceased experimenting,
and imp roving over da Salo's mode l s. Unfortunately, very f ew of Maggini's
 3

instruments have survived, but those that have sta nd up to modern

r eq uir ements. The ir t one carries well and dom inates even a large
orchestra, yet in solo ~1ork they can produce a somewhat me l ancho ly
timbre.
Maggini's violi ns are l arge and 1vide, but their design lacks rea l
beauty. Th e sound hol es are a little too l ong and too pointed, and
the scroll, though exquisitely carved , is too sma ll for the si ze of
the instrument . The curvature of the be ll y starts right from the ri bs ,
whic h are a littl e too l ow . The edges are often l ined with double
purfling; the varnish is either brown or light ye llow, but not as
luci dl y trans paren t as that of Gasparo da Sa l o's vi oli ns. It is well
known that the Belgian virtuoso, Charles de Beriot, had two Maggi ni
vio l ins, one of which he bought in a junk shop in Pari s for 18 fr ancs.
He pr eferred these in struments to tho se of any other maker.
vlorking at the same time as t~ aggini, Javiett Rodiani and t~atteo

Bent i both co ntributed to Brescia ' s fa me . Farga (1940) states that

only to~1ar d the end of the seventeenth century did the Brescia school
1ose its influence; Cremona had by then become its great competitor.

Bachman n (1925) makes mention of the fact that it is evident that

the actual form of the in str ume nt i s the fruit of a thous and and one
success i ve changes , and that the present form has been in use for several
hundred yea rs. Innumerab le experiments have been made with the object
of varying the form, and of increasing the so nority of the vio li n as
we know it; but none of those who would in~rove the viol in has prod uced
instrume nts whic h can equal in nobility of to ne the instruments made by
Stradivari , Guarnerius, Amati, and other grea t Italian mas t ers.
vlit h th e assumed i mnigration of maker·s from Brescia-- the emergence
 4

of th e Amati fami ly and their final res id ence at Cremona--begins the

classic period of the violin.
Wec hsberg (1972) indicates that Andrea Amati ~1as born in Cremona
probably before 1510, and made violins from 1520-46. A good deal has
been said about Andrea Amati and his violins. He was certainly the founder
of the family, but not much i s known about him except that he possibly
acquired from Brescia the Magg i ni ty pe , although his violins are some
what sma ll er, arched in the belly, with a varnish that runs out of the
Brescian br01v n into the mellow and bri lliant go l d and ruddy tints common
to the Cremona Varnish. The F-hol es of th e Andrea Amati violins are
quite wide and reminiscent of the Brescia schoo l as are the sloping
edges of his instruments.
For centuries viol in historians have argued whether Gasparo da
Sa lo or Andrea Amati "invented'' the viol in. It doesn't really matter,
historically or geographically the di st ance between Brescia and Cremona
is only thirty-one mi 1es. If Andrea 1\ma t i was born around 151 0 he would

be older than da Salo. The oldest su rv iving Andr ea Amati now in the
United sta tes ~1as probably made in 1566.
Seniority alone won't establish t he pos i tion of Andrea Amati in
the violin world, but the 1\mati family according to t·!echsbet·g (l972) did
more tha n anyone else to establi sh and deve l op the Cremone se school of
violin making, although this do esn 't diminish the great contribution of
the Bresc ians, Gaspara da Salo and Paola nagg ini.
Nicolo Amati (the Great), son of Girolamo , ~1as born in 1596. Haweis
indicates that he did not troubl e himse lf much with his grandfather Andrea,
whom he probably regarded as a ~:o r t h y ol d gen tleman quite out of date.
Nicolo the Great doubtless foll owed and im itated his father Girolamo ,

II
 5

but wishing to miss nothing and pe rhaps l abori ng under a sense of

obligation or merely out of genuine affection , his labels embody an
immortal acknowledgement of indebt edness to both masters. They run
thus: --"Nicolaus Amatus Cremonim Hieronymi Fil, 1677."
The grand Amati violin pattern runs some of the Stradivari violi ns
very hard, and is evidentally the model on which the 1700 - 35 strads
are built. The side-grooving, generally he ld to interfere with the
volume of tone, wh ile supposed by some t o add s1•eetness, has not
disappeared as in the Stradivari grand mod el, but has become less
pronounced.
Andrea Guarneri (Andrew Guarneri us) the appre ntice to Nicolo Amati,
worked with Amati until 1698 . Many of th e violins of Andrea Guarneri
are of the small Nicolo pattern, but somewhat inferior, and not always
~1ell finished . Joseph, second son of Andrea struck out a fr· eer line of
work. Haweis describes his instruments as narrow-waisted boldly curved,
with Bresc ian l ook ing sou nd-h ol es set l ow down, the rich, almost too
profusely rich, varnish and fin e wood, give these violins quite a char-
acteristic appeara nce, and in power and tone they are superior to his
father ~. But next to the great Joseph de l Ges u, Pietro Guarneri is the
flower of the family. The grain of his bellies is often wide, the dis-
tance between the F-holes is conspicuous, the F-holes themselves are
rounder and less Brescian, the scroll s are beautifully cut and the
varnish is superb, from its golden tint s to its pale red.
\·Je come now to the one man ~1ho with t he except ion of th e great
Nicolo Arnati, who is worthy to measure svmrds (or bows) with Stradivari.
He came from a side branch , and not in direct descent from And rea Amati
or any violin maker, being the so n of one Joh n Baptist Guarnerius, and
 6

was born at Cremona in 1683 . The great Josep h was a nephew of Andrea
Guarnerius, just as the great Nicolo v1as the nep hev: of Andrea Amati,
but a distinguishing fact separates Jo seph from all hi s illustrious
kinfolk: his fath er does not seem to have been a violin maker at all,
so the young Jo se ph owed his teaching most probably according to Haweis
to his uncle and cousins. Nothing about Joseph Guarneri del Gesu is
mo re rema rkabl e than the determined 1vay in which, after examining the
Amati type, he deliberately 1•1ent back to the Bresc ian da Sa l o and r~ag g ini

models f or inspiration. The time had come whe n poVIerful tone was v1anted.
The Amatis were sensit i ve and SV/eet and in the larger and more mass iv e
Br escians Joseph found the suggestion of what he VIas destined to make
perfect. Stre ngth, power, was what he wanted , and the sent imen t was
thrown off in the bulldog type of his head or sc roll, in the thickness
of hi s boards so much criticized, i n the bol dness rath er than the grace
and delicacy of hi s curves.
He tri ed many experiments; flat make , fu ll mak e , F-holes cut almost
perpendicularly, shortened, slanti ng, and sometime disproportionatel y l ong.
He was watching the effect on the volume and quality of tone, and when he
had in his ovm \vay conquered that secret of grand sonority, v1hether
empirically or by calcul at ion, then, and not until then, hi s \vorkmanship
improves.
A Joseph del Gesu is more diffi cu lt to f ind than a Strad--his out-
put, as compared to Stradivari i s one Lo six: his life was shorter ,
and his v1ork ing career probably more erratic . Good instruments by both
makers are difficu l t to loc ate today.
Antonio Stradivari and Andrea Guarneri were young apprentices
together in the v10 rksh p of the great Nico lo Ama ti, sat on th e same bench,
used the same tools, and doubtless discussed the same problems.
 Whe n Nicol o Amat i di ed, at the ripe old age of eighty-eight, he
l eft all his t ool s and his pl ant no t to his son Girolamo , then about
thirty-five, but to Anto nio Stradivari , just forty years old .
On the death of Amat i, Stradivarius and the Guarneri family had
the Cremona market to themselv es. At this time Stradivari departs
from the fem inine Amati type and becomes a striking and independent
build er, his F-holes recline more, his corners are pronounced, his
middle bout curves are pro longed, his varnish almost fancifull y varied
from rich go 1d to soft ve 1vety red. His wood is no~1 i nva ri ab ly chosen
with the utmos t care, and as he made ch i efly for the nobility , roya lty,
and other hi gher cleri ca l digni ta ries, he co uld afford to work jus t as
he chose.
The one poi nt of great general interes t before the year 17 00, when
Stradivarius enters his go l de n period , as stated by vlec h ~ berg (197 2) is
the deliberate ma nufacture of a certain numbe r of violins on a pattern
di stinct from Amat i, and from any patterns adopted by himsel f befor e
1686- 94 , or after 1700 . Th ese instruments are known as long strads ,
and t hey seem to be a sort of constru ct i ona l or experimental link
bet1·1een the sma 11 er Amat i pattern and the gr and Strad pattern of 1700-37;
a mode l evidently suggested by the grand Nico l o Amati, but not adopted
by the cautiou s Strad ivar i un til some yea r s after Nicolo' s death .
From 1694 to 1700 Stradivari not onl y went out of his way to make
l ong Strad s , wh i ch not only l ooked l onger becaus e they we re narro~1er

and pinched in , but were 14 inches in body si ze , as compared with the

1690 13 inch Str ad.
Stradivari violins are not al l ali ke. He knew that the sec ret was
not merely in the pattern or shape; Hi 11 (1963 ) suggests th at he could
vary his curves, and yet produ ce masterpieces, because he knew all
 8

about air column, the wood de nsities, and the pro portions and quantities
which should be combined for the requisite result, and he could mix them
differently like a master colorist. The varnish used by Stradivari after
1690 is of a deeper richer color than that of previous years. He switched
from the traditional Amati ye ll ow to the warmer-tinted colors.
The achievements in violin-making up to the first quarter of the
eighteenth century are clearly summed up in the names of Nicolo Amati,
Antonio Stradivari, and Joseph (del Ges u) Gua rneri.
~lechsberg (1972) states by by 1744, afte r the glorious trinity,
(Nico lo Amati, Stradivari, Guarneri del Gesu) l'las gone there were still
fine makers in Cremona: Frances co Ruggieri, Carlo Bergonzi, Lorenzo
Storion i; elsewhere there were Comenico Montagnana , Santo Seraphin,
Matteo Goffriller, the Guadagninis, Fran cesco Gabetti, Carlo Tononi, the
Grancino and Gagliano families, but Cremona had reached the end of its
glory.
The name of Carlo Bergonzi (1686-47) stands out as worthy, if not
to be bracketed with that of the three mighty men . Carlo Bergonzi
according to Bachmann (1966) was Stradiva ri's favorite pupil. He
finished several of his master's l ate viol ins , and issued some others
after his death collected from the debris of the great man's workshop;
and Str adivari left him all his tools and plant.
Bergonzi's goals were a full bodied tone and great carrying power.
These dominant ideas modified even his pattern. The instruments look
bold and masculine. There is a large r bread th in the curve of the to p,
a certain bold angularity about th e bouts , and a freer development of
the l01ver part of the violin as well ; t he sound holes set loVIer and
nearer to the purfling, and the fl at mode l which Stradivari discovered
 9

to be favorable to l oudness. The who l e build is massive. The varnish

is laid on with a lavish hand, t o all ow f or wear and tear and is of a
red Cremona velvety brown.
There were five other Bergonzi s , a son and grandsons; they all
made violins but are li sted as members of the declining period of the
Cremona schoo l.
The work of Lorenzo Guadagnini, (1 69 5-1740) who was supposedly
a pupil of Stradivari, cannot be ov erloo ked. His make is bold, his
model flat, and the varnish not so r ich as Stradivari 's . His son
Giambattista made violins which are more highly esteemed than his
fathe~s. He imitated Stradivari perha ps more closel y than his father.
There were seven Guadagninis who made vio lins between 1695 and
1881, but of these the first two, fath er and son , alone need to be
taken account of. The Guadagnini family is the longest liv ed of all
the violin making families the la st one hav ing died in 1942.
Attempts have been made to cl ass i fy t he various towns in which
Italian violins were made during the Cremona period into school . Roughly
speaking, there are but two influ ences- the Cremona, i.e . the Nicolo
Amati, the Great Joseph Guarnerius and the greater Antonio Stradivari
influence with its flat form, gent l e curves, and red and yellow varnish;
and the German influence, i.e. the Stainer mode l, with its elongated form,
arched belly, deep side grooves, and brown-yellow varnish.
Some fine Venetian and Milane se ma kers like Montagnana and Serafino
inclined to Stainer, whi le the Roma n and Hea po litan adhered more to the
Cremona type; but Stainer himself possibl y learned at Cremona, and all
the best men like Tecchler (Rome) and Gagl i ano (Naples) who went south
copied either Stradivari or Jose ph Gu arn erius del Gesu.
 l0

Jacob Stainer or Steiner v1as undoubtedly born at 1\bsam (Ti ro l).

The argume nt aga inst Stainer having rece iv ed ea rl y instruction at
Cremona seems to be that he affected the tubby r aised belli es and deep
side-grooves of the ol d German viols; but it must be remembered that,
if as a boy he came under Nicolo Amati 's influence, it was at a time
when Amati himself approached far more nearly t he ra ised vio l form
than he did later on when his own model improved. The Sta iner
pattern is therefore consistent with all these theories:- -
First, that Stainer adopted the raised pattern which he found
at Cremona and which was then common throughout the violin mak ing
wor l d; that, returning to Absam, he adhered to it, and perhaps from
motives of national pride, accentuated it to be more German.
Second, that he visited Cremona l ater , when hi s own model was
already formed, and was too prou d to alter it.
Third, that German he \'las and German he re mained , and never went
to Cremona at all .
The genera l look of a Stainer is so distinct from that of any
maker except such as cop i ed him, that it must arrest the attention of
even a casual observer . The Stainer belly i s much higher than the back,
the rise i s kept up through half i ts length; the varnish is yel l ow (or
as in the Elector Sta iners) , with a sort of pale rose flush in it.
The best pupils and fol l owers of Staine r were according to Haweis,
Sebastian Klotz and Matthias Al bani. Sebastian Klotz or Kloz (1675)
and hi s son Math i as (1696-1708) made excel l ent violins, and some prefer
the son's to the father's. It is certain that wh ile the Klotz famil y
lived and worked, a pretty st eady stream of pseudo-Stainers poured forth
from Mi ttenwald until about the year 1750 .
 11

The Albani family stands midway between the Cremon a and Absam
school. Albani ' s vio lin s pass for Italian ; they are varnished red,
and rival the Amati tone, and the Joseph Alban i' s are more high ly
esteemed than the violin s of Albani pere.
The golden age of French violin making dawned with Lupot (1736-58);
was extended to Pique (1788-1822), also famous for bows; Vuil l aume (1798-
1875); Chanot (1801); Gand (1802); and Aldris (1792-1840), famous for his
varnish; and Fent, an admirable copyist , whose violins often sell as
Lupot's copies of Stradivarius.
Nicolas Lupot was a man who was enamoured with the Stradivari grand
pattern, and his best violins are such good copies that many amateurs
and some professional judges have been deceived by them. Lupot's violins
are, however, covered with a glassy, hard and chip-able French varnish.
One of Lupot's rivals was Pique who it is sa id was in the habit of
buying Lupot's violins unvarnished, varnishing them, and lab eling them
as his own . Pique was considered second only to Lupot as a maker,
which makes it surprising that he would stoop to this device. J. B.
Vui ll aume was also a great copier of Italian violins. His techniques
not only enabled him to copy them accurately, but to counterfeit the
wear and tear, even the cracks and 1-10rm-holes, the inlaying, the rubbed
varnish and even the old wood. Vuillaume's copies were ch i efly of
Stradivari. Vuillaume was a great maker in his own right, a superb
businessman who engaged count l ess artist bow-makers and developed the
art of stringeJ instrument and bow making vastly in France.
The first two excellent English ei ghteenth-century makers were
Panormo and Parker. It should be noted here that Panormo ~1as not an
Englishman but an Italian but did most of his work in England. According
to Jalovek and Hamlyn (1958) as a boy Panormo may have been a pupil of
 12

Carlo Bergonzi. In 1760 he worked in Paris and after 1772 in London.

Panormo worked conscientiously on the patterns of Stradivari and Bergonzi.
His instruments were made of fine wood, with tastefully cut sound holes
and scrolls. He applied a wonderful orange-yellow or red-brown varnish.
All genuine works of Panormo are of excellent tone, but not all of the
instruments bearing his label are genuine. Many of his instruments that
do not have his label have been sold as genuine works of other masters
such as Stradivari. He either had several collaborators or some less
skilled masters provided their instruments with his labels.
Farga (1969) states that Daniel Parker, a London maker who worked
until about 1770, made violins that reproduced fairly accurately, the
"Long Pattern" of Antonio Stradivari, even going so far as picking out
the outline of the scroll in black. This craftsman has the distinction
of being one of the earlist makers to consider the merit of the flatter
Stradivari model.
1'1any writers and makers of the present century are often reserved
in assessing the respective merits of violin makers, especially the
modern ones. Many of them have yet to prove themselves and all modern
instruments must stand the test of time. Many are slmv to leave the
ground of direct experience, but as each individual experience is
necessarily limited one must rely on authorities. There are many great
makers and experts in the violin field today. The Hill family have all
been makers and collectors and authorities on the viol in. They have
been responsible for the preservation of many of the works of the masters
as is indicated by their donation of the Hill Collection to the Ashmolean
Museum in Oxford. The firm of Rembert 1-Jurlitzer in the United States also
has done much for the preservation of the instruments of the masters.
 13

There are hundreds of violin makers in the world today, many of

them experts in the field. There is not one particular country or city
that could possibly stand out as the center of violin making as did the
city of Cremona during the time of Stradi vari, the Guarneri s, and the
Amatis.
In the present century, the instruments of the violin 'class have
been perfectly establ i shed, the viol class being now obsolete, except
as matters of curiosity. But with all the advances in practical skill,
there have been no improvements in the models known three hundred years,
unless it may be in some of the minor details .
Men have learned to split the atom and to transplant the human
heart, but not to surpass the Cremonese violins. It is a bewildering
thought.
The enormous popularity of the violin has again and again
fostered attemp ts at discovering the mathematical princ i ples on which
the structure of the instrument, its size and form, are founded. When
the mathematical rules of their designs had been discovered, excellent
instruments were built after the peak period of violin-making, but they
never reached the quality of the old master violins, to say nothing of
surpassing them.
It is on ly fair to say that mathematical rules are not everything
in violin-making. In order to achieve the same results, the imitators
would need the same material as that used by the old masters, the same
chioce wood and same inimitable varnish-quite apart from the genius of
the old masters, which their imitators lacked.
From a statement by Farga (1940) it can be assumed that count l ess
efficient violin-makers, slowly and laboriously, went to infinite pains
 14

to discover the id eal measurements, and so paved the road to perfection

for individual great masters.

CHART OF t1ASTER VIOLHI MAKERS

Andrea Amat i 1510-1579

Gasparo da Salo 1540-1609
Giovanni Paolo Magaini 1590-1640
Ni co l o Amati 1596-1684
Jacob Stainer 1621-1683
Andrea Guarneri 1626-1698
Antonio Stradivari 1644 -1737
John Gaptist Guarneri 1683-1740
Carlo Bergonzi 1687-1747
Lorenzo Guadagnini 1695- 1740
Sebastian Kl otz 1696-1767
Matth i as A1bani 1696-1708
Daniel Parker 1700 -1775
Vincenzo Trusiano Panormo 1734-1813
Nicolas Lupot 1758-1824
Francais-Loui s Piaue 1788-182L
Jean-Baotist Vuillaume 17 98 -1875
 15

BIBLI OGRAPHY

Bachmann, Alberto. An Encyclopedia of The Violin . New York: Da Capo

Press, 1966. 470 p.
Boyden, David D. The Hill Collection. London: Oxford University Press,
1969. 54 p.
Farga, Franz . Violins and Violini sts. Hew York: Frederick/\. Praeger,
Inc. 1969. 247 p.
Haweis, H. R. Old Violins and Violin Lore. London Wi lli am Reeves
Bookseller Ltd.
Hill, W. Henry, Arthur F. and Alfred E. An tonio Stradivari. New York:
Dover Publications, Inc., 1963. 315 p.
Jalovec, Karel & Hamlyn, Paul. German and Austrian Violin Makers.
London: Drury House, 1967. 439 p.
Jalovec , Karel &Hamlyn, Paul. Italian Violin Makers. London : Westbook
House, 1958. 445 p.
Sandys, Wi lli am & Forster, Simon Andrew. The History of the Violin.
London: William Reeves Bookseller Ltd. 1864. 389 p.
Wechsberg, Joseph. The Glory of The Violin. New York: Viking Press,
1972. 314 p.
 16

II

CONSTRUCTION OF THE VIOLIN

 17

I•IATERIALS NEEDED FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE VIOLIN

BACK: Old "loft seasoned" maple, either one-piece, at l east 15" l ong,
B l /2" wide, and having a minimum thickness of l/4" at one edge
and 1 3/8" at the thick edge. Or two-piece, at l east 15" long,
4 l/4" wide, 3/4" thick at the thin edge and 1 5/8" at the thick
edge 1~hen already split.
TOP: Old "loft seasoned" spruce, almost invariably two-piece. Same
dimensions as two piece back.
SIDES: Three strips of maple, 15" long, 1 5/16" wide, and approximately
l/16" thick.

BLOCKS: Six inside b1ocks of spruce, t1·1o for the end b1ocks and four for
the corner blocks. The end blocks are 3/4" x 2" to 2 1/4" x 1 5/16",
and the corner blocks are 3/4" x 1 to 1 3/8" x 1 5/ 16" .
LIN INGS: Twelve strip of spruce wood matching the blocks, 1/4" ~1ide and
5/64" thick. Four strips 9 l/2" long for the lower bouts; four str ips
5 1/2" long for center bouts; and four 7 l /2" long for the upperbouts.
BASS BAR: Old straight-grained spruce approximately ll" long, l" wide and
3/8" thick, with the grain showing on the edge.
PURFLING OR INLAY: Furnish ed in readymade strips of suitable length .
NECK AND SCROLL: 11aple, furnished either readymade or "stock", rough-
sawed, 10 l/2" long, 2 l/4" wide, l 3/4" thick.
FINGERBOARD, NUT, SADDLE : Ebony, furnished semi -finished.
PEGS, TAIL PIECE, END BUTTON: Furni shed in ebony, rose\Vood or box1~ood,
usually matched. Sometimes elaborately carved and trimmed in gold,
ivory , etc.
BRIDGE: t1aple, furnished ready for final fitting and thinning.
SOUNDPOST: Spruce, round stick about 3" long, and about l/4" in diameter.

GLUE: The best violin maker's, or cabinet maker's glue, furnished in flakes
or ribbons.
FINI SHING MATERIAL: Hood s tain, sizing, color varni s h, clear finishing
varnish, rubbing oil, and powdered Italian pumice stone.
 18

THE COMPONENT PARTS OF A VIOLI N

Number of
Part Pieces
Be l ly 2 (Some t imes l )
Back . 2 (Somet i mes l )
Ri bs . 6
Inside Bl ocks . 6
Inside Linings . 12
Inside Bass Bar . l
Pu r fl i ng .24
Fi ngerboard . . l
Neck and Sc r oll l
Nut . . . . . . l
Sadd l e or Lower nut l
Tailpi ece . . . . l
Loo p or ta il pi ece gut l
Tail pi ece Butt on l
Pegs 4
Strings . . 4
Br i dge l
Sou nd Post l

TO
 19

TOOLS NEEDED FOR CONSTRUCTION OF THE VIOLIN

Violin makers knives

Gouges and chisels assorted sizes
Violin ma ker's saw
Files - oval, half round, needle, flat, wood rasp
Garnet paper
Burn i shing iron
Honing stones
Bending Iron
Arching guides
Violin cl amps
Bass Bar Clamps
Li ning Cl amps
Registering Ca li pers
Purfl ing tools - groove marker, groove knife, groove cleaner
Peg Tools - reamer, shaper
Sound Post Setter
Vio li n maker's planes - l /2" size is most essential
Scrapers - various si zes both flat and round
 20

HOW THE MODELS OF VIOLI N PARTS ARE MADE

The sure st 1~ay of tracing or copy ing a fin e vi o1 in i s to f ind an

instrument t hat we wil l refer to as a "creators" in strument. This would
be an instrument made two hundred years ago or more by Stradivari, Amati ' s,
Stainers or Guarneri. Copies of these instruments can be purcha sed
through such companies as Roth or Lewis. The models of the parts
obtained from these companies are actua l copies of the or iginal "creators"
in strument and are the models used by most violin makers. The mode l s.
will be outlines of the belly and back, the curves of the belly and
the back in respective l engths , the F-hole pattern, the cut and pos iti on
of the F-holes, the curve of the neck and the pattern for cutting the
scro 11. A11 of these mode 1s are exact reproductions of the outlines of
the var ious parts of the instrument of a famous "cre ator" .
 21

~11\KING THE FORI•\

The form is a piece of wood cut to fit the inside of the ribs and
with notches cut to receive the corner and end blocks. It is around this
form the the sides of the instrument are built and the linings installed.
The form is usually copied from that of a famous instrument. In thi s
instance the form is that of a 1704 St radivari instrume nt.

i
Notch for neck block

TOP PORTI ON OF THE FO RH

No tch for corner bl ock

 22

FITTING THE CORNER BLOCKS AND END BLOC KS TO THE NOLO

The pieces of spruce that are to be used for the corner blocks and
end blocks are cut to just exactly fit into their notches in the mold.
The grain of these blocks will run toward the back and belly of the
instrument. After the blocks have been fitted into their respective
notche s they are glued there with a sma ll amount of glue so as to allow
them to be removed later.
When the glue has dried the counter mold is placed on them and the
outline is traced. This is the mold for the insi de dimensions of the
instrument. After the outline has been traced a chisel or gouge is used
to remove the excess wood and give the bl ocks their final shape. The
blocks will be completely finished with the knife and file.
 Spruce linings along
upper and lowe r ribs
to wh ich th e top and
back are glu ed

End Block of spruce that

end button fits into
 24

FORM ING THE SIDES OR RIBS

The vio lin maker of the olden times built the ribs on an inside type
of assembly form. This is the type of form illustrated in the picture and
the type of form that is used in the construction of this particular in st r-
ument. The wooden form has cutouts for holding the corner blocks and end
blocks while the ribs are being given their proper shape.
 25

BEtWING

The ribs and linings are bent to their proper shape by using a bend-
ing iron. Using a wet cloth between the rib or lining and the iron, steam
will be produced and allow the wood to be bent very easily. The ribs and
linings will be bent to their approximate shape and allowed to dry and then
attached to the assembly form.

Electronically heated bending iron and steel band

 26

BUILDING THE BACK OF THE VIOLIN

If the back is made of one piece, a line should be drawn across

from top to bottom on the level side making sure th i s line is absolutley
parallel with the point on top. If a two piece back i s used this line
is not necessary because the line is formed by the joint.
The model is l aid on the back of the slab and the entire model is
traced on the wood. The back can now be cut out with a coping saw or
a band saw. Do not cut too near the line as this wood is removed later
with the knife and scraper.
A line is now drawn all the way aroung the edge of the cut out
back to indicate the thickness which the edges should have. This will
be 5 rr~llimeters or l/5 of an inch.
The arching can now be started by using gouges and planes. Be care-
ful to remove only a sma ll amount of v1ood at a time because a large splinter
of 1vood r emov ed can ruin the v10rk. As you remo ve the 1·1ood check often with
the arching gu ides and templates to make sure the arch is correct.

1•1odel drawn on the

flat side ready to
be sawed out .
 27

WOOD CUT ON THE QUARTER OR THE SLAB

r~ ost of the wood that is used in the vi olins of today is cut on the
quarter. This gives the nice flame look to the instruments back and ribs.
The early Brescians used wood cut on the sl ab of the grain and you can
see the growth ring markings. ~lost of the Crernonese instruments had backs
that were cut on the quarter. This is a matter of individual taste and
perhaps the Cremonese makers liked the looks of the quarter cut better.
Wood cut on the quarter is used in both one and two piece backs, however
we find most of the wood cut on the slab is found only in one piece backs.

Hood cut on the quarter or Wood cut on the slab or

right way of the grain across the grain
 28

Bac k wood is we ll seaso ned mapl e either i n one

or t110 pi eces.
Top wood is i mported spruce we ll seasoned and
is usual l y in two pi eces.
 29

CUTTING THE GROOV E AND INLAYING THE PURFLING

If you are copying a model exactly set the groove marker to the
same measurements as the model. Holding the groove marker exactly
straight up from the back or belly move it completely around the border
of the wood. After the guide 1ines have been we ll inscribed follow them
around with the purfling knife cleaning out the channel periodically with
the groove cleaning tool. You will continue this process until the groove
or channel is approximately l/16 of an inch deep.
The purfling comes in prefinished strips and all that needs to be
done now is the purfling inserted. This is done by heating the strips
and bending them to the desired position . Remember that the purfl ing
strips join each other in the corners and form a nice point or "Bee Sting".
When the glue of the purflings has dried ~e edges that are raised above
the back or belly are removed with a plane or scraper.

GROOVE W\RKER
 30

cut for the inlaying

of the purfling .

"::,,::::::,'::"' /'~
extend ing the point at the
tip of the miter .
 31

THE SOUND BOARD OR BELLY OF THE VIOLIN

The arching of the sound board or belly is accomp l ished in the same
manner as the back . Extreme care should be taken not to go too fast with
the planes and gouges as the spruce is much softer and is removed much
faster. It is very easy to take away too much wood when you are arching
the front.
Be sure before you start the arching process to see that the heart
of the wood is in the center of the sound board. The heart is th at part
of the spruce where the grain is the closest. Usually the only time you
will need to check this is if you buy two pieces of 1·1ood that are not already
joined.
After most of the arching i s comp l eted you can trace the design of the
F-hole en the belly in its correct posit i on. The F-holes are not pierced
until the belly has been entirely completed. By means of gouges, sc rapers
and planes remove the wood from the inside of the belly until the proper
thickness is obtained. Using registering calipers check as you remove the
inner wood to make sure the graduation is exact. After you are sure of
the graduation and the arch the F-holes can be cut using the F-hole saw.
After the F-ho l es have been sawed out,clean them up with a small knife and
make them exactly perfect and the same size as the design that you used.

Direction for cutting the

F-holes
 32

SIMPLIFIED THICKNESS CHART FOR TOP AND BACK

BAC K TOP
 33

F Ho l e des i gn - 1704 Stradivari violin

 34

F HOLES DES I GNED BY FA~10US MAKERS

Gas paro da Sa l o Bergonzi Guarneri us

Amati Staine r Stradivarius

 35

t~ATCHING THE RIDS IHTH THE BACK

Match the maple that you are using for the ribs with the map le in
the back both in figure and grain. Notice that the grain of the ribs
of a violin with a one piece back all runs the same direction where the
grain of a violin with a two piece back runs in opposite directions.
The strips for the ribs will always be put on the instrument wi th the
slant of the figure matching that of the back.
After the r i bs have been attached to the form install the linings
on one side of the ribs only . After the linings have dried the form
can be removed from the ribs, being careful not to loosen the blocks from
the ribs. The ribs and blocks are now ready to be attached to the back.
lifter you have glued on the remaining linings lightly clamp the
back to the ribs making sure you have an even edge all the way around.
This edge should be approximately 7/64 inches wide . When you are sure
you hav e an even edge all around glue the back to the ribs by alternately
removi ng the clamps and gluing the ribs in place. Be sure to remove all
the excess glue from the surface of the instrument .
The curvature of the blocks and lining should now be finished off
completely. Nake sure that the linings are beveled toward the inside of
the instrument and the corner blocks follow the curvature of the ribs.
 36

end button

One Piece Back

end button

Two Pi ece Back

 37

CONSTRUCTION AND POSITION OF THE BASS 13AR

The construction of the interior of the violin is completed by

the insertion of the bass bar. The bass bar is a piece of spruce abo~t

l/3 of an inch in height, l/5 of an inch thick and abo~t 10 l/2 inches
long . The bass bar is terminated at it s two ends by bevels which stretch
out on the sound board to which it is glued.
The bass bar is placed under the G string side of the instrument
approximately l/2 inches from the top and bottom of the instruments
belly. The top of the bass bar is approximately 5/8 of an inch from the
center and the bottom is approximately 13/16 of an i nch from the center.
The bass bar must be scraped and cut until all parts of it touch
the belly when laid in. When the bass bar fits exactly it is glued in
and clamped i n place by means of the bass bar clamps .

The gr ain of the bass

bar must be showing on
the edge.
 38

View of the inside of the be ll y .

Location of the
.._._-4~--- bass bar in the
be ll y of the violi n
f r om the underside
of the be ll y.

Bass Ba r goes un der the G string

 39

Neck Bl ock

COMPONENT PARTS OF THE FINISHED BELLY.

Saddle
 40

THE COt1PLETEL Y IISSEt<lllLED BODY

After the bass bar has been i nserted into the belly of the violin
the top is ready to be glued to the ribs . Here i t is wise to dilute the
glue to about one half its regular consistency to make the removal of the
front eas ier for repairs that may be needed l ater. When clamping the
top to the ribs again apply the clamps lightly so as not to damage the
ribs or mar the back and belly.
After the body is completely dry and assembled the edges are rounded
and finished with sandpaper and a felt block. There should be a well
defined arch from the purfling up to the edge of the instrume nt. Thi s
is made by using the scrapers, spec i al kn ife and sandpaper.

CROSS SECTION OF A FINISHED EDGE

 41

THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE NECK

The scroll may be carved by the maker;however,it can be purchased

with the scroll completely finished and the neck partly finished for
fitting into the body and neck block of the violin. If the maker desires
to carve his own scro ll templates wi ll be used for the outline. After
the outline has been sawed from the block of maple the back ~aw, chisels
and knife are used to complete the scro ll . The final shaping is done
with scrapers using those wi th rounded edges.

(enlarged)
 42

FITTING AND SETT ING THE NECK

Hake a temp 1ate the exact size and shape of the end vi e~1 of the neck.
Trace the shape of the template on the ribs exactly centered on the button
extension. Using a sharp knife start removing the wood from the ribs
inside the lines that you have drawn. Work slowly trying the neck often
for fit. Remove enough of the block to give you a string length of just
under 13 inches. Before gluing the neck to the block check the alignment
of the fingerboard with the joint down the belly. Also check the finger-
board height. The standard measuremen t for t he distance from the top of
the instrument to the top center edge of the fin gerboard is 12/16 to 13/16
inches.
 43

V/\RNISHING

Glue a piece of thin wood on to the neck 1·1here tile finge1·board

is going to be placed. Glue this lightly so that it can be easily
removed. Fit the handle into the endpin hole. This is going to be
your means of holding the instrument wh il e you apply the various coats
of varnish. After making sure the surface of the instrument is entire ly
free from dirt, glue, tool marks etc. dampen the entire surface of the
instrument with water. Wh il e it is stil l damp apply the yellow stain
over the entire surface of the instrument including the neck. This wil l
raise the grain of the instrument and shoul d not be sanded again. Hang
the instrument to dry until a 11 of the moisture, has dri ed . Apply from
four to six coats of varnish depending on the darkness that you desire.
Let each coat dry completely before app lying another. If you are using
oil varnish it 1vill take from four to six days for each coat to dry.
Rub down each coat with pumice and oil making sure the surface is very
smootil. After the last coat of color varnish has dried and been rubbed
out apply a coat of colorless varnish. When this is dry polish again
witil pumice and oil. A high gloss can be obtained by combining the oi l
and a small amount of denatured alcohol on a cloth and polish i ng. Be
careful not to us e too much alcohol or you wi ll remove the varnish .
Shading is done by removing some of the varnish using the denatured
alcohol. Be very careful when trying this or it may be necessary to
remove al l of the varnish and start over. Mos t amateurs are content to
l eave the violin an even color. Much experience is needed before you will
feel confident shad in g an in strument.
 44

FITTING THE FWGERBOAR D, TilE NUT, MID THE SADD LE

The fingerboard is glued to the neck leaving an interval of l /16 of

an inch between the t op of the finge rb oard and t he bottom of the peg box .
This is the space that is to be filled by the nut. Take special care th at
the fingerboard does not s li p out of line while you are clamping it into
pl ace .
Aft er the fin gerboard has dried the nut can be glued and clamped on.
This is a piece of ebo ny abo ut l /3 of an inch high and l/8 of an inch in
breadth. Th i s piece 1·1 ill project sl i ghtly beyond t he sides of the violin
neck and will be trimmed down to be even with the neck and peg box .
The saddle is a piece of ebony pl aced above the endpi n of the instr-
umen t. It supports t he piece of gu t that i s attached to the tailpiece.
The nu t i s made from a piece of ebony and i s a littl e over 1 inch l ong
by 7/25 of an inch hig h. A cut i s made into the soundboard and into the
ribs abo ut 7/25 of an inc h just sli gh tl y l arger tha n the sadd l e. The reason
that the cut is made l arger is due t o the fact that the spruce in the belly
swel l s and contracts muc h more than the ebony saddle. This will avoid
cracking the t op if th e saddle i s forced in too tight.

Saddle Nut
 45

Location of the nut at the

top of
th~
 46

PLACING THE SOUND POST , BRIDGE , PEGS AND ACCESSORIES

The sound post is a cylind ri cal piece of spruce about l /4 inch

in di amete r. The grain of the spruce of which the sound post is made
should run in the direction contrary to the grain of the spruce which
the belly or sou nd board is made. The length of the sound post is
dete rmi ned by meas uring down through the upper end of the f-hole on
the pos t s id e. This wi l l give you the app ro xi ma t e length of the piec e
of spruce you are go ing to cut. Because the back and be l ly are not
perfectly f l at it i s necessary that the sound post ends be cut on
the bias so t hat all parts of the ends are in contact with the back
and bell y. Th e angle of the cut i s about a 2 deg ree ang l e and wi ll
follow the direction of the gra in in the post. The post i s placed
in posit i on using either a bl ade type setter or a scissor type setter.
The post is passed t hrough the curve of t he right hand f-ho l e to a
posi ti on about l /12 of an inch to the rear of the bridge and i n li ne
with the foot pa rt of the bridge.
The bridge shou ld be suffi cient ly so lid to be abl e to withsta nd
the t ensio n of the strings; at the same time is should be as narrow as
poss i ble s ince this great ly augme nts the brilliance and purity of tone
of th e ins trument. Begin by fitting the feet of the bridge to the
instrume nt cutting them absolutly to the archi ng of the belly. The
br idg e should be cut to the correct height and will follow approximate ly
the same arch as in th e fin gerboa rd . The height of the bridge shou l d
be approximately such that the height to the G string i s abou t l/4 of
and inch above the fing erbo ard, the D string and A string a little less
and fina ll y the E string abo ut l /6 of an i nch above the fingerboard.
 47

The distance separating the G string from the E string will be about
and 1/3 inches.
The fitting of the pegs is a rather simp'le operation if you have
the location of the holes marked properly. ~lost roughed out scrolls
will come ~1ith small holes already drilled in them. Using a peg hole
reamer open up the holes to fit the pegs that you are going to us e.
The holes must be made very round which is easy to do if you have a
good reamer and one that is sharp enough to cut cleanly and witho ut
any effort. After the pegs are inserted cut off the end flush with
the outside of the peg box and remove them and round off the end.
On occasion it is necessary to cut dm;n the size of the new peg as
many of them are made large in order to fit them into holes that have
been Vlorn. Prepared peg dope is then applied to the peg which will
prevent its slipping and sticking.
The end button is fitted in to the end block somewhat forcefully
so that it Vlill be t i ght. When this is done all that is needed i s
for the tailpiece to be put in position and the instrument strung.
 48

Pos i tion of the end of the ta il piece

in re l ation to the saddle .
 49

III

REPAIRS OF THE VIOLIN (STRING INSTRUMENTS)

 50

REPLACING THE TAIL-GUT

Materials needed Spool of heavy linen thread

Piece of Rosin
Tail-Gut of proper gauge
Tools needed: Sharp knife
Alcohol lamp or matches
Prodedure:
Remove the strings from the tail-piece and then remove the old
tail-gut. Cut off a piece of new tail-gut approximately l l/2 inches
longer than the total length of the broken pieces. Hold the tip
of one end close to a flame until the gut swells and a bell shaped
end is formed. Press this against a hard surface until it cools so
that it vlill retain its shape. (Do not burn the gut) flrap about six
to eight turns of thread around the gut next to the bell shape and
tie. Coat the thread with me lted rosin. Insert the gut down through
the hole in the tail-piece and back up through the other hole and
then check the amount of gut needed by replacing the tail-piece on
the instrument and measuring . After you have measured the correct
amount of gut you will need repeat the same process. Gut stretches
so be sure that you make it tight enough. The tail-piece can now be
put back on the instrument.
The tail -g ut can also be replaced with the very popular "Sacconi"
adjustable tail-gut and you don't have to worry about the flame or the
wrapping with the linen thread.
The tai~piece gut for the string bass is actually specially
designed wire that is twisted at the ends and fitted the same way
as the gut for the other stringed instruments.
 51

Bell end formed by heating

----~ tail gut.

Bell end wrapped with heavy

thread to form a reinforced
stop.
 52

REPLACING A BROKEN STRING

Incorrectly wound strings can cause the peg to slip and not hold
the string even th ough the peg is correctly f itted.
Always wind the string on the peg from the hole i n the peg towards
the head of the peg. This way the str ings wi 11 never cross over each
other in the peg box and will hold sec urely . You can secure the end of
the string by pushing a small amount of the end of the string through
the hole and on the first turn cross over the loose end. This will
secure the stri ng from sl i pping as you bring the string up to pitch.
The l arge end of the string is inserted into the notches in the
tailpiece and usually wil l hold there caught by the knot. If the notches
in the tailpiece are to large and allow the knot to slip through it wil l
probably be necessary to l oop the string arou nd the tailpiece tying it
in place.

Looping the string

to the tailpiece.
 53

No Str i nq shou l d be wound against the peg box by succeeding l aps.

Such a procedure will damage the stri ng and l oosen the peg.

Ri ght Way V/rong Way

 54

REMOVING AND REP LACING TilE FINGERBOARD tiUT

The fingerboard nut must be removed when the grooves have v1orn
so that a buzzing or rattling sound is produced by the strings against
the fingerboard.
Force hot water with a hot spatula into the joint where the finger-
board and nut are glued together. Most of the time the nut will pop off
very easily. A new nut can be placed on the instrument, but the easiest
thing to do is place a wedge or sliver under the old one to raise it up.
1\n ebony string-nut when purchased is oversize so it can be cut to
fit the instrument. Cut off both ends of its length with a fine toothed
saw so its length wil l be just slightly oversize. Then file and sand
until the top edge extends above the fingerboard about 3/32 of an inch
above the fing erboard. Now glue the nut in place and when the glu e is
dry carefully file the ends so they are flush with the neck. File the
top surface of the nut until the edge next to the fingerboard extends
about l/16 of an inch above and slopes in a curved manner toward the
shanks of the pegs in the peg box. Groove the nut for the strings being
careful not to make the grooves too deep. The spacing of the grooves is
a matter of personal taste but if the grooves on the old nut were satis-
factory use it as a model .
 55

~ Size of ebony string-nut

before it is fit to the
violin.

Approximate shape of the

~ string-nut after it has
been fitted.

Using a C cl amp to ho l d the nut in place until the

the gl ue is dry .

~Pad the clamp adequately so that

it does not mar the instrume nt or
the nut.
 56

REP LACING THE SADDLE ON STRING I NSTRUt·1ENTS

The saddle at the tailpiece i s a piece of ebony placed above the

endpin of the instrument. The saddle on the violin is just a litt le
over l inch long by 7/2~ of an inch high . Th i s supports the piece of
gut string that attaches the tailpiece to the tailpin or end button.
Th e only precaution which should be taken when makinq or shaoinq the
sadd le is to make i t high enough above the belly to prevent the tail-
piece from touching, and then to round it off at the angle which is to
hold the loop of the tai l pi ece in such a way that it will not cut the
gut. If the sadd le fits very tight l y file off a very ~nall amount from
both ends before gluing it. This wil l al low for expansion and contrac -
tion of the top during seasona ·l changes without danger of cracking the
top. Clamps on each side of the sadd le should be used when installing
it. The saddle should be glued to the instrument with hot animal glue .
 57

SADD LE

SADD LE IN IND ENTATI ON

 58

REGLUHIG A FINGERBOARD

Materials needed: Animal glue (hot)

Two strips of soft wood
Tools needed: Three C clamps
Rough sandpaper or a curved chisel
Sharp knife or a small saw
Procedure:
With a wet cloth, wash or soak off the old glue from the finger-
board and neck. Make two protective strips of soft wood as shown in
the illustration, using the sandpaper, chisel, knife or saw. Apply
hot glue to both the neck and fingerboard. Fit the fingerboard to
the neck and place the protective strips in place and apply the C
clamps alternating sides. If the clamps are put on fro m alternate
sides, they will not have as much of a tendency to push the finger-
board out of place after the glue has been applied. Hipe of the excess
glue with a cloth dampened in warm water. Al low to dry over ni gh t or
at least for four or five hours.
 59

SOFT WOOD STRIPS USED FOR REGLUING

{\
FirlGERBO/\RD

'rf!__" 7hw
~~==============================5=/l~6"~1Qf
~-------- 5 3/4 " - - - - - - - - - - - - - )

~------ 4 l /4 " ------~

 60

REGLUING A FI NG ERBOARD

~4 l/4" block
 61

FITTING THE BRIDGE TO A STRiriG INSTRU ~1ENT

The best bridges are made of "spotted" map le, selected so that
the gra in is horizontal and the wood of a medium degree of hardness.
The bridge should be half as thick at the top where the strings are
placed as at the feet. The fitting of the feet is of the utmost
importance, as they must be curved exactly \~ith the curve of the
bell y of the instrument.
If you have the pieces of the old br i dge this can be used as
a pattern for cutting the new one. If the old bridge is not avail-
able the feet should be scraped with a sharp knife using the
curved center of the blade to prevent destroying the edges of the
feet. The feet can then be shaped by placing a medium grained
piece of sandpaper on the bell y of the instrument with the rough
side up. Place the br i dge in the correct posit i on and with slight
pressure move it t01·1ard the fingerboard and backwards toward the
tailpiece. This will make the feet fit the contour of the instru-
ment. The bridge is now ready to be curved so that strings are at
the proper heighth above the fingerboard. Foll owing are the distan-
ces or string cl earances between the str ing s and the top of the
fingerboard and bridge end for full size instruments. Only the dis-
of the two outsi de strings are measured .
Gut Strings All Steel Strings
Viol in E l/8" G 3/16" E 3/32" G 5/32"
Viola A 3/16" c 4/16" A 9/64" c 3/16"
Cello A l /4 " c 5/16" A ll /64" c l/4"
Bass G 7/16" E 5/8" G 21/64 " E 7/16"
 62

Shape the top of the bridge using a sharp knife to make a nice
curve. Be sure to always be checking your height as you cut.
\>/hen the bridge is at the appro xi mate height using a round file
make the notches for the strings. On a full size violin these wil l
be approximately 7/16 inches apart. File the notches until the exact
string height is attained. Finish the top of the bridge with a
file or sandpaper until the notches are one half of the diameter of
the respective string. Thin the bridge by laying it flat on a piece
of sandpaper and sand off the excess wood un til the top edge is slightly
less than l / 16" and the lower edge is a little less t han 3/16". Hith
a sma 11 round file and knife cut down the top edges of the feet to form
nice curves which make the outer edges of the feet l/16" thick. App ly
water to th~ feet of the bridge and place the bridge in its proper
position on the instrumen t. This will warp the bridge fibers close to
the top of the instrument curvature \~hen allowed to dry and produce a
much closer fit.
Fitting a bridge perfectly r equires a great deal of skill and
practice. A poor ly fitted bridge will result in loss of volu me and tonal
qualities and often leads to damage to the instrume nt.
An easy way of getting the correct curvature of the bridge is to
place a long pencil with a sharp point on the fingerboard with the tip

) extendi ng over the end and trace the shape of the fingerboard on the
bridge with the bridge in its correct position . On the side of the
largest string add approximately 1/1 6" in heighth for the vio l in and
adjust for the other instruments.
 63

Inner F Hole Notch

D~
~
Bridge Feet Mark·1 ngs
 64

REFITTING THE SOUNDPOST

If possible use the old soundpost for a model in cutting the

length and curvature. If the old post is not available the approximate
hei ght is determined by measuring down through the upper curve of the
right F-hol e from the top to the back of the violin. Nov1 ~;ith this
measurement you are able to cut the post to the approximate length.
Because of the curve in the back and belly it is necessary to cut
the ends of the post on a bias. (This bias should be cut with and
not against the grain) The grain of the soundpost must run in the
opposite direction of the grain in the spruce belly. After you think
you have the correct bias cut inset the blade part of the post-setter
about one third of the way from the top of the post and insert the
post into the instrument through the right F-h ole. After the post
i s in the approximate position and is standing upright remove the
blade of the setter and use the notched end to move it into a perfectly
upri ght position . Usually you will be ab l e to see the shiny spot on
the inside of the instrument where the old soundpost ~;as. The post
can be moved around until the desired tone is produced.
Mov ing the post toward the bridge will give the instrument more
p01-1er and more edge. Moving the post away or back from the bridge
wil l take away power and edge. t1oving the post to the outsid e of
the instrument wil l favor the upper strings. Moving the post inside
wi ll favor the lower strings or even out the sound of al l strings .
Too far in gives a tubby sound.
 65

Flat End --r

oC Bl ade End of Sound Post

Setter

0 0
t
tjotcil in Po s t is
l ocated in the top
third of the post.
 66

REFITTING THE PEGS (USED AND NEW)

When the shiny pattern on the peg is continuous and forms a band
the width of the peg box wall, the peg is fitting properly. This must
be true for both the large and small end of the peg taper. If the
pattern is not continuous this can sometimes be remedied by taking a
piece of sandpaper and curling it around the peg and turning the peg
in one direction only. If this doesn't work perhaps the peg hole is
out of round and a peg hole reamer is used. When using the peg hole
reamer to true up the peg holes be very careful that you do not take
out too much wood.
When fitting new pegs to an instrument a peg shaper must be used
as most new pegs are too ~arge for the existing holes in the peg box.
Cut the peg very carefully with the peg shaper inserting the peg into
the hole in the peg box frequently to check the fitting. Adjust the
shaper using the screws on the blade until the proper taper is produced.
For final fitting curl fine sandpaper around the shaped peg and turn in
one direction only. Cut off the end of the peg flush with the outside
of the peg box wall and round off the end of the peg with fine sandpaper.
Prepared peg dope is now applied to the peg so that it will turn freely
and the finished peg is inserted into the peg box ready to rec eive the
string.
 67

c------
Peg /Ia 1e Reamer ~
 68

REGLUI NG OPEN EDGES

Hhen an open edge is found on an instrument the old glue must be

washed out with hot water and a spatula or small paint brush. After
the old glue has been removed apply the nevi glue (using onl y hide glue)
to the open edge. Clamp the edge back together using clamps that have
a cork holding surface or another protect i ve material so as not to mar
th e finish on the back and be ll y of the instrument .
Commercial cl amps can be purchased for this use al though they are
quite expensive. A clamp that will serve the same purpose can be made
from tinker toys or s poo 1s cut in half using a carriage bolt and vii ng
nut to tighten them together.
When cl amping open edges back together be sure that you do not put
too much pressure on the clamps. Use a smal l brush or Q-tip and hot water
behind the clamps to remove the excess gl ue from the varn i sh. The water
must be wiped off at once in order to avoid any damage to the finish of
the instrument.
 69

Clamp in pos iti on f or gluin g an

open edge.
 70

0 0 0

Cl amp made from T·i nker Toy

000

Clamp made by cutting a spoo l i n half

 71

130\1 REPAWS (HEDGE AND SCREH)

Hhen the wedge falls out of the ferrule in the frog this causes the
ha ir to bu nc h up and not spread evenly at the frog. If you are still
in possession of the old wedge and it is not broken it can be inserted
using a drop of glue on the top side to hold it in place. Make sure that
the hair is spread even ly as you insert the wedge. If yo u must make a
new wedge a strip of well seasoned basswood about 3/4 of on inch wide and
l /8 inch thick is used. Hedges will be wider and thicker for the larg er
bows. Hi th a sharp knife cut off both corners of one end of the str i p.
Cut off the top surface of the str i p slant i ng it toward the end. Trim
off the sl anted corners and push the wedge into the frog with the f l at
side next to the hair and mark the wedge where you will need to cut it
off the strip of wood . Remove the wedge and cut it to the correct s i ze
and force the wedge back into the ferrule until it fits flush mak ing sure
that the hair i s spread even ly.
v!he n the threads are 1~orn in the brass eyelet so that the bow hair
cannot be t i ghtened it is best to replace both the b01v scre1·1 and the brass
eye 1et in order to have a correct fit. t'iany screws and eye 1ets have di ff-
erent threads . Try to se 1ect a new eye 1et that 1vi 11 fit the ori gina 1 ho 1e
in the frog. If the eyelet does not fit the hole i n the frog you will either
have to drill th e hole or bush it up which should be avoided if possible.
The eye l et and bow scre1v shou l d be lubri cated with hard soap and never with
oi l.
 72

REPLAC ING THE SPREAD WEDGE

~---- !,ledge i n place

above ha i r under
tongue
 73

PATCHING CRAC KS IN THE BODY

For a crack in the top or belly of the violin you will want to
remove the top. This is accomplished by taking a spatula and hot
water and probe the edge between the top and the ribs until an opening
is made. Now working gently and slowly with the spatula and hot water
mover all the way around the violin or stringed instrument until you
have loosened the entire top and it can be lifted off. You must of
course remove the strings, bridge, chinrest, and knock the sound post
over before you can do this. After you have cleaned out the crack
with a brush and hot \'later ~pply. hot animal glue and clamp the crack
together using a special joining clamp designed to clamp the front or
back of an instrument. Many times if the crack is a small one this
much wi 11 suffice, however if the crack is a 1arge one you wi 11 want to
use some small patches over it as well. These patch es are usually made
from spruce and are attached to the underside of the back or belly with
the grain running the opposite way from that of the back or belly .
After the glue has dried on the patches sand them down very thin so
that they are almost a part of the original shape. After you are sure
that the glue has dried on the crack and patches the top may be re-
placed by using animal glue and several clamp screws spaced even ly
around the instrument. A caution, do not over-tighten the clamps or
you wil l possibly damage the ribs.
 74

The r.rain of the patches must

run opposite that of the grain
in the instrument.
 75

REG LUING THE NECK

vi hen reg lu ing the neck the most importa nt thin g to remember i s to
get it in stra i ght. The center of the fingerboard shou ld be on a strai ght
li ne with the center joint in t he top or belly of the instrument. De fore
you glu e in the neck check the neck block to see if it is broken and also
check the rib s near the neck block to see if t hey have bee n separated from
the b lock . If the ribs have separated forc e some glue in to the separation
and place a cl amp ac ros s the rib and force a sma l I wedqe under the bolt
part; th i s wi ll force the rib aqainst the block. After the glue has
dried you are ready to insert the neck. Clean out all the ol d glue ~l i th

water and a brush and apply fresh ho t an i ma l qlue, insert the neck and
fasten in place using a C-clamp padded with cork or another materia l so
that you will not damage the f inqerboard or the button of the i nstrumen t .
Do not use very much pressure in tighteninq the C-clamp as you could
cause very serious damage to the top, ribs or neck of the instrument.
\•li pe off any excess ql ue using hot water and then wipe dr y and a 11 ow t he
instrume nt to set at least eiqht ho urs before stri ng ing it up.
 76

RESETTING THE NECK

/,/ ./ / ·..
r~...-_--_'
. __,.'_,_
//,J~_·~__.
, I / , . /

/
Flat wood block for br ac in g.
Block should be large enough
to cover the neck bl ock and
part of the button.
 77

REPAIRING THE VARNISH

All of the famous Italian and German violin makes, such as the Amati,
the Stradivari , the Stainers, and others, have made use of the oi l varnishes,
wh i ch are far more beautiful and durab l e than the spirit varnishes. This
varnish takes quite a long time to dry and if you are in a hurry to repair
the nicks or scratches perhaps you will want to use the spirit varnish
which drys almost immediately. The varnish should first be tested on a
piece of wood to make sure you are us ing the right color . Remember that
each successive coat of varnish darkens the color. After you are sure that
the varnish is completely dry rub the repaired area with pumice stone and
rubbing oil, making the surface perfectly smooth. Use only a high grade of
minera l oil for rubbing the instrument. If a high gloss is desired, po li sh
with a piece of cheese cloth folded into a pad and apply a drop of rubbing
oil and a drop of alcohol to the rag and rub lightly in a circular motion.
Be careful not to use too much alcohol as this will remove the finish .
Use a good bristle varnish brush for oil varnish, the finer the brush the
finer the results . A high grade thin ox or badger ha i r brush is best . For
spirit varnish a camel hair or red sable flat artist's brush is best. The
brushes must be perfectly clean and free from dirt, grit , or dust.
 78

EPI LOGUE

Th e informat i on contained in pa rt I I and III is a result of persona l

studv with violin luthi er Ray Mi ll er owner of Ray ' s String Shop in Sa lt
Lake City, Uta h. Considera bl e time was spent with Mr. Miller working
on in strument repair and construction of string instru me nt s . Many of the
r epa ir s me ntioned such as the patch ing of cracks that r eq uire the lifting
of the front should on l y be done by a professional luthier. The ama teur
vio lin repairma n should be cautioned to on l y att empt those repairs that
are possible 1~ithout the expert supervision of a skilled craftsman and
not to attempt anyt hing that could poss ibl y impair th e so und of the instr -
ument.

GLOSSARY
BELLY: The upper coverinn of the body of a strinqed instrument, over which
the strings are stret ched.
BRIDGE: The raised component t hr ough which the vibrat ion of the stri nqs i s
communicated t o the bell y or t he soundboard of a strinqed in strument.
FINGERBOARD: A str ip of wood or other mater i al laid upon the neck of a
str i nqed instrument, aqa in st which the strings are stooped .
FROG: The block by which tile hair i s attached at the hee l of a bow. Also
ca ll ed "nut" .
NECK: The part of a stringed 1nstrument whi ch 1s grasped by the hand that
stoos the strings.
NUT: The fixed ridge that rai ses the strin gs of a stringed instru men t above
the fingerboard next to the tuninq pins or peqs .
PEG : Th e pin that the string is attached to enab l ing the instrument t o be
tuned.
RIO: The s idewal l s of a stri ng ed instrument .
SADD LE: The pi ece of ebony th at supports t he piece of gut string that attach es
the t ailp i ece to the end button.
 79

SOUND POST: A cylindrical piec e of s pruce about l/4 i nch in diameter.

TAIL GUT: The piece of gut strinq that attac hes the tailpiece to the
· end button.
TAIL PIECE: The piece to wh i ch the strings of a strinqed instrument are
attached at their opposite ends from the pegs.
TAIL PIN: Th e butto n in serted into the bottom block of a stringed in str-
ument t o which the tai I piece is attached by a qut loop. ·
 80

INDEX
Albani , 11atthias, 10, 11 Groove Cleaner, 29
Ald ris , 11 Groove Marker, 29
~nat i, Andrea, 2, 4, Guadagni ni. Lorenzo, 9
Amati , Girolamo, 4 Gua rneri, Joseph de 1 Gesu, 6, 9
Amati, r~icolo, 4, 6, 7, 9 Hi 11, 12
Arab i an rebab, Klotz, Sebastian , 10
Back, Z6 Lupot, Nicho l as, 11
Bass tlar , 37, 38 Maqgini, Giovanni Paolo, 2, 3
Bee sting, 30 Montagna na, 9
tielly, 31 Neck, 41, 75, 76
tie nding Iron, 25 Nut, 44, 45, 54, 55
Benti, Matteo, 4 Orqani strum,
8ergonzi, Carlo, 8, 12 Panormo, 11, 12
Uer1ot, Charles de, 4 Parker , 1 1, l 2
Bridge, 46, 61, 62, 63 Patches, 73, 74
Clamos, 70 Pegs , 66
Corner block, 22 Peg box, 53
Chanot, 11 Pique, 11
End button, 36 Purf 1 i ng, 29
Eng 1 ish c rewth. Rebec, l
F ho 1e, 33, 34 Rib s , 24, 35
Finqerboard, 44, 58, 60 Rodiani , Javiett, 4
Form, 21 Saddle, 44, 56, 57
Frog, 71 Sa lo, Gasoaro da, 2 , 3
Gand, 11 Screw , 71
Greek Ki thara, Scroll , 41
 81

Seraf i no , 9

Sound board , 31

Sou nd pos t, 46, 64

Stai ner , Jacob, 9 , l 0

Stradiva ri, Antonio , 6, 7, 8 , 9

Ta il gut, 50 , 51

Tai l piece , 48

Tieffenbr ucher,

Var nish , 4:J, 77

V1e ll e ,

Vi ol da Gamba ,

Vui ll aurne , J. 8. , l, ll
~Jedge , 71

Wur li tzer , Rember t , 12

 82

VITA
Carl lJavid Nyman
Candidate for the Degree of
Master of Mus ic

Report: History of the Development, Construc tio n, and Repairs of

the Violin.
Major Field: Mus i c Education.
Biographical Information:
Persona l Data: Born at Logan, Utah, August 25, 1937, son of
Carl N. and Jean Burrell Nyman; married Carol An n Parry
Jones; one child: Christa Lyn.
Educati on: Attended Cache County schools; graduated from South
Cache High School in 1955; received Bache l or of Science
degree in music education from Utah State University in
1%9 ; attended the American Un iv ersity in 1968; comp 1eted
requirements for the Master of Music deqree in music
education at Utah State University in 1975.
Professiona l Experience: Instrumental music teacher at Box Elder
Junior High School, Brigham City, Utah, 1959-60; Member of
6l st Army Band, Bremerhaven Germany, 1960-62; Orchestra
Director, Box Elder County Schoo l s, Brigham City, Utah ,
1962-/0; Conductor, Golden Sp ike empire Youth Symphony,
1~67-70; Orchestra Director and Assistant Professor of
Music, Southern Utah State Co ll ege , Cedar City, Utah,
·1970 - prese nt .