DEPARTMENT: MINERAL RESOURCES

REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA

Directorate: Mineral Economics

SOUTH AFRICAS MINERAL INDUSTRY

2011/2012

The cover picture represents South Africas Industrial Minerals Mining Industry.

Issued free by and obtainable from the

Director: Mineral Economics, Travenna Campus,
70 Meintjies Street, Pretoria 0002, Private Bag X59, Arcadia 0007
Telephone +27 (0) 12 444 3531, Telefax +27 (0) 12 341 4134
www.dmr.gov.za
 External Editor:
I Robinson

Editors:
M Mabuza, S Mohale, P Mwape, N Dlambulo, L Malebo, M Ikaneng, R Motsie, M Bonga

Statistics: M Khler

Co-ordinator: R Motsie

First Published August 1984

This, the 29th edition, published December 2012

Whereas the greatest care has been taken in the compilation of the contents
of this publication, the Mineral Economics Directorate does not hold itself
responsible for any errors or omissions.

Copyright Reserved

ISBN: 978-0-621-41654-1
 FOREWORD

After several years of sustained growth, for the first time since 1992, South Africas
economy fell into recession in 2009. The sectors affected the most include manufacturing
and mining which declined as a result of lower exports. However, the firm global
economic activity entered a fifth straight year of cyclical strength with virtually all minerals
and metals prices at levels significantly above their long run historical trends and in many
cases above start of year levels. The mining industry has now entered a new era, with
demand continuing to be spured by strong growth in emerging markets. Supply is
increasingly constrained, as development projects become more complex and are
typically in more remote and unfamiliar territory. Most minerals and metals prices
recorded substantially higher prices in 2011 compared with 2010.

South Africas mining industry continues to play a critical role in the countrys economic growth and
development. In 2011, mining contributed R260.4 billion (US$31.5 billion) or 9.8 per cent to the gross
domestic product and accounted for 37.8 per cent of the countrys total exports of goods to the rest of the
world. Exports destined for China, Japan, United States of America and other African markets made up
the largest contributions to export growth performance. The total export categories included precious
stones and metals, (mainly platinum, gold and to a much lesser extent, diamonds), ores slag and ash
(largely iron ore and to a much lesser extent chrome and manganese), mineral fuels (mostly coal and
refined petroleum. Mining also continues to make significant contribution to public finances in terms of the
large labour force it employs. In 2011, the mining industry, excluding exploration, research and
development organizations and head offices, employed 2.9 per cent of South Africas economically active
population. The average number of workers employed in the mining industry increased marginally by 3
per cent or 14305 workers, from 498 908 in 2010 to 513 211 in 2011. Over the last ten year period, 2002
to 2011, a total of 97223 jobs were created, further highlighting the significance of mining to the countrys
economy.

The mining industry is also reflecting an increased appetite in the commodity investments compared to
over a decade ago when gold contributed to 39 percent of total mining revenue. In 2005, coal and
platinum group metals (PGMs) overtook gold as the biggest revenue-generating commodities. In 2011
coal was biggest revenue generator at R87.8 billion followed by Platinum Group Metals at R83.9 billion.
Gold sales revenues amounted to R68.9 billion, well below combined revenues of ferrous minerals which
accounted for R81.2 billion. With the decline in PGM prices since June 2011, ferrous minerals could be
vying for the second spot in 2012.
South Africa has over a century been a resource economy and an independent evaluation has the in-situ
mineral wealth estimated at US$2.5 trillion. However, a considerable amount of the countrys resources
are exported as raw concentrates or as partially processed minerals. The approval of the beneficiation
strategy therefore is an indication that the country seeks to maximize the value it derives from its mineral
resources. The strategy is aligned to the national industrialization programme, which seeks to enhance
the quality and quantity of exports, promote creation of decent employment and diversification of the
economy. Lucrative opportunities exist for downstream processing and value addition locally throughout
the five value chains as outlined in the strategy.

In 2009, the Department of Mineral Resources commissioned a task team to review factors impeding the
competitiveness of the South African Mining sector. A comprehensive strategy has been developed
outlining several reforms aimed at improving investor confidence. The strategy recognizes that simplifying
the regulatory framework and policy certainty will support higher investment in mining. To streamline the
process of applications for prospecting and mining rights, government launched a new licensing system
in April 2011. Applications can now be made through the departments website. Complementary
amendments to the Minerals and Petroleum Resources Development Act (2004) are to be legislated in
the second half of 2012 to provide clarity and certainty about administrative processes for transferring
mining rights and to speed up applications for water licenses, while amendments to the Mine Health and
Safety Act will simplify administrative processes.

Economic recovery in South Africa has continued to gather strength. The Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
growth picked up from -1.7 per cent in 2009 to 2.8 per cent in 2010 and 3.2 per cent in 2011. Although
South Africa has the lowest growth rate in Sub-Sahara Africa, it still remains the economic powerhouse of
Africa, leading the continent in industrial output and mineral production. Until the global economic crisis
hit South Africa in late 2008, economic growth had been steady and unprecedented. The country GDP
rose 2. 7 per cent in 2001, 3.7 per cent in 2002, 3.1 per cent in 2003, 4.9 per cent in 2004, 5 per cent in

i
2005, 5.4 per cent in 2006, 5.1 per cent in 2007 and 3.1 per cent in 2008. From the first quarter of 1993
to the second quarter of 2008, the country enjoyed unprecedented 62 quarters of uninterrupted growth.

I take this opportunity to thank and congratulate the staff of the Minerals Policy and Promotion Branch for
their sterling performance in contributing to the compilation of this publication and the many South African
companies, both big and small, for their co-operation and support. Special appreciation is given to Mr. Ian
Robinson, who undertook the task of being the external editor for the 29 edition of the 2011/2012 SAMI.

Hon. Susan Shabangu (MP)

Minister of Minerals Resources.

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 CONTENTS

Page
FOREWORD I
LIST OF FIGURES V
LIST OF TABLES VII
ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS X
EXPLANATORY NOTES XI

PART ONE: SOUTH AFRICAS MINERAL INDUSTRY

General Review M Mnguni 1
Introduction 1
Structure of the Mining industry 1
Mineral industry Strength 8
Infrastructure Developments 10
Mineral Exploration 12
Role of Mining in the National Economy 13
Mineral Production and Sales in 2011 18
Selected Processed Mineral Sales 20
South Africas Imports of Selected Primary and Processed Mineral Products, 2011 21
Reported Mineral-Related Projects in South Africa 22
SADC Mining and Mineral Production of Selected Major Minerals 22
Mineral Beneficiation 23
Economic Outlook for the South African Minerals Industry 2011/2012 23

PART TWO: REVIEW OF SELECTED COMMODITIES

PRECIOUS METALS AND MINERALS

Overview L Malebo 26
Diamonds O Moumakwa 28
Gold P Perold 32
Platinum-Group Metals (PGMs) O Moumakwa 39
Silver O Moumakwa 45

ENERGY MINERALS
Overview K Revombo 49
Coal K Revombo 52
Hydrocarbon Fuels L Ramane 60
Uranium L Ramane 64

NON-FERROUS METALS AND MINERALS

Overview L Maphango 68
Aluminium T Chili 71
Antimony L Maphango 77
Cobalt T Chili 81
Copper T Chili 87
Lead E Pitso 92
Nickel T Chili 96
Titanium L Maphango 102
Zinc E Pitso 106
Zircon L Maphango 111

iii
FERROUS METALS AND MINERALS
Overview L Malebo 114
Chromium S Ntshobane 117
Iron Ore S Ntshobane 123
Manganese K Ratshomo 128
Silicon N Mahlangu 134
Vanadium K Ratshomo 139

INDUSTRIAL MINERALS
Overview R Motsie 143
Aggregate and Sand R Motsie & M Simango 151
Alumino-Silicates M Modiselle 154
Dimension Stone R Motsie & M Simango 159
Fluorspar M Modiselle 162
Limestone and Dolomite R Motsie & M Simango 166
Phosphate Rock M Muravha 171
Special Clays M Muravha 174
Sulphur M Modiselle 178
Vermiculite M Muravha 182
Statistics for Other Industrial Minerals R Motsie & M Simango 185

PART THREE: GENERAL INFORMATION

DIRECTORATE: MINERAL ECONOMICS RECENT PUBLICATIONS 193
USEFUL ADDRESSES 196
Department of Mineral Resources Head office 196
Department of Energy 198
Department of Environmental Affairs 198
Department of Rural Development and Land Reform 198
Department of Science and Technology 198
Department of Trade and Industry 198
Department of Water Affairs and Forestry 198
Statistics South Africa 199
State Owned Enterprises 199
Other Mineral-Related Organisations 200

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 LIST OF FIGURES
Page

Figure 1: Summary of South Africas Administration of Mineral Laws 6

Figure 2: Exploration Expenditure by Region, 2011 13
Figure 3: Contribution of Mining and Quarrying to Gross Domestic Product 14
Figure 4: Contribution of Primary Minerals to South Africas Exports Sales, 15
Figure 5: Mining Industrys Employment by Sector, 2011 17
Figure 6: Mining Industrys Remuneration by Sector, 2011 18
Figure 7: Contribution of Primary Mineral Commodities to total Sales Revenue, 18
Figure 8: The Idex Online Monthly Average Polished Diamond Price Index, 2011. 29
Figure 9: World Gold Supply, 2011 32
Figure 10: World Gold Demand, 2011 33
Figure 11: Gold Price Movements, 2011 34
Figure 12: South Africas Primary Gold Production and Contribution to total Production by Gold Field,
2011 (T, %) 36
Figure 13: South Africas Primary Gold Production and Contribution to total Production by Province,
2011 (T, %) 36
Figure 14: Pgm Monthly Average Prices, 2011. 41
Figure 15: World Silver Supply by Source, 2011.1: 45
Figure 16: World Silver Consumption (Moz) by Sector, 2011 47
Figure 17: Monthly Average Silver Prices, 2011. 47
Figure 18: Consumption by Sector, 2011 54
Figure 19: South Africas Export Volumes by Regional Destination, 2011 55
Figure 20: Rbct Monthly Coal Prices, 2010 June 2012 56
Figure 21: Monthly Average Brent Crude and Natural Gas Prices, January 2009 June 2011 61
Figure 22: Nuexco Spot Uranium Price, 2009-2012 (Monthly Averages) 66
Figure 23: World Primary Aluminium Production by Region, 2011 72
Figure 24: World Aluminium Supply and Demand 2002-2011 72
Figure 25: Industrial Demand for High Grade Primary Aluminium, 2011 73
Figure 26: London Metal Exchange Cash Settlement Price (Monthly Averages), 2010 2012 74
Figure 27: South Africas Primary Aluminium Exports by Destination, 2011 75
Figure 28: Global Antimony Consumption by Sector, 2011 78
Figure 29: Antimony Metal Bulletin, Free Market Prices, 2011 2012 78
Figure 30: Consumption by Sector, 2012 83
Figure 31: Cobalt Price, 2010 2012 84
Figure 32: Global Refined Copper Production and Consumption, 2007-2011 88
Figure 33: World Industrial Refined Copper Demand by Sector, 2011 89
Figure 34: Lme Cash Settlement Copper Prices (Monthly Averages), 2010-2012 89
Figure 35: South Africas Exports Destination by Country, 2011 90
Figure 36: Refined Lead Production by Region In 2011 93
Figure 37: Regional Lead Metal Consumption In 2011. 93
Figure 38: Lead Cash Settlement Prices (Monthly Average) In 2011 94
Figure 39: The Primary End-Uses for Nickel 2011 97
Figure 40: Monthly Average Nickel Prices, 2010-2012 98
Figure 41: Global Consumption of Titanium Dioxide Pigment by Sector 103
Figure 42: Metal Bulletin Prices for Rutile and Ilmenite, 2010 - 2012 103
Figure 43: Regional Production of Refined Zinc, 2011 107
Figure 44: Regional Consumption of Refined Zinc, 2011 107
Figure 45: Lme Zinc Cash Settlement Prices (Monthly Averages), 2011 108
Figure 46: Zircon Consumption by Sector 111
Figure 47: Price for Foundry Grade Zircon, Free on Board Australia, 2011 2012 112
Figure 48: Regional Stainless Steel Production, 2011 119
Figure 49: Chrome and Ferrochrome Prices, 2011 119
Figure 50: Global Iron Ore Exports, 2011 124
Figure 51: Global Iron Ore Imports, 2011 124
Figure 52: Iron Ore Spot Prices, 2010 and 2011 125
Figure 53: World Steel Production, 2002 2011 128
Figure 54: World Manganese Ore Reserves, 2011 129
Figure 55: Monthly Manganese Ore Prices, 2007 2011 130
Figure 56: Monthly Average Prices of Manganese Alloys, 2008 2011 130
Figure 57: Regional Contribution of Silicon Production, 2011 134
Figure 58: Silicon Metal and Ferrosilicon Spot Prices In The Us, 2011 136
v
Figure 59: World Vanadium Reserves, 2011 139
Figure 60: World Vanadium Production, 2011 140
Figure 61: Monthly Ferrovanadium and Vanadium Pentoxide Prices, 2011 140
Figure 62: Industrial Mineral Sales, 2007 2011 143
Figure 63: Local Sales Value of Industrial Minerals, 2011 144
Figure 64: Export Sales of Industrial Minerals, 2011 144
Figure 65: Imports of Primary and Manufactured Industrial Minerals, 2007 2011 145
Figure 66: Employment In The Industrial Minerals Sector, 2007 2011 145
Figure 67: World Production of Alumino-Silicates by Country, 2011 154
Figure 68: World Refractories Market by End-Users, 2011 155
Figure 69 : World Alumino-Silicates Prices, 2008 2011 156
Figure 70: South Africas Exports of andalusite by Destination, 2011 156
Figure 71: Dimension Stone Production During 2007 2011 159
Figure 72: World Consumption of Dimension Stone by Sector 160
Figure 73: World Fluorspar Production, 2011 162
Figure 74: World Acid Grade Fluorspar Prices, 2007 2011 163
Figure 75: Demand for Limestone by Sector, 2011 166
Figure 76: South African Cementitious Product Sales, 2005 2011 167
Figure 77: South African Imports of Cement Products, 2009 2011 168
Figure 78: Phosphate Rock Production by Country, 2011 171
Figure 79: Prices of Phosphate Resources, 2006 2011 172
Figure 80: World Production of Special Clays, 2011 174
Figure 81: World Production of Sulphur by Country, 2011 178
Figure 82: International Sulphur Prices, (Us$/ton Spot, Fob Vancouver), 2007-2011 179
Figure 83: World Production of Vermiculite by Country, 2011 182
Figure 84: Vermiculite Consumption by Sector, 2011 183
Figure 85: Vermiculite Prices, 2006-2011 183

vi
 LIST OF TABLES
Page

Table 1: South Africas Role in World Mineral Reserves, Production and Exports, 2011 9
Table 2: South Aricas Production of Selected Major Minerals, 2007 - 2011 12
Table 3: Contribution of Mining and Quarrying to Gross Domestic Product, Fixed Capital Formation
and total National Exports of Goods, 20022011 (At Current Prices) 14
Table 4: South Africas Export Value of Primary and Selected Processed 15
Table 5: Contributions of Mining and Quarrying to State Revenue, 20022011 16
Table 6: Employment and Wages in South Africas Mining industry, 20022011 16
Table 7: Employment and Remuneration by Province, 2011 17
Table 8: Mineral Production and Sales, 2011 19
Table 9: South Africas Primary Mineral Sales by Province, 2011 19
Table 10: South Africas Production, Local and Export Sales of Selected 20
Table 11: South Africas Local and Export Sales of Selected Processed Mineral Products by
Province, 2011 21
Table 12: South Africas Imports of Selected Primary and Processed Mineral Products, 2011 21
Table 13: Newly Committed Mineral-Related Projects in South Africa, 2011 22
Table 14: Sadc Mine Production of Selected Major Minerals, 2007 2011 22
Table 15: Minerals and Metals Annual Average Prices, 2006 - 2011 25
Table 16: South Africa's Production and Sales of Precious Metals, 2010 and 2011. 26
Table 17: Employment and Remuneration in South Africa's Precious Metals and Minerals (including
Diamond) Mines, 2005 2011. 27
Table 18: World Rough Diamond Production, 2010. 28
Table 19: South Africas Diamond Production and Sales, 2011. 30
Table 20: Employment (including Contractors) and Remuneration in South Africa's Diamond Mining
Industry, 2011. 30
Table 21: World Gold Reserves and Mine Production, 2011 33
+
Table 22: London Gold Price , 2011 34
Table 23: South Africas Gold Production, total Sales Value and Reserve Bank Holdings,
2002 2011 35
Table 24: South Africas Gold Mines, Employment and Remuneration, 2007 2011 37
Table 25: Global Pgms Reserves and Supply, 2011. 39
Table 26: Pgms Demand by Application, 2011. 40
Table 27: South Africa's Pgms Production and Sales, 2011 and 2010. 42
Table 28: Employment (including Contractors) and Remuneration in South Africa's PGM Mines, 2011. 42
Table 29: World Silver Reserves and Mine Production, 2011 46
Table 30 South Africas Silver Production and total Sales Value, 2002 2011 48
Table 31: South Africas Production and Sales of Energy Commodities, 2011 50
Table 32: Employment and Gross Remuneration On Mines and Plants in the South African Energy
industry, 2005 2011 51
Table 33: World Coal Reserves, Production and Exports, 2011 52
Table 34: South Africas Production and Sales of Saleable Coal, 2000 2011 53
Table 35: South Africas Production and Sales of Anthracite, 2000 2011 54
Table 36: South Africas Bituminous Coal Production and Sales, 2000 2011 55
Table 37: World Reserves and Production of Oil and Natural Gas, 2011 60
Table 38: World Uranium Resources and Production, 2011 64
Table 39: World Nuclear Power Reactors and Uranium Requirements, 2011-2012 65
Table 40: South African Production and Sales of Non-Ferrous Metals and Minerals, 2010 and 2011 69
Table 41: South Africas Non-Ferrous Metals and Minerals: Employment and Gross Remuneration,
2007-2011 70
Table 42: World Aluminium Smelter Capacity, Production and Exports, 2011 71
Table 43: World Reserves and Production of Antimony Concentrates, 2011 77
Table 44: World Reserves and Mine Production of Cobalt, 2011 81
Table 45: Refined Cobalt Production by Country, 2010 and 2011 82
Table 46: Cdi Member Companies Refined Cobalt Production, 2010 and 2011 82
Table 47: South Africas Local and Export Sales of Cobalt, 2001 2011 84
Table 48: World Reserves, Mine Production and Exports, 2011 87
Table 50: South Africa's Production, Local Sales and Exports of Copper, 20022011 90
Table 50: World Reserves, Mine Production and Exports of Lead, 2011 92
Table 51: South Africas Production, Local Sales and Exports of Lead, 2002-2011 95
Table 52: World Nickel Reserves and Mine Production, 2011 96
Table 53: World Refined Nickel Production, 2011 97
vii
Table 54: Global Nickel Major Projects 99
Table 55: South Africas Production and Sales of Nickel, 2002 2011 100
Table 56: World Reserves and Mine Production of Titanium Concentrates, 2011 102
Table 57: World Reserves, Mine Production and Exports of Zinc, 2011 106
Table 58: South Africas Production and Sales of Zinc Metal-in-Concentrate 20022011 108
Table 59: South Africas Production and Sales of Refined Zinc 2002- 2011 109
Table 60 World Reserves and Mine Production of Zircon Concentrates, 2011 111
Table 61: South Africas Production and Sales of Primary Ferrous Minerals, 2010 and 2011 114
Table 62: South Africas Production and Sales of Processed Ferrous Minerals, 2010 and 2011 115
Table 63: Employment and Gross Remuneration, 2005-2011 115
Table 64: World Chrome Ore Reserves, Production and Exports, 2011 117
Table 65: World Ferrochrome Production and Sales, 2011 118
Table 66: South Africas Chrome Ore Production and Sales, 2002 2011 120
Table 67: South Africas Ferrochrome Production and Sales, 2002 2011 121
Table 68: Employment in South Africas Chrome industry, 2007 2011 121
Table 69: World Iron Ore Reserves, Production and Exports, 2011 123
Table 70: South Africas Production and Sales of Iron Ore 125
Table 71: South Africas Iron Ore industrys Employment and Remuneration 126
Table 72: South Africas Production, Local and Exports Sales of Manganese Ore, 2002 2011 131
Table 73: South Africas Production, Local and Export Sales of High and Medium-Carbon
Ferromanganese, 2002-2011 131
Table 74: South Africas Production, Local and Export Sales of Other Manganese Alloys, 2002-2011 132
Table 75: South Africas Manganese Mines Employment and Remuneration, 2007-2011 132
Table 76: World Production and Exports of Silicon Metal, 2011 135
Table 77: World Production and Exports of Ferrosilicon, 2011 135
Table 78: South Africas Production and Sales of Silicon Metal, 2001-2011 137
Table 79: South Africas Production and Sales of Ferrosilicon, 2001-2011 137
Table 80: South Africas Production and Sales of Vanadium, 2002-2011 141
Table 81: Employment in South Africas Vanadium Industry, 2007 2011 141
Table 82: South Africas Primary Industrial Mineral Production and Sales 2010 147
Table 83: South Africas Primary Industrial Mineral Production and Sales 2011 148
Table 84: South Africas Imports of Selected Primary Industrial Mineral Commodities, 2009-2011 149
Table 85: South Africas Imports of Manufactured industrial Minerals Commodities, 2009-2011 150
Table 86: South African Sales of Sand and Aggregate by Mass, 2002 2011 151
Table 87: South Africas Aggregate and Sand Quarries Employment and Remuneration,
2005 2011 152
Table 88: South Africas Production, Local Sales and Exports of andalusite, 20022011 157
Table 89: South Africas Alumino-Silicate Mines: Employment, 20062011 157
Table 90: South Africas Dimension Stone Sales, 20022011 160
Table 91: South Africas Production of Fluorspar, 2002 2011 164
Table 92: South Africas Fluorspar Quarries: Employment and Remuneration, 2007-2011 164
Table 93: South Africas Production and Local Sales of Limestone and Dolomite for Non-Aggregate
Use, 2002 2011 166
Table 94: South Africas Local Sales of Limestone and Dolomite by Application, 167
Table 95: South Africas Local Sales of Lime, 2010 2011 169
Table 96: South Africas Limestone and Dolomite Quarries: Employment and 169
Table 97: South Africa's Production and Sales of Phosphate Rock, 2001 2011 172
Table 98: World Prices of Kaolin and Bentonite, 2010-2011 175
Table 99: South Africas Production, Local Sales and Imports of Kaolin, 2001-2011 176
Table 100: South Africas Production, Local Sales and Exports of Bentonite, 2001-2011 176
Table 101: South Africas Production, Local Sales and Exports of Attapulgite, 2001-2011 177
Table 102: South Africas Production of Sulphur in All Forms, 2010-2011 179
Table 103: South Africas Production and Sales of Sulphur in All Forms, 2002-2011 180
Table 104: South Africas Imports of Sulphur, 2007 2011 180
Table 105: South Africas Production, Local Sales and Exports of Vermiculite, 2002 2011 184
Table 106: South Africas Imports of Natural Abrasives, 20022011 185
Table 107: South Africas Production and Local Sales of Barytes, 20022011 185
Table 108: South Africas Imports of Barytes, 20022011 185
Table 109: South Africas Imports of Diatomaceous Earth, 20022011 186
Table 110: World Production of Feldspar, 2011 186
Table 111: South Africas Production, Local Sales and Exports of Feldspar, 20022011 186
Table 112: South Africas Imports of Natural Graphite, 20022011 187
Table 113: World Production of Gypsum, 2011 187

viii
Table 114: South Africas Production, Local Sales, and Consumption of Natural Gypsum,
20022011 187
Table 115: South Africas Imports of Gypsum and Gypsum Plasters, 20022011 188
Table 116: South Africas Production and Local Sales of Magnesite and Derived Products,
20022011 188
Table 117: South Africas Imports of Magnesite and Magnesia, 20022011 188
Table 118: World Production of Mica, 2011 189
Table 119: South Africas Production, Local Sales and Exports of Scrap and Flake 189
Table 120: South Africas Imports of Mica, 20022011 189
Table 121: South Africas Production and Sales of Mineral Pigments, 20022011 190
Table 122: World Potash Reserves and Production, 2011 190
Table 123: South Africas Imports of Potash, 20022011 190
Table 124: South Africas Production, Local Sales and Exports of Pyrophyllite, 20022011 191
Table 125: South Africas Production, Local Sales and Exports of Salt, 191
Table 126: South Africas Production, Local Sales and Exports of Silica, 20022011 191
Table 127: South Africas Production and Sales of Talc, 20022011 192
Table 128: South Africas Imports of Talc, 20022011 192

ix
ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
A$ Australian dollar LME London Metal Exchange
bbl barrel m metre
3
bbl/d barrels per day m cubic metre
BGS British Geological Survey Ma million years
billion thousand million mic metal-in-concentrate
CIF cost, insurance, freight Mct million carats
CIS Commonwealth of Independent States. Par Mozt million ounces troy
of the former Union of Soviet Socialist Mozt/amillion ounces troy per annum
Republics (USSR) Mt megaton (million tons)
China Peoples Republic of China Mt/a million tons per annum
CPI Consumer price index MVA megavolt ampere
conc concentrate carat ct carat MWh megawatt hour
ct carat na not available
DM Deutsche Mark nar not as received
DMR Department of Mineral Resources ns not specified
DRC Democratic Republic of Congo NW North West Europe
DRI Direct reduced iron ozt troy ounce
e estimate pa per annum
EAF Electric-arc furnace PGMs platinum-group metals
EU European Economic Union ppm parts per million
FOB free on board R rand (South African currency)
FOR free on rail SA South Africa
FSU Former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics S.ton Short ton
(USSR) t metric ton
g gram t/a tons per annum
Ga giga year TCF trillion cubic feet
g/t gram per ton UAE United Arab Emirates
GAR gross as received US United States of America
GWe net gigawatts electric USBM United States Bureau of Mines
ILZSG International Lead and Zinc Study Group USGS United States Geological Survey
INSG International Nickel Study Group w withheld
kcal kilocalorie WBMS World Bureau of Metal Statistics
kg kilogram y year
kg/t kilogram per metric ton y-o-y year-on-year
km kilometre $ US dollar, unless stated otherwise
kt kiloton C$ Canadian dollar
kt/a kiloton per annum British pound sterling
lb pound avoirdupois % per cent

x
EXPLANATORY NOTES

Reference Due to space limitations, only the sources of statistical information are given.
The absence of a source reference to statistical data indicates that such data
was sourced from the Directorate: Mineral Economics database of mineral
production, sales and labour in South Africa. A bibliography is presented in Part
Three.

Mineral Resource Mineral Resource covers in situ mineralisation as well as dumps or tailings, which
have been identified and estimated through exploration/assessment and
sampling from which mineral reserves may be derived by the application of
modifying factors.

Minerals Reserve In this publication, mineral reserve refers to the economically mineable material
derived from a measured and indicated mineral resource. It includes diluting
materials and allows for losses that are expected to occur when the material is
mined. Appropriate assessment to a minimum of pre- feasibility study for a
project or a Life of Mine Plan for an operation, must have been carried out,
including consideration of, and modification by, realistically assumed mining,
metallurgical, economic, marketing, legal, environmental, social and
governmental factors.

xi
 PART ONE: OVERVIEW OF SOUTH AFRICAS MINERAL INDUSTRY

GENERAL REVIEW

Mildred Mnguni

INTRODUCTION

The South African mining industry has played a prominent and significant role in shaping the
development trajectory of the countrys economy over more than a century. The importance of the mining
industry is recognized in the National Growth Path (NGP) which outlines the 12 government outcomes
between 2011 and 2014. The NGP cites SAs mining industry as one of the main key economic drivers
with a potential to create employment and stimulate inclusive growth and further diversify the economy
towards higher value added activities. In order to address the unemployment challenge and the structural
constraints of our economy, the country will require active investment and interventions by the state to
create an enabling environment to stimulate inclusive growth and support the creation of decent
employment on a large scale.

The mining industry is a well-established and resourceful sector of South Africas economy and has a
high degree of technical expertise as well as the ability to mobilize capital for new development. It has
provided the impetus for the development of an extensive and efficient physical infrastructure and has
contributed greatly to the establishment of the countrys secondary industries. With the diversity and
abundance of its natural resources, South Africa is a leading producer and supplier of a range of
minerals and produced approximately 53 different minerals from 1 592 mines and quarries in 2011 as
well as exporting to approximately 83 countries. Gold was produced from 55 mines, platinum-group
metals (PGMs) from 35 mines, coal from 107 mines and diamonds from 396 mines, all as primary
commodities.

STRUCTURE OF THE MINING INDUSTRY

South Africa is now in its second decade of a constitutional democracy that has endorsed the principles
of private enterprise within a free-market system, offering equal opportunities for its entire people.

Private Sector

Corporate restructuring of the South African mining industry remains an ongoing exercise. Not only does
South Africa possess large mineral resources and is a leading producer of a wide range of minerals, but
some of the largest mining companies in the world have operations in the country. The introduction of the
Mining Charter in South Africa was aimed at transforming the mining industry to redress historical
imbalances, so that the industry is aligned with the changes in the countrys overall transformation of its
social, political and economic landscape.

The transformation of the mining industry has included the consolidation of ownership through minority
buy-outs, separation of large diversified companies into two or more specialised companies as well as
the purchase of South African mining assets by foreign companies.

Associations involved in the South African mining industry include:

The Chamber of Mines of South Africa is a voluntary, private sector employers organisation founded in
1889, three years after gold was discovered on the Witwatersrand. The Chamber is an association of
mining companies and mines operating in the gold, coal, diamond, platinum and other mineral
commodity sectors. Today, the organisation acts as the principal advocate of the major policy positions
endorsed by mining employers. The Chamber represents the formalised views of its membership to
various organs and spheres of governments, and to other relevant policy-making and opinion-forming
entities, both within and outside the country. The Chamber is represented on the Minister of Mineral
Resources Advisory Board, whose founding is rooted in Chapter 5 of the MPRDA.

The South African Mining Development Association (SAMDA) which was formed in 2000 as a junior
mining initiative by a group of people associated with various South African junior and BEE mining
companies aims to create an enabling environment for raising finance, developing technical and other

1
skills, practising responsible environmental management and sustainable development and the
maintenance of standards of good practice in the junior mining sector.

Workers in the mining industry are represented by the following organisations:

The National Union of Mineworkers (NUM) which was formed on 4 December 1982. The NUM is
the largest recognised collective bargaining agent representing workers in the Mining,
Construction and Electrical Energy Industries in South Africa and the largest affiliate of the
Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU), with offices in all the South African
Provinces.

The United Association of South Africa (UASA), also plays an important role in the international
labour arena, joining hands with various international federations that promote global solidarity
among workers of the world in their struggle against the negative effects of globalisation of the
economy. UASA is affiliated to the International Federation of Transport Workers (FIOST), the
International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU), and the World Confederation of
Labour (WCL).

Solidarity is another movement which fights for the rights of its members and their communities.

The African Mineworkers and Construction Union (AMCU) formed in 1999, also represents
workers at chrome and platinum mines as well as workers at some coal mines in Mpumalanga
and KwaZulu-Natal. It is also recruiting at the iron ore and manganese mines around Kathu and
Hotazel in the Northern Cape. It focuses on vulnerable contract workers.

There are also many co-operative organizations which serve the interests of the smaller groups and
independent operators, or specific sectors of the industry. These include the Aluminium Federation of
South Africa, the South African Copper Development Association, the Ferro-Alloy Producers Association,
the Engineering Industries Federation of South Africa, the Southern Africa Stainless Steel Development
Association, the Diggers Association and the Aggregate and Sand Producers Association of South
Africa.

The South African Mining Legislation

Ownership, access and opportunity in regard to the country's mineral resources are regulated by the
Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act of 2002 (MPRDA), which recognizes the state's
custodianship over the country's mineral resources. The MPRDA regulates the prospecting for, and
optimal exploitation, processing and utilisation of minerals, provides for safety and health in the mining
industry, and controls the rehabilitation of land disturbed by exploration and mining. This Act defines the
entire regulatory environment of the minerals industry, from rights and ownership to mineral sales and
beneficiation. It also pertains to all other industries and entities that associated with the minerals industry.

The Acts main objectives are to:

recognize State custodianship of all mineral resources within the Republic of South Africa;
promote equitable access to the nation's mineral resources, especially among historically
disadvantaged South Africans;
promote investment, growth and employment in the mineral industry thus contributing to the
countrys economic welfare;
provide for security of tenure in respect of existing prospecting and mining operations;
give effect to section 24 of the Constitution by ensuring that the nation's mineral resources are
developed in an orderly and ecologically sustainable manner; and
ensure that holders of mining rights contribute towards the socio-economic development of the
areas in which they are operating.

Recognizing State custodianship of natural resources has brought South Africa in line with international
best practices. This more universally recognized mineral rights system has led to the freeing-up of
unused old order rights and hitherto effectively sterilized privately-owned mineral rights in prospective
mineral terrains, which attracts international exploration and mining companies and increases the level of
competition among local players.

The Act also aims to assist historically disadvantaged South Africans aspiring to conduct prospecting or
mining activities, with the proviso that such assistance is fair and equitable and does not harm the

2
interests of other parties. The Act provides a safe haven for owners of existing rights, or for those whose
applications were being processed at the time of enactment and guarantees security of tenure in respect
of prospecting and mining operations. Furthermore, this gives the holder of an old order mineral right
an opportunity to comply with the provisions of the Act and also to promote equitable access to the
countrys mineral and petroleum resources.

The Advantages of the New System of State Custodianship of Mineral Rights in South Africa

The change from a dual system of ownership to a singular system where the state controls the
ownership of mineral rights on behalf of the nation has facilitated access to potential mineral
terrains for new entrants into the mining and minerals industry thus stimulating private sector
activity.
State control of mineral rights removes difficulties in legal and administration costs and delays
caused by a fragmented mineral right holdings structure.
The system of state custodianship of mineral rights enables the state to enforce the submission
and release of exploration information, thereby avoiding the duplication of exploration activities.
State custodianship of mineral rights prevents the hoarding of mineral rights and allows equal
and equitable access to potential investors.

Review of the Mining Charter

The first Mining Charter of 2002 was developed on the basis of principles of co-determination with all
stakeholders in South Africas mining industry. This charter provided for a review after five years in terms
of progress made by all stakeholders. Through the second mandate of the Mining Industry's Growth,
Development and Employment Task Team (MIGDETT), which started during the latter part of 2009,
competitiveness and transformation were identified as mutually reinforcing attributes that will position
South Africas mining industry along a sustainable growth path. On 30 June 2010 mining stakeholders
represented in MIGDETT (Chamber of Mines, SAMDA, NUM, UASA and Solidarity) affirmed their
commitment by signing a Declaration on the strategy for the sustainable growth and meaningful
transformation of South Africas mining industry. The declaration formed the basis for the Mining Charter
review, and it is thus the background to the revised Mining Charter is located within the broader context
of the strategy. The revised Mining Charter which includes sustainable development as an additional
element was published on the 13 September 2010.

Other Mining Policy Amendments

Chapter XVI of the Mining Rights Act, (Act No 20 of 1967) in the form of the Precious Metals Act,
2005 (Act No. 37 of 2005)
The Diamonds Act, 1986 (Act No 56 of 1986) in the form of the Diamonds Amendment Act, 2005
(Act No 29 of 2005), and the Diamonds Second Amendment Act, 2005 (Act No 30 of 2005).
Geoscience Amendment Act, 16 of 2010
The Geoscience Amendment Act (16/2010) Regulations
The Housing and Living Conditions Standards for the Mining and Mineral Industry,
The Codes of Good Practice for the Mining and Mineral Industry
Section 22 (5) Guidelines
Draft Mineral and Petroleum General Laws Amendment Bill 2011

The Precious Metals Act, 2005 (Act No. 37 of 2005)

The objective of this Act is to provide for the acquisition, possession, smelting, refining, beneficiation, use
and disposal of precious metals. Precious metals include gold and the platinum group metals (PGMs).
Since silver which is produced as a byproduct and has a low value (price) compared to other precious
metals, it is excluded from the definition of precious metals.

The Diamonds Amendment Acts, 2005 (Act No. 29 of 2005 and Act No. 30 of 2005)

The rationale for the amendment of the Diamonds Act, 1986 (Act No.56 of 1986) was: to increase access
to rough diamonds for jewellery manufacturing in South Africa, to maintain security of supply of rough
diamonds, and to promote the beneficiation of diamonds in South Africa, thus creating jobs and
increasing participation especially by Historically Disadvantaged South Africans throughout the diamond
value chain.

3
Housing and Living Conditions for the Mineral Industry

The Housing and Living Conditions were gazetted in April 2009, with the objective of developing basic
guidelines for suitable housing and living conditions standards for mine workers.

The Codes of Good Practice for the South African Minerals and Mining Industry

The codes were first published in April 2009 for implementation as of the 1st of May 2009.

The review of the codes was influenced by the need identified by the department to facilitate the creation
and development of relevant avenues for human resources development, economic development within
mining communities and ethical employee directed practices in order to ensure sustainable development
and economic growth in line with the Broad Based Socio-Economic Empowerment Charter for the South
African Mining and Minerals Industry and further to serve as a guidance to the mining and minerals
industry that in pursuance of their individual economic gains, they should guard against supporting
practices which do not promote the spirit, purport and objectives of the constitution of the Republic of
South Africa on which the MPRDA and the Mining Charter are premised so as to bestow a sense of
dignity and promote ethical practices in the industry.

The objective of the Codes of Good Practice is to create an industry that will proudly reflect the vision of
a non-racial, non-sexist and prosperous South Africa and to set out administrative principles in order to
facilitate the effective implementation of the minerals and mining legislation and enhance the
implementation of the Broad-Based Socio-Economic Charter applicable to the mining industry as well as
to give effect to section 100(1) (b) of the Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act, 2002.

The process of reviewing the Codes was initiated in September 2010. Drafts of reviewed Codes were
developed and referred to the Minister who has since approved them for consultation purposes. The
purpose of the review is to outline ethical standards to be adhered to by all mining industry stakeholders
in respect of fronting, labour practices, fair business practices, beneficiation, community upliftment,
employee welfare, sustainable development and safe mineral exploitation. In the Draft Review of the
Codes of Good Practice, stakeholders commit to exercising ethical behaviour, respect for employees
rights and to promote economic development within mine communities. Extensive consultation with all
relevant stakeholders on the Draft Reviewed Codes will be conducted after the Minister has approved
the Draft Reviewed Codes document.

Geoscience Amendment Act 16 of 2010

Following an extensive consultative process, a Draft Amendment Bill was prepared and tabled in
Parliament in June 2010. In September 2010, the Bill was considered by the Parliamentary Portfolio
Committee and approved by the National Assembly in late November 2010. The President of the
Republic assented to and signed the Bill into law on the 3rd of December 2010.

The main objectives of the Amendment Act are to mandate the Council for Geoscience to be the
custodian of geotechnical information, to be the national advisory authority in respect of geohazards
related to infrastructure and development, and to undertake reconnaissance operations, prospecting,
research and other related activities in the mining sector.

The Geoscience Amendment Act (16/2010) Regulations

Consequent to the promulgation of the Amendment Act, the Mineral Policy Development Directorate,
together with the Council for Geoscience, developed Draft Regulations. The purpose of the regulations is
to prescribe the processes, procedures and requirements for compliance with the Amendment Act. All
the relevant stakeholders will be consulted on the Draft Regulations.

Section 22 (5) Guidelines

In March 2011, comprehensive section 22 (5) guidelines were prepared. The purpose of the guidelines is
to create an enabling environment for the Department to facilitate the processing of applications made in
terms of section 22 (5). Section 22 (5) empowers the Minister to exercise his/her discretion by publishing
a notice in the Government Gazette inviting applications for mining rights in respect of specific land.

The guidelines are aimed at achieving the following objectives: optimal mining of South Africas mineral
resources; promotion of investment in the mining and minerals industry; equitable access to the nations

4
mineral resources; substantial and meaningful opportunities for historically disadvantaged persons;
promotion of economic growth and mineral resources development as well as promotion of employment
and advancement of the social and economic welfare of all South Africans.

The draft guidelines were approved by the Director General (DG) and the Minister for implementation.

Draft Mineral and Petroleum General Laws Amendment Bill 2011

The objectives of the amendment are to improve the current construct of the Act to remove ambiguities,
make provision for a comprehensive consultation process, make provision for enhanced punitive
measures, streamline the licensing processes and provide for a single regulatory authority. Numerous
workshops with industry stakeholders (MIGDETT) and Department of Water Affairs and Department of
Environmental Affairs have been held since the inception of the amendment exercise. Inputs and
comments received have been given due consideration leading to the development of the Draft Bill.
Drafting meetings are held regularly to discuss outstanding issues and update the Draft Bill accordingly.
The Draft Bill currently awaits Cabinet approval to engage stakeholders and to introduce the Bill into the
Parliamentary process once the consultation process has been finalized.

Association of African Diamond Producing Countries (ADPA)

ADPA is an association of diamond producing African countries, 11 of which have full membership while
seven only enjoy observer status. At the time of inception, the Republic of Angola held the Chairmanship
until July 2010 when Hon. Minister Susan Shabangu, of Mineral Resources, assumed the role of
chairperson. This coincided with South Africa hosting the Associations 2nd ordinary council of Ministers
meeting from the 14th 15th July 2010 in Pretoria.

The main focus of ADPA revolves around the implementation of aligned policies and strategies intended
to maximize the benefits derived from revenues of diamonds across the African continent. In so doing
ADPA explores the development of a best practice document that will promote the realisation of
harmonised policies across Africa with a goal to increase foreign investments into the diamond sector for
the benefit of all member States.

The Kimberley Process (KP)

South Africa is one of the founding members of the Kimberley Process (KP) which brought into existence
the Kimberley Process Certification Scheme (KPCS). This was established when diamond producing
countries convened in Kimberley, South Africa in May 2000, to discuss ways to stem the trade in conflict
diamonds and ensure that the diamond trade was not fuelling armed conflicts. In December 2000, the
United Nations General Assembly adopted a landmark Resolution 55/56 of 2000, which supported the
establishment of an international certification scheme for rough diamonds.

By November 2002, negotiations between governments, the international diamond industry and civil
society organisations resulted in the creation of the KPCS, which was launched in Kimberley, South
Africa in 2003. South Africa as one of the founding members of the KPCS played a pivotal role in the
establishment of the KPCS as well as the harmonisation of the regulatory framework relating to the sale
and export of diamonds. The KPCS has 50 participants representing 76 countries (including the
European Union, which represents 27 states that counts as a single participant), which accounts for
99.8% of the global production of rough diamonds. It is governed by the KPCS core document (statutes),
which stipulate the objectives, definitions, internal controls and, most importantly, minimum requirements
that each participant must comply with. The United States of America (USA) which is the current Chair of
the KP hosted the Intercessional meeting from the 4-7 June 2012 which was attended by the Minister
and several officials from the Department of Mineral Resources (DMR), Department of International
Relations and Coordination (DIRCO), the State Owned Entities (SOEs), namely the State Diamond
Trader (SDT), the State Diamond and Precious Metals Regulator (SDPMR), Mintek and the Council for
Geoscience (CGS). The USA will subsequently host the plenary session from 27- 30 November 2012.
South Africa has been elected as KPCS vice- chair for the year 2012 and will subsequently be the chair
in 2013. This will be the year which marks the 10th anniversary of the establishment of the KPCS and, as
chair, South Africa will host the anniversary meetings.

5
Department of Mineral Resources (DMR)

The Department of Mineral Resources (DMR) assumes the custodianship of all mineral resources in the
Republic of South Africa on behalf of its citizens. To this end, the Department promotes and regulates
the Minerals and Mining Sector for transformation, growth, development and to ensure that all South
Africans derive sustainable benefit from the countrys mineral wealth. Various specialised divisions of the
DMR and associated institutions are responsible for the administration of the mining and regulations
(Figure 1) and for promoting the development of the industry. Mining is regulated by three branches, viz
the Mineral Policy and Promotion Branch, Mineral Regulation Branch and the Mine Health and Safety
Inspectorate.

The Mineral Policy and Promotion Branch of the DMR is responsible for formulating and promoting
mineral related policies that encourage investment in the mining and minerals industry. The branch
consists of four Chief Directorates: Mineral Policy, which develops new policies, reviews existing policies
and amends legislation to promote investment growth and achieve transformation in the minerals and
mining industry; Economic Advisory Services that undertakes macroeconomic research and analysis,
regulatory impact assessments of the laws and policies implemented by the Department as well as
monitoring and evaluating transformation in the mining industry; Mineral Promotion promotes mineral
development and advises on trends in the mining industry to attract additional investment,; and Mine
Environmental Management that provide strategic guidance to mine environmental management and
mine closure issues, including the management of derelict and ownerless mines.

FIGURE 1: SUMMARY OF SOUTH AFRICAS ADMINISTRATION OF MINERAL LAWS

ADMINISTRATION OF LAWS
DMR

Mines and Workd Act, 1956 Mineral Technology Act, 1989

(Act No 27 of 1956 (Act No. 30 of 1989)
(Section 9)

Geoscience Act, 1993 Mine Health and Safety Act, 1996

(Act No. 29 of 1996) as amended
Act No. 100 of 1993)
Geoscience Amendment Act, 16 of 2010
(

Minerals and Petroleum Resources Development Act Mining Titles Registration Amendment Act, 2003
(Act No. 28 of 2002) (Act No. 24 of 2003)

Diamonds Act, 1986

(Act No 56 of 1986) Precious Metal Act, 2005
(Act No 37 of 2005)
Diamond Amendment Act, 2005
(Act No 29 of 2005)

Diamond Amendment Act, 2005

(Act No 30 of 2005)

Source: DMR

The Mineral Regulation Branch regulates the minerals and mining sector to promote economic growth,
employment, transformation and sustainable development. Mineral Regulation is also responsible for the
administration and issuing of prospecting and mining rights licensing and compliance with the Mineral
and Petroleum Resource Development Act, 28 2002 (the Act), including mine environmental
management compliance.

The Mineral Regulation branch consists of four Chief Directorates that are accountable for all matters
relating to mineral regulation within the nine regions. The Central Region is responsible for Free State
and Northern Cape provinces; Western Region for Gauteng and North West provinces,; Northern Region

6
for Limpopo and Mpumalanga provinces; while the Coastal Region is responsible for KwaZulu Natal and
Eastern and Western Cape provinces.

The Mine Health and Safety Inspectorate (MHSI) is responsible for implementing mine health and safety
legislation. The Inspectorate ensures the safe mining of minerals under healthy working conditions and is
represented in the various provinces by Principal Inspectors. The branch is comprised of two sub
programmes which are: Mine Health and Safety (Regions) responsible for audits, inspections,
investigations, enquiries, enforcing the Mine Health and Safety Act and its provisions, examination
services and providing professional advice; and Governance Policy and Oversight that develops policy
and legislation to guide enforcement work, provide technical support to regional offices, chair tripartite
structures and facilitate HIV and AIDS work in the sector.

Through the Mine Health and Safety Council (MHSC), the inspectorate provides leadership and
participates in initiatives and activities of tripartite institutions to respond to current health and safety
challenges. The MHSC is a national public entity (schedule 3A) established in terms of the Mine Health
and Safety Act, No 29 of 1996 as amended. The main task of the Council is to advice the Minister of
Mineral Resources on occupational health and safety legislation and research outcomes focused on
improving and promoting health and safety in South African mines. The MHSC continues to respond to
health and safety challenges through implementation of focused programmes addressing milestones
agreed upon by stakeholders (labour, state and employers) during their health and safety summit in
2003. Resolutions made included that the mining sector will achieve a 20 percent decline in safety
statistics per year and eliminate Silicosis and Noise Induced Hearing Loss by 2013. The setting,
monitoring and enforcement of health and safety standards within the South African mining industry is
regulated under the Mine Health and Safety Act 1996, (Act No. 29 of 1996). The Mine Health and Safety
Act 29 of 1996 (MHSA), referred hereto as the Principal Act, was published in the Government Gazette
in June 1996 and came into operation on the 15th of January 1997 The Principal Act was amended in
1997 by the Mine Health and Safety Amendment Act 72 of 1997 with minimal changes.

In 2008 the Principal Act was further amended in detail by the Mine Health and Safety Amendment Act
74 of 2008. This Act 74 of 2008 addressed some challenges and shortcomings that had developed over
the years in the mining industry with regard to the enforcement of the MHSA. This Amendment Act came
into operation on the 1st of May 2009. Currently, the Mine Health and Safety Act has is being reviewed
comprehensively; to strengthen enforcement provisions; to simplify the administrative system for the
issuing of fines; to reinforce offences and penalties; to substitute and remove ambiguities in certain
definitions and expressions; and to effect certain amendments necessary to ensure consistency with
other laws, particularly the Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act, 2002 (MPRDA).

Consultations with affected parties were held during the 2010/2011 financial year and further
consultations will continue until 2012. It is envisaged that the amendments will be tabled at cabinet for
further processing to parliament during the 2012/13 financial year. The review of the MHSA will ensure
that health and safety impacts of mining on employees and communities affected by mining activities are
managed in a comprehensive, integrated and well coordinated manner.

The DMR in association with the following highly specialised associated institutions of government
conducts regulatory, promotional and various research activities

The Council for Geoscience (CGS) undertakes geological mapping and carries out studies
pertaining to the identification, nature, extent and genesis of ore deposits and also maintains
national databases of the countrys geoscientific data and information.

Council for Mineral Technology (MINTEK) assists the minerals industry to operate more
effectively by developing and making available the most appropriate and cost-effective mineral
recovery and mineral beneficiation technologies. It is engaged in the full spectrum of minerals
research: from the mineralogical examination of ores to the development of processing,
extraction and refining technologies and also conducts research into: the production of added
value products and feasibility and economic studies. Much of this work is carried out in close
liaison with the local and international minerals and metallurgical industries.

The South African Nuclear Energy Corporation (NECSA) undertakes and promotes research and
development in the field of nuclear energy technology and radiation sciences in order to process
source material, special nuclear material and restricted material as described in Nuclear Energy
Act, No 146, 1999, Sections 2(a), 2(b) and 2(c).

7
 The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) conducts, inter alia, research related to
specific minerals, brown fields mineral exploration, air quality, water pollution and purification, as
well as mining and mineral processing technologies. The CSIRs Division of Natural Resources
and Environment in the mining category focuses its research and development on the mining
industry. Major research activity in this division focuses on the most crucial challenges
threatening the health and safety of the underground workforce and overcoming a variety of
technological challenges that impact on profitability in the mining industry. The division conducts
fundamental research and technology development and provides general advice and assistance
relating to the improvement of the underground environment and strata control, reduction of
hazardous conditions associated with rock pressure in mining operations, as well as
development of new or improved mining systems and equipment.

The South African Diamond & Precious Metals Regulator (SADPMR) was established by Section
3 of the Diamonds Act, 1986 (as amended in 2005), and replaced the South African Diamond
Board which was de-listed as a Schedule 3A public entity in March 2007. The South African
Diamond Board was established in 1987 in terms of the Diamond Act, Act 56 of 1986 to regulate
control over possession, the purchase and sale of diamonds, and the processing and the export
of diamonds.

The State Diamond Trader (SDT) is a state owned entity established in terms of Section 14 of
the Diamonds Amendment Act, 29 of 2005. The SDTs main business is to buy and sell rough
diamonds in order to promote equitable access to and beneficiation of diamond resources. The
main aim of the SDT is to address distortions in the diamond industry and correct historical
market failures to develop and grow South Africas diamond cutting and polishing industry. The
entity is empowered by law and proclamation to purchase up to 10% of the run of mine stones
from all diamond producers in South Africa, and to sell to registered customers through an
application and approval process.

Petroleum Agency South Africa (PASA), promotes exploration for onshore and offshore oil and
gas resources and their optimal development on behalf of government, as designated in terms of
the Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act (MPRDA). The Agency regulates
exploration and production activities, and acts as the custodian of the national petroleum
exploration and production database.

Most of South Africas institutions of higher education (universities and universities of

technology) are not only responsible for the training of professional and technical personnel
required by the mineral industry but also undertake mineral and/or mining research. The mining
industry strives to conform to strict professional ethics and competitive technical practices
through organisations such as the Geological Society of South Africa (GSSA), the Southern
African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (SAIMM) and the South African Council for Natural
Scientific Professions (SACNASP). The Mining Qualifications Authority (MQA) plays a critical
role by addressing skills shortages in the mining industry through capacity development and
process improvement. The MQA as established by the MHSA, No. 29 of 1996, is mandated to
ensure that the mining and mineral sector has sufficient competent people who will improve
health and safety.

MINERAL INDUSTRY STRENGTH

South Africa's mineral wealth has been built on the country's enormous resources most of which are
usually found in the following distinctive geological structures and settings:

The Witwatersrand Basin yields some 93 percent of South Africas gold output and contains
considerable resources of uranium, silver, pyrite and osmiridium;
The Bushveld Complex host platinum group metals (with associated copper, nickel and cobalt
mineralisation), chromium and vanadium bearing titanium iron ore formations as well as large
deposits of the industrial minerals, including fluorspar and andalusite;
The Transvaal Supergroup contains enormous resources of manganese and iron ore;
The Karoo Basin extends through Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, Free State as well as Limpopo
Province hosting considerable bituminous coal and anthracite resources;
The Palaborwa Igneous Complex hosts extensive deposits of copper, phosphate, titanium,
vermiculite, feldspar and zirconium ores;

8
 Kimberlite pipes host diamonds that also occur in alluvial, fluvial and marine settings;
Heavy mineral sands contain ilmenite, rutile and zircon;
Significant deposits of lead-zinc ores associated with copper and silver are found in the Northern
Cape near Aggeneys.
South Africa accounts for 96 percent of known global reserves of the platinum group metals (PGMs), 85
percent of chrome, 26 percent of vanadium and 12 percent of gold reserves (Table 1). Since most of the
identified mineral resources and reserves were discovered by means of obsolete exploration methods,
there is still significant potential for the discovery of other world-class deposits in areas not yet thoroughly
explored using modern exploration technologies. As a major mining country, South Africa's strengths
include a high level of technical expertise as well as comprehensive research and development activities.
In order to encourage development, the new mining legislative framework facilitates access to
permits/rights for interested parties.

TABLE 1: SOUTH AFRICAS ROLE IN WORLD MINERAL RESERVES, PRODUCTION AND

EXPORTS, 2011

COMMODITY RESERVES PRODUCTION EXPORTS

Unit Mass % Rank Unit Mass % Rank Unit Mass % Rank

Aluminium * * * kt 809 9.8 kt 592 6

Alumino-silicates Mt 51 * * *

Antimony kt 21 1,2 5 t 3 239 2,2 2 * * *

10
Chrome Ore Mt 3 100 85 1 kt 721 42 1 kt 1 929 22.3 2

Coal Mt 30 156 3,5 8 Mt 252.8 3,3 7 Mt 68.8 6 6

Copper Mt 11 1,6 9 kt 89 0,1 10 kt 26 0.3 11

Ferro-chrome * * * kt 3 426 37 1 kt 3 048 55,2 1

Ferro-Mn/Fe-Si-Mn * * * kt 790 * * kt 751 * *

Ferro-silicon * * * kt 128 2,4 6 kt 59 3,1 5

Fluorspar Mt 41 17,1 1 kt 195,5 3.1 6 kt 175,4 * *

Gold t 6 000 11,8 2 t 180,2 6,5 5 t 175,5 * *

Iron Ore Mt 650 0,7 10 Mt 58,1 3,2 6 Mt 51,9 4,4 5

Lead kt 3 00 2,1 14 kt 54 1,2 12 kt 50 1,9 14

Manganese Ore Mt 150 23,8 2 kt 8 652 18 2 kt 6 773 29,1 1

Nickel Mt 3,7 4,6 7 kt 43,3 2,4 10 kt 26,6 * *

PGMs t 63 000 95,5 1 t 288,9 59 1 t 244 * *

Phosphate Rock Mt 1 500 2,1 5 kt 2 565 1,3 12 kt 1.9 * *

Silicon Metal * * * kt 46,4 2,5 8 kt 62,4 4,5 6

Silver * * * t 79,3 0,3 20 t 78,9 * *

Titanium Minerals Mt 71,3 10,3 4 kt 1 250 17,3 2 * * *

Uranium kt 295# 5.5 5 t 582 1,1 11 * * *

Vanadium kt 3 640 26 2 kt 21,7 35 2 kt 17,9 * *

Vermiculite Mt 14 * * kt 165 29.4 1 kt 162,4 * *

Zinc Mt 14 3,3 8 kt 37 0,3 26 kt 7 0,1 25

Zirconium Mt 14 27 2 kt 380 26,9 2 * * *

Sources: USGS, BP statistical review of world energy 2011, Mineral Economics Directorate,
Notes: Full details given in respective commodity chapters
#
* Information not available Resource

9
INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENTS

In 2011, South African government established the Presidential Infrastructure Coordinating Commission
(PICC) that is intended to accelerate investment in social and economic infrastructure. The social
infrastructure identified for attention relate to housing, schools, water, sanitation and health backlogs in
informal settlements, rural towns and large cities, while the economic infrastructure priorities relate to
roads, ports, rail, power and communications. The overarching aim is to deal decisively with the current
lack of coordination and integrated planning surrounding key infrastructure projects, as well as poor or
delayed project execution. But it also reaffirms the importance government ascribes to infrastructure
development as a critical tool in stimulating growth, bolstering local supply industries and growing
employment.

South Africa is one of the most sophisticated and promising emerging markets in the world. The unique
combination of a well developed first-world economic infrastructure and a rapidly emerging market
economy, has given rise to an entrepreneurial and dynamic investment environment with many global
competitive advantages and opportunities. Being a leading producer and supplier of a range of minerals,
the country offers a highly competitive investment location ensuring that it can meet specific trade and
investment requirements of prospective investors and business people, whilst also meeting the
development needs of its populace.

South Africas ascension to the BRICS (Brazil-Russia-India-China-South Africa) grouping is recognition of

the countrys potential and places it alongside future global leading economies. Although SAs economy
is smaller than those of Brazil, Russia, India and China, it can also serve as the gateway to the African
continent, linking the BRIC economies to more than a billion consumers. South Africa is open to
increasing trade and investment among the BRIC countries and with potential as an innovative hub, is a
sound investment destination and a leading emerging market economy. Africa is the fastest-growing
th
region after China and India, while South Africa is ranked the 27 -biggest economy in the world, with a
gross domestic product that the International Monetary Fund (IMF) puts at $354 billion.

The introduction of the New Growth Path (NGP) in 2010 sets out a vision for creating a competitive, fair
and socially cohesive economy. The NGP also puts employment at the centre of economic policy. It
identifies how greater efficiencies can be achieved in the economy, and the investments needed to
create an advanced modern infrastructure. The NGP is expected to create large-scale, sustainable jobs
in key sectors through a collaborative approach. This will encourage trade, innovation and economic
growth of up to 7 percent per annum and will ensure South Africa remains at the forefront of fast growing
emerging economies and also as an attractive investment destination. The successful implementation of
the NGP is also expected to increase investment in South Africas mineral industry by ensuring the
continuation of a competitive business environment and the lowering of barriers to entry. The Southern
African subcontinent will also benefit from improved regional co-operation, seeking to harmonize
legislation governing the mining industry.

South Africa boasts the most modern and extensive infrastructure in Africa, with a highly developed
transport infrastructure consisting of extensive road and rail networks. Transnet is a public company
wholly owned by the government and is dominant player in the Southern African transport infrastructure,
supporting the countrys freight logistics network. Its activities extend beyond the borders of South Africa
into Africa and the rest of the world. Transnets budget for 2011/12 was R25,8 billion, of which R15,1
billion (58,6 percent) was spent on rail. Transnets rolling five-year investment programme is expected to
total R110,6 billion. The new Multi-Product Pipeline connecting Durban with Johannesburg will ensure
the supply of liquid fuels to the hinterland. Transnet Freight Rail (TFR) is the largest division within
Transnet, representing the groups rail freight transport interests. The total rail infrastructure comprises
30 000 km of track, of which about 1 500 km comprises heavyhaul lines. There are dedicated railway
lines for iron ore from Sishen, in the Northern Cape to Saldanha Bay on the west coast, and for
transporting coal from the coal fields of Mpumalanga to the Richards Bay Coal Terminal (RBCT) on the
east coast.

Portnet, a subsidiary of PSA Corporation Limited, was formed in 2000 with the aim of helping the port
and shipping operators to increase productivity and save costs through the greater use of information
technology and the Internet. Portnet is the largest port authority in Southern Africa, with the best-
equipped and most efficient network of ports in Africa. The network connects the ports of South Africa
and the rail networks of the Sub-Saharan region. Most of South Africas minerals are exported through
five major ports, the largest of which is Richards Bay with the capacity of 92 Mt per annum mainly for
coal exports. During the 2011/12 financial year ended 31 March 2012, Richards Bay handled a total of 1
782 ships with a gross tonnage of 65.9 Mt. In the same period the port handled 89.2 Mt of cargo, of

10
which 84.5 Mt was bulk cargo. Imports amounted to 5.888 metric tons and exports 83.113 metric tons.
During its 2011 calendar and financial year RBCT handled 65.512 Mt of export coal compared with
63.427 Mt in the 2010 calendar year. Saldanha Bay which is the only dedicated iron ore export facility in
the country handled a total of 528 ships with a total gross tonnage of 34 503 749 gt. In 2011/12, the
cargo handled by the port totalled 58 263 030 tonnes, including oil.

The Port of Ngqura being developed near Port Elizabeth in the Eastern Cape will increase the countrys
port capacity substantially. The port is capable of serving post-Panamax dry and liquid bulkers and the
new generation of cellular container ships. During the period under review Port of Ngqura handled a total
volume of 7 Mt tons of cargo, mostly containers, with the port's container terminal handling 513 530
Twenty Foot Equivalent Units (TEUs) during the year.

Eskom was established in South Africa in 1923 as the Electricity Supply Commission. In July 2002, it
was converted into a public, limited liability company, wholly owned by government. Eskom is a vertically
integrated operation that generates, transmits and distributes electricity to industrial, mining, commercial,
agricultural and residential customers and redistributors. The company generates 95 percent of electricity
in the country and close to 45 percent of all the electricity used in Africa. It provides electricity directly to
about 45 percent of all end-users in South Africa and the other 55 percent is resold by redistributors
including municipalities. Eskom is ranked among the top seven utilities in the world in terms of generation
capacity and in the top nine in terms of sales. In 2005, Eskom embarked on a capacity expansion
programme, the largest in its history, which will increase its generation capacity by 17 120 MW and its
transmission lines by 4 700 km.

The capacity expansion programme both aims to meet increasing demand and to diversify Eskoms
energy sources. In the six years ended 31 March 2011, the programme has cost R140 billion including
capitalised interest. The total cost of the programme to completion in 2018 is estimated to be R340 billion
excluding capitalised interest.

During 2011/12 financial year, Eskom invested over R76 billion in infrastructure. Its rolling capital
investment programme increased from R92 billion in 2005 to R549 billion in 2011. Through its Medium-
Term Power Purchase Programme, Eskom signed contracts with five independent power producers,
totalling some 373 MW of capacity. It also signed up about 200 MW of municipal generation for the 2011
winter season. The African Development Bank approved a $365 million loan to Eskom for the 100 MW
Concentrated Solar Power Plant and the 100 MW Wind Power Plant. Eskom submitted a $250 million
loan application to the World Bank for funding from the Clean Technology Fund.

South Africas banking system is well-developed, which sets it apart from many other emerging
economies, offering a mature market with a good regulatory and legal framework. The South African
Reserve Bank (SARB) oversees the local banking services industry. The non-banking financial services
industry is governed by the Financial Service Board (FSB). The South African banks are well capitalised
and managed; and have sophisticated risk-management systems and corporate-governance
infrastructures comparable to First World economies.

South Africa has a sizeable labour pool and a Human Development Index (HDI) survey, conducted by
the United Nations in about 187 countries, places South Africa at 123 as a medium human development
country. The Government, through the Amended Skills Development Act of 2003 tightened regulations to
ensure continuous improvement in the skill development strategies across all sectors. The Mining
Qualifications Authority (MQA) is responsible for the provision and administration of skills development
projects for the mining and minerals sector.

11
PRODUCTION OVERVIEW OF SELECTED MAJOR MINERALS

TABLE 2: SOUTH ARICAS PRODUCTION OF SELECTED MAJOR MINERALS, 2007 - 2011

COMMODITY UNIT PRODUCTION

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Coal t 247 666 358 252 699 108 250 538 125 257 205 807 252 756 845
Cobalt t 293 244 238 840 862
Copper t 117 066 97 185 92 884 83 640 89 298
Chromite t 9 664 656 9 682 640 7 560 938 10 871 095 10 721 360
Diamonds ct 15 250 215 12 894 874 6 112 834 8 870 967 7 046 644
Gold kg 252 598 212 571 197 628 188 702 180 184
PGMs kg 304 031 275 767 271 393 287 304 288 851
Nickel t 37 163 31 675 34 605 39 960 43 321
Lead t 41 857 46 440 49 149 50 625 54 460
Manganese t 5 996 086 6 807 059 4 575 766 7 171 745 8 651 842
Iron Ore t 42 083 081 48 982 537 55 313 053 58 709 330 58 056 897
Zinc t 30 859 29 002 28 159 36 142 36 629
Source: Department of Mineral Resources, Directorate: Mineral Economics

South Africa is the worlds top producer of PGMs, chrome ore, vermiculite and alumino-silicates, and is
among the top three producers of antimony, manganese ore and titanium minerals (Table 2). The
country accounted for 59 percent of the global production of PGMs and 58 percent of alumino-silicates.
South Africa is also ranked as the worlds second largest exporter of manganese ore, with coal and iron
ore both ranked fifth.

In 2011, production of most commodities improved following increased demand due to the global
economic recovery. However, gold production continued with its declining trend since 1994, recording a
decline of 28.7 percent from 252t in 2007 to 180t in 2011, (Table 2). The continuing decrease in gold
production is due to lower ore grades being mined at great depth. During the period under review,
diamonds registered the largest production decline of 20.6 percent, while coal and chromite decreased
by 1.7 percent and 1.4 percent, respectively. On the other hand, production of PGMs rose by a marginal
0.5 percent to 288 851 kg in 2011 from 287 304 kg in 2010.

MINERAL EXPLORATION

Global exploration expenditure continued its upward trends during the 2010 2011 period, driven mainly
by improved metal prices and demand for specific commodities. The world total exploration expenditure
increased significantly by 62.5 percent from $11.2 billion in 2010 to $18.2 billion in 2011. Canada at 18
percent and Australia at 13 percent remained the top contributing countries to global exploration
expenditure. Other regions attracting large exploration expenditure included Latin America at 25 percent,
followed by Europe/FSU/Asia and Africa at 16 percent and 15 percent, respectively (Figure 2). Although
South Africa lost its spot in the top ten countries to Argentina, it regained the first position for planned
exploration spending in Africa, after slipping to second position behind Democratic Republic of Congo in
2010. It is anticipated that global exploration expenditure will continue to increase underpinned by high
levels of international commodity prices on the back of economic recovery.

12
FIGURE 2: EXPLORATION EXPENDITURE BY REGION, 2011

Pacific/Southeast Asia
United States 8% 5%

Australia 13%

Latin America 25%

Africa 15%

Europe/FSU/Asia 16%
Canada 18%

Source: Metal Economics Group, 2012

At the beginning of September 2011, the Minister of Department of Mineral Resources (DMR)
announced a moratorium on new applications to allow the Department to conduct a full audit of all mining
and prospecting licences granted since 2004. Since the announcement of the lifting of the moratorium on
18 April 2011, a total amount of 4 937 applications for prospecting and mining rights were received by
the DMR. Of the total number of applications received, 3 981 applications were for prospecting rights,
192 were for mining rights. Overwhelming number of prospecting rights applications received since 2004,
South Africa still continues to attract new investment in exploration. The most of the applicants targeted
commodities such as PGMs, diamonds, uranium and coal. The country has the potential to supply a
large share of the global demand for many commodities, but its rich endowment of natural resources and
high mineral potential can only be developed and extended through a vibrant exploration sector.

The depleting nature of the mineral resources necessitates that South Africa should refocus its support
towards investment in greenfield exploration, in order to sustain the mining industry through the opening
of new mines and expansion of existing operations. Mineral exploration investment as prescribed under
the sustainable development element of the Mining Sector Declaration, amongst other factors, was
identified as one of the key elements in growing and developing the mining industry. In August 2010,
Pretoria, a task team was then established to develop mechanisms of accelerating mineral exploration
investment in the country.

ROLE OF MINING IN THE NATIONAL ECONOMY

South Africas mining industry is one of the countrys key economic sectors with potential for susbstantial
contribution to growth, job creation and transformation, consistent with the Governments objectives of
higher and more balanced economic growth. In 2011, mining contributed R260.4 billion ($31.5 billion) or
9.8 percent to gross domestic product (Figure 3 and Table 3), an increase of R33.3 billion over the
previous year.

The increase in value added by mining can be attributed to improved mineral commodity prices due to
higher demand in the wake of the global economic recovery, as well as increases in the production of
base metals, PGMs and ferrous minerals. If the value-added contribution of processed minerals
(presently included in the manufacturing sectors figures) were added to that of mining and quarrying, the
impact of mining on the national accounts would be significantly higher. During 2011, mining and
quarrying contributed 12.3 percent to Gross Fixed Capital Formation (GFCF) from 12 percent in 2010.

13
FIGURE 3: PERCENTAGE CONTRIBUTION OF MINING AND QUARRYING TO GROSS DOMESTIC
PRODUCT AND TOTAL FIXED CAPITAL FORMATION OF SOUTH AFRICA, 2002 2011 (Current
Rand Prices)

16.0
Contribution to Gross Domestic Product
14.0
Contribution to Total Fixed Capital Formation
12.0
Percentages

10.0

8.0

6.0

4.0

2.0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Source: South African Reserve Bank: Quarterly Bulletin, June 2011

TABLE 3: CONTRIBUTION OF MINING AND QUARRYING TO GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT, FIXED

CAPITAL FORMATION AND TOTAL NATIONAL EXPORTS OF GOODS, 20022011 (at current prices)

CONTRIBUTION TO VALUE ADDED CONTRIBUTION TO FIXED CONTRIBUTION TO NATIONAL

CAPITAL FORMATION TOTAL EXPORT OF GOODS
Total
National Gross Fixed
Capital From Total
Year Domestic Product From Mining Formation Mining Exports From Mining

Rmillion Rmillion % Rmillion Rmillion % Rmillion Rmillion %

2002 1 171 086* 92 730* 7.9 172 151* 19 802* 11.5 333 251* 109 357* 32.8
2003 1 272 537* 82 770* 6.7 196 999* 21 706* 11.0 291 434* 86 747* 29.8
2004 1 415 237* 91 198* 6.4 226 180* 17 917* 7.9 310 525* 89 546* 28.8
2005 1 401 067* 105 992* 7.6 263 754* 16 743* 6.3 358 361* 102 486* 29.1
2006 1 572 319* 132 301* 8.4 324 083* 27 715* 8.6 447 690* 138 878* 31.8
2007 1 792 076* 156 970* 8.8 406 257* 40 206* 9.9 533 791* 161 755* 30.3
2008 2 033 207* 196 525* 9.7 520 717* 58 645* 11.3 704 293* 219 593* 30.8
2009 2 174 512* 196 521* 9.0 521 707* 64 140* 12.3 556 432* 176 837* 31.8
2010 2 412 490* 227 117* 9.4 520 434 62 431* 12.0 625 359 224 956 35.9
2011 2 670 504 260 381 9.8 559 888 68 800 12.3 746 518 282 012 37.8

Sources: Department of Mineral Resources, Directorate Mineral Economics

South African Reserve Bank, Quarterly Bulletin June 2011, pS105 & 114
Notes * Revised figures

Despite Chinas moderate growth in 2011 and the Eurozone financial crisis, total export value of South
Africas primary mineral exports sales increased by 25.4 percent from R224.9 billion in 2010 to R282.0
billion in 2011, accounting for 37.8 percent of the countrys total exports value of goods, the highest in
over a decade (Figure 4 and Table 3). The increase in export sales was boosted by higher commodity
prices and new demand from some regions particularly India. The higher prices received for most
commodities offset the impact of the strengthening rand (R7.31/$ in 2010 to R7.25/$ in 2011).

14
 #,
FIGURE 4: CONTRIBUTION OF PRIMARY MINERALS TO SOUTH AFRICAS EXPORTS
2002-2011

300 40.0
35.0
250
30.0
200
25.0

Percentage
R billion

150 20.0
15.0
100
10.0
50
5.0
0 0.0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

All Minerals Gold PGM's Nominal Value of Mineral Exports+

Sources: Department of Mineral Resources, Directorate Mineral Economics

Notes: + Includes gold
#
Total exports of goods only, including gold

In 2011, South Africa exported primary minerals and processed minerals to 83 and 78 countries,
respectively. Europe and Pacific Rim countries remained the important export destinations with Europe
contributing 64.7 percent to the total export of primary minerals and 47.1 percent of the selected
processed minerals (Table 4). When precious metals and minerals are excluded from primary mineral
exports, Pacific Rim accounted for 58.0 percent and the European countries for 30.0 percent of the total
export value of primary minerals in 2011.The export value of primary minerals to the Pacific Rim region
increased by 42.4 percent in 2011, with exports to China and India increasing by 51.5 percent and 6.1
percent, respectively. Primary mineral exports to Japan increased significantly by 24.1 percent, due to its
reconstruction efforts following the countrys March 2011 earthquake which caused considerable damage
to its infrastructure including nuclear power plants. However, total exports of processed minerals to
Pacific Rim countries declined by 5.4 percent while exports to India, China and Japan rose by 28.2
percent, 11.2 percent and 6.5 percent, respectively.

TABLE 4: SOUTH AFRICAS EXPORT VALUE OF PRIMARY AND SELECTED PROCESSED

MINERAL PRODUCTS ACCORDING TO DESTINATION, 2011

REGION PRIMARY PROCESSED

Including precious Excluding precious
metals/minerals metals/minerals
% % %
2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011

Europe 68,3 64,7 32,0 30,0 33,9 47,1

Pacific Rim countries 26,4 29,2 56,1 58,0 43,7 38,0
Middle and Near East 0,8 1,5 1,8 3,1 0,9 1,2
North and Central America 0,6 0,5 1,4 1,0 17,6 11,2
South America 0,2 0,1 0,5 0,2 2.2 1,0
Africa 0,4 0,3 0,9 06 1,7 1,3
Other 3,3 3,6 7,2 7,1 N/A 0,2

TOTAL 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0

Sources: Department of Mineral Resources, Directorate Mineral Economics

15
 The total state revenue from the mining sector, which includes assessed tax, provisional tax and
secondary tax increased by 8.5 percent from R20.0 billion in 2010 to R21.7 billion in 2011 (Table 5).
Platinum and diamond sectors each contributed more than 20 percent to the total state revenue followed
by chrome at 14 percent, with coal and gold and uranium each contributing 12 percent respectively.

TABLE 5: CONTRIBUTIONS OF MINING AND QUARRYING TO STATE REVENUE, 20022011

YEAR Ended State Share of Profits As Percentage #

Mining Taxation Total Revenue State Aid
31 Mar and Diamond Exports of Total State
Duties Revenue
R 000 R000 R000 % R000

2002 8 885 713 169 313 9 055 026 0,3 28 914
2003 6 850 764 1 034 702 7 885 467 0,3 20 349
2004 3 300 975 421 793 3 722 769 0,9 32 530
2005 8 754 436* 1 132 179* 9 886 615* 0,4 36 225
2006 19 296 292* 825 472* 20 121 764* 0,2 37 339
2007 25 055 690* 900 703* 25 956 393* 0,1 24 139
2008 38 540 477* 644 241* 39 184 718* 0,1 21 000
2009 15 625 306* 1 104 882* 16 730 188* 0,1 21 000
2010 19 287 879* 674 856* 19 962 735* 0,1 18 000
2011 20 922 308 755 302 21 677 610 0,1 18 000

Sources: Department of Finance, South African Revenue Service

Department of Mineral Resource, Directorate Financial Planning and Management Accounting
Notes: # In respect of leased mines

Aid to marginal mines, pumping assistance
* Revised figures

In 2011, the mining industry, excluding exploration, research and development organisations and head
offices, employed 2.9 percent of South Africas economically active population, or 3.2 percent of all
workers in the non-agricultural formal sectors of the economy (Table 6). The average number of workers
employed in the mining industry increased marginally by 3 percent or 14 305 workers from 498 908 in
2010 to 513 211 in 2011. Over the last ten year period, 2002-2011, a total of 97 223 jobs were created,
highlighting the significance of mining to the South African economy. Wage income from mining
amounted to R 87.08 billion in 2011 or 23.5 percent of total mining revenue (Table 6).

TABLE 6: EMPLOYMENT AND WAGES IN SOUTH AFRICAS MINING INDUSTRY, 20022011

EMPLOYMENT WAGES
Number As % of total Total Per worker As % of
employed economically per annum total mining
#
YEAR active population revenue
+ +
Nominal Real Nominal Real

R million R R
2002 415 988* 2,6 26 228 28 339 63 335* 67 040* 19,3
2003 435 628* 2,7 30 827 33 056 71 748* 72 740* 26,2
2004 448 909* 2,9 33 655 34 124 77 515* 80 146* 26,9
2005 444 132* 2,6 36 682 36 703 86 299* 90 305* 25,6
2006 456 337* 2,7 39 447 41 756 92 578* 99 149* 20,3
2007 495 150* 2,9 50 072 49 924 100 826* 100 527* 22,4
2008 518 519* 2,9 60 876 65 193 125 730* 134 647* 20,3
2009 492 219 2,9 66 096 68 935 140 049* 146 064* 27,4
2010 498 906 2,9 74 318 78 044 156 430 164 273 24,7
2011 513 211 2,9 87 018 87 018 169 556 169 556 23,5

Sources: Quarterly Labour Force Survey (Stats SA), May 2011

Department of Mineral Resource, Directorate Mineral Economist
#
Notes: Export plus local commodity sales
+
Deflated by means of the CPI with 2008 as base year
* Revised figures

Provincial employment distribution was distinctly lopsided with five provinces (North West, Mpumalanga,
Gauteng, Limpopo and the Free State) employing 90.0 percent of the mining workforce, which in turn
earned 86.9 percent of the total remuneration (Table 7).

16
TABLE 7: EMPLOYMENT AND REMUNERATION BY PROVINCE, 2011

PROVINCE EMPLOYEES TOTAL REMUNERATION

Number % R million %

North West 178 699 34.8 27 187 31.2

Mpumalanga 101 441 19.8 20 103 23.1
Gauteng 76 983 15.0 11 303 13.0
Limpopo 65.436 12.8 11 275 12.9
Free State 39 633 7.7 5 805 6.7
Northern Cape 35 571 6.9 8 314 9.5
KwaZulu-Natal 10 961 2.1 2 388 2,7
Western Cape 3 257 0.6 601 0,7
Eastern Cape 1 230 0,2 105 0.1
TOTAL 513 211 100,0 87 081 100,0

Source: Department of Mineral Resources, Directorate Mineral Economics

In 2011, PGMs remained the largest employer, contributing 38 percent to the total mining industrys labour
force, recording an increase of 7 percent to 194 979 employees from 181 969 in 2010 (Figure 5), with coal
and diamond sectors maintaining the same percentage contribution of 15 percent and 2 percent,
respectively, to the industrys employment from 74 025 and 11 468 in 2010 to 78 580 and 12 030 in 2011.
The increase in the respective sectors can be attributed to newly operating mines and expansions.
However, the gold sector which is ranked the second largest contributor to total mining employment at 28
percent, continued its declining trend shedding 11 458 jobs which translates to a decrease of 7 percent
from 157 019 in 2010 to 145 561 in 2011.

FIGURE 5: MINING INDUSTRYS EMPLOYMENT BY SECTOR, 2011

Diamonds
Other Minerals 2%
16% Gold
28%

PGM's Coal
38% 15%

Source: Department of Mineral Resources, Directorate Mineral Economics

South Africas mining sectors remuneration increased significantly by 17 percent from R74.3 billion in
2010 to R87.1 billion in 2011. The PGMs industry accounted for 35 percent of the total remuneration,
followed by gold, other minerals and the coal industry which accounted for 24 percent, 20 percent and 18
percent, respectively (Figure 6).

17
FIGURE 6: MINING INDUSTRYS REMUNERATION BY SECTOR, 2011

Diamonds
Other Minerals 2%
20% Gold
24%

PGM's
Coal
35%
18%

Source: Department of Mineral Resources, Directorate Mineral Economics

MINERAL PRODUCTION AND SALES IN 2011

In 2011, South Africas total primary mineral sales value rose by 23.4 percent to R370.6 billion from
R300.3 billion in 2010. The increase can be attributed to higher commodity prices and the world
economic recovery which contributed to the improved demand for most mineral commodities. When the
total and export mineral sales are expressed in US dollars, the annual increases were 26.7 percent (from
$30.7 billion to $38.9 billion), and 24.4 percent (from $41.0 billion to $51.1 billion), respectively. The rise
in the total mineral sales value was mainly driven by the coal sector which surpassed gold and PGMs
sectors to become the highest total sales earner contributing R87.8 billion in 2011, an increase of 23
percent from R71.2 billion in 2010 equal to a share of 24 percent of total primary mineral sales. The
increase in coal total sales revenue was due to increased local and global demand particularly from Asia
augmented by the increased coal prices. During the same period, PGMs contributed 23 percent to
primary total sales, followed by ferrous minerals and gold at 22 percent and 19 percent, with non ferrous
and industrial contributing 4 and 3 percent (Figure 7). However, PGMs maintained its position as the
highest export earner at 26 percent, followed by ferrous at 24.9 percent, gold 23.1 percent and coal 17.9
percent. The significant increase in the gold price boosted its export sales revenue, which increased by
28.1 percent from an annual average price of $1 225/ozt in 2010 to $1 569.07/ozt in 2011.

FIGURE 7: CONTRIBUTION OF PRIMARY MINERAL COMMODITIES TO TOTAL SALES REVENUE,

2011
Indusrial Miscellaneous
3% 6%
Gold
19%

Coal
24%

PGMs
23%
Non Ferrous
3%
Ferrous
22%

Source: Department of Mineral Resources, Directorate Mineral Economics

18
 TABLE 8: MINERAL PRODUCTION AND SALES, 2011

COMMODITY PRODUCTION LOCAL SALES (FOR) EXPORT SALES (FOB) TOTAL SALES
Quantity Quantity Value (R) Quantity Value (R) Quantity Value (R)

1. Precious
Diamonds ct 7 046 644 ** ** ** ** ** **
Gold kg 180 184 10 165 3 633 111 102 175 521 65 258 301 709 185 686 68 891 412 811
Platinum-group
Metals kg 288 851 ** 10 619 219 357 243 955 73 234 047 022 ** 83 853 266 379
Silver kg 73 180 9 971 80 001 009 71 250 531 932 210 81 221 611 933 219

2. Semi-precious
stones * * * * * *
@
3. Ferrous t 77 430 099 * 10 915 287 586 60 663 322 70 251 220 517 * 81 166 508 103
+@
4. Non-ferrous t 227 746 92 017 6 445 359 242 111 333 6 612 922 772 203 349 13 058 282 014

5. Energy
Coal t 252 756 845 177 705 290 37 285 726 061 68 807 069 50 548 677 636 246 512 359 87 834 403 697
Uranium oxide kg 656 129 ** ** ** ** ** **

6. Industrial@ 10 555 422 517 1 754 708 184 12 310 130 701

7. Miscellaneous 9 234 197 474 13 822 125 247 23 056 322 721

TOTAL# 88 626 845 601 282 012 934 106 370 639 779 707

Source: Department of Mineral Resources, Directorate Mineral Economics

Notes: All quantities are in metric tons, unless otherwise specified
** Not available: where applicable, earnings are included under Miscellaneous
@
Full details given in respective overview chapters
+
Excludes titanium and zirconium minerals which are included under Miscellaneous
* Nil

Total local mineral sales value increased by 17.7 percent to R88.6 billion in 2011 from R75.3 billion in
2010 (Table 10), surpassing the levels of the local sales revenue of R80.7 billion pre-global economic
crisis in 2008. When expressed in dollar terms, the local sales value increased by 18.4 percent to $12.2
billion in 2011 from $10.3 billion in 2010. Coal remained the major local income earner for the year 2011
at 42.1 percent, followed by ferrous and PGMs both contributing 12 percent, industrial commodities at
11.8 percent, miscellaneous mineral commodities at 10.4 percent, non ferrous at 7.3 percent and gold
accounted for 4.1 percent.

TABLE 9: SOUTH AFRICAS PRIMARY MINERAL SALES BY PROVINCE, 2011

PROVINCE TOTAL SALES

LOCAL SALES EXPORT SALES
(FOR) (FOB)

Mpumalanga 33 730 932 38.1 62 829 635 22.3 96 560 568 26.0

North West 13 548 802 15.3 66 119 548 23.4 79 668 350 21.5
Northern Cape 8 218 850 9.3 65 802 016 23.3 74 020 866 20.0

Limpopo 16 224 947 18.3 30 794 499 10.9 47 019 446 12.7
Gauteng 4 514 230 5.0 34 035 625 12.1 38 549 855 10.4
Free State 3 669 910 4.1 13 253 719 4.7 16 923 630 4.6
KwaZulu-Natal 3 151 959 3.6 6 824 403 2.4 9 976 363 2.7
Western Cape# 5 047 790 5.7 2 353 485 0.8 7 401 275 2.0
Eastern Cape 519 422 0.6 0 0 519 422 0.1

#
TOTAL 88 626 845 100,0 282 012 934 100,0 370 639 779 100,0

Source: Department of Mineral Resources, Directorate Mineral Economics

Note: # Hydrocarbons were produced and sold at a value of R1 070 million locally

19
The bulk of the total mineral revenues were generated from Mpumalanga, North West, Northern Cape,
Limpopo and Gauteng provinces collectively accounting for 90.6 percent of the total primary mineral
sales revenue (Table 11). Mpumalanga emerged as the leading contributor to both local and total sales
revenue with 38.1 percent and 26 percent respectively, with North West province being the major
contributor to export sales revenue with 23.4 percent. Mpumalanga is mainly dependent on coal as a
major contributor towards minerals revenue, North West depends on PGMs, Northern Cape on
diamonds, Limpopo on PGMs, diamonds, copper as well as coal and Gauteng on gold.

SELECTED PROCESSED MINERAL SALES

The total sales revenue increased by 5.7 percent from R61.6 billion in 2010 to R65.1 billion in 2011, with
export sales accounting for 82 percent of the revenue of the total processed minerals (Table 10). The
largest contributors to the total of selected primary minerals sales were chromium alloys and a
conglomerate of classified commodities both at 42 percent, followed by manganese alloy and vanadium
at 12 percent and 4 percent respectively. The increase in the total processed minerals sales can be
attributed to strong growth in stainless steel production and increased commodity prices. The value of
local sales of processed mineral products also increased by 6.0 percent from R11.2 billion in 2010 to
R11.8 billion in 2011.

TABLE 10: SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION, LOCAL AND EXPORT SALES OF SELECTED
PROCESSED MINERAL PRODUCTS, 2011

COMMODITY PRODUCTION LOCAL SALES EXPORT SALES TOTAL SALES

Mass Value (FOR) Mass Value (FOB) Mass Value (FOB)
T T R000 T R000 T R000

Chromium alloys 3 425 911 451 457 3 430 563 3 047 759 23 793 441 3 499 217 27 224 005

Manganese alloys 1 064 111 54 109 483 050 854 262 7 409 502 908 372 7 892 552

Vanadium+ 14 353 1 790 266 968 17 917 2 288 001 19 655 2 558 139
x
Other: Classified 3 563 085 357 564 7 668 879 2 228 883 19 803 758 2 586 448 27 472 637

TOTAL 2011 864 920 11 849 460 6 044 846 53 294 702 26 649 830 65 147 333

TOTAL 2010 1 101 679 11 176 401 6 713 597 50 462 850 7 815 275 61 639 252

Sources: Department of Mineral Resources, Directorate Mineral Economics

: United State Geological Survey
Notes : + Contained vanadium.
x
Comprises aluminium, titanium slag, zinc metal, low-manganese pig iron, silicon alloys and
metal, phosphoric acid, and antimony trioxide

During the period under review, KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) province remained the largest contributor to the
total selected processed mineral sales accounting for 37.8 percent, followed by Mpumalanga and North
West provinces at 33.5 percent and 16.4 percent respectively, (Table 11). In 2011, the three provinces,
viz. KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga and North West collectively accounted for 87.7 percent of the total
processed minerals sales revenue. Titanium slag and aluminium dominated the KwaZulu-Natal
contribution whilst more than three quarters or 81.4 percent of Mpumalangas total sales revenue was
derived from chromium alloys. North Wests total processed mineral sales revenue was almost entirely
derived from chromium and vanadium alloys, which contributed 83.8 and 16.2 percent respectively.
These three provinces also dominated the export sales revenue, with a combined contribution of 88.8
percent. However, major contributors to local sales revenue were KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga and
Gauteng, together aggregating 93.7 percent.

20
TABLE 11: SOUTH AFRICAS LOCAL AND EXPORT SALES OF SELECTED PROCESSED
MINERAL PRODUCTS BY PROVINCE, 2011

PROVINCE LOCAL SALES EXPORT SALES (FOB) TOTAL SALES

(FOR)
R000 % R000 % R000 %

KwaZulu-Natal 5 594 454 47.2 19 058 186 35.8 24 652 640 37.8
Mpumalanga 3 665 608 30.9 18 184 011 34.1 21 849 619 33.5
North West 596 746 5.0 10 066 484 18.9 10 663 230 16.4
Gauteng 1 848 398 15.6 3 967 836 7.4 5 816 234 8.9
Limpopo 84 392 0.7 1 073 668 2.0 1 158 060 1.8
Western Cape 63 033 0.5 944 518 1.8 1 007 551 1.5
TOTAL 11 852 631 100.0 53 294 703 100.0 65 147 334 100.0

Source: Department of Minerals Resources, Directorate Mineral Economics

SOUTH AFRICAS IMPORTS OF SELECTED PRIMARY AND PROCESSED MINERAL PRODUCTS,

2011

As a result of its vast mineral resources, South Africa is, to a large degree self-sufficient with respect to
the supply of minerals. However, there are some minerals and mineral products which need to be
imported due to lack of local resources. The total value of the more significant imports during 2011
increased by 39.2 percent from R24.2 billion in 2010 to R35.7 billion in 2011 (Table 12). In order to
reduce the increase in imports, South Africa will need to intensify beneficiation and develop projects that
will produce products locally and substitute imported goods.

In 2011, the value of imports of diamonds and manufactured minerals increased by 11.4 percent and
10.2 percent respectively. Primary industrial minerals also registered an increase of 101.92 percent from
R891.3 million in 2010 to R1.8 billion in 2011, while other precious and semi precious stones decreased
by 36.6 percent.

TABLE 12: SOUTH AFRICAS IMPORTS OF SELECTED PRIMARY AND PROCESSED MINERAL
PRODUCTS, 2011

PRODUCT VALUE (FOB)

2010 2011
R000 R000 Year on year % change
Precious
Diamonds 4 323 106 4 813 982 11.4
Other precious and semi-precious stones * 475 834 301 689 -36.6
Precious metals + 775 234 1 709 135 120.5

Ferrous@
Primary 460 068 740 891 61.0
Processed 717 165 687 826 -4.1

Nonferrous@ 127 595 93 025 -27.1

Coking Coal 5 390 307 17 283 687 220.6

Industrial@
Primary 1 089 970 1 866 151 71.2
Processed 5 718 854 534 080 -90.7
Manufactured 6 971 106 7 683 875 10.2

TOTAL# 21 383 005 35 714 341 76.4

Source: South African Revenue Service, 2011

*
Notes: Includes natural and synthetic precious or semi-precious stones and dust and powders of these stones
+
Includes alloys containing base metals
@
Full details given in relevant chapters
#
In addition, crude oil to the value of (R102 billion) was imported during 2011.

21
REPORTED MINERAL-RELATED PROJECTS IN SOUTH AFRICA

Known and reported committed investment in mineral related projects in South Africa stood at R36.9
billion by August 2011, of which 98.3 percent is for primary minerals and 1.7 percent recorded for
processed mineral products (Table 13). Platinum projects dominated the primary minerals, accounting
for 84.3 percent followed by other minerals 12.9 percent and golds 2.8 percent.

TABLE 13: NEWLY COMMITTED MINERAL-RELATED PROJECTS IN SOUTH AFRICA, 2011

SECTOR COST COST+ AS A PERCENTAGE OF AS A PERCENTAGE OF

R million $ million PRIMARY MINERALS TOTAL MINERAL PRODUCTS

Primary 300 820 36 392 100 98.3

Gold 8 500 1 028 2.8 2.8
Platinum 253 570 36 676 84.3 82.8
Other 38 750 4 687 12.9 12.7

Processed minerals 5 240 6 33 1.7

TOTAL 306 060 37 025 100.0

Source: Department of Minerals Resources, Directorate Mineral Economics

Mining Weekly
+
Note: At a Rand/dollar exchange rate of R8, 2661, as at September 2012

SADC MINING AND MINERAL PRODUCTION OF SELECTED MAJOR MINERALS

The Southern African Development Community (SADC) countries continue to be major contributors to the
worlds mining and mineral production. The SADC region contributed 100 percent of Africas platinum
group metals and nickel production, 63.7 percent of lead production and 48.3 percent of gold in 2011.

During the period 2007 to 2011, a number of SADC countries attracted considerable investment in mineral
projects , which has led to increased production in some commodities particularly cobalt, whose production
increased significantly by 96 percent from 29.9 t in 2007 to 58.5 t in 2011, followed by chromite 12.6
percent, (Table 14). However, gold and nickel continued their declining trend registering the highest
decline of 29.8 percent and 13.1 percent respectively, with copper registering the largest decline of 33.8
percent. Lead and platinum followed the same trend decreasing by 9.4 percent and 2.1 percent. The
decrease in the platinum production can be attributed to the closure of a number of mining shafts in South
Africa due to safety stoppages under Section 54 of the MPRDA.

TABLE 14: SADC MINE PRODUCTION OF SELECTED MAJOR MINERALS, 2007 2011

MINERAL PRODUCTION
% of world
unit 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 production
Coal t 251 980 000 253 870 000 255 863 000 260 448 000 256 755 000 3.3 %
Cobalt t 29 860 40 044 27 738 56 840 58 540 59.7 %
Copper t 808 200 958 600 1 046 900 1 254 400 1 371 500 8.4 %
Chromite t 10 131 234 10 346 593 10 742 600 11 340 000 11 411 400 42.4 %
Diamonds carats 63 330 000 88 431 401 57 807 117 69 574 658 67 551 925 52.2 %
Gold kg 341 400 316 598 266 344 272 600 239 500 9.3 %
Platinum kg 161 800 151 700 148 000 156 500 158 400 79.8 %
Nickel t 79 300 81 900 80 530 71 700 68 900 3.8 %
Lead t 69 000 46 440* 60 000 63 000 62 500 1.3 %
Zinc t 219 000 316 000 233 000 241 000 238 200 1.9 %

Source: Department of Minerals Resources, Directorate Mineral Economics

World Bureau of Metal Statistics
*RSA Figure (other SADC countries figures not available)

22
MINERAL BENEFICIATION

South Africas abundant mineral resources provide an opportunity to drive the countrys developmental
agenda forward. These minerals are critical inputs in a number of resource based manufacturing and
green energy industries where they are beneficiated. The mineral beneficiation policy adopted by Cabinet
in the last financial year is part of a broader strategy by Government to create a diversified and sustainable
economy which is not overly reliant on the exploitation of our abundant but finite mineral resources but is
manufacturing led and labour intensive to overcome the triple developmental challenges of unemployment,
poverty and income inequality.

Following the adoption of mineral beneficiation as national policy, two implementation plans were
developed and adopted by Cabinet for the iron and steel and energy commodities value chains. These
plans form the nucleus of the broader implementation plan which is currently being developed and
expected to be completed before the end of the 2012/13 financial year. This overarching plan will
emphasise coordination of Government programmes to maximise the socio-economic development impact
and includes comprehensive action plans for identified value chains.

ECONOMIC OUTLOOK FOR THE SOUTH AFRICAN MINERALS INDUSTRY 2011/2012

The global economic recovery has slowed, though moderate growth is still expected for period 2012 and
beyond. The unresolved European debt crisis alongside pedestrian growth in the USA pose significant
risks to the world economic outlook. While developing economies are expected to grow more rapidly than
advanced economies, they are not immune to the effects of a slowdown in Europe or the USA. While
there are signs of revival in the USA, much of Europe is expected to fall into recession during 2012.
Emerging markets however, continue to perform strongly, although growth in China and India is
projected to moderate in the year ahead.

Growth in advanced economies is expected to slow down from an already meagre 1.6 percent in 2011 to
1.3 percent in 2012. For 2013-2016, the outlook suggests some recovery in advanced economies,
bringing these countries back to the pre-recession growth trend of slightly more than 2 percent. In 2012
growth in emerging economies will slow by 0.7 percentage points on average, going from 6.3 percent in
2011 to 5.6 percent in 2012, partly as a result of slower export growth and partly because several of
them have been growing above the long term trend. However, many emerging economies will begin to
show signs of maturing, at which point the rapid catch-up growth abates. However, recent improvements
in the global economy are very fragile. The world economy grew at 2.8 per cent in 2011 down from 4.0
per cent in 2010 and way below the International Monetary Fund (IFM) forecast of 4.5 per cent. The
global growth is projected to grow at 3.5 percent in 2012, then accelerate somewhat to 3.6 percent from
2013-2016, and then show a further slowdown to 2.7 percent from 2017-2025. At 3 percent, on average,
global growth will still be somewhat higher than the period 1980-1995 but between a half and a full
percentage point below the growth rate from 1995-2008.

African economies rebounded quickly from the 2008 financial crisis as commodity prices rose and export
revenues returned to pre-crisis levels, enabling them to finance the necessary investments. The pace of
economic growth in Africa however weakened in 2011, reflecting the impact of political and social strife in
some countries in the north of the continent. However, growth in the rest of Africa maintained strong
momentum as several resource endowed countries benefited from increased export earnings and higher
commodity prices. Africas economy growth which fell from 4.6 per cent in 2010 to 2.7 per cent in 2011 is
expected to grow by 5.1 per cent in 2012.

South Africas economic growth increased marginally in 2011 and is projected to slow in 2012, mainly as
a result of domestic structural weaknesses and the fragile global economic recovery. The economy
which grew by 2.9 per cent in 2010 and 3.1 per cent in 2011 is expected to slow down to 2.8 per cent in
2012. However, as the world economy strengthens, the countrys GDP is expected to accelerate to 3.6
per cent in 2013 and 4.2 per cent in 2014, led by robust household consumption and stronger public and
private sector investment. South Africa however needs much faster growth, sustained over a decade or
more to reduce poverty and unemployment in line with the objectives set out in the New Growth Path.

The shift in the composition of global trade, production and investment has been underway for some
time. Emerging markets now account for more than 40 per cent of global imports, exports and industrial
production. Last year, Brazil overtook the United Kingdom to become the sixth largest economy in the
world. By 2016, the IFM predicts that BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa) economies
will account for 24 per cent of the global GDP, up from 7 per cent in 1993, and China is projected to be

23
the largest economy in the world based on purchasing power parity. These shifts in the global economy
will provide considerable opportunities for growth and employment in the South African economy. The
South to South Cooperation has gained momentum in recent years. Some emerging countries,
particularly Brazil, China, India and South Africa have begun playing an increasingly prominent role in
global mining investment, trade, finance and governance. The impact of this engagement on African
economies depends on the extent to which they are able to capitalize on the opportunities and mitigate
risks inherent in the relationship with emerging countries.

Overall, mining value added in South Africa grew by 14.7 percent to R260.4 billion in 2011 compared
with R227.1 billion in 2010. Production of platinum group metals rose by a marginal 1 percent. In the year
to August 2011, production of diamonds and gold decreased by 21 percent and 5 percent, respectively.
Total mining production declined by 4 per cent despite an increase in primary commodity prices. Strikes
and safety related stoppages disrupted production.

Commodity prices rebounded in the two and half years following the 2009 global recession and remain
high but volatile. Since mid 2011, the easing of global demand and the prospects for further weakening
has put pressure on commodity prices. However, their levels are still relatively high and have so far
supported growth in exporting countries. Since its peak in August 2011, the price of gold has been
volatile, increasing again in early 2012. The debt crisis in Europe and mounting inflation fears sustained
demand for gold, commonly serving as a hedge against inflation. The platinum price has declined in
recent months, but remains about $500/t oz above the average price of the last ten years. Prices of other
metals were also relatively high but have declined from their peaks in the first half of 2011. The price of
copper declined significantly in late 2011 but increased again at the start of 2012, driven by additional
demand from China. The price lend movements in 2011 stem from both the demand and supply sides.
The demand from emerging economies continued to strong support to high commodity prices. In 2012,
world commodity prices are expected to moderate with a better supplydemand balance, mainly
reflecting slower global economic activity.

The growing optimism in the mining industry and the demand fundamentals drove the industry back to
boom times. Investment in new supply is increasingly focusing on emerging markets as companies and
governments entered the industry with the primary goal of securing supply. To keep up with demand
$300 billion of capital programmes were announced, with over $120 billion planned for 2011, more than
double the total 2010 spend. The sheer size and volume of the announced capital projects demonstrated
an industry where fulfilling seemingly insatiable demand is the top priority. Growing demand for its
products, driven by emerging markets, highlights that sufficient supply will be the most significant
challenge it will face.

24
 TABLE 15: MINERALS AND METALS ANNUAL AVERAGE PRICES, 2006 - 2011

COMMODITY UNIT
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Aluminium High Grade, LME Cash $/t 2569.87 2638.59 2573.21 1664.36 2173.19 2383.20
Antimony, Metal Bulletin Free
Market $/t 5171.99 5538.03 6108.16 5200.86 9020.27 14741.44
+
Coal - Steam: Local FOR R/t 85.17 100.00 141.53 162.75 177.50 196.14
Export FOB R/t 310.42 359.50 711.99 515.58 551.42 727.85
Anthracite: Local FOR R/t 477.17 485.50 602.42 690.33 778.25 898.90
Export FOB R/t 415.58 480.75 598.43 889.75 780.75 864.65
Cobalt, Metal Bulletin Free Market $/lb, 16.48 29.33 38.64 17.35 20.57 17.58
Copper: Grade A, LME Cash $/t 6723.54 7118.72 6899.55 5112.77 7533.92 8832.89
Republic Copper Price R/t 51185.49 56759.48 65381.67 62173.56 72610.50
Ferrochrome: Charge 52% Cr* $/lb, Cr 0.71 0.90 1.80 0.91 1.24 1.26
Ferromanganese: High Carbon
7,5% C* /t 584.69 895.87 1803.93 912.74 1091.52 993.14
Ferrovanadium 70-80% V* $/kg V 38.49 37.13 61.34 25.01 29.99 28.76
Gold, London Price $/ozt 604.52 696.76 872.13 973.32 1225.05 1572.32
Ilmenite Concentrate 54% TiO2 A$/t 80.00 80.00 102.71 86.05 74.31 128.38
Lead, LME Cash $/t 1289.77 2578.95 2090.78 1718.86 2144.44 2397.52
Manganese Ore: 48-50%
Metalurgical* $/mtu 2.60 3.54 14.09 5.37 7.71 6.07
Nickel, LME Cash $/t 24246.16 37208.50 21100.92 14633.19 21803.81 22938.74
Palladium, London Price $/ozt 320.38 356.84 355.65 263.48 526.32 731.02
Platinum, London Price $/ozt 1141.70 1302.68 1574.87 1204.85 1610.89 1718.63
Rhodium, Johnson Matthey Base
Price $/ozt 4547.54 6199.32 6584.88 1586.51 2458.43 2025.04
Rutile Concentrate 95% TiO2 A$/t 630.00 647.31 709.32 741.76 756.68 1032.34
Silver, London Price $/ozt 11.57 13.43 15.01 14.66 20.16 35.34
Tantalum Ore: 30% Ta2O5 $/lb, 35.54 35.00 35.00 35.00 0.00 0.00
Tin, LME Cash $/t 8780.68 14538.60 19189.50 13563.83 20405.83 26181.78
Uranium Oxide, NUEXCO spot $/lb, 47.62 99.11 64.24 46.68 45.87 56.30
Vanadium Pentoxide* $/lb, 7.87 7.40 13.55 6.04 6.92 6.61
Zinc, Special High Grade $/t 3276.10 3242.50 1875.18 1653.77 2160.71 2194.36
Zircon: Foundry Grade, Bulk, FOB A$/t 745.00 772.74 762.50 854.68 839.35 1671.19

Source: Metal Bulletin

Note: N/A prices not available

25
 PART TWO: REVIEW OF SELECTED COMMODITIES

PRECIOUS METALS AND MINERALS OVERVIEW

Lesego Malebo

INTRODUCTION

Precious metals and minerals industry include gold, platinum-group metals (PGMs), silver, and
diamonds. South Africa is the worlds largest producer of PGMs and is the sixth largest producer of gold.
The country is also a major producer of diamonds, while silver is produced as a by-product from gold,
lead-zinc, copper and PGM mines. Precious metals were produced from 94 mines, while diamonds were
produced from 97 operations out of 396 licensees during 2011.

PRODUCTION AND SALES

The countrys aggregated production of precious metals, excluding diamonds, declined by 2.3 percent to
542.3 t mainly as a result of a 4.5 percent drop in gold production (Table 16). Precious metals and
minerals had a total revenue of R153.4 billion in 2011, an increase of 20.5 percent over the 2010
revenue. Despite a marginal decrease of 1.9 percent to 490.8 t in the precious metals export volume,
revenue from such sales increased by 18.5 percent to R 139 billion, mainly due to the recovery in both
the gold and PGM prices. Local sales increased by 43 percent from R9.98 billion in 2010 to R14.3 billion
in 2011, partly due to a 23.6 percent increase in local sales volumes in 2011 compared with 2010.

TABLE 16: SOUTH AFRICA'S PRODUCTION AND SALES OF PRECIOUS METALS, 2010 AND 2011.

PRODUCTION LOCAL SALES EXPORT SALES TOTAL SALES

COMMODITY YEAR
t t R million t R million t R million
2011 180.2 10.2 3 633 175.5 65 258 185.7 68 891
GOLD
2010 188.7 7.2 2 056 176.8 51 037 184.0 53 093
2011 288.9 36.8 10 619 244.0 73 234 280.8 83 853
PGMs
2010 287.3 31.1 7 892 244.0 65 894 275.5 73 786
2011 73.2 10.0 80 71.3 532 81.2 612
SILVER
2010 79.3 7.8 36 78.9 350 86.7 386
2011 542.3 57.0 14 332 490.8 139 024 547.7 153 356
TOTAL
2010 555.3 46.1 9 984 500.2 117 282 546.2 127 266
Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

South Africas diamond production fell by 20.6 percent to 7.0 Mct in 2011, attributed to decreased
production from major diamond operations. Both local and export sales mass decreased; however the
respective values increased by 1.6 percent and 12.6 percent, due to improved prices. Diamonds
produced in South Africa were valued at an average of $247.14/ct in 2011, an increase of 22.3 percent
over the 2010 figure.

EMPLOYMENT

Employment in the precious metals and mineral sector increased slightly by 0.7 percent to 352 570
(Table 17), with PGM and diamond sectors increasing employment by 7.1 percent and 7.8 percent,
respectively. The gold sectors employment continued on its declining trend dropping by 7.3 percent.
Total remuneration for the year increased by 10.8 percent to just over R53 billion, raising the average
remuneration per employee by 10.1 percent to R152 068/employee.

26
TABLE 17: EMPLOYMENT AND REMUNERATION IN SOUTH AFRICA'S PRECIOUS METALS AND
MINERALS (INCLUDING DIAMOND) MINES, 2005 2011.

AVERAGE
AVERAGE NUMBER TOTAL REMUNERATION
YEAR REMUNERATION
OF EMPLOYEES (R'000)
(R/employee)
2005 337 701 26 143 212 68 100
2006 347 998 27 618 263 79 363
2007 371 945 35 040 346 64 208
2008 384 978 41 486 270 107 763
2009 356 197 44 064 129 123 707
2010 350 181 48 366 955 138 119
2011 352 570 53 614 447 152 068
Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

OUTLOOK

PGMs market was volatile in 2011, with demand starting off on a strong note as the economic recovery
rolled over from 2010. However, the Japanese earthquake in the first half of 2011, coupled with the
deteriorating economic outlook due to the debt crisis in Europe, which led to a decline in demand from
the autocatalysts and jewellery sectors, resulting in an oversupply of platinum on global markets. This
depressed prices which dropped from an average price of $1,900/oz at the beginning of 2011 to an
average price of $1,400/oz towards the end of 2011 and declined further in the first half of 2012.

Global PGM supplies are expected to decline in 2012, mainly as a result of industrial strikes and safety
stoppages on major South African mines. The industrial actions in South Africa brought a temporary
relief to the market, by reducing stock and pushing the PGM prices up. The gradual resolution of the
European debt crisis, together with a resurgence in global economic growth, is likely to boost prices
again towards the end of 2012 and going into 2013. With Europe witnessing the beginning of a
technology shift aimed at reducing fleet-average carbon dioxide emissions, platinum demand is expected
to increase.

As the global economy recovers and consumer confidence in developed economies returns, rough
diamond demand is expected to pick up in 2012 going into 2013, and growth in consumption from
emerging economies such as China and India will ensure that demand continues to increase.

Total world gold supply is expected to increase in 2012, from the anticipated increase in mine production
as well as from recycling. Global demand for investment purposes is also forecast to grow in 2012, due
to the potential inflationary pressures resulting from governments and central banks fiscal and monetary
policies in many countries which are perceived to create unstable economic environments for alternative
investment tools. Despite the expected increase in global production, South Africa gold production which
has been on a declining trend over a decade will remain virtually flat in 2012, albeit having the largest
reserves in the world. To increase the countrys gold output the industry must invest in new technology in
order to tap into the reserves at depth.

REFERENCES

1. DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics.

2. Johnson Matthey, Platinum 2011.
3. World Silver Survey, 2011.
4. Kimberley Process Certification Scheme Statistics.
5. Gold Survey 2011.

27
 DIAMONDS

Donald O. Moumakwa

GLOBAL OUTPUT

The Kimberley Process Certification Scheme (KPCS) statistics reveal that global diamond carat output
fell by 6.9 percent to 123.9 million carats (Mct) in 2011. This value, however, does not include production
from the Ivory Coast, which is currently subject to United Nations sanctions and, therefore, does not
trade in rough diamonds. The decreased output is mainly attributed to decreased production from
countries where the De Beers Group and its joint venture partners operate, such as South Africa and
Canada, as well as Australia. The value of global mine production increased by 20.1 percent to just over
$14.0 billion due to the soaring prices during the year.

TABLE 18: WORLD ROUGH DIAMOND PRODUCTION, 2011.

MASS VALUE
Countries Mct % US $ million % $/cts
Angola 8.3 6.7 1 162 8.1 140
Australia 7.8 6.3 220 1.5 28
Botswana 22.9 18.5 3 902 27.1 170
Canada 10.8 8.7 2 550 17.7 236
DR of Congo 19.2 15.5 179 1.2 9
Lesotho 0.2 0.2 359 2.5 1 602
Namibia 1.2 1.0 872 6.1 727
Russian Federation 35.1 28.3 2 674 18.6 76
Sierra Leone 0.4 0.3 124 0.9 310
*
South Africa 7.0 5.6 1 730 12.0 247
Zimbabwe 8.5 6.9 476 3.3 56
Other 2.5 2.0 159 1.1 64
Total : 2011 123.9 14 407
2010 133.1 11 998
Source: KPCS Statistics
DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

The Russian Federation remained the worlds largest rough diamond producer by volume and second by
value, with a production of 35.1 Mct, valued at $2.7 billion. By contrast, Botswana remained the largest
producer by value and second by volume, with 22.9 Mct produced valued at $3.9 billion. At $2.5 billion,
Canada ranked third in terms of value and fourth in terms of volume. The DRC remained the third largest
producer by volume, but ninth in terms of value. Other top producers by value include Angola and South
Africa; the latter is now ranked eighth by volume, two places down from 2010 after being overtaken by
Angola and Zimbabwe, but remains fourth by value.

Despite ranking only fourteenth and producing just over 200 000 cts, Lesotho produced the highest
average value stones at just over $1 600/ct. Diamonds produced in South Africa were valued at an
average of $247.14/ct, an increase of 22.3 percent over the 2010 figure, while the average value of
stones from the DRC remained of low at an average of $9.32/ct.

GLOBAL TRADE

Rough diamonds were exported to various cutting and polishing, as well as trading centres in various
geographic regions, mainly Mumbai and Surat (India), Antwerp (Belgium) and Tel Aviv (Israel), while
polished stones mainly found their way to New York (USA), Dubai (UAE) and Hong Kong. India, Belgium
and Israel together imported a net of $17.2 billion worth of rough diamonds and exported a net of $14.8
billion worth of polished diamonds. Compared to 2010, exports or rough and polished stones declined in
terms of volume but increased in terms of value, reflecting global trends: a small decline in production

28
coinciding with a large increase in price. The US remained the major export market for polished
diamonds from both Israel and Belgium, while the UAE emerged as the top export destination of polished
stones from India. The US and Hong Kong combined imported a net of $8 billion worth of polished
diamonds. However, Hong Kong replaced the US as the largest polished diamond consumption market
in 2011, with a net of $4.1 billion.

POLISHED DIAMOND PRICES

The IDEX (International Diamond and Jewellery Exchange) online global polished diamond price index
(PPI) indicates that average global polished diamond prices finally rose above pre-recession levels after
two weak years, increasing by 17 percent to 135.8 during 2011. The market remained resilient
throughout 2011 as the PPI increased by 29.6 percent between January 2011 and December 2011
(Figure 8). An increase of 1.4 percent in January 2011 when compared to December 2010 was the
sharpest increase since early 2010. This was followed by a further six monthly increases, before
relatively weakened demand due to the Eurozone crisis resulted in a progressive decrease for three
months. However, it was not long before demand solidified again and prices recovered, with the PPI
showing a 12.1 percent increase in November 2011 from its average October 2011 level.

FIGURE 8: THE IDEX ONLINE MONTHLY AVERAGE POLISHED DIAMOND PRICE INDEX, 2011.

160.0

150.0

140.0
PPI

130.0

120.0

110.0

100.0

Note: PPI is a percentage number that shows the extent to which a price has changed over a period as compared with the price in
a certain year, in this case April 2004-March 2005, taken as a standard year.
Source: IDEX Online.

DEVELOPMENTS IN SOUTH AFRICA

Local Production and Sales

South Africas diamond production fell by 20.6 percent to 7.0 Mct in 2011, attributable to decreased
production from De Beers operations (Table 19). According to DMR statistics, a total of 97 licensees
produced diamonds in 2011, of which 14 mined kimberlites, 14 exploited marine deposits and 69
recovered diamonds from alluvial environments. However, kimberlites were the source of 97 percent of
all diamonds, while alluvial and marine diamonds made up the remaining 3 percent. Production from De
Beers and Petra Diamonds accounted for 97 percent of total production, and despite dominating the
marine sector, Trans-Hex and Alexkor each contributed less than one percent.

Both local and export sales mass decreased, but their values increased by 1.6 percent and 12.6 percent,
respectively, due to improved prices.

29
TABLE 19: SOUTH AFRICAS DIAMOND PRODUCTION AND SALES, 2011.

Production Local sales Export sales Total Sales

Value Value Value

Kimberlites Mass (ct) Mass (ct) Mass (ct) Mass (ct)
(R mil) (R mil) (R mil)
2011 6 817 742 1 566 242 2 581 4 923 966 4 763 6 490 208 7 344
2010 8 510 656 1 828 869 2 639 6 656 126 4 216 8 484 995 6 855
% Change -19.9 -14.4 -2.2 -26.0 13.0 -23.5 7.1
Alluvial
2011 197 590 206 927 1 818 53 461 4950 260 388 2 313
2010 292 606 241 085 1 679 156 692 440 397 777 2 119
% Change -32.5 -14.2 8.3 -65.9 12.5 -34.5 9.2
Marine
2011 31 312 32 589 182 8 963 93 41 552 275
2010 67 706 47 515 192 59 519 98 107 034 290
% Change -53.8 -31.4 -5.2 -84.9 -5.1 -61.2 -5.2
Total
2011 7 046 644 1 805 758 4 581 4 986 390 5 351 6 792 148 9 932
2010 8 870 968 2 117 469 4 510 6 872 337 4 754 8 989 806 9 264
% Change -20.6 -14.7 1.6 -27.4 12.6 -24.4 7.2
Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

Employment

South Africas diamond industry employed on average 12 030 people in 2011, a contribution of 2.3
percent to total mining employment (Table 20). Total remuneration continued its upward trend, increasing
by 10.5 percent to R2.1 billion and bringing the average remuneration per employee to R178 135.

TABLE 20: EMPLOYMENT (INCLUDING CONTRACTORS) AND REMUNERATION IN SOUTH

AFRICA'S DIAMOND MINING INDUSTRY, 2011.

AVERAGE
AVERAGE NUMBER TOTAL REMUNERATION
YEAR REMUNERATION
OF EMPLOYEES (R'000)
(R/employee)
2007 19 471 2 192 902 112 624
2008 18 609 2 181 625 117 235
2009 12 109 1 809 550 149 438
2010 11 159 1 912 019 171 343
2011 12 030 2 142 965 178 135
Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

Downstream Value Addition

According to the 2012 Annual Report of the South African Diamond and Precious Metals Regulator
(SADPMR), only 230 000 carats (12.7 percent) of the 1 805 758 carats that were sold in SA in 2011 were
cut and polished in SA. This means that more than 85 percent of diamonds sold locally directly from the
mines are assumed to have been resold beyond SA borders.

Developments

African diamond mining and exploration company DiamondCorp stated in May 2012 that it expected its
Lace mine, in the Free State, to reach production of 250 000 ct by 2014, over 400 000 ct by 2015 and
over 500 000 ct by 2025. The company has earmarked R384 million for the expansion and has already
agreed a R280 million loan with the Industrial Development Corporation. The workforce is expected to
increase from the current 62 employees to more than 200 during underground development and the
majority of these jobs created will exist for the life of the mine.

30
Rockwell Diamonds reported in March 2012 the successful completion of negotiations with black
economic-empowerment (BEE) partner Africa Vanguard Resources (AVR) following a restructuring of the
deal involving the purchase consideration for AVR's Jasper mine in the Northern Cape. The mine is
adjacent to Rockwell's Saxendrift mine and was described as having the potential to extend the current
three-year life of Saxendrift with limited exploration, development and investments, as it is a brownfield
development. The Jasper mine has remaining diamond-bearing deposits that are easily accessible to the
infrastructure at the Saxendrift mine.

In December 2011, Petra Diamonds sold a 4.8 carat blue diamond for $1.45 million, equivalent to over
$300 000 per carat, a record per carat price for any diamond sold by the South African miner. Blue
diamonds are exceptionally rare. The diamond was recovered at the Cullinan mine where Petra has
found a number of blue diamonds in the past.

Diamond miner Rockwell Diamonds completed the acquisition of the Tirisano mine project, located near
Wolmaranstad in the North West province, in October 2011. The quality and price per carat of the stones
recovered at Tirisano during the commissioning and recovery testing phase were described as
encouraging as they exceeded what was achieved by the mine's previous operators. Tirisano mining
rights were previously owned by Blue Gum Diamonds of Canada and the operation has been on care
and maintenance since June 2008.

In September 2011, Petra Diamonds officially took over Finsch mine after gaining approval from the SA
government to buy the countrys second largest diamond mine from De Beers for R1.4 billion. Finsch
was expected to produce over 1.5 Mct per annum in its first full year of production under Petra, more
than doubling the companys production. It is also expected to increase the companys production to
approximately 4.0 Mct per annum by the 2014 financial year and to over 5.0 Mct per annum by 2019.
Petra holds a 74.0 percent interest in Finsch via its subsidiary Afropean Diamonds (Pty) Limited. The
remaining 26.0 percent interest is held by its BEE partners Sedibeng Mining (Pty) Limited and Namoise
Mining (Pty) Limited (commercial BEE partners), and the Petra Diamonds Employee Share Trust, a
broad-based trust established for all Petras South African employees.

OUTLOOK

As the global economy recovers and consumer confidence in developed economies returns, rough
diamond supply is expected to remain tight in 2012, while growth in consumption from emerging
economies such as China and India is expected to ensure that demand continues to increase. Having
slipped 2 percent by June 2012, rough diamond prices were expected to stagnate for the remainder of
the year due to uncertainty relating to the Eurozone debt crisis and sustainability of economic growth in
other parts of the world. However, the mid- to long-term outlook for diamonds remains positive as
constrained output is expected to struggle to keep pace with growing demand.

REFERENCES

1. DMR, Directorate: Mineral Economics.

2. SADPMR Annual Report 2012.
3. Kimberley Process Certification Scheme Statistics.
4. IDEX Online.

31
 GOLD
Pieter J Perold

WORLD SUPPLY

Total world gold supply increased by 1.4 percent to 4 453.3 t in 2011, when compared with 2010, mainly
due to an increase in global mine production, which accounted for 62.6 percent (2 786.3 t) of total supply,
an increase of 4.2 percent (Figure 9). Gold scrap contributed 37.3 percent to global supply, a decrease of
3.4 percent from 2010 to 2011. The relative rankings of the five leading global gold producing companies
remained unchanged in 2011, despite marginal annual declines in production recorded by each
company. Top global gold producer, Barrick Gold (Canada) recorded an output of 238.7 t in 2011,
followed closely by United States Newmont mining with 161.3 t. AngloGold Ashanti (South Africa), Gold
Fields (South Africa) and Goldcorp (Canada) retained their third, fourth and fifth positions with production
of 134.7 t, 102.0 t and 78.2 t in 2011, respectively.

FIGURE 9: WORLD GOLD SUPPLY, 2011

37.3%

62.6%

GOLD SCRAP MINE PRODUCTION

Source: Klapwijk, et al, 2012, pp 8 9

DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics, 2012

According to the Gold Fields Mineral Services (GFMS), 2011, the African continent recorded its most
significant increase in mine production, due to ongoing increases in Burkina Faso, Tanzania, and Cote
dIvoire, as well as more recent increases in Sudan and Eritrea. China, Russia and Peru also recorded
strong increases, with mine production increasing by 5.7 percent, 4.2 percent and 1.7 percent,
respectively, compared with 2010. South Africa contributed 6.5 percent to total gold production in 2011
(Table 21), positioning the country as the sixth largest producer.

32
TABLE 21: WORLD GOLD RESERVES AND MINE PRODUCTION, 2011

COUNTRY RESERVES COUNTRY PRODUCTION

t % Rank t % Rank
Australia 7 400 14.5 1 China 371.0 13.3 1
South Africa# 6 000 11.8 2 Australia 258.3 9.8 2
Russia 5 000 9.8 3 USA 232.8 8.4 3
Indonesia 3 000 5.9 5 Russia 211.9 7.6 4
USA 3 000 5.9 5 Peru 188.0 6.7 5

Peru 2 000 3.9 6 South Africa# 180.2* 6.5 6

China 1 900 3.7 7 Indonesia 111.0 4.0 7
Canada 920.0 1.8 8 Canada 107.7 3.9 8
Other 21 780 42.7 - Other 1 125.4 40.4 -
TOTAL 47 000 100 2 674.20 100

# Resources not included in reserves figure (USGS)

Sources: USGS, 2012, pp 66-67
Klapwijk, et al, 2011, pp 40 41
DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

WORLD DEMAND

In 2011, total world gold demand increased by 1.4 percent to 4 453.3 t, mainly as a result of net official
sector purchases increasing by 20.4 percent from 378 t in 2010 to 455 t in 2011 (Figure 10). This
increase outweighed the decreases in implied investment and total fabrication of 89.8 percent and 0.9
percent, respectively, in the absence of producer hedging in anticipation of a higher gold price. Demand
for jewellery fabrication decreased by 2.2 percent to 1 973 t, while physical bar investment demand rose
by 37.1 percent to 1 209 t.

FIGURE 10: WORLD GOLD DEMAND, 2011

1%

17% 27%

11%
38%
6%

Jewellery Other Official sector purchases

Total fabrication Physical bar investment Implied net investment

Source: Klapwijk, et al, 2012, pp 8 - 9

PRICES

The average dollar gold price for 2011, at $1 569.17/ozt (Figure 11 and Table 22) was 28.2 percent
higher than in 2010. In 2011, the gold price was driven by economic instability in Europe and persistently
low interest rates in the USA amongst other factors that boosted gold investment. The gold price opened
with an average price of $1 360.79/oz and closed the year with an average price of $1 646.17/oz in 2011,
an increase of 21.0 percent.

33
FIGURE 11: GOLD PRICE MOVEMENTS, 2011

2,000
1,800
1,600
1,400
Gold price

1,200
$/ozt

1,000
800
600
400
200
0

2011 2010

Source: LBMA, 2010, 2011

+
TABLE 22: LONDON GOLD PRICE , 2011

# #
MONTH AVERAGE AVERAGE HIGH* LOW*
$/ozt R/ozt $/ozt $/ozt

January 1 360.79 9 424.13 1 405.50 1 316.00

February 1 372.02 9 864.55 1 414.50 1 328.00
March 1 423.08 9 838.83 1 447.00 1 398.50
April 1 477.23 9 932.38 1 535.50 1 418.00
May 1 512.15 10 399.25 1 546.50 1 478.50
June 1 528.52 10 385.43 1 552.50 1 498.00
July 1 570.67 10 679.20 1 628.50 1 483.00
August 1 758.95 12 455.91 1 886.50 1 613.50
September 1 776.25 13 400.46 1 896.50 1 598.00
October 1 666.55 13 305.22 1 741.00 1 600.00
November 1 737.48 14 169.44 1 795.00 1 676.00
December 1 646.39 13 499.98 1 752.00 1 531.00
2011 average 1 569.17 11 446.23 1 633.42 1 494.88
#
Sources: South African Reserve Bank, 2011, 2012
* London Bullion Market Association, 2012
+
Note: London AM and PM fixings

Golds price action in 2011 was essentially in four phases. The first phase saw a period of modest
decline in January as economic confidence briefly returned; the second phase was a price increase of
11.4 percent from 1 372.02/oz in February through to $1 528.52 in June 2011, as renewed Eurozone
tensions mounted. The third phase comprised a sharp bull run between the start of July and the first
week of September, driven by growing expectations for the third quarter, and the fourth phase with wide
price swings closed the year at $1 569.17/oz.

34
SOUTH AFRICAN DEVELOPMENTS

Production and sales

South Africas gold production which has been declining for close to a decade further decreased by 4.5
percent from 188.7 t in 2010 to 180.2 t in 2011 (Table 23), resulting in the country dropping from fifth to
sixth in global production ranking. The decrease in production was mainly as a result of lower gold
production from eight of the countrys top ten gold mines, which account for over half of total local
production. Total sales revenue increased by 29.8 percent to R68.9 billion, due to a 43.2 percent rise in
the average rand price for the year. Export sales value increased by 27.9 percent in 2011, due to an
increase in the average gold price for the year, despite a decrease of 0.8 percent in export sales volumes
compared to 2010. Local sales volumes increased by 29.0 percent from 7.2 t in 2010 to 10.2 t in 2011,
partly due to increased local fabrication demand during 2011. The South African Reserve Bank held gold
reserves of 125.0 t valued at R51.4 billion at the end of 2011.

TABLE 23: SOUTH AFRICAS GOLD PRODUCTION, TOTAL SALES VALUE AND RESERVE BANK
HOLDINGS, 2002 2011

YEAR PRODUCTION TOTAL RESERVE BANK HOLDINGS*

SALES VALUE
t R ' 000 t R ' 000

2002 398.5 41 222 165 173.6 14 989 624

2003 373.3 33 052 899 123.6 9 798 741
2004 337.2 29 329 871 123.9 8 886 591
2005 294.7 24 601 241 124.0 12 970 035
2006 272.1 37 443 092 124.1 17 634 409
2007 252.6 38 035 724 124.3 22 843 006
2008 212.7 45 992 244 124.7 32 426 081
124.8 32 752 733
2009 197.6 48 695 502
2010 188.7 53 093 147 124.9 37 492 459
2011 180.2 68 891 413 125.0 51 420 484
Sources: South African Reserve Bank, 2002 - 2012
DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics
Note: * Gold holdings at year-end

Figures 12 and 13 depict the breakdown of production by gold field and province, respectively. The latter
illustrates that Gauteng was the largest gold producer at 90.4t, while the former illustrates that the West
Wits Line yielded the largest gold production at 68.5t.

35
FIGURE 12: SOUTH AFRICAS PRIMARY GOLD PRODUCTION AND CONTRIBUTION TO TOTAL
PRODUCTION BY GOLD FIELD, 2011 (t, %)

1.6% 1.8%
2.6%
3.5% 6.9%

38.0% 9.3%

16.9%
19.5%

Evander Central Rand Other East Rand West Rand

By-product * Klerksdorp Free State West Wits Line

Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

Note: Gold mines outside the Witwatersrand Basin
* Platinum and base metal mines

FIGURE 13: SOUTH AFRICAS PRIMARY GOLD PRODUCTION AND CONTRIBUTION TO TOTAL
PRODUCTION BY PROVINCE, 2011 (t, %)

1.4% 3.9%

19.5%

50.1%

25.0%

Limpopo Mpumalanga Free State North West Gauteng

Source: DMR, Mineral Economics Directorate

Employment

Employment in the gold mining sector fell from 157 019 in 2010 to 145 516 in 2011, due to the issuing of
retrenchment packages in the first and third quarters of 2011.Total remuneration increased by 5.6
percent in the same period (Table 24). Productivity per employee decreased by 3.1 percent to 0.001 tons
in 2011.

36
TABLE 24: SOUTH AFRICAS GOLD MINES, EMPLOYMENT AND REMUNERATION, 2007 2011

YEAR NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES* REMUNERATION

Total Male Female Total Male Female
R ' 000 R ' 000 R ' 000
2007 166 063 159 827 6 236 14 506 400 13 957 747 548 653
2008 166 424 158 011 7 513 15 960 051 15 248 317 711 734
2009 159 925 150 562 9 363 17 371 249 16 338 917 1 032 332
2010 157 019 145 865 11 154 19 844 856 18 481 016 1 363 840
2011 145 516 133 807 11 754 20 948 451 19 316 609 1 631 842

Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

Note: * Average number of employees in service, including contractors

Projects and other developments

On 30 January 2012, Pan African Resources (PAR) and Wits Gold entered into an agreement with
Harmony to acquire 100 percent of Harmonys Evander 8 operation, which includes the Rolspruit, Poplar,
Libra Development opportunities as well as the Kinross metallurgical processing plant. The Evander 8
mine currently has a 10 year life-of-mine and is producing between 85 000 ounce per year (oz/y) and
95 000 oz/y.

On 28 July 2011, Witwatersrand Consolidated Resources announced that Wits Golds current exploration
programme at its De Bron/Merriespruit mine was nearing completion. Wits Gold completed a scoping
study, which envisaged the development of an underground mine to a depth of about 700 metres,
capable of producing an average of 150 000 ounces of gold per year (oz/y) for the first 10 years.

Africa-focused precious metals producer Pan African Resources announced that Barberton Gold Tailings
Retreatment Project (BTRP) would be the next growth project to be developed and once commissioned
would increase its yearly gold production by 25 000 oz from August 2013 onwards.

Wits Gold announced that Turgis Consulting (Pty) Ltd (Turgis) had been appointed to complete a pre-
feasibility study of its advanced De Bron-Merriespruit Project (DBM) in the southern Free State goldfield.
This followed the announcement of positive scoping study results at the DBM Project on 23 June 2011.

On 24 May, 2011, Gold One International Limited announced that it had signed a sale-and-purchase
agreement with Rand Uranium. The sales agreement reflected the terms and conditions for the
previously-announced $250-million deal for its shallow Cooke operations and was subject to certain
conditions, including regulatory and shareholder approval.

On 19 May 2012, Central Rand Gold released an interim management statement revealing its intention
to experiment with conventional mining operations after years of implementing a highly mechanised
mining system on various old mine workings near Johannesburg. The objective of the trial is to determine
whether conventional, handheld in-stope drilling can be undertaken safely, reducing dilution and improve
grade sensitivity.

On 17 April 2012 Gold One International Limited (ASX and JSE:GDO), through its wholly owned
subsidiary New Kleinfontein Goldmine Proprietary Limited (NGKM), and Goliath Gold Mining Limited
(JSE:GGM) announced that it had entered into an acquisition agreement with the Join Provisional
Liquidators representing Pamodzi Gold East Rand Proprietary Limited and its subsidiaries.

Beneficiation

Gold beneficiation in South Africa is conducted mainly by the jewellery industry and to some extent by
recycling companies. The Jewellery industry employs both skilled and unskilled labour. Recycling
companies also provide downstream employment in the South African gold industry. In 2011, 5.6 percent
of total gold production was sold locally, amounting to over R3.6 billion.

37
OUTLOOK

Total world gold supply is expected to increase in 2012, from the anticipated increase in mine production
as well as from recycling. Scrap supply is expected to increase following two years of moderate declines.
Central Bank purchases are expected to increase again in 2012, but the bulk of fresh bullion demand will
have to come from investors.

Global demand for investment is also forecast to grow in 2012, due to the potential inflationary pressures
resulting from governments and central banks fiscal and monetary policies in many countries and, due
to the safe haven status of gold as the economic environment remains unstable. The price in rand terms
is forecast to increase by 20.4 percent to an average of R443 034/kg in 2012.

REFERENCES

1. DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics statistics

2. Klapwijk P, Walker P, et al, 2011. Gold Survey 2012: GFMS Ltd, London, 121 pp
3. London Bullion Market Association, 2012. Internet Website: http://www.lbma.org.uk/?area=stats&page=gold/2001monthlygold
4. South African Reserve Bank, 2011, 2012. Internet Website: http://www.reservebank.co.za/internet/publication.nsf/
5. US Geological Survey, 2012. Mineral Commodity Summaries, 2012: Internet Website:
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/gold/mcs-2012-gold.pdf
6. The Jewellery Council of South Africa, 2007 - 2011

38
 PLATINUM-GROUP METALS (PGMs)
Donald O Moumakwa

GLOBAL SUPPLY

Global platinum supplies increased by 7 percent in 2011 to 183.7 metric tonnes (t) mainly due to supplies
from South Africa (SA), which increased by 5 percent to 137.6 t (Table 25) as a result of the release of
metal from in-process and refined inventories. Russia supplied 23.7 t of the metal, followed by North
America and Zimbabwe with just under 10 t each.

TABLE 25: GLOBAL PGMs RESERVES AND SUPPLY, 2011.

RESERVES* SUPPLY (t)

COUNTRY t % Rank Platinum Palladium Rhodium Total %
North America 1 210 1.8 2.0 9.9 25.5 0.6 36.0 8.7
Russia 1 100 1.7 3.0 23.7 98.6 2.0 124.3 30.0

South Africa 63 000 95.5 1.0 137.6 72.6 18.2 228.4 55.2
Zimbabwe na na na 9.6 7.5 0 .8 17.9 4.3
Others 690.0 1.0 - 2.9 4.4 0.1 7.4 1.8

TOTAL 66 000 100.0 183.7 208.6 21.7 414.0 100.0

Sources: Platinum 2012
*USGS, 2012

Supplies of palladium remained almost flat at 208.6 t as increased output from North America and
Zimbabwe was largely offset by lower sales from Russian state inventories. However, Russia remained
the leading supplier of palladium with 98.6 t, followed closely by South Africa with 72.6 t. Rhodium
supplies increased by 4 percent to 21.7 t, mainly due to increased output from North America and
Zimbabwe.

GLOBAL DEMAND

The platinum market was oversupplied by 12.2 t in 2011, despite gross demand rising by 2 percent to
just under 230 t. There was demand growth in every sector apart from investment, but with a new high
of
58.2 t, largely due to strong purchasing in the glass manufacturing sector, industrial demand was the
main driver behind increased gross demand for platinum. Gross demand from autocatalysts increased by
1 percent, while jewellery demand increased by two percent to 70.3 t. Recycling in the autocatalyst,
electrical and jewellery sectors reached record high levels for platinum, largely contributing to oversupply
of the metal in the market.

39
TABLE 26: PGMs DEMAND BY APPLICATION, 2011.

Tonnes (t) Platinum Palladium Rhodium

Total Supplies 183.7 208.6 21.7

Gross Demand

Autocatalysts 88.0 171.0 20.2

Chemical 13.3 12.6 2.0

Electrical 6.5 39.1 0.1

Investment 13.0 16.0 0.0

Jewellery 70.3 14.3 0.0

Other 38.3 18.6 3.3

Total Gross Demand 229.5 271.6 25.7

Recycling

Autocatalysts 34.7 46.9 7.9

Electrical 0.3 13.6 0.0

Jewellery 23.0 6.0 0.0

Total Recycling 58.0 66.5 7.9

Total Net Demand (total gross demand total recycling) 171.5 205.1 17.7

Oversupply (total supply total net demand) 12.2 3.5 4.0

Source: Platinum 2012.

Gross demand for palladium in autocatalysts reached a new high of 171.0 t, mainly due to growth in
vehicle output in all regions except Japan, and greater use of the metal in light duty diesel after-treatment
systems. Total gross demand declined by 13 percent to 271.6 t, while further Russian stock sales and
higher recycling helped swing the market into an oversupply of 3.5 t. The rhodium market also remained
in a surplus of 4.0 t due to higher supplies and recycling. Demand for ruthenium and iridium fell due to
lower demand from the electrical sector.

PRICES

Several factors impacted heavily on PGMs price movements during 2011: the dollars fluctuating fortune,
political tensions in the Middle East and North Africa, the severe earthquake and tsunami in Japan on 11
March 2011, industrial actions, safety stoppages as well as concerns over sovereign debt problems in
the Eurozone. However, platinum traded between $1 750 and $1 900 per ounce during the first eight
months of 2011 (Figure 14), mainly due to strong physical demand. The metal reached a three-year high
in August, but suffered a severe decline from September onwards as a result of economic uncertainty.
The platinum price was eventually overtaken by the gold price and the status quo remained until the end
of the year, with the former at a two-year low. Despite losing $387 (22 percent) between the beginning
and end of the year, the average platinum price increased by 7 percent to $1 721/oz in 2011, compared
with 2010.

40
FIGURE 14: PGM MONTHLY AVERAGE PRICES, 2011.

2500.00 845.00

2350.00 810.00
Pt $ Rh Price ($/oz)

2200.00 775.00

Pd Price ($/oz)
2050.00 740.00

1900.00 705.00

1750.00 670.00

1600.00 635.00

1450.00 600.00

Rhodium Platinum Palladium

Source: Johnson Matthey

Due to the more industrial nature of the palladium market, investor confidence affected the metal to a
greater extent than platinum, as evidenced in greater relative price declines in March and September.
Japan typically accounts for just over 16 percent of global palladium demand but after the March
disaster, the metal lost 6 percent of its value after key electronics and car manufacturing plants closed.
Still, palladium traded at 10-year highs during the first eight months of the year, largely due to a positive
outlook. There was a progressive decline in prices between August and October due to wavering
confidence over the state of the world economy. Prices improved slightly in November and December on
the back of the rising gold price and US car sales. By the end of the year, palladium had lost $156 (20
percent) over the course of 2011, but at $733, the average price was 39 percent higher than in 2010.

The biggest loser of all PGMs was rhodium, which lost $1 025 (42 percent) during 2011. The metal
st
reached a high of $2 500 on the 31 January 2011, but was on a downward trend for much of the
remainder of the year. The average monthly price decreased progressively between March and October
following the Japanese earthquake and the resultant limited buying interest, as well as negative market
sentiments, particularly during the last quarter of the year. By the end of the year, rhodium was trading
at $1 400, the lowest level since the middle of 2009. The average price for the year was $2 022, 18
percent lower than in 2010. Ruthenium and iridium had contrasting fortunes during 2011; the former lost
39 percent of its value for an average of $166, a decrease of 16 percent. Iridium, on the other hand,
gained 39 percent to average $1 036, an increase of 61 percent.

DEVELOPMENTS IN SOUTH AFRICA

Production and Sales

SAs PGMs production increased by a modest 0.6 percent to 288.9t in 2011, despite interruptions
experienced by the sector such as safety stoppages, illegal strikes, unexpected geological difficulties and
engineering issues (Table 27). The increase could be attributed to ramped up production from the
expanded Mogalakwena mine, and the Everest mine, which was reopened in 2010. Despite increased
demand from the automotive sector, export sales were nearly flat in 2011, perhaps a clear indication that
more of the metals were made available for local sales, the mass of which increased by 18.3 percent.
Increased sales values reflect a general increase in both prices and mass.

41
TABLE 27: SOUTH AFRICA'S PGMs PRODUCTION AND SALES, 2011 and 2010.

Local sales Export sales Total Sales

Production

Platinum Mass (t) Mass (t) Value (R mil) Mass (t) Value (R mil) Mass (t) Value (R mil)

2011 148.0 17.2 6 887.0 133.9 52 121.0 151.1 59 008.0

2010 147.8 13.8 5 196.0 130.0 46 837.0 143.8 52 033.0
% Change 0.1 24.6 32.5 3.0 11.3 5.1 13.4
Palladium

2011 82.7 18.0 3 045.0 63.7 10 383.0 81.7 13 428.0

2010 82.2 15.7 1 881.0 62.8 6 896.0 78.5 8 777.0
% Change 0.6 14.6 61.9 1.4 50.6 4.1 53.0
Rhodium

2011 28.7 2.5 1 081.0 27.0 11 593.0 29.5 12 674.0

2010 20.0 1.4 812.0 18.3 9 932.0 19.7 10 744.0
% Change 43.5 78.6 33.1 47.5 16.7 49.7 18.0
All PGMs
2011 288.9 36.8 10 619.0 244.0 73 234.0 280.8 83 853.0
2010 287.3 31.1 7 892.0 244.4 65 894.0 275.5 73 786.0
% Change 0.6 18.3 34.6 -0.2 11.1 1.9 13.6

Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

Rhodium was the best performer in terms of production, with an increase of 43.5 percent, while platinum
and palladium recorded modest increases. Despite a decrease in rhodium prices, the metal also
emerged as a standout performer in terms of sales revenue due to an increase in both local and export
sales mass. While palladium recorded more than 50 percent increase in total sales value, rhodium
recorded just under 50 percent increase in total sales mass. The best performance of platinum was in
local sales, with increases of 24.6 percent and 32.5 percent in mass and value, respectively.

Employment

Average employment in South Africas PGMs sector increased for the first time in 4 years, rising by 7.1
percent from 182 003 in 2010 to 194 979 in 2011 (Table 28). However, recent challenges could result in
widespread job losses in 2012, particularly as smaller producers attempt to reduce their operating costs
and maintain profitability. Total remuneration increased by 14.4 percent in 2011, resulting in a 6.8
percent increase in the average remuneration per employee. Average productivity per employee
decreased by 5.7 percent to 1.48 kg.

TABLE 28: EMPLOYMENT (INCLUDING CONTRACTORS) AND REMUNERATION IN SOUTH

AFRICA'S PGM MINES, 2011.

AVERAGE NUMBER OF TOTAL REMUNERATION AVERAGE REMUNERATION

YEAR
EMPLOYEES (R'000 000) (R/employee)

2007 186 411 18 341 98 390

2008 199 948 23 344 116 752
2009 184 163 24 879 135 093
2010 182 003 26 577 146 027
2011 194 979 30 413 155 980

Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

42
Downstream Value Addition

Total SA PGMs sales amounted to 280.8t in 2011, with local sales accounting for just 13.1 percent (36.8
t), an increase of 18.3 percent over 2010. Almost all the locally sold metals were consumed in the
catalytic converters industry. A sizeable portion is expected to be consumed by the fuel cell industry in
future as the country continues its research on alternative energy sources to fossil fuels. Already
advanced progress has been made on both the global and local front to commercialize fuel cells and
further develop their market. This could enable the country to reach its objective of ultimately supplying
25 percent of the future global fuel cell market with locally developed and fabricated platinum-group
metal components by 2020, in line with the National Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Research, Development
and Innovation Strategy.

Projects and Other Developments

In June 2012, Aquarius Platinum suspended operations at both Everest and Marikana mines due to
weak platinum prices and high costs. Even though the latter still has 10 years life remaining at current
production rates, it was already operating on a negative cash margin during the first quarter of 2012.
The company, which now has three of its seven operations under care and maintenance, said it would
restart mining once the platinum industry entered a better price environment and improved industrial
relations. Meanwhile, Platinum Australias Smokey Hills mine, is facing an uncertain future following the
groups decision to place it under review, while Eastern Platinum suspended funding for its Mareesburg
mine and Kennedy's Vale concentrator plant due to the operating environment in the country and the
global slowdown.
At a time when some South African platinum companies were curtailing output and cutting back on
projects, amid high costs and low prices, Platinum Group Metals (PTM) announced its plans to finance
and complete its 74%-owned Western Bushveld Joint Venture (WBJV) Project 1 platinum mine, an
indication of the competitive nature of the project. The company was also looking at exploring and
expanding its new Waterberg discovery in South Africa. According to the group, WBJV Project 1 mine is
near surface and has excellent grades, while Waterberg consists of extraordinary grade thickness,
located near surface and eight drill rigs continue to expand this new discovery. Project 1 platinum mine
(in which Wesizwe Platinum has a 26% stake), is located north of Rustenburg in between Bafokeng
Rasimone mine and Bakubung platinum mine (formerly known as the Fischgewaagd Ledig project), and
is set to produce 275 000 oz of PGMs and gold annually, starting in the fourth quarter of 2013.

Nkwe Platinum confirmed in May 2012 that it had received the final definitive feasibility study for its
much-contested Garatau project. The study was undergoing a final review before a sign off. In February
2012, Nkwe was awarded mining rights over three farms, including those making up the Garatau
platinum project. However, diversified miner African Rainbow Minerals and its joint venture partner Anglo
American Platinum had both indicated that they would oppose the issue of the mining right over the
farms, arguing that they were the rightful owners of the properties.

Workers returned to work at Impala Platinums Rustenburg mine after an illegal two-day strike in May
2012 cost the company 6 000oz of platinum worth about R72 million. Earlier in the year, the same mine
was hit by a crippling illegal strike which cost 120 000 oz in lost PGMs production. Implats' full year
production target for Rustenburg of 915 000 to 920 000 oz was revised downward following the industrial
actions but the company said it was committed to trying to make up for at least some of the lost ounces.

Northam Platinum was in discussions to secure smelting services while it implemented plans to rebuild
the smelter at its Zondereinde mine. The company suspended smelting operations following a run-out
after a rebuild of the furnace wall-end in April 2012. The rebuild, which was initially scheduled for the next
financial year, was expected to take up to four months to complete. Furthermore, Northam expected its
revenue for the financial year ended 2012 June 30 to be R300-million lower than anticipated, as
interruptions to metals processing in the last two months of the period impacted on sales volumes.
Mining and concentrating activities continued uninterrupted at the Zondereinde mine.

Anglo American Platinum (Amplats) launched the first of five fuel cell-powered locomotive prototypes.
The first locomotive was surface tested over the past few months at the company's Khomanani mine, in
Rustenburg, to establish the viability of commercialisation. The company aimed to use the five fuel cell-
powered locomotives for underground testing in one of its mines by the end of the year. Using the
platinum-based hydrogen-powered fuel-cell locomotives would be more environment-friendly than
traditional rail transport.

43
The wage dispute at the Modikwa platinum mine, a joint venture between African Rainbow Minerals
(ARM) and Anglo American Platinum, was resolved in April 2012. ARM confirmed that Modikwa had
signed a two-year wage agreement and that some 3 000 striking employees were expected to return to
work and resume production. Production at the platinum mine, near Burgersfort, came to a standstill for
more than three weeks when workers downed tools over wages and conditions of employment. The mine
confirmed that it lost about 1 000 oz of platinum-group metals a day during the strike.

OUTLOOK

Global platinum supplies are expected to decline in 2012 due to decreased output from South Africa,
largely as a result of industrial actions and safety stoppages, which have already interrupted output.
From a market perspective, however, these are positive developments as decreased production would
help to ease the expected market oversupply. A rebound in vehicle production in Japan following the
2011 earthquake is expected to be positive for platinum demand, but moderate purchasing in industrial
applications is expected to result in a fall in gross demand for platinum in 2012. The expected
oversupply is likely to result in prices averaging $1 600/oz in the second half of 2012.

Unlike platinum, the palladium market is expected to swing back into deficit in 2012 due to lower
shipments of Russian state stocks and increased demand. Supplies of the metal from SA could increase
due to the availability of a reasonable level of stocks to draw upon. This is because sales of palladium
from SA were below the level of mined production in 2011. Gross demand is expected to increase in
2012 due to stronger purchasing by the autocatalyst sector as global vehicle production accelerates later
on in the year. As a result, prices are expected to reach an average of $715/oz in the second half of
2012.

Low prices drove up purchasing of rhodium in late 2011 and this trend is expected to continue well into
2012. Despite increased demand, the rhodium market is expected to remain in surplus in 2012 due to
increased supplies from SA, particularly above-ground stocks. However, the price for the metal is
expected to average $1 700 in the second half of 2012. Demand for ruthenium is expected to increase in
2012 due to higher purchasing by hard disk manufacturers, while demand for iridium is expected to fall
as a result of lower purchases of crucibles for the manufacture of light-emitting diodes.

REFERENCES

1. DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics.

2. Johnson Matthey: www.platinum.matthey.com
3. Platinum 2012, Johnson Matthey plc.
4. Miningweekly.com, 21 June 2012.
5. Business Day, 21 June 2012.
6. Miningweekly.com, 18 June 2012.
7. Business Day, 11 June 2012.
8. Miningweekly.com, 15 May 2012.
9. Miningweekly.com, 09 May 2012.
10. Miningweekly.com, 10 April 2012 .
11. Miningweekly.com, 05 April 2012.

44
 SILVER
Pieter J Perold
WORLD SUPPLY

Global silver supply decreased by 3.2 percent from 1 074.7 million ounces (Moz) in 2010 to 1 040.6 Moz in
2011, with mine production and secondary supply contributing 73.2 percent and 26.8 percent, respectively
(Fig 15) The decrease in global silver supply was mainly driven by slumping production from primary silver
mines as well as a decrease in both the net producer hedging and net government sales. According to the
2011 Silver Survey, lower production from primary silver mines was due to lower processed grades and
once-off disruptions at several large operations, including the worlds two largest primary mines, Australias
Cannington mine and Mexicos Fresnillo mine. Despite a notable decline in production at Mexicos
Fresnillo mine, Mexicos total silver production increased by 8.0 percent in 2011, reinforcing the countrys
position as the worlds largest silver producer. Peru remained the second largest global producer of silver,
followed by China, Australia and Chile. South Africa, whose production accounted for 0.4 percent of total
th.
world production ranked 20

FIGURE 15: WORLD SILVER SUPPLY BY SOURCE, 2011.1:

1.0%

24.7%

1.1%
73.2%

Mine Production Net Government Sales Old Silver Scrap Producer Hedging

Source: World Silver Survey, 2012

45
TABLE 29: WORLD SILVER RESERVES AND MINE PRODUCTION, 2011

COUNTRY RESERVES PRODUCTION

Moz % Rank Moz % Rank
Australia 2 218.4 13.2 4 55.2 7.3 4
Argentinia - - - 22.6 3.0 10
Bolivia 707.3 4.2 8 39.1 5.1 8
Chile 2 250.6 13.4 3 42.1 5.5 5
China 1 382.5 8.3 5 103.9 13.7 3
Mexico 1 189.6 7.1 6 152.8 20.1 1
Peru 3 858.1 23.1 1 109.8 14.4 2
Poland 2 732.9 16.3 2 40.8 5.4 6
Russia - - - 40.1 5.3 7
South Africa+ - - - 2.4 0.3 20
USA 803.8 4.8 7 36.1 4.7 9
Others 1 608.0 9.6 - 116.5 15.3 -
TOTAL: 2011 16 751 761
TOTAL: 2010 16 236 100 622 100
Sources: *World Silver Survey, 2012.
+DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics, 2012 (Adjusted fig.)
#USGS, Mineral Commodity Summaries, 2012.

Secondary supply, comprising net government sales, old silver scrap and producer hedging amounted to
278.9 Moz, a decrease of 4.19 percent. The decrease was driven mostly by the drop in government
sales, which decreased by 74 percent, from 44.2 Moz in 2010 to 11.5 Moz in 2011. The massive decline
in net government sales was entirely due to a collapse in sales from Russia. Silver scrap supply rose for
the second successive year, increasing to an all time high of 256.7 Moz. According to the Silver Survey,
producers added to the global hedge book in 2011, with the delta-adjusted position rising to 10.7 Moz.
Silver by-product producers contributed as a hedge to silver output. Silvers delta-adjusted ratio was
estimated by comparing the price to the corresponding price of other commodities, most notably gold.

WORLD DEMAND

World silver demand decreased by 3.2 percent to 1 040.6 Moz, with the fabrication sector contributing 84.2
percent to total demand. Total fabrication demand which include photography, silverware, jewellery, coins
and medals as well as industrial applications fell by 1.5 percent to 876.6 Moz. Industrial applications
demand which contributed 46.8 percent to total fabrication, fell by 2.7 percent to 486.5 Moz with implied
net silver investment indicating a decrease of 1.2 percent to 164 Moz in 2011 (Fig 16).

46
FIGURE 16: WORLD SILVER CONSUMPTION (Moz) BY SECTOR, 2011

4.4% 6.4%
11.4%

46.8%

15.4%

15.8%

Silverware Photography Coins & Medals

Jewellery Implied Net Investment Industrial Applications

Source: World Silver Survey, 2012

Overall jewellery demand decreased by 4.5 percent to 159.8 Moz in 2011, mainly due to a drop in
consumption and trade destocking in most western markets. Photographic demand decreased by 8.3
percent to 66.1 Moz in 2011. This was however the smallest loss seen since 2001, owing to a sluggish
rate of conversion into digital systems by both medical centres and movie theatres, due to the weak
macroeconomic backdrop. Coins and Medals fabrication demand rose by 18.9 percent to 118.2 Moz,
driven by strong global demand.

PRICES

Physical investment demand, despite the sharp fall in the second quarter of 2011 resulted in the average
silver price of 35.12/oz in 2011 (Fig 17). The average price was 74.0 percent higher than 2010s average
of $20.19/oz. Silvers price strength was primarily attributed to a boom in investment and to a lesser
extent an increase in inflation in countries such as India, China, and other countries in the Far East.

FIGURE 17: MONTHLY AVERAGE SILVER PRICES, 2011.

45.0
40.0
35.0
30.0
25.0
$/oz

20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0

Source: Silver fixings, LBMA, 2012

47
DEVELOPMENTS IN SOUTH AFRICA

Production and sales

South Africa, which does not have primary silver mines, produces the metal mainly as a by-product of
gold and other minerals. South Africas silver production declined by 4.0 percent to 2.4 Moz in 2011
(Table 30), in line with a decline in production of gold in the same period. Local sales volumes increased
by 50 percent to 0.3 Moz, while export sales volume decreased by 8.0 percent from 2.5 Moz in 2010 to
2.3 Moz in 2011. Revenue from local sales improved by 124.5 percent to R80.0 million, with export sales
increasing by 51.8 percent to R531.9 million in 2011, driven by investment demand and higher prices.

TABLE 30 SOUTH AFRICAS SILVER PRODUCTION AND TOTAL SALES VALUE, 2002 2011

Local sales Export sales Total Sales

Production Unit Unit
Year Mass Value Mass Value Mass Value
Units Value value
MOZ 1000 R/kg MOZ 1000 R/kg MOZ 1000
2002 3.6 0.1 6 663 1 620 3.7 162 012 1 419 3.8 168 674
2003 2.8 0.1 4 659 1 300 3.4 114 555 1 094 3.5 119 215
2004 2.3 0.2 7 483 1 556 2.3 93 995 1 309 2.5 101 478
2005 2.8 0.1 5 660 1 504 3.2 137 844 1 399 3.3 143 504
2006 2.8 0.2 11 026 2 329 3.0 239 595 2 532 3.2 250 621
2007 2.2 0.1 10 895 2 951 2.5 224 146 2 916 2.6 235 041
2008 2.4 0.3 28 272 3 592 2.8 318 573 3 663 3.0 346 845
2009 2.5 0.3 30 906 3 830 2.3 256 198 3 653 2.5 287 103
2010 2.5 0.2 35 639 4 548 2.5 350 439 4 442 2.7 386 078
2011 2.4 0.3 80 001 8 023 2.3 531 932 7 466 2.6 611 933
Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics, 2011, 2012

OUTLOOK

Global silver supply is expected to increase in 2012, through an increase in mine production. The global
market is expected to see another sizeable surplus in 2012, due to decreasing fabrication demand as a
result of the ongoing Eurozone crisis. Scrap supply will continue to rise marginally in 2011, due to the
ongoing decline in photographic applications being offset by a sharp rise in scrap-receipts from the
industrial sector. Government sales are expected to increase on the back of stronger anticipated Russian
sales.

In South Africa, silver output is expected to decrease marginally, mainly due to a production stoppage at
a major gold producer. The average price is expected to stabilise at levels between $30/oz to $32/oz in
2012, owing to accumulated supplies of silver in the US combined with stagnant growth in the worlds
industrial utilization of silver (especially in computers, other electronics and photographic processing).

REFERENCES

1. DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics.

2. The Silver Institute, www.silverinstitute.org.
3. World Silver Survey, 2012.
4. Silver fixings, LBMA, 2012.
5. http://www.tradingnrg.com/gold-price
6. http://www.forecasts.org/gold.htm
7. http://blogs.marketwatch.com/thetell/2012/07/10/silver-targets-lowered-for-second-half-of-year/

48
 ENERGY MINERALS OVERVIEW

K L Revombo

INTRODUCTION

South Africas coal and uranium resources are ranked among the top ten in the world. The country has
th th
the 8 largest coal reserves in the world and is the 7 largest coal producer. The countrys uranium
th th
resources are the 5 largest in the world whereas uranium production is ranked 11 . The countrys coal
reserves are located mainly in Mpumalanga, northern Kwazulu-Natal and Limpopo provinces. The
Council for Geosciences is due to release a report of the countrys latest estimate of coal reserves and
resources. Uranium is mainly produced as a by-product of gold and copper and the country has
resources estimated at 295 kt, the largest resources in Africa.

The country hosts only very small deposits of oil and gas, but has potential to discover large quantities of
shale gas in the Karoo basin. The country imports more than 60 percent of the feedstock required for
liquid fuel production. The remainder of liquid fuel feedstock is derived from synthetic fuels which are
produced domestically from coal and natural gas.

PRODUCTION AND SALES

In 2011, global primary energy consumption grew by 2.5 percent to 513.9 tera joules (TJ) from 501 TJ in
2010. All of the net growth took place in emerging economies, with China alone accounting for 71
percent of global energy consumption growth. Consumption in OECD countries fell by 0.8 percent, the
third decline in the past four years. Japan registered the sharpest decline in the in the OECD countries.
Non-OECD consumption grew by 5.3 percent.

Despite growing by less than 0.6 million barrels per day (mbpd) or 0.7 percent to reach 88 mbpd, oil
remained the worlds largest energy fuel at 33.1 percent of total global energy consumption. OECD
consumption declined by 1.2 percent (600 000 barrels per day (bpd)), the fifth decrease in the past six
years. Outside the OECD countries, oil consumption grew by 1.2 mbpd or 2.8 percent. China recorded
the largest increment of 5.5 percent (505 000 bpd) to global consumption growth. Global oil production
increased by 1.1 mbpd or 1.3 percent to 83 576 thousand barrels per day (tbpd) supported by OPECs
increase of 3 percent. OPECs largest increases were Saudi Arabias 1.2 mbpd followed distantly by
United Arab Emirates and Kuwait with 456 tbpd and 348 tbpd respectively.

Oil prices averaged $111.26 per barrel in 2011, an increase of 40 percent from 2010. The loss of Libyan
supplies early in the year, combined with smaller disruptions in a number of countries, pushed prices
higher despite a large increase in production among some OPEC members following the Libyan collapse
and a release of strategic stocks from International Energy Agency (IEA) member countries.

World natural gas consumption grew by 2.2 percent to 3 223 billion cubic metres (bcm) in 2011.
Consumption grew in all regions except Europe and Eurasia. The largest volumetric growths in
consumption were in China with 25.1 percent followed by Saudi Arabias 13.2 percent and Japans 11.6
percent. Global natural gas production grew by 3.1 percent to 3276.2 bcm. The USA recorded the largest
volumetric increase despite lower gas prices, and remained the worlds largest producer. Output also
grew in Qatar, Russia and Turkmenistan with increases of 25.8 percent, 3.1 percent and 40.6 percent
respectively. Libya and the United Kingdom recorded the biggest declines in production of 75.6 percent
and 20.8 percent respectively. The global annual average natural gas price decreased by 10.6 percent
from $158 per thousand cubic meters (tcm) in 2010 to $144 /tcm. By September 2012 the price averaged
$91.4 /tcm.

Global coal consumption grew by 5.4 percent, pushing coals share to 30.3 percent of global energy
consumption in 2011, the highest share since 1969. Spain increased consumption by 52 percent,
followed by Portugal and Chile with 36.9 percent and 25.9 percent respectively. The biggest drops were
recorded by Belgium, Finland and France with 37.2 percent, 23 percent and 25.9 percent, respectively.
Non-OECD consumption grew by 8.4 percent, led by Chinas 9.7 percent. OECD consumption slumped
1.1 percent with declines in the USA and Japan. Global coal production increased by 6.1 percent when
compared with 2010 to 7 695 Mt. China, with 3 520 Mt, accounting for 69 percent of global growth, was
the global leader followed distantly by the USA and India with 992.8 Mt and 588.5 Mt, respectively. South
Africa produced 252.8 Mt of saleable coal in 2011. The average Richards Bay FOB price of South
African coal increased by 29.3 percent compared with 2010 to $117.34 /t. At the beginning of 2011
49
demand from Asia was strong resulting in the highest price of $125.04/t in January. However, during the
year demand from Asia gradually decreased leading to a corresponding decline in coal prices to reach
$104.23 /t by December 2011. The downward trend continued into 2012 and by June 2012 the RBCT
monthly price had plummeted to $86.36/t.

World uranium mine production decreased by 0.3 percent to 53.5 ktU (63.1 ktU 3O8) in 2011 from 53.66
ktU in 2010. Kazakhstan remained the worlds leading producer accounting for 36.6 percent, followed by
Canadas 17.1 percent and Australias 11.2 percent. These three countries collectively accounted for
almost 65 percent of world total output. Average uranium prices increased by 22.7 percent in 2011 to
$56.2 /lb from $45.9 /lb in 2010. By September 2012, a pound of uranium was trading at an average of
$50.8.

TABLE 31: SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION AND SALES OF ENERGY COMMODITIES, 2011

COMMODITY YEAR PRODUCTION LOCAL SALES EXPORT SALES TOTAL SALES

kt kt R'000 kt R'000 kt R'000
2010 257 206 186 366 33 702 229 66 770 37 477 184 253 136 71 179 413
Coal
2011 252 757 177 705 37 285 726 68 807 50 548 678 246 512 87 834 404

Uranium 2010 0.68 * * * * * *

Oxide 0.66 * * * * * *
2011

2010 1 222 1 222 2 012 516 - - 1 222 2 012 516

Natural Gas
2011 1 078 1 078 2 249 668 - - 1 078 2 249 668

Natural Gas 2010 140 140 916 225 - - 140 916 225
Condensate 102 102 913 467 - - 102 913 467
2011

2010 185 166 690 714 - - 166 690 714

Crude Oil
2011 81 115 520 001 - - 115 520 001

** 2010 258 569 187 728 37 321 684 66 770 37 477 184 254 498 74 108 154
Total
2011 253 938 178 885 40 968 862 68 807 50 548 678 247 807 91 517 540

Source: DMR, Mineral Economics Directorate

* Information withheld. Coal export figures are under review and consolidation

South Africas energy sector output decreased by 1.8 percent with declines in all energy commodities
including coal, natural gas, crude oil and uranium. Total production in this sector declined to 254 Mt in
2011 from 259 Mt in 2010. Coal continued to be the leading source of energy in the country accounting
for more than 99.5 percent of the countrys energy sector output followed distantly by natural gas at 0.44
percent (Table 31).

EMPLOYMENT

Employment in the energy sector increased by 5 percent in 2011 to 78 761 from 75 021 in 2010 (Table
32). Over the same period, total remuneration increased by 13.2 percent to R 16.2 billion and the
average annual earnings rose by 7.8 percent to R206 230 per employee.

50
TABLE 32: EMPLOYMENT AND GROSS REMUNERATION ON MINES AND PLANTS IN THE SOUTH
AFRICAN ENERGY INDUSTRY, 2005 2011

YEAR EMPLOYEE REMUNERATION

Number R'000 R'000/Employee
2005 57 185 6 558 129 114.7
2006 57 936 7 340 151 126.7
2007 60 698 8 778 627 144.6
2008 65 739 11 138 368 169.4
2009 70 970 12 947 469 182.4
2010 75 021 14 352 946 191.3
2011 78 761 16 242 879 206.2

Source: DMR, Mineral Economics Directorate

OUTLOOK

The drive for increased access to electricity, transportation and industrialization in developing economies
will continue to support the growth in energy demand globally. Despite climate change concerns, coal will
continue to be the leading primary energy source. World coal production is forecast to increase by about
4.1 percent to reach 8 122 Mt in 2012 supported by solid growth in demand in the developing world.
South Africas saleable coal production is expected to increase by 1.5 percent to exceed 258 Mt in 2012,
whereas the countrys RBCT FOB price is expected to average $90 /t.

The International Energy Agency (IEA) forecast that world oil consumption will increase by 0.8 million
barrels per day in 2012 and 0.9 million barrels per day in 2013 with China, the Middle East, and Central
and South America accounting for essentially all consumption growth. The oil price is projected to
average $112 per barrel in 2012 and decline to $103 per barrel in 2013 owing to an increase in non-
OPEC supply. South Africas oil and natural gas production will remain at 2011 levels with the country
continuing to depend on imported crude oil and natural gas and local production of fuels based on coal-
to-liquid and gas-to-liquid technologies for the most of its liquid fuels requirements.

Owing to the decrease in uranium prices since the Fukushima incident, most companies had put on hold
new projects. However, nuclear remains a key aspect of energy policy for many countries including
China, India, Russia and the USA. Japan has announced the restart of two of its 50 nuclear reactors this
year with more restarts expected next year. Planned and proposed reactors include 171 in China, 56 in
India, 41 in Russia, 30 in the USA and 13 in the Ukraine. Production is forecast to slightly exceed 54 000
tU in 2012, and prices are expected to stabilize at around $45 /lb. South Africas uranium production is
expected to decrease due to declines in production from the countrys gold mines.

REFERENCES

1. BP Statistical Review of World Energy, June 2012

2. Department of Mineral Resources, Mineral Economics Directorate
3. Coal Information 2012, International Energy Agency OECD/IEA, 2012
4. industry Briefing, World Coal: EIUs monthly coal outlook, July 4th 2012, IEA Economist Intelligence Unit
5. www.indexmundi.com
6. Mining Weekly online, 28th June 2012

51
 COAL
K L Revombo

WORLD SUPPLY

Global coal production increased by 6.1 percent from 7 254.6 Mt in 2010 to 7 695.4 Mt in 2011 (Table
33). China, at 3 520 Mt, was the leading producer, followed by USAs 992.8 Mt, Indias 588.57 Mt and
Australias 415.5 Mt. China, which increased its production by 280 Mt, contributed significantly to this
global increase. Other countries that contributed significantly to the global coal production increase
oincluded Indonesia, India and Russia, whose production increased by 19 Mt, 18.6 Mt and 16.6 Mt
respectively.

TABLE 33: WORLD COAL RESERVES, PRODUCTION AND EXPORTS, 2011

1 1 2 2
RESERVES PRODUCTION EXPORTS CONSUMPTION

COUNTRY Mt % Rank Mt % Rank Mt % Rank Mt % Rank

Australia 76 400 8.9 4 415.5 5.4 4 284.5 24.9 2 119.7 1.6 7

Canada 6 582 0.8 10 68.2 0.9 12 33.7 3.0 8 42.7 0.6 11

China 114 500 13.3 3 3 520.0 45.7 1 13.5 1.2 9 3 648.1 48.0 1

Colombia 6 746 0.8 9 85.8 1.1 11 75.5 6.6 5 8.3 0.1 12

India 60 600 7.0 5 588.5 7.6 3 4.4 0.4 12 655.3 8.6 3

Indonesia 5 529 0.6 12 324.9 4.2 6 309.5 27.1 1 66.8 0.9 10

Kazakhstan 33 600 3.9 7 115.9 1.5 9 34 3.0 7 82.8 1.1 8

Poland 5 709 0.7 11 139.2 1.8 8 6.9 0.6 11 146.0 1.9 6

Russia 157 010 18.2 2 333.5 4.3 5 123.7 10.8 3 234.7 3.1 4

South Africa* 30 156 3.5 8 252.8 3.3 7 68.8 6.0 6 177.7 2.3 5

Ukraine 33 873 3.9 6 86.8 1.1 10 7.9 0.7 10 67.7 0.9 9

USA 237 295 27.6 1 992.8 12.9 2 97.3 8.5 4 925.3 12.2 2

Other 92 938 10.8 - 771.6 10.0 - 82.3 7.2 - 1 420.6 18.7 -

Total 860 938 100 7 695.4 100 1 142 100 7 595.9 100

1
Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy, June 2012
2
Coal Information 2012, International Energy Agency OECD/IEA
*DMR, Mineral Economics Directorate production and exports figures

The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries coal production rose
by 1.1 percent from 2 060.1 Mt in 2010 to 2 082.4 Mt in 2011; non-OECD countries which include China,
Russia, Indonesia, Kazakhstan, India and Colombia saw a production rise of 8.1 percent to 5 613 Mt.

CONSUMPTION

Coal consumption grew by 8.4 percent from 7 010.2 Mt in 2010 to 7 595.9 Mt in 2011 (Table 1). China
accounted for 48 percent of the worlds coal consumption, followed distantly by the USAs 12.2 percent
and Indias 8.6 percent. These three countries together with Russia accounted for 71.9 percent of world
coal consumption.

TRADE

Global export trade of all types of coal rose by 6 percent to 1 142 Mt in 2011 when compared with 2010.
The export trade comprised 861.2 Mt of steam coal, 276 Mt of coking coal and 4.8 Mt of lignite coal.
Indonesia with 309.5 Mt overtook Australias 284.5 Mt to be the top exporter in 2011, with Russia coming

52
third at 123.7 Mt. China, with 190.5 Mt was the leading importer, followed by Japans 175.4 Mt and
Koreas 129.2 Mt. The largest imports growths were recorded in China with 27.4 Mt, India 21.2 Mt and
Korea
10.6 Mt.

SOUTH AFRICA

South Africas total run-of-mine (ROM) production decreased by 0.43 percent from 317.5 Mt in 2010 to
316.2 Mt in 2011. Opencast mining accounted for 61.9 percent of ROM production, followed by bord and
pillars 33.9 percent, longwalls 2.1 percent and stoping at 2.1 percent. Production of saleable coal
decreased by 1.7 percent to 252.8 Mt when compared with 2010 (Table 2). The six major producers:
Anglo Coal, BHP Billiton Coal South Africa (BECSA), Exxaro Resources, Xstrata Coal South Africa
(XCSA), Sasol Mining and Optimum Coal Holdings (OCH) accounted for 80.7 percent of the countrys
total production and junior coal producers accounted for the remaining 19.3 percent. The three largest
Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) companies, namely, Exxaro Resources, OCH and Umcebo
Mining, accounted for 26 percent of the countrys total production. Overall, BEE companies and junior
coal miners accounted for about 41 percent of the countrys total production.

In terms of production by coalfields, Witbank dominated, accounting for 52.3 percent of the total
production, followed distantly by the Highvelds 29.5 percent and Sasol-Vereenigings 7.6 percent. The
Mpumalanga Central basin, which comprises the Witbank, Highveld and Ermelo coalfields, accounted for
83.3 percent of the countrys production.

Local coal sales volume decreased by 4.6 percent from 186.4 Mt in 2010 to 177.7 Mt in 2011 (Table 34).
Electricity consumed 166. 4 Mt (65.5 percent) of local sales, followed by the synthetic fuels sector (22.6
percent), industries (5.2 percent) and metallurgical (3.2 percent), (Fig 18). The countrys coal exports
increased by 3.1 percent to 68.8 Mt compared with 2010. Local sales value surged 10.6 percent from
R33.7 billion to R37.3 billion due to higher unit values which increased by 16 percent from R181 /t in
2010 to R210 /t in 2011. Export sales revenue also recorded an increase of 34.9 percent to R50.5 billion
in 2011 from R37.5 billion in 2010 due to a combination of higher unit values which increased by 31
percent to R735 /t and higher sales volumes. Overall, South Africas total coal sales value increased by
23 percent to R87.8 billion in 2011.

TABLE 34: SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION AND SALES OF SALEABLE COAL, 2000 2011

LOCAL SALES EXPORT SALES

YEAR PRODUCTION MASS VALUE (FOR) MASS VALUE (FOB)
Mt Mt R'000 R/t Mt R'000 R/t
2000 224.1 154.6 8 772 310 57 69.9 9 234 328 160
2001 223.5 152.2 9 564 521 63 69.2 11 185 460 245
2002 220.2 157.6 11 773 123 75 69.2 16 956 659 280
2003 239.3 168.0 13 212 837 79 71.5 19 366 998 189
2004 242.8 178.3 13 606 151 76 67.9 13 490 623 213
2005 245.0 173.4 14 878 140 86 71.4 14 472 904 296
2006 244.8 177.0 16 245 861 92 68.7 21 155 176 316
2007 247.7 182.8 19 718 642 108 67.7 21 745 322 361
2008 252.7 197.0 30 104 161 153 60.6 44 706 204 737
2009 250.6 184.7 34 463 054 187 60.5 30 934 920 512
2010 257.2 186.4 33 702 229 181 66.8 37 477 184 561
2011 252.8 177.7 37 285 726 210 68.8 50 548 678 735
Source: Mineral Economics Directorate, DMR

53
FIGURE 18: COAL CONSUMPTION BY SECTOR, 2011

0.4
22.6

3.1

0.2

3.0

65.5

5.2

Electricity Industries Merc hants and Domestic Mining Metallurgical Synthetic Fuel Others

Source: DMR, Mineral Economics Directorate

The countrys anthracite production, which represented one percent of the countrys total production,
surged by 23.1 percent to 2.6 Mt in 2011 compared with 2010 (Table 35), while local sales increased by
5 percent to 1.3 Mt due to increased demand from the metallurgical industry which is increasingly shifting
away from using coking coal. Export sales mass increased by 12.5 to 983 kt. Accordingly, revenue from
local and export sales increased by 20.8 percent and 24.4 percent respectively.

TABLE 35: SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION AND SALES OF ANTHRACITE, 2000 2011

LOCAL SALES EXPORT SALES

YEAR PRODUCTION MASS VALUE (FOR) MASS VALUE (FOB)
kt kt R'000 R/t kt R'000 R/t
2000 1 618 515 130 438 253 1 125 224 747 200
2001 1 607 470 150 797 320 970 283 805 292
2002 1305 392 148 953 379 759 286 970 378
2003 1 206 181 181 265 394 584 172 202 295
2004 1 247 545 224 882 412 917 235 667 257
2005 1 640 715 294 454 412 524 193 634 369
2006 1 584 821 374 113 455 672 258 063 384
2007 2 348 975 473 998 486 910 405 109 445
2008 2 207 961 581 207 604 1 265 762 064 602
2009 1 658 786 549 620 699 598 517 126 863
2010 2 074 1 198 933 123 779 874 717 086 821
2011 2 554 1 259 1 127 675 895 983 892 137 907

Source: Mineral Economics Directorate, DMR

Bituminous coal which saw a decline of 1.9 percent to 250.2 Mt in 2011 accounted for 98.9 percent of
South Africas total saleable coal production (Table 36). Local sales volume decreased by 4.7 percent to
176.4 Mt, but local sales revenue increased by 10.3 percent to R36.1 billion due to higher unit value
which increased by 15.8 percent to R205 /t in 2011. Export revenue of bituminous coal increased by 35.1
percent to R49.7 billion due to higher sales volumes which increased from 65.9 Mt in 2010 to 67.8 Mt in
2011 and higher unit value which increased from R558 /t in 2010 to R732 /t in 2011.

54
TABLE 36: SOUTH AFRICAS BITUMINOUS COAL PRODUCTION AND SALES, 2000 2011

LOCAL EXPORT
SALES SALES
VALUE
YEAR PRODUCTION MASS (FOR) MASS VALUE (FOB)
Mt Mt R'000 R/t Mt R'000 R/t
2000 222.5 154.1 8 319 975 56 68.8 10 960 713 160
2001 222.1 152.1 9 413 724 62 69.2 16 956 659 244
2002 218.9 157.2 11 624 170 74 69.2 19 080 028 279
2003 238.1 167.6 13 031 572 78 71.0 13 318 421 188
2004 241.5 177.8 13 381 268 75 67.9 14 237 236 212
2005 243.3 172.7 14 583 685 84 70.9 20 961 542 296
2006 244.8 176.2 15 871 748 90 68.1 21 477 286 315
2007 245.3 181.8 19 244 643 106 66.7 24 042 564 360
2008 250.5 196.1 29 522 953 151 59.4 43 944 138 740
2009 248.9 183.9 33 913 433 184 59.9 30 417 794 508
2010 255.1 185.2 32 769 106 177 65.9 36 760 098 558
2011 250.2 176.4 36 158 051 205 67.8 49 656 540 732
Source: Mineral Economics Directorate, DMR

In 2011, over 58 percent of South Africas coal exports went to Asia, 18.4 percent to Europe, 11.1
percent to the Middle East and 6.3 percent to Africa (Fig 19). Europes coal imports from South Africa
continued to decrease as European demand for thermal coal remained soft. The Middle Easts import of
South Africas coal doubled in 2011 compared with 2010. India continued to be South Africas leading
customer, accounting for 25.2 percent of the countrys coal export sales followed by Chinas 17.8
percent. In Africa, the largest importer of South Africas coal was Mozambique which accounted for 5.3
percent of the countrys coal exports.

FIGURE 19: SOUTH AFRICAS EXPORT VOLUMES BY REGIONAL DESTINATION, 2011

3.8 0.3
2.0

6.3

11.1

58.1

18.4

Far East /Asi a Europe Mi ddl e East Afri ca Isl ands Ameri cas Austral asia

Source: South African Revenue Services Customs

55
MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS IN 2011/2012

The structure of the South African coal industry is undergoing changes because of acquisitions, mergers
and new coal mining projects.

In January 2012, Xstrata Coal South Africa finalised the sale of its Spitzkop and Tselentis collieries and
supporting coal assets in Mpumalanga, to the black economically empowered Imbawula Group for an
undisclosed sum. Imbawula, acquired Spitzkop and Tselentis opencast and underground mining
operations, all supporting infrastructure, along with prospecting and mining rights in the area which
support the long-term operation of the business. Xstrata employees will be absorbed by Imbawula after
consultation with represented unions.

Glencore, in a consortium with Lexshell 849, acquired shares in Optimum Coal which increased the
consortiums shareholding in Optimum to 66.8 percent. In turn Optimum Coal acquired BECSAs
Remhoogte prospecting rights for R235 million, as well as completing the R422 million acquisition of the
TNC prospecting rights from Umcebo Mining. Meanwhile, Glencore has acquired an effective 43.7
percent equity in Umcebo for about R900 million.

BECSA entered into an empowerment transaction in which a consortium led by the Pembani Group will
acquire an 8 percent equity interest in the company. BECSA has also announced an employee share
ownership plan (ESOP) that, together with other recent BEE transactions, will exceed the ownership
requirements as stipulated in the Mining Charter. The ESOP will see participating employees holding a 2
percent equity interest in the company.

Anglo American Thermal Coals (AATC) BEE partner Anglo American Inyosi Coal (AAIC) completed the
construction of the Zibulo Colliery in the Witbank coalfield. Construction of this R4.2 billion project started
in 2008, and the mine was officially launched in March 2012. The operation which has a life of mine of 20
years and a workforce of 1 483 employees including contractors, reached commercial production and is
aiming to achieve full production (8 Mt/a) by the third quarter of 2012. AAIC is also carrying out feasibility
assessments for another large scale project, named New Largo. This project has two main elements: a
new opencast mine and a conveyor which will run from the existing Phola coal plant to Eskoms Kusile
power station. The project which will cost $1.7 billion, will produce 13 Mtpa. Development of the mine
was scheduled to start in 2013 with full capacity expected in 2017, while construction of the conveyor
was expected to start in the third quarter of 2012, with first coal deliveries to Kusile planned for October
2015. The conveyor project is awaiting environmental authorization and approval of its water use licence.

Forbes and Manhattan Coal has made its final payment of R140 million to acquire Slater Coal. The
company now holds 100 percent interest in Slater Coal, which has a 70 percent interest in coal miner
Zinoju, owners of the Magdalena bituminous mine and the Aviermore anthracite mine.

In another deal, Keaton Energy acquired 74 percent in Leeuw Mining and Exploration. In this deal
Keaton bought out major shareholder Anglo Coal and the introduced a significant new shareholder,
Swiss-based Gunvor International.

Another junior miner, Continental Coal signed a BEE deal with the Sishen Iron Ore Company Community
Development Trust (SIOC-cdt). In terms of this agreement, SIOC-cdt has acquired a 26 percent interest
in Continental Coal for an initial investment of R140 million. Continental has also acquired a 100 percent
interest in the Wolvenfontein coal project from Universal Pulse Trading (Pty) Limited for R10.4 million,
payable in equity.

Resource Generation (ResGen) has indicated that it will be divesting its Tasmanian coal tenements for
$1.5 million through the sale of all its shares in Energy Investments and Tiger Coal, enabling the
company to focus on its main asset, the Boikarabelo project in the Waterberg coalfield. The company
has also signed a A$4 million agreement to acquire land adjacent to the Boikarabelo project. ResGen
has an estimated indicated resource of 551.7 Mt and inferred resources of 1.5 Bt at Boikarabelo mine.
The project which has a R4.5 billion capital expenditure budget, is expected to create 1 092 direct jobs.
In August 2012 ResGen acquired new coal tenements adjacent to Boikarabelo mine from Exxaro
Resources. These tenements will extend Boikarabelo mines resources by 31 percent. The tenements
are subjects to approval by the DMR under section 11 of the MPRDA and the process is expected to be
completed before mid-2013. The Boikarabelo project is on track to start production in 2013.

Sable Mining Africa Limited completed the acquisition of a further 27.5 percent stake in Delta Mining
Consolidated Limited (DMC), which was previously held by London Mining plc subsidiary Rannerdale

56
Limited. Sable Mining now holds a 63.5 percent interest in DMC, which also has an interest in the
Rietkuil project, the Springbok Flats project and the Limpopo project.

Coal developer, Firestone Energy sold a strategic stake to energy group Linc Energy Limited, raising
about R13 million. Linc Energy Limited now has a 9.6 percent share in Firestone Energy.

In June 2011, state-owned African Exploration and Mining Finance Company (AEMFC) launched its first
coal mine, Vlakfontein mine, in Mpumalanga. The mine has total reserves of 33 Mt, and produces about
800 000 tons per year of steam coal for Eskom. The mine currently has 223 employees including
external contractors. AEMFC is now in the post-feasibility phase of its next project, the T-Project outside
Bethal, which is envisaged to produce 4.6 million tons of coal per year for 33 years. The T-Project,
identified by AEMFC as a possible coal-to-oil operation, will require R2 billion capex and production is
possible by the third quarter of 2013.

Continental Coals Penumbra thermal coal mine development is on track, with production expected to
start in the fourth quarter of 2012 and ramp-up to full production is scheduled for June 2013. The
development of the R329 million Penumbra project started in September 2011 and this project was
envisaged to produce about 750 000 t/y run-of-mine coal and create 198 jobs.

Sasol Minings new Thubelisha shaft at the Twistdraai colliery in Mpumalanga was officially opened by
the Minister of Mineral Resources in May 2012. The underground mine will extend the life of the
Twistdraai colliery beyond 2039 and will sustain 1 600 jobs at the Twistdraai colliery. The project had a
capital expenditure of R3.39 billion and will have an annual output of 10.6 Mt to supply the export market
and Sasol synfuels. Thubelisha is the first milestone of Sasol Minings intense capital replacement
programme which will replace 60 percent the operating capacity in Secunda in the next eight years. The
other two projects planned are the R4.6-billion Impumelelo mine, which will replace the old Brandspruit
mine in 2014, and the new R5.3-billion Shondoni project which will replace the old Middelbult operation in
2015. The three projects will add approximately 4 000 mining jobs and create about 5 000 jobs during the
construction phase.

Xstrata Coal South Africa commissioned the Arthur Taylor Colliery Opencast Mine (Atcom) East in the
third quarter of 2011. The mine which cost Xstrata R3.15 billion to develop, and is envisaged to produce
about 5.7 Mt run-of-mine coal per year, was commissioned in August 2011.

Exxaro Resources R9-billion Grootgeluk Medupi coal expansion project in the Waterberg coalfield
started producing in May 2012. The mine, which created 5 000 jobs, will meet the full fuel demand of the
4 764 MW dry-cooled Medupi power station. Medupi will receive between 50 000 t and 55 000 t of coal a
day on a conveyor belt from the mine.

Coal of Africa Limited (CoAL) has finally completed phase 1 of the Vele Coal project after several delays
owing to environmental concerns which halted construction in August 2010. The mine produced its first
coal in the first quarter of 2012. Phase 1 cost the company R350 million and is expected to produce 1
Mt/a of saleable coking coal. Phase 2 of the project, which will cost CoAL R2.65 billion will ramp up
production to 5 Mt/a..

In another development, CoAL purchased Chapudi coal project in Limpopo from Rio Tinto and Kwezi
Mining for $75 million. The granting of the Section 11 consents of the MPRDA by the minister concluded
the regulatory steps to complete the acquisition, strengthening Coal of Africa's position as one of the
largest holders of prospecting and mining rights for coking coal in the Limpopo coalfields. Chapudi,
located close to CoAL's Makhado Coking Coal Project, has around 1.04 Bt of JORC-compliant thermal
and coking resources of which 90 Mt is measured, 220 Mt indicated and 730 Mt inferred. Rothe
Investment Proprietary (RIP), a BEE group will own 26 percent of the Chapudi mine. The structure of the
deal allows for RIP to take the stake in CoAL's subsidiary, Keynote Trading & Investment 108
Proprietary, which will house the Chapudi project and associated exploration properties.

Meanwhile, CoAL completed a definitive feasibility study on its second project, Makhado coking coal
project and a mining right application has been lodged with the DMR. The project will be developed in
two phases. After completion, phase 1 will produce 1 Mt of saleable coal whereas phase 2 will ramp up
the production to 5 Mt. The full-scale development will entail a capital expenditure of R2.7 billion
including phase 1s R500 million. The project has the potential to create more than 1 000 direct jobs and
multiples of indirect jobs over 17 years.

57
During the State of the Nation Address on 9 February 2012, the President of the Republic of South
Africa, introduced the governments infrastructure plan that represents a bold, strategic and integrated
platform to mobilise the state, private investor and the South African public behind a clearly articulated
narrative of investment opportunities in South Africa. This infrastructure programme is complementary to
the New Growth Path (NGP) and Industrial Policy Action Plan (IPAP2) which aim to address the
challenge of high unemployment by developing local manufacturing capacity. The infrastructure
programme is also intended to meet the New Growth Path objectives, which include skills development,
youth employment and efficiency targets. The coal industry will benefit from this programme through the
R300 billion Transnet Freight Rail (TFR) capital projects which will unlock the mineral potential and
expand the Mpumalanga-Richards Bay rail coal line from 68 Mtpa to 97.5 Mtpa. Developing and
integrating rail, roads and water infrastructure would be centered on Waterberg and Steelpoort in the
Limpopo province which will support the development of the coal, PGMs, and chrome deposits found in
these areas.

PRICES

In 2011, the average Richards Bay FOB price of South African coal increased by 29.3 percent to average
$117.34 /t compared with 2010. At the beginning of 2011 demand from Asia was strong resulting in
highest price of $125.04 /t in January (Fig 20). However, during the year demand from Asia gradually
decreased leading to a corresponding decline in coal prices to reach $104.23 /t by December 2011. The
downward trend continued into 2012 and by June 2012 the RBCT monthly price plummeted to $86.36/t.

FIGURE 20: RBCT MONTHLY COAL PRICES, 2010 June 2012

140.00

120.00

100.00
Price ($/t)

80.00

60.00

40.00

20.00

0.00

Source: GlobalCoal website

OUTLOOK

In 2011, both coal production and consumption increased in all regions except North America. The
Industry Briefing forecasts that in 2012, global coal consumption is expected to grow by 3.9 percent to 7
959 Mt. This growth will be lower than the 2011 growth because of the slowing global economy and the
debt crisis in the Eurozone. Developing economies like China, India and most African countries will
provide the largest boost to coal demand during the period 2012 -13 as a result of growth in electricity
generation as most of the developing countries are still dependent on coal for their energy needs.
Industry Briefing further predicts that global coal production growth will remain relatively strong,
averaging 4.1 percent to reach 8 122 Mt in 2012 supported by solid growth in demand in the developing
world.
South Africas economic growth depends on coal because the country derives over 90 percent of its
electricity from coal-fired power stations. Consequentially, a positive economic growth (GDP) will cause

58
coal production to increase. Over the past 10 years South Africas economic growth (GDP) averaged 3.7
percent. However, over this period, South Africas coal production only achieved an average growth rate
of 1.5 percent. In 2012, the countrys economic growth is forecast at 3.2 percent. The large scale
Grootegeluk Medupi coal mine expansion project and other several projects have become operational.
Which suggests that the countrys saleable coal production will increase by 1.5 percent to exceed 258 Mt
in 2012. In 2012, demand for South African coal from Europe and Asia decreased because Indian buyers
were affected by the weak Rupee while Chinese buyers have high coal stockpiles and the European
market was flooded by the US coal. Consequently, South Africas coal prices trended downwards since
February 2012. By June 2012 RBCT export prices were $86.38 /t and it is expected that coal prices will
average $90 /t in 2012. South Africas export volumes are expected to reach 70 Mt in 2012, a slight
increase from 2011s 68.8 Mt owing to improved performance by Transnet Freight Rail (TFR).

REFERENCES

1. BP Statistical Review of World Energy, June 2012

2. Mining Weekly, 2012-1-17
3. Elsmarie Swanepoel, Penumbra tipped for Q4 production, (accessed from ttp://www.miningweekly.com/article/penumbra-
tipped-for-q4-production-2012-06-26)
4. Real Economy Year Book, 2012, A Creamer Media Publication
5. Coal 2011, A review of South Africas coal sector, Creamer Media publication
6. http://www.angloamerican.com/media/releases/2012pr/zibulo_opening
7. Coal Information (2012 Edition), International Energy Agency OECD/IEA, 2012
8. Industry Briefing, World coal: EIUs monthly coal outlook, July 4th 2012, IEA Economist Intelligence Unit
9. http://www.miningmx.com/news/energy/Shabangu-rules-out-state-miner-bailouts.htm
10. http://www.miningmx.com/news/energy/AEMFC-next-project-in-post-feasibility-stage.htm
11. http://www.platts.com/RSSFeedDetailedNews/RSSFeed/Coal/8277558
12. http://www.angloamerican.com/business/thermal_coal/projects?p=1
13. www.coalofafrica.com/investors-and-media/.../mag_response.pdf

59
 HYDROCARBON FUELS
Lerato Ramane
WORLD SUPPLY

World proven oil reserves amounted to 1 652.6 billion barrels in 2011 (Table 37), and the Organisation of
Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) accounted for 71.4 percent of the worlds oil reserves, dominated
by the Middle East at 48.1 percent followed by South and Central Americas 19.7 percent and North
Americas 13.2 percent. Venezuela hosts the largest global oil reserves accounting for 17.9 percent of
the global total, followed by Saudi Arabias 16.1 percent.

TABLE 37: WORLD RESERVES AND PRODUCTION OF OIL AND NATURAL GAS, 2011

PROVED RESERVES PRODUCTION

OIL GAS OIL GAS
9 3 12
(bbl x10 ) % (m x 10 ) % (1000 bbl/d) % (m3 x 109) %
OPEC COUNTRIES
Algeria 12.2 0.7 4.5 2.2 1729 2.1 78.0 2.4
Indonesia 4.0 0.2 3.0 1.4 942 1.1 75.6 2.4
Iran 151.2 9.1 33.1 15.9 4321 5.2 151.8 4.8
Iraq 143.1 8.7 3.6 1.7 2798 3.3 1.9 0.1
Kuwait 101.5 6.1 1.8 0.9 2865 3.4 13.0 0.4
Libya 47.1 2.9 1.5 0.7 479 0.6 4.1 0.1
Nigeria 37.2 2.3 5.1 2.5 2457 2.9 39.9 1.2
Qatar 24.7 1.5 25.0 12.0 1723 2.1 146.8 4.6
Saudi Arabia 265.4 16.1 8.2 3.9 11161 13.4 99.2 3.1
UAE 97.8 5.9 6.1 2.9 3322 4.0 51.7 1.6
Venezuela 296.5 17.9 5.5 2.7 2720 3.3 31.2 1.0
Subtotal 1180.7 71.4 97.3 46.7 34516 41.3 693.2 21.7
OTHER SELECTED COUNTRIES
Argentina 2.5 0.2 0.3 0.2 607 0.7 38.3 1.2
Australia 3.9 0.2 3.8 1.8 484 0.6 45.0 1.4
Brazil 15.1 0.9 0.5 0.2 2193 2.6 16.7 0.5
Brunei 1.1 0.1 0.3 0.1 166 0.2 12.8 0.4
Canada 175.2 10.6 2.0 1.0 3522 4.2 160.5 5.0
China 14.7 0.9 3.1 1.5 4090 4.9 102.5 3.2
Ecuador 6.2 0.4 - 0.0 509 0.6 - 0.0
Europe and Eurasia (EE) 141.1 8.5 78.7 37.8 17314 20.7 1036.4 32.5
India 5.7 0.3 1.2 0.6 858 1.0 46.1 1.4
Malaysia 5.9 0.4 2.4 1.2 573 0.7 61.8 1.9
Mexico 11.4 0.7 0.4 0.2 2938 3.5 52.5 1.6
Oman 5.5 0.3 0.9 0.5 891 1.1 26.5 0.8
USA 30.9 1.9 8.5 4.1 7841 9.4 651.3 20.4
Other 52.7 3.2 9.1 4.3 7074 8.5 249.7 7.8
Subtotal 471.9 28.6 111.1 53.3 49059 58.7 2500.1 78.3
TOTAL 1652.6 100 208.4 100 83576 100 3193.3 100

Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy, June 2012

+
Notes: Includes crude oil, shale oil, oil sands and natural gas liquids and excludes liquid fuels derived from other sources
such as coal
* Excludes gas flared or recycled

Global oil production increased by 1.3 percent to 83.6 million barrels per day (b/d) in 2011, as a result of
a 1.7 percent increase from OPEC countries. The Middle East at 32.6 percent was the worlds largest
producer, followed by Europe and Eurasias 21 percent and North Americas 16.8 percent. Africa

60
recorded the largest drop in oil production due to the political unrest in Libya. The worlds largest oil
production increase by country was recorded by Colombia where output increased by 16.3 percent,
followed by Kuwait at 14.1 percent and Iraq at 12.8 percent.
3
The worlds proven gas reserves increased by 6.3 percent to 208.4 trillion m in 2011 compared with
2010. The Middle East, Europe and Eurasia accounted for 76.2 percent of the total reserves. Global gas
3
production increased by 3.1 percent to 3 276.2 billion m in 2011 compared with 3 178.2 in 2010. Europe
and Eurasia accounted for 31.6 percent of the global production, followed by North America and Middle
East at 26.5 percent and 16 percent. The largest increases were recorded in Peru (56.9 percent), Yemen
(51.3 percent) followed by Iraq and Turkmenistan at 42 and 40.6 percent.

WORLD DEMAND

Global primary energy consumption increased by 2.5 percent in 2011. Consumption increased in all
regions except Europe and Eurasia where it declined by 0.5 percent. At 21.3 percent, China was the
largest consumer of energy followed by the US at 18.5 percent. Oil and natural gas contribute more than
half of the fuels required for energy production.

Global oil consumption increased by 0.7 percent to 88.03 million b/d in 2011, driven by the continued
demand for energy. South and Central America recorded the highest increases at 2.9 percent, followed
by Asia and the Middle East at 2.7 and 1.8 percent. The US was the largest consumer at 20.6 percent
followed by Azerbaijans 11.9 percent and Chinas 11.4 percent.
3
Global natural gas consumption grew by 2.2 percent to 3 222.9 billion m in 2011. Europe and Eurasia
was the only region that recorded a decline of 2.1 percent in consumption, while the US was the largest
consumer of natural gas accounting for 21.5 percent. Greece recorded the highest increase in
consumption of 24.3 percent, followed by Chinas 21.5 percent and Turkeys 17.3 percent.

CRUDE OIL PRICES

In 2011, the annual average Brent crude oil price rose to $110.95/bbl compared to $79.6\bbl the previous
year. Prices started the year at $96.3/bbl and peaked at $123.15/bbl in April, as the markets reacted to
the political unrest in Libya and other major oil producing countries the Middle East (Fig.21). In May
prices started falling reaching $107.97/bbl in December. In 2012, prices continued to decline reaching
$95.59/bbl in June.

FIGURE 21: MONTHLY AVERAGE BRENT CRUDE AND NATURAL GAS PRICES, JANUARY 2009
JUNE 2011

250
200
price

150
100
50
0
Jan-12
Jan-09

Jan-10

Jan-11
Jul-09

Jul-10

Jul-11
Mar-09

Mar-10

Mar-11

Mar-12
Sep-09
Nov-09

Sep-10
Nov-10

Sep-11
Nov-11

May-12
May-09

May-10

May-11

date

brent crude oil natural gas

Source: indexmundi (www.indexmundi.com)

Natural gas prices have been under pressure over the last couple of years, as new drilling techniques
(fracking) have unlocked vast new stores of natural gas from shale formations and other so-called
3
unconventional reservoirs. Prices fell to by 8.88 percent to $143.98/1000m in 2011, compared with
3 3
$158.01/1000m in 2010 (Fig.1). Prices peaked in June 2010 reaching $172.85/1000m and fell to
3 3 3
$123.62/1000m . In 2011, prices began at $161.71/1000m in January, reaching $163.32/1000m in
3
June. Subsequently, prices declined for the rest of the year and into 2012 reaching $70.31/1000m in

61
April 2012, as a result of natural gas production exceeding demand. Prices began to recover slightly in
3
May reaching $87.56/1000m .

SOUTH AFRICAS HYDROCARBON FUELS INDUSTRY

South Africa had proven crude oil reserves of 15 million barrels in 2011; all of the proven reserves are
located offshore in the Bredasdorp basin and off the west coast of the country near the border with
Namibia. South Africa has no significant crude oil production; most of it is imported, but the country did
produce slightly over 180 000 barrels per day (bbl/d) of non-conventional, synthetic liquid fuels
processed from coal and natural gas.

According to South African Petroleum Industry Association (SAPIA) South Africa has the second largest
refining capacity in Africa at 703 000 bbl/d, surpassed only by Egypt at 726 250 bbl/d. Major refineries
include Sapref (180 000 bbl/d) and Enref (120 000 bbl/d) in Durban, Chevref (100 000 bbl/d) in Cape
Town, and Natref (108 000 bbl/d) in Sasolburg. In addition, the country has two synfuels facilities (Sasol
and PetroSA) that have a combined capacity to produce 195 000 bbl/d of liquid fuels from coal and gas.

In 2011 South Africas crude petroleum production plummeted by 56.5 percent to 590 818 barrels
compared with 1 357 531 barrels in 2010, due to a halt in production at PetroSAs Oribi oilfileld. PetroSA
is also developing a new 200 000 bbl/d to 300 000 bbl/d refinery in the Eastern Cape to meet rapidly
growing product demand and reduced imports of refined fuels. The new refinery will be designed to
process heavy, sour crudes.

South African oil consumption is estimated to be slightly over 550 000 bbl/d, of which, approximately 370
000 bbl/d is imported (67 percent of consumption). The country imports crude oil and refined fuels but is
planning to increase domestic refining capacity. South Africa is promoting further exploration in the
petroleum sector in an effort to discover new resources.

The countrys natural gas production amounted to 1.08 Mt in 2011, while natural gas condensate output
amounted to 102 kt.

DEVELOPMENTS

The South African crude oil refineries are in line for modifications in anticipation of the countrys move
towards cleaner fuels.The government wants to implement clean fuel standards with effect from July
2017. The clean fuels programme which was implemented in 2006, with the banning of lead from petrol
and reduction of sulphur in diesel, is intended to further reduce sulphur, benzene and aromatics in liquid
fuels. The decision was motivated by a drive for better environmental health and air quality, and this will
require companies to modify their processing facilities in order to comply with the requirements.

Sapref will be carrying out modifications to several existing units and will build two new process units.
Detailed engineering work is expected to take place in 2013. Construction is planned to start in 2014 and
should be completed in mid-2017. The design phase still has to be completed and at this stage budgets
are still being finalized.

As a result of the clean fuels programme, Sasol Mining, the majority owner of the Natref refinery could
invest about R5 billion between 2014 and 2017. Certain infrastructure changes would be required to
further reduce the level of sulphur in petrol and diesel, and to reduce levels of benzene in petrol. Natref is
a joint venture between Sasol Mining and Total South Africa.

South Africa holds an estimated 485 trillion cubic feet (tcf) of shale gas reserves, placing it fifth in the
world according to the US International Energy Agency (IEA). A report by Econometrix stated that the
potential economic benefits resulting from the exploitation of shale gas in South Africa would be
enormous. If 10 percent of the Karoos shale gas reserve (50 tcf) were to be exploited, it could contribute
up to R200 billion to the countrys Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and create over 700 000 jobs
upstream and downstream over 25 years. This would be instrumental in attracting skills and investments
to the country as well as resolving the energy deficit and resulting in infrastructure development. Three
foreign-owned companies - Royal Dutch Shell, Falcon Oil & Gas from America, and Sunset Energy from
Australia - have been granted permission to explore for shale gas in the Karoo. The first stage of such
exploration was desktop research. Although hydraulic fracturing is still not allowed, after the moratorium
on exploration had been lifted by cabinet, normal exploration and surveying may be carried out.
However, South Africas shale gas plans could clash with plans for the Square Kilometre Array (SKA)
project, for which the bulk of the rights for the SKA were awarded to the country in May 2012. The SKA

62
will be the largest and most capable radio telescope ever constructed. During its lifetime, it will increase
understanding of the universe and drive technological development worldwide.

The National Development Report, released by South Africas National Planning Commission (NPC) in
November 2011, identified five possible options to meet the growing shortfall in the countrys liquid fuels
supply: building a new oil-to-liquid refinery in South Africa; building a new Coal To Liquid (CTL) refinery
in South Africa; upgrading the countrys existing refineries to allow for significant capacity expansion;
importing increasing quantities of refined fuel; and partnering in the building of a new refinery in Africa,
elsewhere such as in Angola or Nigeria, and buying a share of the product of that refinery. The
Department of Energy is undertaking an audit of South Africas refineries to determine the most suitable
option. That audit will inform a 20-year liquid fuel infrastructure roadmap that is expected to be completed
before the end of 2012.

OUTLOOK

Global demand for oil is expected to continue to slow down in 2013 reflecting Europe debt worries, a
faltering US economic recovery and deceleration of growth in emerging markets. OPEC, which produces
a third of global oil, indicated that healthy output levels from non-OPEC producers in 2013 would be
enough to cover the modest growth in demand without the need for OPEC to increase output.

An increase in the crude oil price is anticipated despite the weak global growth environment in 2012.
Political instability in Libya and the Middle East has led to supply disruptions and geopolitical tensions
have added a risk premium. The price of Brent crude oil is expected to average $108 per barrel in 2012
and $100 per barrel in 2013.

Natural gas is expected to be the fastest growing fossil fuel globally at 2.1 percent per annum to 2030.
The non-OECD countries will account for 80 percent of global gas demand growth, averaging at 2.9
percent a year growth to 2030. Demand is expected to grow the fastest in Asia and the Middle East.
Significant increases in supply are expected from Australia, China and the US. Prices of natural gas are
expected to increase slightly in the short term, due to increased demand during the winter season.
However over the longer term prices will remain depressed in anticipation of a supply/demand balance in
the market.

In South Africa, synthetic oil production adds nearly 200 000 b/d to the countrys output and this figure is
expected to exceed 300 000b/d by 2021, as a result of the implementation of one of the five options
provided by the NPC.

Demand for crude oil in South Africa is anticipated to reach 600 000 b/d by 2021. Consumption is
expected to rise steadily over this period mainly in line with economic growth. Shale gas could generate
significant investment in new infrastructure, help meet South Africas carbon reduction goals and create
many new jobs. Exploitation of shale gas could contribute significantly to South Africas growing
economy as well as reduce the high levels of unemployment.

REFERENCES
.
1. BP Statistical Review of World Energy
2. http://engineeringnews.co.za,
3. Index mundi (www.indexmundi.com)
4. Mineral Economics Directorate, DMR
5. Real Economy Year Book, 2012
6. Research and Markets: South Africa Oil and Gas Report
7. SAPIA annual report, 2012
8. www.iea.gov/sreo
9. www.miningweekly.co.za
10. www.reuters.com

63
 URANIUM

Lerato Ramane
WORLD RESOURCES

Global uranium resources were estimated at 5.4 MtU in 2011. Australia has the worlds largest known
recoverable uranium resources accounting for 31 percent, followed by Kazakhstans 12 percent and Canadas
and Russias 9 percent (Table 38). South Africa, at 5.5 percent is ranked 5th in the world and hosts Africas
largest resources followed by Namibia and Niger.

TABLE 38: WORLD URANIUM RESOURCES AND PRODUCTION, 2011

+
URANIUM RESOURCES* PRODUCTION
#
RAR Rank 2010 2011
COUNTRY (ktU) % (t U) % Rank
Australia 1 673 31.0 1 5 900 5 983 11.5 3
Brazil 279 5.2 7 148 265 0.5 13
Canada 485 9.0 3 9 783 9 145 17.5 2
e
China 171 3.2 9 827 885 1.7 10
e
India 80 1.5 12 400 400 0.8 12
Namibia 284 5.3 6 4 496 3 258 6.2 5
Niger 272 5.0 7 4 198 4 351 8.3 4
Kazakhstan 651 12.0 2 17 803 19 451 37.2 1
Russia 480 8.9 4 3 562 2 993 5.7 6
South Africa 295 5.5 5 655 582 1.1 11
e
Ukraine 105 1.9 11 850 890 1.7 9
USA 207 3.8 8 850 1 537 2.9 8
Uzbekistan 111 2.1 10 2 400 2 500 4.8 7
SUBTOTAL 5 093 - - 51 872 52 240 - -
Others 311 5.8 1 791 1 254
World Total 5 404 100 53 663 53 494 100

Sources: *OECDs NEA & IAEA, Uranium 2010: Resources, Production and Demand
+ World Nuclear Association, Market Report data, 2011
Notes: #Reasonably Assured Resources (RAR) plus Inferred Resources, to $130/kg U
e: Estimate

WORLD SUPPLY

World uranium mine production decreased marginally by 0.3 percent in 2011 to 53.5 ktU from 53.66 ktU in
2010 (Table 38). Kazakhstan remained the worlds leading producer accounting for 36.6 percent, followed by
Canadas 17.1 percent and Australias 11.2 percent. These three countries collectively accounted for 64.9
percent of world total output. Brazils output rose by 79 percent to 265 ktU, followed by Kazakhstan and China
whose production increased by 9 and 7 percent, respectively. Namibias and Russias production dropped by
28 and 16 percent respectively, mainly due to the deterioration of the uranium ore grade. Niger was the
largest producer in Africa accounting for 8.3 percent of world production, followed by Namibia at 6.2 percent,
and South Africa at 1.1 percent.

Though South Africa has the largest uranium resources in Africa, the mineral is produced as a by-product
from gold mines, and exported by the Nuclear Fuel Corporation (Nufcor) as uranium oxide (U 3O8). In 2011,
uranium was produced by in situ leaching (45.2 percent), underground (30 percent), by-product (7.5 percent)
and open pit (17.3 percent) globally.

64
WORLD DEMAND

Global uranium demand is mainly driven by nuclear power generation, which accounted for 13.5 percent of
world electricity generation in 2011 (Table 39). This nuclear power was generated from 441 nuclear reactors
globally. The USA, at 24 percent (104 reactors) has the highest number of reactors, followed by Frances 13
percent (58 reactors) and Japans 12 percent (51 reactors). The USA derived 19.2 percent of its electricity
from nuclear energy, while France and Japan drew 77.7 percent and 18.1 percent respectively. South Africa
generates 5.2 percent of its electricity from two nuclear reactors. Uranium consumed in nuclear energy
reactors was 69 kt in 2011 globally.

TABLE 39: WORLD NUCLEAR POWER REACTORS AND URANIUM REQUIREMENTS, 2011-2012

NUCLEAR
ELECTRICITY REACTORS URANIUM REACTORS URANIUM
GENERATION OPERABLE REQUIRED OPERABLE REQUIRED
2011 2011 2011 2012 2012
% of
COUNTRY billion kWh elec No MWe (t U) No MWe (t U)
USA 790.4 19.2 104 101 229 19 427 104 101 607 19 724
France 423.5 77.7 58 63 130 9 221 58 63 130 9 254
Japan 156.2 18.1 51 44 642 8 195 50 44 396 4 636
Germany 102.3 17.8 17 20 339 3 453 9 12 003 1 934
Korea (South) 147.8 34.6 21 18 716 3 586 23 20 787 3 967
Russia 162 17.6 32 23 084 3 757 33 24 164 5 488
UK 62.7 17.8 19 10 942 2 235 16 10 038 2 096
China 82.6 1.8 14 11 271 4 402 15 11 881 6 550
Spain 55.1 19.5 8 7448 1 458 8 7 448 1 355
Canada* 88.3 15.3 18 12 679 1 884 17 12 044 1 694
Sweden 58.1 39.6 10 9 399 1 537 10 9 399 1 394
Ukraine 84.9 47.2 15 13 168 2 037 15 13 168 2 348
Belgium 45.9 54 7 5 943 1 052 7 5 943 995
South Africa 12.9 5.2 2 1 800 321 2 1 800 304
SUBTOTAL 2 272.7 376 343 790 62 565 367 337 808 61 739
Others 245.3 65 32 657 6 406 66 33 614 6 251

World 2 518 13.5 441 376 447 68 971 433 371 422 67 990
Notes:
% of elec: percent contribution to national electricity production
MWe: Megawatt net (electrical as distinct from thermal)
kWh: kilowatt-hour
* estimate
Sources: World Nuclear Association, 2011-12

65
PRICES

Uranium prices recovered well in 2010 and 2011 reaching a high of $65/lb in February 2011 before
dropping and settling at $51.9/lb in May 2012. The drop in price followed the earthquake that damaged
the Fukushima nuclear power plant in March 2011. However, the price has since stabilized at around
$51.8/lb in 2012 (Fig.22).

FIGURE 22: NUEXCO SPOT URANIUM PRICE, 2009-2012 (MONTHLY AVERAGES)

70.0
60.0
50.0
40.0
$/lb

30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
Mar-09

Mar-10

Mar-11

Mar-12
Jan-09

Jan-10

Jan-11

Jan-12
Nov-11
Sep-09
Nov-09

Sep-10
Nov-10

Sep-11
Jul-09

Jul-10

Jul-11
May-09

May-10

May-11

May-12
month-year

Source: Metal Bulletin

DEVELOPMENTS IN AFRICA

GoviEx Uranium, a Niger based uranium junior mining company has concluded a $40 million strategic
financing and offtake agreement with Japanese nuclear firm Toshiba to advance its Madaouela project.
Toshiba acquired a 14-year right and commitment to buy up to 600 000 lb of uranium a year. The
Madaouela project prefeasibility study was expected to be complete by the end of 2012, while production
is anticipated to start before 2018, reaching full production by 2020.

The Letlhake uranium project, located in Botswana is one of the worlds largest undeveloped uranium
deposits. The project has a JORC compliant global resource of 216 M lb of uranium oxide with additional
resource growth expected on further exploration. The shallow flat lying deposits will make it easy and
cost effective to mine. A-Cap Resources is a company in Botswana which is listed both on the Australian
Securities Exchange and the Botswana Stock Exchange, it owns 100 percent of the Letlhake uranium
project and is committed to concluding the feasibility study in 2014 and developing the first uranium mine
in Botswana by 2015.

SOUTH AFRICA

The Toronto-based First Uranium has agreed to sell its Mine Waste Solutions (MWS) tailings recovery
project to AngloGold Ashanti for $335 million and its Ezulwini gold and uranium mine to Gold One for
$70 million. Both these companies already own operations close to their new acquisitions and plan to
take advantage of new synergies.

AngloGold Ashanti is planning to purchase First Uranium's wholly owned subsidiary First Uranium (Pty)
Ltd (South Africa), which owns the MWS tailing retreatment operation in the Vaal River region. The MWS
project is a gold and uranium recovery operation, with an estimated 24 ktU of uranium reserves.
AngloGold plans to complete the installation and commissioning of a new uranium circuit in 2014,
allowing it to increase its long term uranium production to a maximum of 1 731 tU per year. The
operation is expected to have a life in excess of 30 years through the processing of tailings from Vaal
River and MWS, both owned by AngloGold Ashanti.

Gold One is in the process of buying the Ezulwini gold and uranium mine and related assets through the
acquisition of another First Uranium subsidiary, First Uranium Limited for $70 million. First Uranium

66
produced its first yellowcake at Ezulwini in 2009 with plans for a seven-year gradual ramp-up to 150 tU
per year by 2013, although progress has been taking longer than expected.

In March 2011, South Africas Cabinet approved the integrated resource plan for electricity 2010
(IRP2010) for promulgation by the Department of Energy. The plan includes a significant nuclear
component, which will account for 22 percent of new power generation capacity by 2030. As a result,
R586 million has been allocated to the Nuclear Energy Corporation of South Africa (NECSA) to continue
with nuclear energy research, development and innovation.

Subsequent to governments decision to stop funding the Pebble Bed Modular Reactor (PBMR)
Company (Pty) Limited in 2010, the project was placed under care and maintenance and a final decision
is expected in 2013. The current priority is to capture and store intellectual property. A skills audit has
also been conducted to establish how current expertise could best be used in future nuclear projects.

OUTLOOK

The underlying investment trends for the 2011 uranium market were directly affected by the nuclear
tragedy at Fukushima in March. However, the history of the past 30 years in the uranium industry has
demonstrated following previous incidents that base demand did not fall, as existing reactors in use
worldwide continued to operate. Uranium production is expected to continue to increase as a result of
rising demand for nuclear power.

There are 489 nuclear energy reactors proposed globally, seven more prior to Fukushima, as a result
demand for uranium is forecast to increase from approximately 166 million lb a year to 226 million lb a
year by 2020, despite the abandonment of nuclear energy by certain countries. This is expected to lead
to a significant increase in uranium demand in the mid to long term. In the near future, demand for
uranium is anticipated to remain finely balanced, as Japan plans to restart two of its 50 reactors and
more restarts are expected.

However, the mounting demand for nuclear power generation is likely to put uranium supplies under
pressure, which could boost uranium prices. Prices could reach up to $81/lb by 2016 due to a massive
surge in demand, as a growing number of countries adopt nuclear as an integral part of their energy mix.

New planned projects and the expansion of existing uranium mines are projected to drive up production
throughout Asia Pacific with Australia, India, Kazakhstan and China all expected to increase regional
uranium production. However, strong market conditions will be required to bring these reserves to the
market although this would require considerable investment. The continuing effects of the global
economic crisis and the Eurozone debt crisis are likely to constrict new proposed development. Supplies
are likely to remain prone to disruption until capacity is increased or diversified. Secondary uranium
supplies, therefore, will continue to be needed to plug the supply demand gap in the short to medium
term.

The Integrated Resource Plan (IRP) 2010 for South Africa has committed to a full nuclear fleet of 9 600
MW by 2030, which will account for 23 percent of additional power generation capacity. This will increase
nuclear energys contribution to the countrys energy mix from 5 to 20 percent. This is likely to contribute
significantly to the countrys efforts to stabilize the energy supply demand situation and ensure security of
supplies. Use of additional nuclear capacity resulting from the implementation of the IRP 2010, is likely to
raise the level of local uranium demand. Consequently, local uranium exploitation activity is likely to
intensify as local producers or new entrants attempt to position themselves to exploit the anticipated
higher demand.

REFERENCES

1. Creamer Media, www.miningweekly.com

2. Department of Energy, IRP2010
3. Engineering News
4. http:// www.wise-uranium.org
5. Metal Bulletin
6. Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
7. Uranium investment news (http://uraniuminvestingnews.com )
8. World Nuclear Association, Information papers
9. World nuclear news

67
 NON-FERROUS METALS AND MINERALS OVERVIEW

Linda Maphango

INTRODUCTION

South Africa is well endowed with deposits of non-ferrous minerals. It ranks second in the world in the
production of titanium and zircon minerals and has substantial reserves and is an important producer of
copper, cobalt, nickel, lead, zinc and antimony. The countrys titanium and zirconium resources are
principally located in heavy mineral sands in Kwa-Zulu Natal, Eastern Cape and Western Cape. Most of
the copper is mined in the Palabora Complex in the Limpopo Province with zirconium being produced as
a by-product of copper mining. Lead and zinc deposits associated with copper are mined near Aggeneys,
Northern Cape. Nickel deposits are mined in the Uitkomst Complex near Badplaas in the Mpumalanga
Province. Antimony deposits are mined in the Limpopo Province. Cobalt, copper and nickel are produced
as by-products of platinum mining in the Bushveld Complex.

PRODUCTION AND SALES

South Africas production of primary non-ferrous metals and minerals, excluding titanium and zircon,
increased by 6.2 percent to 227.7 kt in 2011 compared with 214.4 kt in 2010 (Table 40). Total sales
volume rose by 3.3 percent to 219.5 kt. Local sales volumes decreased by 3.1 percent to 92.0 kt, while
export sales volumes increased by 8.4 percent to 127.5 kt. Total sales revenue amounted to R13.3
billion, representing an increase of 14.7 percent, due mainly to higher domestic prices of non-ferrous
commodities. Local sales revenue climbed by 42.3 percent to R6.4 billion, while export revenue fell by
2.9 percent to R6.9 billion owing to lower average export prices.

In 2011, South Africas total production of non-ferrous metals and minerals (primary and processed),
excluding titanium minerals, zircon minerals and aluminium metal decreased by 0.2 percent to 1.1 Mt
when compared with 2010. Total sales revenue rose by 12.7 percent to R14.8 billion. Local sales
revenue increased by 30.9 percent to R7.9 billion, while export sales declined by 2.9 percent to R6.9
billion. Exxaros Zincor refinery, which had been supplying the local galvanising sector with zinc metal,
was closed down in December 2011. South Africa is now sourcing zinc metal from the international
markets. More than two-thirds of South Africas copper production is consumed locally in the electrical,
construction, transport and industrial machinery sectors.

68
TABLE 40: SOUTH AFRICAN PRODUCTION AND SALES OF NON-FERROUS METALS AND
MINERALS, 2010 AND 2011

PRODUCTION LOCAL SALES (FOR) EXPORT SALES (FOB) TOTAL SALES

COMMODITY Year (t) (t) R'000 (t) R'000 (t) R'000

2011 3 175 10 964 2 699 212 294 2 709 213 258

Antimony (mic) 2010 3 239 9 575 2 460 101 992 2 469 102 567

2011 862 43 10 789 451 114 457 493 125 245

Cobalt 2010 840 58 16 110 493 135 424 551 151 534

2011 89 298 60 425 3 937 749 25 522 1 495 100 85 946 5 432 849

Copper 2010 83 640 56 682 3 160 029 24 822 1 209 297 81 504 4 369 326

2011 54 460 0 0 52 368 762 929 52 368 762 929

Lead 2010 50 625 0 0 53 094 696 738 53 094 696 738

2011 43 321 14 457 2 326 440 26 645 4 075 750 41 102 6 402 191

Nickel 2010 39 960 7 293 1 073 291 33 069 4 911 462 40 362 5 984 753

2011 *** *** *** *** *** *** ***

Titanium minerals 2010 *** *** *** *** *** *** ***

2011 36 629 17 083 169 416 19 800 233 150 36 883 402 566

Zinc (mic) 2010 36 142 30 905 279 821 3 649 43 393 34 554 323 214

2011 *** *** *** *** *** *** ***

Zirconium
minerals 2010 *** *** *** *** *** *** ***

2011 227 745 92 018 6 445 358 127 485 6 893 680 219 501 13 339 038
Primary
subtotals\ 2010 214 446 94 947 4 529 826 117 587 7 098 306 212 534 11 628 132

2011 809 773 *** *** *** *** *** ***

Aluminium metal 2010 811 483 *** *** *** *** *** ***

2011 *** *** *** *** *** *** ***

Titanium slag 2010 *** *** *** *** *** *** ***

2011 72 020 85 467 1 457 613 0 0 85 467 1 457 613

Zinc metal 2010 85 512 89 094 1 505 861 0 0 89 094 1 505 861

2011 881 793 85 467 1 457 613 0 0 85 467 1 457 613

Processed
subtotals 2010 896 995 89 094 1 505 861 0 0 89 094 1 505 861

2011 1 109 538 177 485 7 902 971 127 485 6 893 680 304 968 14 796 651
Non-Ferrous
Totals 2010 1 111 441 184 041 6 035 687 117 587 7 098 306 301 628 13 133 993

Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

*** Withheld

PRICES

In 2011, most base metals performed better than in 2010 in response to a robust market in the first half
of the year due to rising demand in the aftermath of the global recession. In the second half of 2011,
most base metals traded lower as investors avoided risk in the midst of a global economic downturn.
Base metals inventories remained high in 2011, which led to a declining trend on the back of weak global
demand for base metals, emanating from the persisting Eurozone debt crisis, slowing growth in China
and low economic activity in the US. The average annual cobalt price fell by 14.5 percent to $17/lb when
compared with 2010. The average annual zinc price declined by 7.7 percent to $2 194/t, while lead
increased by 8.9 percent to $2 165/t. Copper went up by 17.2 percent to $8 834/t, nickel was higher by
5.2 percent to $22 938/t and aluminium rose by 9.6 percent to $2 381/t.

69
EMPLOYMENT

In 2011, employment in South Africas non-ferrous metals and minerals sector increased slightly by 1.4
percent to 16 027 employees compared with 15 805 employees in 2010 (Table 41). Additional
employment was mainly as a result of job increases in the aluminium smelters. Total remuneration rose
by 20.4 percent to R4.3 billion due to an increase in employment and average remuneration per person.
Average remuneration per person climbed by 18.8 percent to R268 549. A rough measure of average
productivity per employee in terms of turnover reached R2.4 million in 2011, an increase of 17.8 percent
when compared with 2010.

TABLE 41: SOUTH AFRICAS NON-FERROUS METALS AND MINERALS: EMPLOYMENT AND
GROSS REMUNERATION, 2007-2011

YEAR EMPLOYEES REMUNERATION

Number R'000 R/employee
2007 17 165 2 003 290 116 707
2008 17 502 2 638 370 150 746
2009 16 158 2 736 715 169 372
2010 15 805 3 573 415 226 094
2011 16 027 4 303 902 268 540
Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

OUTLOOK

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) predicts global economic growth at 3.3 percent and 3.6 percent in
2012 and 2013, respectively, down from 3.8 percent in 2011. According to the IMF, growth is forecast to
remain weak in developed economies, but relatively strong in many emerging markets and developing
economies. Despite positive developments in the financial markets in response to policy actions, risks to
global financial stability have mounted since the second quarter of 2012, due to waning confidence in the
global financial system. Hence, the global financial landscape is expected to remain fragile for the
foreseeable future.

The sluggish global economy, fuelled by the protracted Eurozone debt crisis, slowing growth from
emerging economies and the bleak U.S economy, is expected to strain the base metal and minerals
market. The downside risks to the global economy are envisaged to continue to soften the demand for
base metals and minerals in 2012 and 2013, thus, lower prices are expected to prevail during this period.

Aluminium prices are projected to decline by 15 percent from $2 383/t in 2011 to $2 025/t in 2012 and by
a further 3 percent to $1 968/t in 2013. Copper prices are forecast to dip by 10 percent to $7 950/t in
2012. However, prices are expected to increase to $8 533/t in 2013 due to an anticipated supply
shortfall. Cobalt prices are envisaged to average at $14.00/lb in 2012, representing a decline of 20
percent, due to oversupply of metal in the cobalt market. Cobalt prices are forecast to further drop to
$13/lb in 2013. Nickel prices are anticipated to plummet by 23 percent to $17 670/t in 2012. Lead prices
are projected to decrease by 15 percent to $2 030/t and zinc prices are expected to decline by 12
percent to $1 940/t in 2012.

REFERENCES

1. Mineral Economics Directorate, DMR

2. IMF, World Economic Outlook, http://www.imf.org, 2012
3. Metal Bulletin, various articles

70
 ALUMINIUM
Chili Thomas

WORLD SUPPLY

World refined aluminium production rose by 6.3 percent to 44.6 Mt in 2011 compared with 2010 (Table
42), due to capacity expansion in the Middle East and Asia. Major producers were China (18.1 Mt),
Russia
(3.9 Mt) and Canada (2.9 Mt), which collectively accounted for 56.1 percent. South Africa contributed 1.8
th
percent and was ranked 10 .

TABLE 42: WORLD ALUMINIUM SMELTER CAPACITY, PRODUCTION AND EXPORTS, 2011

COUNTRY SMELTER PRODUCTION EXPORTS

CAPACITY
kt kt % Rank kt % Rank
Australia 2 050 1 945 4.4 5 1 680 7.9 3
Bahrain 880 881 2.0 9 409 1.9 9
Brazil 1 700 1 440 3.2 7 524 2.5 7
Canada 3 020 2 983 6.7 3 2 486 11.6 2
China 18 400 18 062 40.5 1 766 3.6 5
India 2 310 1 660 3.7 6 271 1.3 10
Norway 1 230 1 202 2.7 8 1 429 6.7 4
Russia 4 440 3 992 8.9 2 5 583 26.7 1
South Africa* 900 810 1.8 10 592 2.8 6
USA 320 1 984 4.4 4 509 2.4 8
Other 20 650 9 665 21.7 - 7 112 33.3
TOTAL 2011 55 900 44 624 100.0 21 361 100.0
2010 53 500 41 991 20 875

Sources: United States Geological Survey, 2012, p 17

World Bureau of Metal Statistics (WBMS), 2012
*Department of Mineral Resources (DMR), Directorate Mineral Economics

Refined aluminium output rose in all regions. Asias output climbed by 10.4 percent followed by Europes
2.5 percent, Oceanias 1.3 percent and Africas 0.5 percent. Asia, at 24.1 Mt continued to dominate world
refined aluminium output, contributing 55 percent to total world production followed by Europes 20
percent and Americas 16 percent (Fig.23).

71
FIGURE 23: WORLD PRIMARY ALUMINIUM PRODUCTION BY REGION, 2011

Oceania
America 5% Europe
16% 20%

Africa
4%

Asia
55%
Source: World Bureau of Metal Statistics (WBMS), 2012

CONSUMPTION

Global demand for the light metal increased by 5.5 percent to 42.4 Mt in 2011 (Fig. 24) compared with
40.2 Mt in 2010, fuelled by Chinese demand for automobiles. Growth in the automobile industry is also
driven by the EUs requirements for lighter vehicles in a bid to curb carbon dioxide emissions.

FIGURE 24: WORLD ALUMINIUM SUPPLY AND DEMAND 2002-2011

Supply Consumption

50
45
40
35
Mass (Mt)

30
25
20
15
10
5
0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Year

Source: World Bureau of Metal Statistics, 2012

In 2011, Asia, at 62 percent, was the largest consumer of aluminium followed by Europes 20 percent
and the Americas 15 percent. The balance went to Africa and Oceania.

Demand for refined aluminium was driven by the transport sector, which accounted for 28 percent
followed by construction (20 percent) and the packaging sector (18 percent),( Fig. 25). Electrical
applications and machinery consumed 11 percent and 9 percent, respectively.

72
FIGURE 25: INDUSTRIAL DEMAND FOR HIGH GRADE PRIMARY ALUMINIUM, 2011

Machinery/equipm Electrical/
Constuction
ent eletronics
20%
9% 11%
Consumer
durables
6%

Other
8%
Transport
28%

Packaging
18%

Source: Metal Bulletin Focus, 2012

WORLD TRADE

In 2011, world primary aluminium exports rose by 2.4 percent to 21.4 Mt compared with 2010. Exports
from Russia, the worlds largest exporter of aluminium, rose by 20.4 percent, which offset the declines
from all the other major exporters. Canadas exports declined by 0.4 percent followed by declines from
Netherlands and Australia of 7.6 percent and 0.9, respectively. South Africas primary aluminium exports
rose by 7.7 percent to 591.2 t in 2011.

World aluminium imports were 1.5 percent lower in 2011 when compared with 2010. USA and Japan
dominated the world aluminium imports accounting for 13.0 percent each.

PRICES

In 2011, the London Metal Exchange (LME) cash settlement prices increased by 9.6 percent to an
average of $2 383.20/t compared with 2010 (Fig. 26). But aluminium prices plummeted by 20.8 percent
from a monthly average of $2 552.61/t in March 2011 to $2 021.78/t in December 2011 due to
deteriorating aluminium market fundemetals. The declining trend in 2011 resulted from an excess in
aluminium supply owing to the European debt crisis and high levels of inventories.

73
FIGURE 26: LONDON METAL EXCHANGE CASH SETTLEMENT PRICE (MONTHLY AVERAGES),
2010 2012

2900.00

2700.00

2500.00

2300.00
Price ($/t)

2100.00

1900.00

1700.00

1500.00
Apr-10

Jul-10

Oct-10

Apr-11

Jul-11

Oct-11

Apr-12
Jan-10

Jun-10

Jan-11

Jun-11

Jan-12

Jun-12
Nov-10
Dec-10

Nov-11
Dec-11
Feb-10
Mar-10

Aug-10
Sep-10

Feb-11
Mar-11

Aug-11
Sep-11

Feb-12
Mar-12
May-10

May-11

May-12
Month

Sources: Metal Bulletin, 2010-2011

GLOBAL DEVELOPMENTS

Production continues to rise in China as greenfield projects in Xinjiang province ramp up. However, some
greenfield smelters that were originally earmarked for commissioning in 2012 have been postponed,
amid the weak aluminium price. These smelters include Qinghai Xinheng Hydro and Shandong Huimin.

Also in China, annualised production rates increased as a result of production growth from greenfield
expansions in Xinjiang, where annualised production increased from 690 kt in January 2012 to 1.25 Mt in
September 2012. Restarts of idle capacity in Guizhou, Guangxi and Henan provinces, due to power tariff
discounts, further lifted production rates. The southern province of Yunnan has launched a subsidy
programme, which enables metal producers to pledge metal up to 200 kt as collateral in return for
subsidised loans. The programme seeks to alleviate financing constraints faced by producers because of
tight credit.

The European Commission has allowed Alcoas Portovesme smelter in Sardinia to continue using
special contracts to purchase electricity at lower prices until 2015 and also helped to ease margin
constraints for the beleaguered smelter. Elsewhere, negotiations for lower power tariffs are also taking
place in New Zealand (between Tiwai Point and Meridien Energy) and in the USA (between Century
Aluminum and Appalachian Power). Lower power tariffs will help boost producer margins and alleviate
high smelters costs. Should the aluminium price sustain its current level, it would reduce the pressure on
production curtailments in the near future.

In India, new projects to be commissioned during 2012 will contribute to higher production. These include
Vedanta Resources Jharsuguda II smelter (capacity of 1.25 Mt/a), BALCOs Korba smelter (325 kt/a),
Hindalco and Adityas Orissa smelter (359 kt/a), and Hindalcos Mahan MP smelter (359 kt/a). In the
Middle East, new capacity, including Norsk Hydro and Qatar Aluminiums Qatalum smelter (585 kt) and
DUBAL and Mubadalas EMAL smelter (750 kt/a) are expected to reach full capacity by 2012. The US is
set to restart production at five smelters viz, Centurys Hawesville smelter (52 kt/a), Ormets Hannibal
smelters two potlines with a combined capacity of 80 kt/a, and Alcoas Massena East, Ferndale and
Wenatchee Works smelters with a combined capacity of 200 kt/a.

74
DEVELOPMENTS IN AFRICA
The Guinean government is set to reach an agreement with the Guinean state-owned company and
Chinise Power Investment to develop a bauxite mine and construct an alumina refinery, deep water port
and a power plant. The project will be located in Boffa about 120 km west of the capital Conakry and is
expected to commence in late 2012 with an estimated investment of $5.8 billion with the production
capacity estimated at 4 Mt/a. Also, the government in that country has reached an agreement with Rio
Tinto to secure Simandou bauxite resources and will form a joint venture with the Aluminium Corporation
of China (Chalco) produce alumina. The government is expected to own 35 percent of the company.

SOUTH AFRICA

South Africas primary aluminium production was stable at 810 kt in 2011 compared with 811 kt in 2010.
The stagnant growth reflected the impact of the Eurozone debt crisis and electricity challenges.

FIGURE 27: SOUTH AFRICAS PRIMARY ALUMINIUM EXPORTS BY DESTINATION, 2011

Netherlands
Other 23%
34%

Japan
Kenya 22%
4%

China France
7% 10%

Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics, 2012

In 2011, South Africas export pattern changed due to the effects of the Eurozone debt crisis. Of the total
output of aluminium produced in South Africa, 23 percent was shipped to the Netherlands followed by
Japan at 22 percent while 10 percent and 7 percent went to France and China, respectively (Fig. 27).

OUTLOOK

World aluminium production is expected to increase by 7 percent to 45.0 Mt in 2012 and is expected to
increase by a further 6 percent to 45.3 Mt in 2013. This growth is expected to be driven by smelter
restarts and the commissioning of new capacity in China, India, the Middle East and the United States.

World aluminium consumption is projected to increase by 8 percent to 42.7 Mt in 2012 and by a further 8
percent to 46.4 Mt in 2013. Consumption growth is expected to remain strong, particularly in the
transport sector, where aluminium is increasingly used in the manufacture of automobiles in order to
meet lighter vehicles requirements to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. The OECD aluminium
consumption is forecast to increase by 7 percent in 2012 and by a further 8 percent in 2013 supported by
growth in semi-finished products.

LME aluminium cash settlement prices are forecast to fall by 15.0 percent to $2 025.72/t in 2012 as a
result of the simmering Eurozone sovereign debt crisis and decline by a further 3 percent to an average
of $1 968.00/t in 2013.

South Africas automobile industry is expected to grow and increase exports, which may raise demand
for the light metal. Consequently, local aluminium production is expected to grow by marginally to 813 kt
in 2013.

75
REFERENCES

1. Department of Mineral Resources.

2. http://www.hydro.com/en/Press-room/News/Archive/Stock-exchange-announcements/2010/First-quarter-2010- Results-
recover-on-higher-aluminium-prices-and-rising-demand/
3. http://www.crugroup.com/October 2012.
4. http://af.reuters.com/article/investingNews/idAFJOE77Q01B20110827 http://www stats.world-aluminium.org.
5. U.S Geological Survey, 2012. Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2012: Internet website:http://www.usgs.gov.
6. http://www.metalprices.com,al
7. http://aluminiumintransportation.org,
8. http://www.bloomberg//aluminium
9. http://www.worldal.com/news/australia/2012-04-27/126398701723647.shtml

76
 ANTIMONY
Linda Maphango
WORLD SUPPLY

Global antimony reserves amounted to approximately 1.8 Mt in 2011. At 0.95 Mt, China hosts 51.9
percent of the worlds reserves, followed by Russias 19.1 percent, Bolivias 16.9 percent, Tajikistans 2.7
percent and South Africas 1.2 percent (Table 43). In 2011, world mine production of antimony increased
slightly by 1.2 percent to 169.2 kt compared with 2010, due to increases in Bolivia, Russia and Tajikistan
in response to stronger demand. China continued its dominance of global output contributing 150 kt,
equivalent to 88.7 percent of world total. Second and third place in terms of production were Bolivia (2.9
percent) and South Africa (1.9 percent).

TABLE 43: WORLD RESERVES AND PRODUCTION OF ANTIMONY CONCENTRATES, 2011

COUNTRY RESERVE PRODUCTION

kt % Rank kt % Rank
Bolivia 310 16.9 3 5 2.9 2
China 950 51.9 1 150 88.7 1
Russia 350 19.1 2 3 1.8 4
South Africa 21 1.2 5 *3.2 1.9 3
Tajikistan 50 2.7 4 2 1.2 5
Other 150 8.2 - 6 3.5 -
Total 2011 1 831 100.0 169.2 100.0
2010 1 831 167.2
Source: USGS, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2012
*DMR Mineral Economics Directorate

In 2011 the government of China continued to shut down antimony mines and smelters to curb pollution
and smuggling. Over the past couple of years the local government in Lengshuijiang, Hunan Province,
which contributes about 60 percent of the global antimony production, closed down nearly all of its mines
and smelters. However, Chinas production remained the same at 150 kt in 2011, signaling sporadic
production increases from some of the mines which made up for the loss of production as a result of
mine and smelter closures.

WORLD DEMAND

Antimony is used principally in flame retardants as antimony trioxide. Antimony trioxide acts as a
synergist to improve the performance of primary flame retardants. Flame retardants consume about 52
percent of primary antimony production, followed by lead-acid-batteries (26 percent), plastic catalysts &
heat stabilisers (9 percent), glass and ceramics (7 percent), and lead alloys (4 percent) (Fig. 28). The
buoyant antimony market in 2011 was fuelled by continued growth in demand for antimony in flame
retardants as well as in lead-acid-batteries. At 58 percent, Asia was the largest consuming region in
2011, with China alone accounting for about 50 percent of world demand.

77
FIGURE 28: GLOBAL ANTIMONY CONSUMPTION BY SECTOR, 2011

Glass & ceramics, 7%

Other, 2%
Lead alloys, 4%

Plastic catalysts &

heat stabilisers, 9%
Flame
retardants, 52%

Lead-acid
batteries, 26%

Estimates from various sources

The strong global market for antimony was mainly driven by the following:

Supply restrictions in China due to intermittent production interruptions stemming from the clamp
downs on mines and smelters in a bid to control environmental and safety problems.
Tighter fire regulations and building codes for improving safety; and
Increasing use of plastic products instead of less flammable material.

PRICES

In early 2011, prices of antimony continued the upward trend seen for most of the previous year, due to
supply constraints in China (Fig. 29). The annual average price of antimony increased by 63.3 percent to
$14 729/t in 2011 compared with 2010. Prices of antimony climbed by 27.3 percent from a monthly
average of $13 025/t in January 2011 to $16 578/t in April 2011. This increase is equivalent to a growth
rate of 8.3 percent compounded monthly.

FIGURE 29: ANTIMONY METAL BULLETIN, FREE MARKET PRICES, 2011 2012

18000.00
16000.00
14000.00
12000.00
10000.00
$/t

8000.00
6000.00
4000.00
2000.00
0.00
Jan-11

Jan-12
May-11

May-12
Jul-11
Jun-11

Jun-12
Mar-11

Mar-12
Dec-11
Aug-11

Oct-11
Apr-11

Apr-12
Feb-11

Sep-11

Nov-11

Feb-12

Months

Source: Metal Bulletin Free Market, 2011 - 2012

78
In May 2011, prices fell by 3.2 percent to $16 052 compared with the previous month. Prices decreased
by 13.9 percent to $14 268/t in July compared with April, representing a compounded monthly negative
growth rate of 4.9 percent. Prices declined after the Chinese government had approved mine smelters to
resume operations in April 2012. The smelters had been shut down during environmental inspections
carried out by the authorities from September 2010 to April 2011. The fall in prices was further
exacerbated by waning demand from Europe and Asia, particularly, Japan in the aftermath of the
earthquake and tsunami in March 2011.

Prices rose by 4.0 percent and 4.6 percent in August and September to $14 843/t and $15 532/t, due to
improving demand. Prices went down by 20.7 percent to $12 321/t in January 2012 compared with
September 2011, equating to a compounded monthly negative growth rate of 7.4 percent, owing to rising
inventory levels in China. In February 2012, prices increased by 4.1 percent to $12 824/t compared with
the previous month, as a result of smelter stoppages in Chinas Guangxi province, following a cadmium
poisoning incident during the month. Prices remained stable until April. Prices ascended to $14 000/t in
May, on the back of stronger demand, before dropping to $13 223/t in June due to high inventories and
lower domestic consumption in China.

DEVELOPMENTS IN SOUTH AFRICA

South Africas production of antimony concentrate decreased by 2.0 percent to 3 175 t in 2011 compared
with the previous year. The slump in production was mainly as a result of a loss of 17 shifts at Cons
Murch mine, the only producer of antimony in South Africa, due to labour related disruptions.

The introduction of trackless machinery and better antimony feed grades and improved plant recoveries
since the second half of 2011 assisted in reducing major production losses. South Africas total sales
volume of antimony concentrate increased by 9.7 percent to 2 709 t in 2011 compared with 2010, due to
stronger global demand in the first half of 2011. Total sales revenue more than doubled from R102
million in 2010 to R213 million in 2011, as a result of firm global antimony prices.

On 7 March 2011, Village Main assumed full control of Cons Murch mine after the conclusion of the sale
contract with the Point Growth Specialist (TTP). Cons Murch mine has mobilised resources with the
primary aim of improving ore body flexibility and ramping up underground development. The mine is also
planning to replace underground equipment and infrastructure. These interventions are expected to
result in higher production to a planned steady-state level of 27 000 t per month milled. The mine is
currently deepening two of its three shafts using trackless mechanised equipment in a bid to boost
production and efficiencies. Also, the process of upgrading the plant to improve recoveries and operating
efficiencies is under way. Furthermore, the mine is currently exploring for antimony on the surrounding
property where it holds a prospecting right.

DEVELOPMENTS OUTSIDE SOUTH AFRICA

United States Antimony Corporation (USAC), a vertically integrated producer of antimony in the US, has
fast-tracked the development of its antimony, silver and gold property at Los Juarez in Mexico. The
company has begun to examine and develop various zones at the property in order to evaluate the
grades. USAC plans to undertake exploration and processing activities at the deposit, such as core
drilling, underground mining sampling and flotation of mill feeds during the second half of 2012.

USAC also completed its Corral Blance flotation mill project in Guanjuanita, Mexico, at the end of 2011.
The mill has the capacity to produce 150 t per day of 50 60 percent-purity antimony concentrate. Silver
and gold will be produced as by-products. USACs nearby Los Juarez antimony, silver and gold mine
together with other sources will provide the feed for the mill. The mill will supply concentrate feed to
Modero sulphide and oxide smelter in Coahuila state, northern Mexico, for the production of antimony
trioxide.

Tri-Star Resources, a UK based company, is currently developing its Goynuk antimony exploration
project in north-west Turkey. The project has the potential to produce 350 kt of antimony, from grades of
between 1 and 3 percent. The company could start with a comprehensive mine-scoping study, provided
the project is found to have a significant mineral resource. The company has secured an environmental
permit for its 14 kt per annum processing facility to treat the existing stockpile at Goynuk.

79
OUTLOOK

Antimony supply is expected to increase in Bolivia, South Africa, and Tajikistan and could go a long way
in replacing declining production in China. South Africas production is forecast to increase in 2012 due
to higher ore grades and improved plant recoveries and the use of trackless machinery. Potential
additional sources of antimony concentrates are anticipated to come from Australia, Canada, Mexico and
Russia in the next two years. The closure of smaller and polluting smelter operations as well as clamp
downs on illegal mines in China could contribute to fluctuating production in 2012. Moreover, diminishing
high-grade reserves in China could further restrict the supply of antimony.

Flame retardants are expected to continue to be the main engine of growth in the consumption of
antimony in the foreseeable future. According to Roskill, global demand for antimony in flame retardants
is projected to grow at about 3 percent per annum from 2012 to 2016. The biggest growth in this sector is
expected to be driven by increasing demand in Asia, Middle East, Africa and South America. The
increasing use of automobiles in the emerging markets such as Brazil, Russia, India and China could
raise consumption of antimony in lead-acid-batteries, the second major consuming sector. Growth in
demand is expected to continue in 2012 and production is expected to increase moderately in 2012.

In 2012, prices of antimony are forecast to decrease slightly, but are expected to remain at higher levels
over the longer term supported by the Chinese governments ongoing measures to curtail production and
protect the environment. Industry analysts believe that the antimony deficit in the market will increase
fuelled by the increase in global demand for fire retardants and the decline in supplies from China.

The strong fundamentals in the global antimony industry augur well for South Africa, taking into account
the fluctuating feed grades at Cons Murch mine. The mine is currently in the process of improving mine
and plant operational efficiencies with the aim of boosting South Africas antimony concentrate
production in 2012 and beyond.

REFERENCES

1. Industrial Minerals various publications, 2011 -2012.

2. Metal Bulletin, Prices, 2011 2012.
3. U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, Antimony 2012.
4. Roskill, Antimony: Changes in the pattern of supply and demand, April 2012, http://www.roskill.co.uk.
5. Personal communication with Consolidated Murchison mine

80
 COBALT

Chili Thomas

SUPPLY

According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), world cobalt reserves were estimated at 7.5
Mt in 2011, reflecting an increase of 2.7 percent when compared with 2010 (Table 44). At 45.3 percent,
the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) has the worlds largest of cobalt reserves followed by Australia
(18.7 percent) and Cuba (6.7 percent). South Africa accounted for 0.2 percent of the world reserves and
th
was ranked 11 in the world. Fifty seven percent of global cobalt production is derived from nickel mining
while 37 percent is sourced from copper mining and the balance comes from primary cobalt operations.

TABLE 44: WORLD RESERVES AND MINE PRODUCTION OF COBALT, 2011

RESERVES MINE PRODUCTION

COUNTRY kt Percent Rank t Percent Rank
Australia 1 400 18.7 2 4 000 4.1 6
Brazil 87 1.2 8 1 700 1.7 10
Canada 130 1.7 7 7 200 7.3 3
China 80 1.1 9 6 500 6.6 4
Cuba 500 6.7 3 3 600 3.7 7
DR Congo 3 400 45.3 1 52 000 53.1 1
Morocco 20 0.3 10 2 500 2.6 9
New Caledonia 370 4.9 4 2 000 2.0 8
Russia 250 3.3 6 6 300 6.4 5

South Africa 13 0.2 11 840 0.9 11
Zambia 270 3.6 5 5 700 12.5 2
Other 980 13 5 660 5.8
TOTAL 2011 7 500 100 98 000 100
2010 7 300 88 300
Sources: USGS, January 2012, (for Reserves and Mine Production)

DMR, Mineral Economics Directorate (mine production)
e
Estimate

World cobalt mine production rose by 11.0 percent to 98.0 kt in 2011, compared with
88.3 kt in 2010 (Table 45). The DRC was the worlds largest producer of cobalt accounting for 53.1
percent followed by Zambia (12.5 percent). Canada relegated China to fourth place accounting for 7.3
percent and 6.6 percent, respectively. South Africa contributed 0.9 percent to global cobalt mine output,
derived mainly as a by-product from Platinum Group Metals (PGMs) mines.

In 2011, world refined cobalt production increased marginally by 3.8 percent to 82.2 kt, when compared
with 2010 (Table 45). Despite Chinese refined cobalts 2.7 percent decline, it remained the largest
producer accounting for 42.5 percent of global refined cobalt output followed by Finland (12.7 percent)
th
and Zambia (7.2 percent). South Africa contributed 1.0 percent of global output and ranked 12 .

81
TABLE 45: REFINED COBALT PRODUCTION BY COUNTRY, 2010 AND 2011

COUNTRY 2010 2011 RANK

t % t %
Australia 4 117 5.2 4 722 5.7 5
Belgium 2 600 3.3 3 187 3.9 6
Canada 4 646 5.9 5 923 7.2 4
China 3 5929 45.3 34 969 42.5 1
D R of Congo 4 182 5.3 3 083 3.7 7
Finland 9 299 11.7 10 441 12.7 2
Japan 1 935 2.4 2 007 2.4 10
Morocco 1 545 1.9 1 788 2.2 11
Norway 3 208 4.0 3 067 3.7 8
Russia 2 460 3.1 2 337 2.8 9
South Africa* 840 1.1 862 1 12
Zambia 5 034 4.4 5 956 7.2 3
Other 3 475 100 3905 4.7
TOTAL 79 270 82 247
Source: World Bureau of Metal Statistics Year Book 2012
*DMR, Mineral Economics Directorate

The Cobalt Development Institute (CDI) members cobalt production rose by 14.9 percent to 35.5 kt in
2011 (Table 46). The increase resulted from a rise in all CDI members production except Gcamines in
DRC, which fell by 12.8 percent in 2011 due to delays in a production revamp.

TABLE 46: CDI MEMBER COMPANIES REFINED COBALT PRODUCTION, 2010 AND 2011

COMPANY COUNTRY 2010 2011 RANK

t t
CDI MEMBERS

BHPB/QNPL Australia 2 141 2 631 5

Chambishi Zambia 3 934 4 856 2
CTT Morocco 1 545 1 788 8
CVRD / Vale Inco Canada 940 2 070 6
Eramet France 302 354 11
Gcamines DRC 745 650 9
ICCI Canada 3 706 3 853 3
OMG Finland 9 299 10 441 1
Sumitomo Japan 1 935 2 007 7

Rubamin India 517 579 10
Umicore Belgium*
+
Xstrata Norway 3 208 3 067 4
TOTAL 30 872 35 483

Source: Rubamin joined CDI in 2010
+
Estimates
Chinese production excludes that produced by Umicore in China,
Cobalt News, April, 2012,
Cobalt Supply and Demand 2010 (Cobalt Facts, 2011, CDI)

82
DEMAND

According to CDI, global cobalt demand increased by 15 percent to 75 kt in 2011 when compared with
2010. The demand for cobalt was tied to its main drivers batteries, particular by portable devices and the
new generation of Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV) and all Electric Vehicles (EV), which consumed 30
percent of cobalt consumption (Fig. 30). Superalloys (Ni/Co/Fe/Cr) accounted for 19 percent of
consumption, hard material-carbides and diamond tooling (13 percent) while catalysts and ceramics
accounted for 9 percent each.

FIGURE 30: COBALT CONSUMPTION BY SECTOR, 2012

Tyre Superalloy (Ni/Co/Fe/Cr)

Adhesives, Soaps, Drier 19%
s (paint/ ink)
5%
Batteries
30%

Hardfacing/HSS &
other alloys
5%

Magnets all types

7%

Feedstuffs, Biotech, Ano

dising, record media Hard Materials-
lectrolysis Coluors- Carbides, Diamond
3% Glass, Enamels, Plastic Tooling
s, Ceramics, Artist 13%
Colurs, Fabrics Catalyst
9% 9%

Source: Cobalt Facts, Supply and Demand, 2012 (The CDI)

PRICES

In 2011, the European debt crisis flared and the Chinese economy experienced a slowdown, which
affected the cobalt market adversely. Cobalt prices commenced at $19.87/Ib in January 2011 and traded
in a narrow band until September 2011 (Fig.31). At the end of 2011, the price of cobalt metal dropped to
a low level average of $14.00/lb. In 2011, the cobalt market was heavily oversupplied, profit margins
continued to erode, particular in the Chinese market, thus resulting in a decrease of 14.5 percent in the
annual average cobalt price to $17.58/lb compared with 2010. In the first half of 2012, the cobalt market
was still oversupplied; as a result cobalt prices plummeted further by 6.4 percent to reach $15.05/Ib
when compared with the second half of 2011, affected by the European debt crisis.

83
FIGURE 31: COBALT PRICE, 2010 2012

25.00

20.00
Prices ($/Ib)

15.00

10.00

5.00

0.00
Aug-10

Aug-11
Jan-10

Mar-10

Jan-11

Mar-11

Jan-12

Mar-12
Nov-10
Dec-10

Nov-11
Dec-11
Feb-10

Apr-10

Sep-10
Oct-10

Feb-11

Apr-11

Sep-11
Oct-11

Feb-12

Apr-12
May-10
Jun-10

May-11
Jun-11

May-12
Jun-12
Jul-10

Jul-11

Jul-12
Month

Sources: Metal Bulletin, 2012

SOUTH AFRICA

South Africas cobalt is derived as a by-product of platinum-group metals (PGMs) and nickel mining.
Cobalt mine production increased by 2.6 percent to 862.2 t in 2011 when compared with 2010, as a
resulting of several mining operations reaching mature production stages. Local sales volumes declined
by 26 percent due to weaker demand, impacting on revenues, which dropped by 26 percent to R42.9
million. The effects of the Eurozone debt crisis and global economic slowdown also had the negative
impact on exports, which decreased by 9.6 percent while the export revenues declined by 15.5 percent
to R114.5 million.

TABLE 47: SOUTH AFRICAS LOCAL AND EXPORT SALES OF COBALT, 2001 2011
YEAR PRODUCTION LOCAL SALES EXPORT SALES
Mass Value (FOR) Mass Value (FOR)
kg kg R 000 R/kg kg R 000 R/kg
2001 373 259 36 928 6 437 174 316 941 63 759 201
2002 352 000 33 790 5 996 177 311 591 55 225 177
2003 271 383 19 133 3 053 161 241 054 36 238 151
2004 308 929 18 517 5 671 306 309 848 83 232 269
2005 267 962 32 702 4 439 136 241 025 51 615 214
2006 266 875 44 320 8 882 200 220 921 46 975 213
2007 306 834 30 259 10 578 350 248 575 99 539 400
2008 244 407 43 134 26 231 608 261 494 167 774 642
2009 237 812 75 109 20 435 272 182 659 63 181 346
2010 840 285 57 988 16 110 278 493 098 135 424 275
2011 862 198 42 912 10 789 251 450 061 114 457 254
Source: Department of Minerals, Directorate Mineral Economics

84
GLOBAL AND AFRICAN DEVELOPMENTS

The emergence of China as a major refined cobalt producer and consumer since 2007 has changed the
pattern of demand for cobalt, particularly from Africa and Australasia. Chinese companies are becoming
increasingly involved in copper and cobalt exploration and mining in the DRC and Zambia as well as in
nickel and copper, mining in Australia and the South Pacific.

Madagascars Ambatovy cobalt and nickel mine has started production and has signed a contract with a
UK firm that will market its cobalt in 2011. Ambatovy is a partnership between four companies:
Sherritt International (TSX:S8) (40 percent),C-Lavalin Group (TSX:SNC9) (5percent), Japans
Sumitomo (TSE:805310) (27.5 percent) and Korea Resources Investment & Development (27.5
percent). The mine is forecast to produce about 60 kt of refined nickel, and 5,6 kt of refined cobalt per
annum. An investment of over $100 million is expected to be committed per annum and additional
amount of $25 million will be paid to government duties, tax and royalties.

In South Africa, Platinum Australias Smokey Hills mine, is facing an uncertain future following the
groups decision to place it under review, while Eastern Platinum suspended funding for its Mareesburg
open pit mine and Kennedy's Vale concentrator projects due to the operating environment in the country
and the global economic slowdown.

In June 2012, Aquarius Platinum suspended operations at both its Everest and Marikana mines in South
Africa, due to weak platinum prices and high costs. The company, which now has three of its seven
operations under care and maintenance, is expected to restart mining once platinum prices and industrial
relations have improved.

Some South African platinum companies were curtailing output and cutting back on projects, amid high
costs and low prices. However, Platinum Group Metals announced its plans to finance and complete its
74 percent owned by Western Bushveld Joint Venture (WBJV) Project 1. The company was also looking
at exploring and expanding its new Waterberg discovery in South Africa.

In May 2012, Nkwe Platinum confirmed that it had received the final definitive feasibility study for the
Garatau project..

OUTLOOK

With the continued ramp-up of new mines in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), and the start-up
of greenfields projects, the supply is expected to rise. New cobalt capacity is expected to add 20 kt in the
DRC and supply is expected to reach 95 kt in 2013 and 2014. The projects are expected in Madagascar
from mine to add 45 percent. Production at Ambatovy is expected to commence in early 2013. Japanese
to add 55 percent.
In 2011, plans were announced or new mines with a cumulative capacity of more than 100 kt per year of
cobalt. This additional planned capacity corresponds to 175 percent of the 2008 global refinery
production level. About 45 percent of this cobalt would be from primary nickel deposits, about 32 percent
from primary copper deposits, and about 21 percent from primary cobalt deposits. By 2013, about 40
percent of new capacity is expected to come from the African Copperbelt; 38 percent from Australia and
the Asian and the South Pacific countries of Philippines, Indonesia, New Caledonia, and Papua New
Guinea; 11 percent from other African countries; 5 percent from North America; and 6 percent, from
other areas.

Global demand for cobalt is anticipated to increase by 11.5 percent in 2012 and 8.9 percent in 2013. The
projected increase will be fuelled by demand from superalloys used in aircraft jet engines, rechargeable
batteries for hybrid and electric vehicles and gas-to-liquid facilities set to come on stream in 2013. The
market growth is expected to be supported by a rebound in vehicle production of a new generation of
Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV) and all Electric Vehicles (EV), which consumed 30 percent of cobalt
consumption in 2012.

In South Africa, the production of cobalt is expected to rise, in-line with the increase in nickel production,
which is expected nickel is expected to increase from 8.6 kt in 2012 to 10.5 kt by 2013 when the Nkomati
Expansion Project reaches its full capacity. The countrys cobalt production, which is predominantly
produced as a by-product from PGMs mines is not likely to be affected by labour disruptions, which have
already affected PGMs output as is normally stockpiled.

85
According to CRU, cobalt prices are expected to average $14.00/lb in 2012 due to a surplus of refined
cobalt along with high levels of inventories of raw materials in China. It is anticipated that prices could
drop further to $12.80/lb in 2013, before increasing to $17.00/lb in 2017, when the refined market revert
back to a state of equilibrium.

REFERENCES

1. Cobalt Market review, December 2011, Darton Commodities Limited

2. Cobalt News, October, 2011, London,
3. Cobalt Supply & Demand 2011. Cobalt Facts 2010, CDI
4. Darton Commodities Limited. cobalt market review 2010-2011 (projects)
5. http://ambatovy.com/docs
6. http://asopa.typepad.com
7. http://nickel.vale.com
8. U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2012

86
 COPPER

Chili Thomas

WORLD SUPPLY

According to the World Bureau of Metal Statistics (WBMS), global copper mine production increased
marginally by 0.7 percent to 16.2 Mt in 2011 when compared with 16.1 Mt in 2010 (Table 48). Chile
continued to be the worlds largest copper mine producer, contributing 5.26 Mt followed by Perus 1.24
Mt and Chinas 1.27 Mt. In Africa, Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo and South Africa are the
largest producers of copper collectively contributing 1.31 Mt to the global copper mine output. Production
declined in Chile, the United States, Australia and Indonesia due to operational failures, labour unrest
and lower ore grades. Production in China, currently the second leading copper mine producer,
increased by 9.6 percent to 1.27 Mt in 2011 resulting from new production start-ups.

TABLE 48: WORLD RESERVES, MINE PRODUCTION AND EXPORTS, 2011

COUNTRY RESERVES PRODUCTION EXPORTS

Mt % Rank kt % Rank kt % Rank
Australia 86 12.5 3 957 5.9 5 376 4.5 5
Canada 7 1.0 10 566 3.5 7 139 1.7 7
Chile 190 27.5 1 5 263 32.4 1 2 981 35.7 1
China 30 4.3 5 1 267 7.8 2 157 1.9 10
DRC 20 2.9 8 440 2.3 11 n/a n/a n/a
Indonesia 28 4.1 7 526 3.2 6 132 1.6 8
Kazakhstan 7 1.0 9 435 2.7 8 298 3.6 6
Peru 90 13.0 2 1 235 7.6 3 345 4.1 4
Poland 26 3.8 7 426 2.6 9 328 3.9 5
Russia 30 4.3 6 725 4.5 5 325 3.9 3
South Africa* 11 1.6 9 89 0.5 10 26 0.3 11
USA 35 5.1 4 1138 7.0 4 43 0.5 9
Zambia 20 2.9 8 784 4.8 6 635 7.7 2
Other 110 15.9 - 2 831 17.4 - 2 563 30.7
TOTAL 2011 690 100.0 16 242 100.0 8 352 100.0
2010 630 16 135 8 362

Sources: USGS, 2012, p45

WBMS
Notes: Department of Mineral Resources (DMR), Directorate Mineral Economics: Copper concentrates,
blister anode, and refined copper

Regional copper mine production in Africa increased by 8.7 percent, the Americas by 0.8 percent,
Europe by 1.6 percent, and Oceania by 5.6 percent, and declined by 4.6 percent in Asia

In 2011, world refined copper production increased by 3.1 percent to 19.8 Mt compared with 2010. The
higher production was attributed mainly to an increase in output in China of 14.5 percent, Australia 12.5
percent, and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) 17.6 percent, which offset the declines in Japan
of 14.2 percent, Chile 4.7 percent and the United States 1.4 percent. Regionally, refined copper
production increased by 12.8 percent in Australia followed by Asias 7.6 percent, 4.8 percent in Africa
and Europes 2.7 percent.

87
CONSUMPTION

In 2011, world refined copper consumption grew by 1.0 percent to 19.5 Mt, fuelled by growth from the
construction sector in China. Russias copper consumption grew by 44.8 percent to 676 kt while Chinese
demand rose by 6.8 percent to 7.9 Mt. The large increase in Russian copper consumption was attributed
to growth in the wire copper rod sector. Usage in the United States recorded a modest increase of 0.3
percent as the year progressed, while the European Union (EU) declined by 3.5 percent. Japanese
usage, was down by 5.0 percent in 2011 following the earthquake/tsunami.

Regional refined copper usage increased by 21.0 percent in Africa due to infrastructural development,
particular by the electrical sector where copper is used extensively while consumption in Asia and in
Europe went up by 1.6 percent and 2.5 percent, respectively. Usage decreased by 6.7 percent and 14.6
percent in the Americas and Oceania, respectively. The refined copper market was slightly oversupplied
by 0.3 Mt in 2011 (Fig.32).

FIGURE 32: GLOBAL REFINED COPPER PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION, 2007-2011

20.0

19.5

19.0
Mass (Mt)

18.5

18.0

17.5

17.0
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Year

Supply Demand
Source: World Bureau of Metal Statistics 2012

Demand for refined copper was tied to its main driver, electrical/ electronics, which accounted for 42
percent, followed by construction and transportation at 28 percent and 12 percent, respectively
(Fig.33).The balance of demand was from consumer durables and industrial machinery, which accounted
for 9 percent each.

88
FIGURE 33: WORLD INDUSTRIAL REFINED COPPER DEMAND BY SECTOR, 2011

Consumer Industrial
durables machinery
9% 9% Electric/Electronic
Transportation 42%
12%

Construction
28%
Source: London Metal Exchange (LME), 2011

PRICES

London Metal Exchange (LME) copper cash settlement prices remained robust despite the prevailing
Eurozone debt crisis and the US economic woes. Copper prices rose by 17.2 percent to an annual
average of $8 833.73/t in 2011 (Fig. 34). This was mainly attributed to the LME falling copper inventories,
which decreased by 2.5 percent to 437 kt in 2011 compared with 2010.

FIGURE 34: LME CASH SETTLEMENT COPPER PRICES (MONTHLY AVERAGES), 2010-2012

12000.00

10000.00
LME prices ($/t)

8000.00

6000.00

4000.00

2000.00

0.00
Oct-10

Oct-11
Feb-10

Aug-10
Sep-10

Dec-10

Feb-11

Aug-11
Sep-11

Dec-11

Feb-12
Jul-10

Jul-11

Jul-12
Jan-10

Jun-10

Jan-11

Jun-11

Jan-12

Jun-12
Apr-10
May-10

Apr-11
May-11

Apr-12
May-12
Mar-10

Nov-10

Mar-11

Nov-11

Mar-12

Month
Sources: Metal Bulletin, 2012

After hitting a record high of $9 867.60/t in February 2011, LME copper prices plummeted to a low
average of $7 347.50/t in October 2011, due to the persisting Eurozone debt crisis. However, the copper
price improved during the first quarter of 2012 to an average $ 8 307.67/t, spurred by Chinese demand
but then slid down to a monthly average of $7 919.93/t in May 2012.

89
SOUTH AFRICA

South Africas copper production (cathode, copper in concentrate) improved by 6.0 percent to 89 kt in
2011 compared with 2010. Copper output was supported by production from Platinum Group Metals
(PGMs) mines. PGMs copper production rose by 3.3 percent to 25.2 kt. Local consumption rose by 5.3
percent to 60 kt while exports climbed by 4 percent to 26 kt. Local average unit value rose by 16. 9
percent to R65 168/t while average export unit value went up by 20.2 percent to R58 581/t. Also, local
sales revenue climbed by 24.6 percent to R3.94 billion while revenue from export sales rose by 23.6
percent to R1.21 billion as a result of higher average copper prices.

TABLE 49: SOUTH AFRICA'S PRODUCTION, LOCAL SALES AND EXPORTS OF COPPER, 2002
2011

YEAR PRODUCTION LOCAL SALES EXPORT SALES

Mass Mass Value (FOR) Mass Value (FOR)
kt kt R'000 R/t kt R'000 R/t
2002 130 80 1 381 519 17 197 51 761 829 14 909
2003 121 76 1 073 734 14 114 46 567 502 12 229
2004 103 84 1 542 829 18 381 29 583 293 16 495
2005 99 82 1 926 378 23 496 30 656 721 21 882
2006 110 84 3 892 035 46 452 24 1 064 092 43 598
2007 113 77 4 025 725 52 242 36 1 772 305 49 683
2008 97 68 4 120 564 60 168 33 1 507 356 45 860
2009 93 68 2 835 737 41 695 27 1 022 782 38 152
2010 84 57 3 160 029 55 750 25 1 209 297 48 718
2011 89 60 3 937 749 65 168 26 1 495 100 58 581

Source: Department of Minerals Resources, Directorate Mineral Resources

Notes: Exports include cathode, blister and concentrates. The mass shown is that of metal and contained metal

Of the total exports of copper, 62 percent were shipped to Great Britain (UK), 19 percent went to Finland,
followed by Switzerland and Germany at 12 percent and 6 percent respectively (Fig.35). Mauritius and
Nigeria imported 1 percent and 0.4 percent of South Africas copper exports, respectively.

FIGURE 35: SOUTH AFRICAS EXPORTS DESTINATION BY COUNTRY, 2011

Mauritius Nigeria Other Switzerland

Germany 1% 0.4% 0.01% 12%
6% Finland
19%

Great Britain
62%

Source: Department of Mineral Resources, 2011, Directorate Mineral Resources

DEVELOPMENTS IN AFRICA

Mwembeshi Resources, a subsidiary of Zambezi Resources in Zambia, is set to develop an opencast

mine project located at Kanguluwi in the Chongwe district, 50 km from Lusaka at the estimated cost of

90
$494 million. The company committed $12 million to this project in 2011. The feasibility study is expected
to be completed in 2013. The full capacity is expected to be 15 Mt/a of copper concentrate and will
recruit a workforce 250.

Also, in Zambia, a London listed company, Vedenta Resources, plans to extend the life of mine of
Konkola Copper Mines (KCM)s Nchanga operations by 25 years after 2013. The total cost of the project
is estimated at $180 million; the company had committed $70 million in mid 2012. The project is
expected to add 35 kt of copper per annum.

In South Africa, Palabora Mining Company approved exploration and development on the Lift II project at
an estimated value of R363 million. The project is expected to add 12 to 14 years life of mine.

OUTLOOK

World copper mine production in 2012 is projected to increase by 5.1 percent to 16.9 Mt. Capacity
utilization rates are expected to improve from 79 percent in 2011 to an average of 81 percent in 2012.
Growth in mine output is expected to come from restoration of production at existing operations rather
than from new projects. Some expansions and start-ups are envisaged to occur in 2013 and could help
boost mine production by 7.6 percent to 18.1 Mt.

In 2012, world refined copper production is expected to remain constrained by the shortage of
concentrates due low copper ore grades but is projected to increase by 2.5 percent to reach 20.2 Mt.
International Copper Study Group (ICSG) predicts world refined usage to grow by 2.5 percent to 20.4 Mt.
Demand growth in China is anticipated to slow down to 3.6 percent, a contraction in demand is also
expected for the EU, no growth is foreseen for usage in Japan and the US while global usage is
expected to grow by 3.9 percent

According to ICSG, in 2012, world demand for refined copper is expected to exceed production of refined
copper by 240 kt, as supply lags behind the growth in demand. This would be the third consecutive year
of production deficit. However, in 2013, increased output from new and existing mines could reverse the
3-year trend and refined copper production could exceed demand by 350 kt.

The ICSG recognizes that numerous factors, such as the world economic slowdown, EU sovereign debt
issues, political disturbances in the Middle East and North Africa, production shortfalls owing to labor
unrest, utility and capital shortages, and technical factors, may confound these predictions .

In 2012, LME copper prices are expected to decline by 5 percent to $7 209.90/t as a result of Eurozone
debt crisis and the economic woes in the US. However, prices are anticipated to increase in 2013 to
reach $8 533.35/t due to the expected supply deficit. This could encourage the start-up of new copper
projects, which may drag the markets back into surplus thereby impacting the prices in 2014.

South Africas production and sales are expected to be stagnant in 2012 due to lower copper recoveries
resulting from the non-floatability of ore. Palabora Mining Company is planning to mine deeper to exploit
higher copper ore grades to ameliorate the impact of lower copper recovery. Copper production from
PGMs mines is expected to decline due to labour unrest in 2012 but will not have significant impact on
the countrys copper output. South Africas copper prices are anticipated to reach R74 999.14/t in 2012,
which could have a positive effect on company revenues.

REFERENCES

1. Department of Mineral Resources: Mineral Economics.

2. International Copper Study Group: Press Release.
3. London Metal Exchange (LME).
4. U.S Geological Survey, 2012. Mineral Commodity Summaries,
5. http://www zambian-economist.com
6. http://www.commodities-now.com/reports/metals-and-mining/1832-2009-base-metals
7. Monitor CRU: Copper

91
 LEAD

Eunice Pitso
WORLD SUPPLY

Global lead mine output in 2011 was 4 616 kt, an increase of 9.8 percent compared with 4 205 kt
recorded in 2010. China at 2 358 kt remained the largest producer followed by Australia at 561 Kt, at
USA 345 kt and Peru at 230 kt (Table 50). South Africa dominated Africas production at 54 kt, followed
by Morocco at 42 kt and Namibia at 10 kt. Leads fortunes rest almost solely on the state of the global
automotive markets. Whether used in replacement batteries for existing cars and e-bikes, incorporated
into new bikes, or car and truck production, leads consumption is driven predominantly by the transport
sector.

TABLE 50: WORLD RESERVES, MINE PRODUCTION AND EXPORTS OF LEAD, 2011

RESERVES PRODUCTION EXPORTS

COUNTRY Mt % Rank kt % Rank kt % Rank

Australia 28 20 2 561 12.1 2 513 18.4 1

Canada 9 6.4 4 59 1.3 8 131 4.7 5
China 36 25.7 1 2 358 50.7 1 10 0.4 25
India X - - 115 2.5 6 - - -
Ireland X - - 51 1.1 10 39 1.4 11
Mexico 2 1.4 7 220 4.7 5 223 8.0 3
Morocco 1 0.7 8 42 0.9 14 55 2.0 13
Peru 4 2.9 5 230 4.9 4 250 9.0 2
South Africa* 3 2.1 6 54 1.2 9 50 1.8 14
Sweden 1 0.7 8 62 1.3 7 94 3.4 12
USA 20 14.3 3 345 7.4 3 44 1.6 15
Other 36 25.7 - 519 11.2 - 1381 49.5 -
TOTAL 140 100 4 616 100 - 2790 100 -

Sources: ILZSG, July 2011

USGS, April 2011
DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics
Note: X Not specified, but estimates have been included in other countries

World refined lead production reached 10 647 kt in 2011, an increase of 7.1 percent compared with
2010. China and the USA led the increase in world metal production with 9.7 percent and 4.9 percent
increases to 4 648 kt and 1 317 kt, respectively. Regional lead metal production was dominated by Asia,
which accounted for 58.9 percent, followed by the Americas 21.5 percent and Europes 16.4 percent,
(Figure 36). Africa accounted for 1.1 percent, with South Africa leading at 54 kt, 5.8 percent higher than
in 2010.

92
FIGURE 36: REFINED LEAD PRODUCTION BY REGION IN 2011

Other
Europe 3%
16%

Asia
America
59%
22%

Sources: ILZSG, July 2011

USGS, April 2011
DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

WORLD DEMAND

World refined lead metal consumption grew by 6.6 percent to 10 494 kt in 2011 compared with 9 846 kt
in 2010. China continued to dominate global demand, and its consumption increased by 9.9 percent to
4 632 kt, while the USs increased by 11.1 percent to 1 441 kt. Regionally, Asia remained the leading
lead metal consumer, with an increase of 8.4 percent to 6 498 kt in 2011. Asia accounted for 61.9
percent of world consumption followed by Americas 21.4 percent and Europes 15.5 percent (Figure 37).
Africa accounted for 0.9 percent of world consumption. South Africa dominated Africas secondary lead
consumption, accounting for 68.4 percent while Morocco accounted for 5.1 percent.

FIGURE 37: REGIONAL LEAD METAL CONSUMPTION IN 2011.

other 1.2%
Europe 15.5%

Asia
61.9%
America 21.4%

Sources: ILZSG, July 2011

USGS, April 2011
DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

DEVELOPMENTS IN SOUTH AFRICA

The Gamsberg zinc deposit was discovered in 1971. Five feasibility studies which were done in 1978,
1983, 1984, 1993 and 2000 indicate that the project would not generate an attractive return. More
studies were done in 2009 to 2010, and the results were positive and the project was commenced. The

93
identified resource is estimated at 186 Mt and the production capacity of both lead and zinc are expected
to be four times of South Africas current total per annum with a minimum life-of-mine of 16 year.

DEVELOPMENTS OUTSIDE SOUTH AFRICA

In July 2012, the administrator of the Doe Run Company in Peru announced the restarting of operations
at the metallurgical complex of La Oroya after being shut down in 2009 due to weak metal prices. The La
Oroya complex includes both smelters and refineries that process copper, zinc, gold, silver, lead, indium,
bismuth, gold, selenium, tellurium, antimony and other products. Production is expected to commence in
the last quarter of 2012. The restart of operations will begin on the zinc-processing circuit, where
equipment is already in place, and will followed resumption of lead operations.

PRICES

The annual average London Metal Exchange (LME) lead price was $2 375.92/t in 2011, 8.9 percent
higher than $2 165.10/t in 2010. During 2011, metal prices declined throughout the year, the lowest lead
cash settlement price was recorded in December, averaging $1 980 while the maximum average lead
cash settlement price was recorded in March at $2 720, (Figure 38). According to International Lead and
Zinc Study Group (ILZSG), the refined lead market was in surplus of 170 kt with the consumption
increase above 9 percent year on year, higher than its production increase of almost 8 percent year on
year. LME lead stocks increased to 370 kt in 2011 from 299 kt in 2010.

FIGURE 38: LEAD CASH SETTLEMENT PRICES (MONTHLY AVERAGE) IN 2011

3000

2500

2000
Price US$/t

1500

1000

500

Month

Sources: Metal Bulletin, Jan 2011 April 2012

Frys Metals, 2011
International Lead and Zinc Study Group
DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

SOUTH AFRICA

South Africas lead mine production increased by 5.8 percent to 54 kt in 2011 compared with 51 kt in
2010, principally because of the higher grade ore mining at Black Mountain, South Africas only lead
mine. Export sales decreased by 1.9 percent to 52 kt (Table 51). South Africa exports all its lead
concentrate.

94
TABLE 51: SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION, LOCAL SALES AND EXPORTS OF LEAD, 2002-2011

LOCAL SALES EXPORT SALES

YEAR PRODUCTION Mass Value (FOR) Mass Value (FOB)

kt t R000 R/t kt R000 R/t

2002 50 4 882 22 923 4 782 41 88 833 2 214
2003 40 339 1 284 3 789 44 108 600 2 470
2004 37 - - - 31 120 599 3 895
2005 42 - - - 47 211 458 4 497
2006 48 - - - 46 313 232 6 809
2007 42 - - - 37 492 678 13 315
2008 46 - - - 50 612 042 12 180
2009 49 - - - 44 482 903 11 002
2010 51 - - - 53 696 738 13 123
2011 54 - - - 52 762 929 14 569
Source: DMR, Mineral Economics Directorate

According to International Lead and Zinc Study Group (ILZSG), world lead mine production is expected
to rise by 10.9 percent to 5.21 Mt in 2012, and by a further 2.8 percent Mt in 2013, due to the expected
increase in output from China. Chinese mine output is forecast to reach 2.54 Mt, and contribute 52
percent to the world output. Other rises are expected in countries such as Mexico, Peru and the Russian
Federation.

Refined lead metal production is also expected to increase by 2.9 percent to 10.93 Mt in 2012 and by 3.8
percent to 11.32 Mt in 2013, principally because of re-opening of capacity which was placed under care
and maintenance in recent years and additional capacity from new operations. This includes the
reopening of a mine in Peru and a plant in Italy, the expansion of a plant in Kazakhstan, opening of a
secondary operation in Florida and South Carolina in the USA and the commissioning of new capacity at
a number of plants in China.

Global refined lead metal demand is anticipated to increase by 3.4 percent to 10.80 Mt in 2012 and by
3.3 percent to 11.54 Mt in 2013. The main driver behind a rise in world demand for refined lead metal is
the expected continuation of recovery of lead-acid batteries production in China after closure of many
small plants in 2011, due to new stricter environmental regulations. Chinese usage is forecast to rise by
4.8 percent in 2012 and by a further 4.7 percent in 2013. Higher demand growth is also expected in Asia
(particularly in India, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Thailand and Vietnam), while European demand is
expected to be the same as 2010 due to declining automotive sales. In the US, demand for lead metal is
expected to increase by 3.9 percent due to growth in the original and industrial battery sectors. It is
expected that global supply of refined lead metal will exceed demand by 108 kt in 2012 and by 174 kt in
2013.

Prices have remained highly volatile reflecting swings in investor sentiments and risk for lead-zinc mining
assets. Since the economic recovery, investors are looking to invest in other metals, because of the lead
price trends that show conflicting signals in the market, with some indicating weakness and some
strength. However prices are forecast to improve in 2014, owing to expectations of an improving
macroeconomic backdrop and more significant deficit in lead market that year.

The development of the Gamsberg project in South Africa brings positive future prospects for the
countrys lead output although the orebody is mostly zinc but there are few lead grades as associate
mineral.

REFERENCES

1. International Lead and Zinc Study Group, Monthly Bulletin on Lead and Zinc Statistics, August 2012
2. International Lead and Zinc Study Group, October Session/Forecast, April 2012
3. htt://www.metalbulletin.com
4. U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, 2011
5. htt://www.usgs.gov
6. www.basemetals.com

95
 NICKEL

Chili Thomas

WORLD SUPPLY

According to the US Geological Survey, world nickel reserves rose by 5.3 percent to 80 Mt in 2011
compared with 76Mt in 2010. Australia at 30 percent, hosts the worlds largest reserves followed by New
Caledonia at 15 percent, Brazil (10.9 percent) and Russia (7.5 percent). South Africa accounts for 4.6
th
percent of world reserves and is ranked 7 (Table 52). Seventy three percent of the worlds known nickel
resources are sourced from laterite nickel ore deposits occurring in the tropical areas of Indonesia, Cuba,
Colombia and New Caledonia. The balance is sourced from sulphides, particularly in Canada and
Russia.

In 2011, world nickel mine production rose by 18 percent to 1.83 Mt in 2011 when compared with 2010,
driven by growth in the stainless steel sector, particular from China (Table 52). Philippines became the
worlds largest nickel producer, accounting for 15.6 percent while Russia accounted for the 15.6 percent.
Third and fourth positions were occupied by Indonesia and Canada at 12.4 percent and 12 percent,
th
respectively. South Africa contributed 2.4 percent to the world nickel mine output and was ranked 10 .

TABLE 52: WORLD NICKEL RESERVES AND MINE PRODUCTION, 2011

#
Country Reserve Mine Production
kt percent Rank kt percent Rank
Australia 2 4000 30.0 1 212.0 11.6 5
Brazil 8 700 10.9 3 65.8 3.6 9
Canada 3 300 4.1 8 219.6 12.0 4
China 3 000 3.8 9 89.8 4.9 7
Colombia 720 0.9 12 37.8 2.1 11
Cuba 5 500 6.9 5 66.0 3.6 8
Indonesia 3 900 4.9 6 226.9 12.4 3
Madagascar 1 600 2.0 10 0.0 0.0 N/A
New Caledonia 12 000 15.0 2 130.7 7.1 6
Phillippines 1 100 1.4 11 286.2 15.6 1
Russia 6 000 7.5 4 285.6 15.6 2
South Africa* 3 700 4.6 7 43.3 2.4 10
Other 6 480 8.1 167.7 9.2
Total : 2011 80 000 100 1831.4 100
2010 76 000 1550.0
Source; USGS, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2012
*DMR, Mineral Economics Directorate
#
World Bureau of Metal Statistics

In 2011, global refined nickel production increased by 15.5 percent to 1.65 Mt augmented by new
production from Asia, South America and Africa (Table 53). China, at 28.9 percent, was the worlds
largest producer of refined nickel, followed by Russias 15.7 percent and Japans 9.4 percent. South
th
Africa contributed 2.6 percent to the global refined nickel production and was ranked 9 .

96
TABLE 53: WORLD REFINED NICKEL PRODUCTION, 2011
COUNTRY Refined production
kt percent Rank

Australia 111.0 6.7 5

Brazil 30.0 1.8 13
Canada 142.4 8.6 4
China 480.3 28.9 1
Colombia 37.8 2.3 10
Cuba 31.4 1.9 12
Finland 48.5 2.9 7
Japan 156.9 9.4 3
New Caledonia 47.4 2.9 8
Norway 92.4 5.6 6
Russia 260.4 15.7 2
South Africa 36.0 2.6 9
UK 36.3 2.2 11
Other 143.6 8.6
TOTAL: 2011 1654.4 100
1432.8
2010
Source: World Metal Statistics Yearbook 2012

WORLD DEMAND

Demand for nickel is underpinned by its main driver, stainless steel, which accounts for 67 percent of
consumption followed by non-ferrous metal products at 12 percent, while plating and steel casting
accounted for 7 percent and 4 percent respectively (Fig. 39). Despite the Eurozone debt crisis and the
US economic woes, global industrial growth recovered, as evidenced by the rising demand in the
stainless steel. According to the International Stainless Steel Forum (ISSF), stainless steel production
rose by 3.3 percent to 32.1 Mt in 2011 when compared with 2010.

FIGURE 39: THE PRIMARY END-USES FOR NICKEL 2011

Other alloy steel Other uses

Steel casting 5% 5%
4%

Plating
7%

Non-ferrous products
12%
Stainless steel
67%

Source: International Nickel Study Group, 2011

97
World demand for nickel increased by 16.8 percent to 1.65 Mt in 2011 fuelled by the robust demand from
the stainless steel and the automotive industries for the manufacture of electric and hybrid vehicles.
China, at 43.1 percent, continued to dominate nickel consumption, followed by Japan and the United
States at 10.5 and 12.7 percent respectively. However, the growth rate has slowed down during the first
half of 2012 due to lower growth from the global stainless steel sector.

PRICES

The movement of nickel prices in 2012 was driven by two factors, the demand from China and the
ramp-up of long-delayed nickel mines. Chinese demand pushed nickel prices to a record high
monthly average level of $28 249.50/t in February 2011 (Fig. 40). However, in response to the
Eurozone debt crisis nickel prices, fell to a low level of $17 879/t in November 2011. The decline in
prices was also attributed to a surplus resulting from rising levels of production in the face of weakening
demand from the stainless steel sector. According to the International Nickel Study Group (INSG), the
nickel market was 17 kt oversupplied in 2011. In 2012, nickel prices remained within a narrow band of
$19 818.21/t and $20 461.55/t between January and February 2012. Despite the global economic
uncertainty, the average annual price of nickel increased by 5.2 percent to $22 93.74/t in 2011, spurred
by economic growth from Asia.

FIGURE 40: MONTHLY AVERAGE NICKEL PRICES, 2010-2012

35000.00

30000.00

25000.00
LME prices ($/t)

20000.00

15000.00

10000.00

5000.00

0.00
Feb-10

Apr-10

Sep-10

Feb-11

Apr-11

Sep-11

Feb-12

Apr-12
May-10

Aug-10

May-11

Aug-11

May-12
Jun-10
Jul-10

Jun-11
Jul-11

Jun-12
Jan-10

Mar-10

Nov-10
Dec-10
Jan-11

Mar-11

Nov-11
Dec-11
Jan-12

Mar-12
Oct-10

Oct-11

Month

Source: Metal Bulletin, 2012

GLOBAL PROJECTS/DEVELOPMENTS

Over the last few years, producers have shown a flexibility to align projects developments with market
demand and prices. A lot of projects have been stalled or suspended since 2009 as companies waited
for the right market conditions to recommence their projects. Table 3 depicts the summary of major nickel
projects.

In South Africa, URU Metals committed $4.2 million for exploration of nickel reserves in the northern
Bushveld. The project, which is located 16 km from Anglo American Platinums rich Mogalakwena mine
near Mokopane, has the potential to produce 56 million pounds of nickel per annum for a period of 25
years. A prefeasibility study is expected to be carried out at the cost of $8.5 million in 2014 with the
expected mine capital expenditure of $708 million.

98
TABLE 54: GLOBAL NICKEL MAJOR PROJECTS

Nickel
Country/ Potential
Project Operators/ Owners Commodities production
Region start year
(tons / year)
Marlborough Australia Gladstone Pacific Nickel, Cobalt Stalled 63 000
Laterite Nickel Nickel Ltd
Project (Operator)
Koniambo Laterite New Xstrata plc Nickel, Cobalt 2012 60 000
Nickel Mine Caledonia (Operator)
Ambatovy Laterite Madagascar Sherritt International Nickel, Cobalt 2012 60 000
Nickel Mine Corporation
(Operator)
Mindoro Laterite Philippines Intex Resources Nickel, Cobalt NA 52 700
Nickel Project ASA (Operator)
Long Harbour Canada Vale S.A. (Operator) Nickel, Cobalt 2013 50 000
Hydrometallurgy
Nickel Smelter
Minago Nickel Canada Victory Nickel Inc. Frac Sand, 2015 49 895
Project (Operator) Nickel, Sand
Honeymoon Well Australia OJSC MMC Norilsk Nickel Revived 40 000
Nickel Project Nickel (Operator)
Wingellina Laterite Australia Metals X Limited Nickel, Cobalt NA 40,000
Nickel Deposit (Operator)
Kabanga Nickel Tanzania Xstrata plc Cobalt, 2014 40 000
Project (Operator) Copper, Nickel,
Palladium,
Platinum

Taganito HPAL Philippines Sumitomo Metal Nickel, Cobalt 2013 30 000

Nickel Refinery Mining Co., Ltd.
(Operator)
FeNi Haltim Nickel Indonesia PT Antam Nickel 2014 27 000
Project
Acoje Laterite Philippines ENK plc Cobalt, Gold, 2014 24 500
Nickel Mine Nickel,
Palladium,
Platinum
Fenix Laterite Guatemala Solway Group Nickel, Cobalt 2014 24 250
Nickel Operation (Operator)

Sheba's Ridge South Africa Aquarius Platinum Copper, Gold, NA 23 900

PGE/Nickel/Copper Limited (Operator) Nickel,
Project Palladium,
Platinum,
Platinum
Group
Elements
Eagle United Rio Tinto Limited Copper, Gold, 2013 17 300
Nickel/Copper Mine States (Operator) Nickel

Source: KPMG, Quartely Commodity Insights Bulletin, 2012

99
SOUTH AFRICA

Seventy two percent of South Africas nickel output is sourced from platinum-group metals (PGMs) and
0.2 percent is derived from copper mining. Nkomati Nickel mine, which is the only primary nickel
producer, accounted for 26.8 percent of nickel production. In 2011, South Africas nickel production rose
by 8.3 percent to 43.3 kt due to improved output from Nkomati Mine, which rose by 3.8 percent trivial
quantity.

TABLE 55: SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION AND SALES OF NICKEL, 2002 2011

Year Production Local sales Export sales

Mass Mass Value Unit Value Mass Value Unit value
kt kt R000 R/t Kt R000 R/t
2002 38.5 22.6 1 579 025 69 868 15.9 1 060 113 66 674
2003 40.8 24.0 1 647 992 68 666 16.1 1 081 275 67 160
2004 39.9 25.0 2 139 682 85 587 17.8 1 513 381 85 021
2005 42.4 20.3 1 909 468 94 062 22.2 2 013 553 90 701
2006 41.8 25.6 4 154 730 162 294 18.2 2 620 855 144 003
2007 37.9 15.5 3 724 689 240 303 21.4 5 599 739 261 670
2008 31.7 6.7 1 151 894 171 924 23.5 4 103 711 174 626
2009 34.6 9.0 949 855 105 539 27.3 3 251 353 119 097
2010 40.0 7. 3 1 073 290 147 168 33.1 4 911 462 148 522
2011 43.3 14.5 2 326 440 160 924 26.6 4 075 750 152 962

Source: DMR, Mineral Economics Directorate

Local sales volumes almost doubled from 7.3 kt in 2010 to 14.5 kt in 2011, due to improved local
demand. Revenue generated rose by 116.8 percent to R2.33 billion as a result of higher prices and sales
volumes. Export volumes and revenues declined by 19.6 percent and 17.0 percent to 26.6 kt and R4.1
billion, owing to the weaker demand from the global stainless steel sector the Eurozone debt crisis.

OUTLOOK

In 2012, world mine production is expected to increase by 2 percent to 1.9 Mt due to the ramping-up of
stalled mining projects in Australia, Finland and Africa. Also, over the medium term, a host of laterite
projects are expected to commence production in New Caledonia, Madagascar, Papua New Guinea and
Myanmar. The increasing scarcity of high quality and easily accessible sulphide deposits suggests that
the trend toward higher exploitation of laterite reserves will continue. World mine production is thus
expected to reach 2.3 Mt by 2017, an average annual growth rate of 3 percent from 2013.

Refined nickel production is expected to follow a similar trend to mine production in 2012. Production
growth, in the medium term is forecast to grow at an average annual growth rate of 3 percent to reach
1.9 Mt by 2017, supported by capacity expansions in China, Australia, Japan, Madagascar, New
Caledonia and Brazil.

The slowdown in industrial growth in China resulted from credit restraints. The rollover effects of the
sovereign debt crisis in Europe, the slow growth in the US and slowing growth in China are expected to
limit the growth in global consumption of nickel by 5 percent in 2012.

Declining demand from stainless steel mills and the rising nickel output are likely to lead to an
excessively oversupplied market in the second half of 2012 placing a downward pressure on prices. The
uncertain world economic outlook could exacerbate the situation further.

Despite the continuing poor demand and falling prices, South Africas nickel industry is expected to grow
through an investment of over $200 million being injected into the Nkomati Mine by MMC Norilsk Nickel.
The total design capacity of the two Nkomati nickel concentrators amounts to 7.5 Mt of ore per annum. In
2012, the plant is expected to operate at a design capacity that is 58 percent more than in 2011. Nickel
production from PGMs is expected to be stagnant as mines reduce production as a result of dampened
platinum markets.

100
The new area of focus for nickel use, albeit only five percent currently, is the growing battery market,
used for electric cars and mobile devices such as phones, cameras and computers. Recent
improvements to lithium-ion batteries have created some competition for nickel metal hydride batteries,
but the characteristics both types of batteries have led to technology developments that can combine
lithium and nickel to produce a battery with higher energy potential, longer life and fewer fire risks. Thus,
with increased focus on energy efficient motor vehicles and consumer goods, this sector is expected to
grow rapidly to create a large market for nickel in the future.

REFERENCES

1. DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

2. http://www.finance.yahoo/news/ global-china-nickel report.com
3. International Stainless Steel Forum, 2012
4. Metal Bulletin
5. The International Nickel Study Group
6. USGS, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2012
7. World Metal Statistics Yearbook 2012

101
 TITANIUM

Linda Maphango

WORLD SUPPLY

Global production of titanium mineral concentrates (ilmenite, rutile, and titanium slag), also known as
feedstock, increased by 4.6 percent to 6.7 Mt in 2011 when compared with 2010, as producers continued
to scale up output in an attempt to satisfy increasing demand (Table 56). Australia remained the major
producer of titanium minerals, contributing 19.4 percent to total world output, followed by South Africa
(17.3 percent), Canada (10.4 percent), India (8.6 percent), Mozambique (7.7 percent) and China (7.5
percent). Many years of under-investment in new mines has severely constrained the supply of feedstock
to the market.

TABLE 56: WORLD RESERVES AND MINE PRODUCTION OF TITANIUM CONCENTRATES, 2011

RESERVES PRODUCTION*
COUNTRY Mt % Rank kt % Rank
Australia 118.0 17.1 2 1 300 19.4 1
Canada 31.0 4.5 8 700 10.4 3
China 200.0 29.0 1 500 7.5 6
India 92.4 13.4 3 574 8.6 4
Mozambique 16.4 2.4 9 516 7.7 5
Norway 37.0 5.4 7 300 4.5 9
South Africa 71.3 10.3 4 1 161 17.3 2
Ukraine 8.4 1.2 10 357 5.3 8
USA 2.0 0.3 12 300 4.5 9
Vietnam 1.6 0.2 13 490 7.3 7
Other 111.9 16.2 - 502 7.5 -
TOTAL 2011 690.0 100.0 6 700 100.0
2010 690.0 6 400
Sources: USGS, January 2012, p 175
Notes: *TiO2 content of ilmenite and rutile

According to TZ Minerals International (TZMI), titanium dioxide pigment production rose by 6.7 percent to
6.4 Mt in 2011, as demand strengthened. In China, production of titanium dioxide pigment increased by
more than 23 percent to over 2 Mt in 2011 when compared with 2010. Chinas pigment capacity
surpassed that of the US for the first time in 2011 to become the worlds leading producer.

According to the estimates of the United States Geological Survey (USGS), titanium metal sponge
production climbed by 35.8 percent to 283 kt in 2011, as producers ramped up output in response to
increasing demand and lower inventory levels resulting from production cutbacks between 2009 and
2010.

WORLD DEMAND

About 90 percent of global titanium feedstock is consumed in the production of titanium dioxide pigment,
5 percent goes to the production of titanium metal and the other 5 percent is used in the manufacture of
fluxes and welding rods. Paint and coatings contributes 58 percent to global titanium dioxide pigment
usage, followed by plastics (22 percent), and paper (9 percent), Fig. 41.

The year 2011 was characterised by strong growth in demand for titanium dioxide pigment. The robust
demand was mainly driven by growth in emerging economies, led by Brazil, Turkey, Russia and India.
Consumption of titanium dioxide pigment increased by 1.4 percent to 5.4 Mt in 2011 when compared with
the previous year. The Asia Pacific region contributed about 30 percent to global demand, followed by

102
North America, Europe, Middle East, Africa and Latin America. Increasing demand and low inventory
levels during 2011 resulted in a tight pigment market.

FIGURE 41: GLOBAL CONSUMPTION OF TITANIUM DIOXIDE PIGMENT BY SECTOR

Other, eg.
inks, fabrics,
cosmetics, 11%

Paper, 9%

Paints and
coatings, 58%
Plastics, 22%

Source: Rio Tinto and TZMI 2012

PRICES

Prices of titanium mineral concentrates rose exponentially from April 2011 up until the third quarter of
2012 (Fig. 42). The sharp increase in prices did not come as a surprise to the industry due to chronic
shortages of feedstock. Buoyant market conditions have propelled both rutile and ilmenite prices to
historic highs as demand exceeded the supply of titanium mineral concentrates.

Ilmenite (min 54% TiO2) prices surged from a monthly average of A$70/t in December 2010 to A$195/t in
December 2011, an increase of about 178 percent. Rutile (min 54% TiO 2) soared by about 77 percent
from A$762/t in December 2010 to A$1 350/t in December 2011. In 2011, the annual average prices of
ilmenite and rutile rose steeply by 73.0 and 36.5 percent to A$128/t and A$1 032/t, respectively, when
compared with 2010. The rising prices have prompted a number of titanium dioxide pigment producers to
embark on backward-integration to secure feedstock supplies in an attempt to curtail future cost
increases.

FIGURE 42: METAL BULLETIN PRICES FOR RUTILE AND ILMENITE, 2010 2012

200.00 1500.00
190.00
180.00 1400.00
170.00 1300.00
160.00
150.00 1200.00
ilmenite Price (A$/t)

Rutile Price (A$/t)

140.00 1100.00
130.00
120.00 1000.00
110.00 900.00
100.00
90.00 800.00
80.00 700.00
70.00
60.00 600.00
May-10

May-11

May-12
Apr-10

Aug-10

Apr-11

Aug-11

Apr-12
Feb-10

Jul-10

Sep-10

Nov-10

Feb-11

Jul-11

Sep-11

Nov-11

Feb-12
Dec-10

Dec-11
Jan-11

Oct-11
Jan-10

Mar-10

Jun-10

Oct-10

Mar-11

Jun-11

Jan-12

Mar-12

Jun-12

Month-Year
Ilmenite concentrate (min 54% TiO2) Rutile concentrate (min 95% TiO2)

Source: Metal Bulletin ,2012

103
DEVELOPMENTS IN SOUTH AFRICA

Tronox, an Australian holding company, made an announcement in June 2012, that it had concluded the
amalgamation of its assets and that of Exxaro Resources heavy mineral sands business. The new
company, named Tronox, was created through the incorporation of Exxaros Namakwa Sands and KZN
Sands (Hillendale mine), together with its 50 percent stake in the Tiwest joint venture in Australia in the
new company. This transaction makes Tronox the worlds largest fully integrated producer of titanium
minerals and titanium dioxide pigment. The new Tronox subsequently listed on the New York Stock
Exchange in June 2012.

Tronox (formerly Exxaro Resources) received environmental and water approval in early 2012, for its
Fairbreeze mineral sands project near Richards Bay, KwaZulu-Natal. Fairbreeze mine, which is expected
to have a mine life of between 12 and 15 years, has a planned annual capacity of 500 kt ilmenite and 60
kt zircon. The long-awaited project is expected to start mining operations in the second half of 2014. The
Fairbreeze mine will replace Tronox Hillendale mine in KwaZulu-Natal, which is likely to come to the end
of its life by the end of 2012. During the construction phase approximately 1 080 temporary jobs are
expected to be created and the new mine will absorb all the employees (about 1 000) from Hillendale on
a permanent basis. However, Fairbreeze is not expected to create new permanent jobs.

Mineral Commodities, an Australian based company, has completed its definitive feasibility study on its
Tormin mine sands project located about 400 km north of Cape Town, in the Western Cape Province.
Tormins planned run-of-mine production would be about 1.1 Mt per annum, producing 47.8 kt per annum
of non-magnetic concentrate grading up to 10 percent rutile and 80 percent zircon. The project, which is
estimated to cost approximately $A16 million, is scheduled to produce its first concentrate in the first half
of 2013. Tormin mine is expected to last between 3 and 5 years.

The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and the research community, supported by the
Department of Science and Technology (DST), are currently developing a novel process to produce
titanium metal powder. The CSIR-Ti process produces titanium metal powder in a continuous process
from titanium tetrachloride. This process substantially reduces the energy requirements and costs of
production. Further cost reduction would also result from powder metallurgy, which allows the use of
near-net-shape (NNS) technology in downstream fabrication of titanium metal.

According to CSIR, this process is being developed in a stage-wise manner to manage the inherent
scale-up risks. The DST and CSIR have given the green light for the design, construction and operation
of a small pilot plant. The pilot plant is expected to have a nominal design capacity of producing 2 kg/hr
of titanium powder, continuously. Construction and commissioning of the pilot plant are scheduled to be
completed by 31 March 2013.

DEVELOPMENTS IN OTHER AFRICAN COUNTRIES

Base Resources, an Australian miner, is developing the Kwale heavy mineral sands deposit in Kenya, 40
km south of Mombasa. The mine, scheduled to start production in the second half of 2013, is expected to
produce about 330 kt ilmenite, 80 kt rutile and 40 kt zircon per annum. Ilmenite and rutile from Kwale
mine could contribute about 10 percent and 14 percent of global output, respectively. The deposit has an
estimated resource of 138.8 Mt of heavy minerals. Kwale is expected to have a mine life of about 13
years. Base Resources has an off-take agreement with DuPont, the worlds largest titanium dioxide
pigment producer, for 72 percent of its rutile production for a period of six years.

Mineral Deposits, an Australian based company, is developing Grand Cote mine sands project, in
Senegal, 50 km north of Dakar. The mine has a measured and indicated resource of 1.03 Bt at 1.7
percent heavy minerals. The mine, which is expected to commence production in early 2014, is projected
to produce approximately 575 kt ilmenite, and 85 kt zircon per annum, as well as small quantities of rutile
and leucoxene. The life of the mine is expected to be more than 20 years, but further drilling could
extend the life of mine.

104
OUTLOOK

According to Ti Insights, the supply of titanium dioxide pigment is projected to grow at about 3.5 percent,
compounded annually, reaching close to 7 Mt by 2015. This would represent an effective increase of
21.4 percent when compared with 2011. Approximately 65 percent of additional capacity is expected to
come from China. DuPont, one of the major producers, is expected to increase its capacity by 350 kt per
annum by the end of 2014.

In the first half of 2012, demand for titanium dioxide pigment began to soften owing to inventory build up
and continued global economic uncertainty as some of the European member countries experienced
negative GDP growth due to waning consumer confidence and austerity measures. However, demand
for titanium dioxide pigment is forecast to outstrip supply in the short to medium term, driven mainly by
urbanisation in emerging countries, with China leading the pack. The market deficit is expected to ease
when feedstock and pigment projects, currently in the pipeline, come on stream.

According to Roskill Information Services, the demand for titanium metal is projected to grow by 6
percent compounded annually until 2015, due to the expected increase in consumption of the metal in
commercial aircraft and industrial applications, particularly in desalination plants in the Middle East.
Titanium metal sponge prices are expected to hover around $10/kg until 2014. The recent expansions in
production capacity from Japan and China are envisaged to support the expected rise in demand.
Nonetheless, titanium metal production capacity is expected to continue to exceed demand for the next
few years.

As the second major producer of titanium feedstock, South Africa is well placed to benefit from the
buoyant market conditions. And the countrys position in the global supply of titanium minerals will be
consolidated by the commissioning of the Fairbreeze project. According to Exxaro, the Exxaro/Tronox
transaction is expected to improve the prospects of establishing a pigment plant in South Africa as
demand increases and growth strategies are developed. All the role players in the heavy mineral sands
industry should leverage on this development by exploring the opportunity to set up a pigment facility in
line with the Beneficiation Strategy of South Africa and the New Growth Path. Titanium dioxide pigment
production, which consumes about 90 percent of global mine output of titanium-bearing feedstock, would
add substantial value to the countrys production of titanium minerals.

REFERENCES

1. Industrial Minerals various publications, 2011 -2012.

2. Metal Bulletin, Prices, 2010 2012.
3. U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, Titanium, 2012.
4. CtlinkDirectory, Review on titanium price trend and some titanium applications,
http://www.ctlinkdirectory.com/titaniumprice.htm
5. Mining Weekly, Mineral sands demand awaiting supply catch-up, http://www.miningweekly.com, Dec 2011.
6. Mineral Commodities Ltd, Company Announcement, 31 Jul 2012.
7. CSIR, Towards a new titanium sector, http://www.csir.co.za
8. Rio Tinto
9. TZ Minerals International, various weekly updates, 2011 2012.

105
 ZINC

Eunice Pitso
WORLD SUPPLY

World zinc mine production rose by 5.6 percent to 12 963 kt in 2011 compared with 12 270 kt in 2010
(Table 57). China at 33.1 percent continued to dominate world production followed by Australias 11.3
percent and Perus 9.6 percent.

TABLE 57: WORLD RESERVES, MINE PRODUCTION AND EXPORTS OF ZINC, 2011

RESERVES PRODUCTION EXPORTS

COUNTRY Mt %Rank Kt % Rank Kt % Rank

China 92 20.0 4 308 33.2 1 46 0.5 14

Peru 20 4.3 1 256 9.7 3 966 10.1 2
Australia 80 17.4 1 473 11.4 2 1 682 17.5 1
USA 90 19.6 767 5.9 5 662 6.9 4
Canada 31 6.7 610 4.7 7 679 7.1 3
India x - 825 6.4 4 353 3.7 5
Kazakhstan 35 7.6 495 3.8 8 491 5.1 6
Mexico 25 5.4 660 5.1 6 433 4.5 7
Ireland x - 344 2.7 9 330 3.4 8
Namibia x - 197 1.5 10 180 1.9 21
South Africa* 15 3.3 37 0.3 25 31 0.3 24
Other 72 15.7 1 992 15.4 - 3 732 38.9 -
Total 460 100 12 963 100 - 9 585 100.0 -

Sources: ILZSG, August 2011

USGS, Commodities Summaries 2012
DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics
Notes: X Not specified, but estimates have been included in other countries.

World refined zinc production increased by 1.5 percent to 13 026 kt in 2011 compared with 12 832 kt in
2010. Refined zinc output increased in most of regions, except in Africa where production declined by
10.9 percent. Asia at 61.2 percent remained the dominant region, followed by Europes 18.6 percent and
the Americas 14.3 percent (Figure 43).

106
FIGURE 43: REGIONAL PRODUCTION OF REFINED ZINC, 2011

Other
America 6%
14%

Europe
Asia
19%
61%

Source: International Lead and Zinc Study Group

Metal Bulletin Jan 2009-April 2010

CONSUMPTION

World refined zinc consumption was 12 079 kt in 2011, a decrease of 5.9 percent compared with 12 830
kt in 2010. Consumption increased in all regions except in Africa where it declined by 0.6 percent. Asia
was the largest consumer at 63.6 percent followed by Europes 19.7 percent and Americas 14.4 percent
(Figure 44). Africa accounted for 1.5 percent of consumption with South Africa accounting for 46.7
percent of the Africas consumption.

FIGURE 44: REGIONAL CONSUMPTION OF REFINED ZINC, 2011

Other
America
3%
14%

Europe
20%
Asia
63%

Source: International Lead and Zinc Study Group

Metal Bulletin Jan 2009-April 2010

107
PRICES

A yearly average LME zinc cash settlement price in 2011 was recorded at $2 193.98/t, a 7.7 percent
decrease compared with 2010, due to weak demand, particularly in China. A minimum monthly average
price of $1 859.17/t was recorded in October; while a maximum of $2 456.13/t was recorded in February
(Figure 45).

FIGURE 45: LME ZINC CASH SETTLEMENT PRICES (MONTHLY AVERAGES), 2011

3000

2500

2000
US$/t

1500

1000

500

Month

Sources: Black Mountain Monthly Returns

International Lead and Zinc Study Group metal bulletin Jan 2010- August 2011
DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

SOUTH AFRICA

South Africas zinc mine production increased by 2.8 percent to 37 kt in 2011 compared with 36 kt in
2010 (Table 58). South Africas exports of zincin-metal-concentrates amounted to 19.8 kt in 2011, an
increase of five fold compared with 3.6 kt exported in 2010. Export revenue amounted to R233 million in
2011. South Africa started exporting zinc concentrate towards the end of 2010. Between 2002 and 2009
there were no exports of zinc concentrates as all the output was consumed locally as produce zinc
metal..

TABLE 58: SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION AND SALES OF ZINC METAL-IN-CONCENTRATE

20022011

LOCAL SALES EXPORT SALES

YEAR PRODUCTION Mass Value (FOR) Mass Value (FOB)

kt t R000 R/t kt R000 R/t

2002 64 58 290 799 4 985 - - -
2003 41 40 121 906 3 050 - - -
2004 32 31 107 630 3 415 - - -
2005 32 31 144 752 4 640 - - -
2006 34 33 133 500 4 444 - - -
2007 31 30 428 959 14 114 - - -
2008 29 27 221 725 8 150 - - -
2009 28 22 170 925 7 603 - - -
2010 36 31 279 821 9 054 4 43 393 11 892
2011 37 17 169 416 9 917 20 233 150 11 775
Sources: DME, Directorate Mineral Economics

108
South Africas refined zinc metal production decreased by 15.3 percent to 72 kt in 2011 compared with
2010, due to the closure of the Zincor refinery in December 2011. For the six years since 2005 there
were no export sales recorded for refined zinc metal as all the output was consumed locally (Table 59).

TABLE 59: SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION AND SALES OF REFINED ZINC 2002- 2011

LOCAL SALES EXPORT SALES

YEAR PRODUCTION Mass Value (FOR) Mass Value (FOB)

kt t R000 R/t kt R000 R/t

2002 111 95 797 929 8 399 18.3 149 914 8 192
2003 113 86 596 361 6 934 27.6 164 948 5 976
2004 105 91 627 081 6 900 16.1 108 550 6 711
2005 104 103 895 122 8 643 1.7 12 506 7 485
2006 90 99 2 134 192 21 558 - - -
2007 101 98 2 492 122 25 430 - - -
2008 82 97 1 651 370 17 024 - - -
2009 86 93 1 317 995 14 152 - - -
2010 85 89 1 505 861 17 000 - - -
2011 72 85 1 457 613 17 000 - - -
Sources: *DME, Directorate Mineral Economics

DEVELOPMENTS IN SOUTH AFRICA

The Gamsberg zinc deposit was discovered in 1971. Five feasibility studies which were done in the
1978, 1983, 1984, 1993 and 2000, indicated the project would be unable to generate an attractive return
on investment. More studies were done between 2009 and 2010, and the results were positive and the
project was commenced. Although the mine has not yet been fully commissioned, small scale mining is
currently producing about 300 t/a. The Gamsberg zinc mining and beneficiation project will have two
phases:

Phase 1: the establishment of a mine and a concentrator for zinc concentrate production with
power requirements of 70 MW.
Phase 2: the establishment of a smelter/refinery for refined zinc metal production (400kt/a) and
sulphuric acid (950 kt/a) as a by-product, at the Saldanha Industrial Development Zone
(Saldanha IDZ) with a power requirement of 250 MW.

The identified resource is estimated at 186 Mt, and the mine is expected to produce 475 kt of zinc per
annum over its 16 years life-of-mine. Although the Saldanha Industrial Development Zone has been
identified as a potential location for the smelter, other locations may be considered. About 950 kt/a
sulphuric acid would be produced as a by-product from the smelter at the identified location. Phase 1 of
the Gamsberg zinc project is planned for completion by March 2013. Physical site preparation is
expected to commence by April 2013, while the first ore production is projected to commence in April
2015 and full production is expected in 2017.

Phase 2 is projected to commence in April 2015 and the refinery will be in operation by April 2016, but
the commencement date will depend on aspects such as the confirmation of smelters location and the
incentive schemes available to the project. Total capital expenditure is estimated at R14.6 billion phased
over 4 years.

DEVELOPMENTS OUTSIDE SOUTH AFRICA

Xstrata Zinc announced the commencement of the development of the high grade zinc-lead-silver Lady
Loretta deposit in north-west Queensland, Australia, as a new greenfield underground mine. Work has
already commenced to develop the decline, underground services and surface infrastructure at the value
of AU$246 million (US$239 million). The mine, which was initially planned to be operational by the end of
2013, is now expected to come on stream in mid-2013 as development started ahead of schedule in
June 2012.

109
Xstrata Zinc assumed sole ownership of the Lady Loretta deposit by acquiring the remaining 25 percent
stake in the project in April 2011. Lady Loretta contains a total mineral resource estimated at 13.7 Mt,
with 14.2 percent zinc and 4.8 percent lead grade. The Lady Loretta project is expected to produce 1.8
Mt/a of zinc-lead-silver ore and an annual average of 126 kt of zinc in concentrate and 40 kt of lead in
concentrate over its 12 year mine life. Ore will be treated at Mount Isas processing facilities in Australia.

Xstrata Zinc recently approved an incremental expansion of the Handlebar Hill open cut zinc-lead mine
20 km north of Mount Isa. The expansion will extend the current open pit to access an additional reserve
of 2.4 Mt of ore, extending the life of the mine until 2013. The mine will produce an additional 88 kt of
zinc and 22 kt of lead.

OUTLOOK

According to the International Lead and Zinc Sturdy Group (ILZSG), world zinc mine production is
expected to increase by 5 percent to 13.60 Mt in 2012, this will be driven mainly by expected increase of
13.7 percent in China. Chinese mine production is anticipated to increase by further 2.7 percent in 2013
with other additional production expected in countries such as Australia, Burkina Faso, Kazakhstan,
Mexico, Portugal and USA contributing to 13.96 Mt global zinc mine output in 2013.

Although world zinc mine output is expected to increase, world refined zinc metal production is
anticipated to decrease by at least 2 percent to 12.86 Mt in 2012 and increase by 4.8 percent to 13.48 Mt
in 2013. Chinese refined zinc metal production has been increasing for the past 23 years, but is expected
to decline by 5.2 percent in 2012. However in 2013, Chinese refined metal production expected to rise
again by 9.1 percent due to expected expansions in the country. Production is also projected to increase
in Italy, Japan, the Republic of Korea and Peru.

World refined zinc metal demand is anticipated to decrease by 0.3 percent to 12.71 Mt in 2012, and
increase by 3.8 percent to 13.19 Mt in 2013. Refined metal usage is exected to fall in countries such as
Belgium, Germany, Italy and Spain. This is expected to lead to a 5.5 percent decline in European
demand. World refined zinc metal supply is expected to exceed world demand in both 2012 and 2013,
with a surplus of 153 kt in 2012 and a further surplus of 293 kt in 2013.

Since 2007, the zinc market has been in surplus and the 2011 zinc market was characterised by another year
of surplus, leading to reported inventories rising by almost a quarter. As a result, the outlook for
fundamentals in 2012 suggests that the zinc market will continue to be oversupplied. The key swing
factor for the zinc market outlook over the next few years is supply. While currently the market is
oversupplied, a medium-term concentrate crunch may be looming, although the timing and extent of this
will be partly defined by prices (high prices will encourage marginal production). According to analysts
zinc prices are expected to take off in 2016. CRU International forecasts that the real three-month price
of zinc, defined as the nominal price/US consumer price index, will rise from $2 125 in 2012, to $2 455 in
2015, and $3 305 in 2016.

The development of the Gamsberg project in South Africa brings positive future prospects for the
countrys zinc industry. A 400 percent increase of zinc production is expected from this project.
th
Gamsberg is identified as the worlds 4 largest zinc resource and is poised to deliver significant
economic and social benefits.

REFERENCES

1. International Lead and Zinc Study Group, Monthly Bulletin on Lead and Zinc Statistics, July 2011
2. International Lead and Zinc Study Group, October Session/Forecast, 2010
3. International Lead and Zinc Study Group; April Session/Forecast; April 2011
4. International Lead and Zinc Study Group, October Session/ Press Release, September 2011
5. U.S. Geological Survey, 2010 Mineral Commodity Summaries, July 2011: Internet Website, htt://www.usgs.gov
6. www.xstrata.com/annual/report/2010
7. http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20110207007120/en/Sterlite-Industries-India-Limited-Announces-Completion-Acquisition
8. The Gamsberg Zinc Mining and Beneficiation Project-Motivation to the Department of Mineral Resources by Black Mountain
Mining (PTY) LTD.
9. Barclays Capital Research

110
 ZIRCON

Linda Maphango

WORLD SUPPLY

Global production of zircon increased by 13.5 percent to 1 413 kt in 2011 from 1 245 kt in 2010 (Table
60). Australia and South Africa continued to dominate world supply of zircon. At 720 kt, Australia
accounted for 51.0 percent of global output followed by South Africas 26.9 percent. During 2011, the
supply of zircon was very tight as production could not keep pace with strong demand.

TABLE 60 WORLD RESERVES AND MINE PRODUCTION OF ZIRCON CONCENTRATES, 2011

RESERVES PRODUCTION
COUNTRY Mt % Rank kt % Rank
Australia 21.0 40.5 1 720 51.0 1
Brazil 2.2 4.2 5 18 1.3 9
China 0.5 1.0 7 100 7.1 3
India 3.4 6.6 4 38 2.7 5
Indonesia na na na 50 3.5 7
Mozambique 1.2 2.3 6 40 2.8 4
South Africa 14.0 27.0 2 380 26.9 2
Ukraine 4.0 7.7 3 35 2.5 6
USA 0.5 1.0 7 na na na
Other 5.0 9.6 32 2.3
TOTAL 2011 51.8 100.0 1 413 100.0
2010 56.0 1 245
Source: USGS, 2012, p 191

WORLD DEMAND

Zircon is mainly used in ceramics as an opacifier in floor tiles, sanitaryware, and tableware. Ceramics
remains the biggest end-user of zircon, accounting for 54 percent of consumption (Fig. 46), followed by
chemicals (22 percent), refractories (12 percent) and foundry (12 percent).

FIGURE 46: ZIRCON CONSUMPTION BY SECTOR

Foundry
12%

Refractories
12%

Ceramics
54%

Chemicals
22%

Source: Industrial Minerals May 2012

111
The consumption of zircon in the ceramic sector has been rising as a result of sharp increases in floor
space driven by rapid urbanisation and Chinas voracious appetite for tiles. Demand for zircon as an
opacifier has been growing phenomenally in China, fuelled by the increasing consumption of higher
quality porcelain tiles compared with traditional glazed tiles. These factors led to stronger demand during
2011. China, which consumes about 50 percent of global zircon production, was the main driver of zircon
demand.

PRICES

Prices of zircon increased significantly during 2011 on the back of bullish market fundamentals (Fig. 47).
The annual average price of zircon spiked almost twofold from A$839/t in 2010 to A$1 671/t in 2011, du
e to constrained supply which was lagging behind the recovery in demand. Prices skyrocketed by 150.4
percent from a monthly average of A$918/t in January to A$2 300/t in December, equivalent to a
compounded growth rate of 9.6 percent per month. The rising trend continued in 2012 with prices
reaching an all-time high average of A$2 500/t in February.

FIGURE 47: PRICE FOR FOUNDRY GRADE ZIRCON, FREE ON BOARD AUSTRALIA, 2011 2012

3000.00

2500.00

2000.00
A$/t

1500.00

1000.00

500.00

0.00

Months

Source: Metal Bulletin, 2011 2012

DEVELOPMENTS

New Tronox (formerly Exxaro Resources) received environmental and water approval in early 2012, for
its Fairbreeze mineral sands project near Richards Bay, KwaZulu-Natal. The long-awaited project, which
has a mine production capacity of approximately 500 kt of ilmenite and 60 kt of zircon per annum, is
expected to commence in the last quarter of 2014. The Fairbreeze mine will replace Exxaros Hillendale
mine in KwaZulu-Natal, which is expected to come to the end of its life by the end of 2012. During the
construction phase about 1 080 temporary jobs will be created and the company plans to absorb close to
1 000 employees from Hillendale on a permanent basis.

Gunson Resources is developing Conburn, a mineral sands mine, in Western Australia. The project is
expected to have the capacity to produce 17.5 Mt per annum of mineral sands for 23 years, including 40
kt per annum of zircon (66 percent ZrO 2) and 90 kt per annum of ilmenite (61 percent TiO 2). Conburn is
expected to start producing at the end of 2013. Other mine projects expected to come on line in the next
2 3 years include the Minerals Deposits Grand Cote project in Senegal, Base Resources Kwale
project in Kenya and Trimex Sands Kalingapatnam-Bhavanapadu in India.

MZI Resources (previously Matilda Zircon) is planning to begin site construction of its Keysbrook mine
sands project in Western Australia in early 2013. It is anticipated that Keysbrook will have a mine life of
more than 8 years. Keysbrook is forecast to produce about 20 kt of zircon and 60 kt of leucoxene per
annum. First production is expected towards the end of 2013

112
OUTLOOK

According to TZMI, the supply of zircon could remain at levels around 1.35 Mt per annum until the end of
the decade. Over 200 kt per annum of new output is anticipated to come on stream by 2020. However,
this new capacity is only expected to make up for reduction in production from existing mines due to
depleting resources. Global zircon demand is forecast to continue its upward trajectory until 2015, driven
mainly by ceramics and chemicals growth in China. Illukas analysis predicts that Chinas zircon
consumption could double by 2016 from the current level and by 2020, Chinas consumption could
possibly be more than total world zircon consumption in 2010.

The economic crisis in southern Europe and the economic embargo on Iran, the fourth largest tile
manufacturing country, could slow down the demand for zircon. Demand has also been affected by weak
economic activity in India and South East Asia. According to Iluka Resources, the worlds largest mineral
sands producer, Chinas absence of direct policy adjustments to boost the property sector has lead to a
high level of ceramic inventories, thus suppressing demand for zircon in China. However, Chinas
demand improved in the second quarter of 2012 following destocking.

Chinas economic growth and urbanisation is expected to continue to underpin the demand for zircon for
many years to come. Prices of zircon are forecast to remain high for the next two years. The high prices
of zircon are likely to continue to attract more investment into the heavy mineral sands sector.

South Africas mineral sands industry is well placed to benefit from the buoyant zircon market situation.
Moreover, the Exxaro Resources Fairbreeze project, expected to come on stream in mid-2014, is likely
to raise South Africas contribution to world output. The country has the opportunity to move downstream
by investigating the possibilities of establishing ceramics manufacturing facilities by participating in the
ceramics space in line with the Beneficiation Strategy of South Africa.

REFERENCES

1. Metal Bulletin, various articles, 2011 -2012.

2. Roskill, Zirconium: Global Industry markets and outlook, 13th edition 2011, http://www.roskill.com
3. U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, Zircon, January 2012

113
 FERROUS METALS AND MINERALS OVERVIEW

Lesego Malebo

INTRODUCTION

South Africa is a major producer and supplier of primary ferrous minerals and their alloys. The ferrous
minerals industry in South Africa includes ores of, chrome ore, iron ore, and manganese, which were
produced at some 40 mines and valueadded ferro-alloys at 23 metallurgical works in 2011.

GLOBAL DEMAND

Demand for ferrous minerals is driven by steel production where over 80 percent is consumed. According
to the World Steel Association (WSA), global steel production amounted to 32.1 Mt in 2011, an increase
of 3.3 percent compared with 2010. Demand for ferrous minerals in 2011 was driven mainly by China, on
the back of increasing steel output in that country. China contributed approximately 40 percent to global
steel production in 2011, and recorded an increase of 6.5 percent compared with 2010. Although world
steel output for 2011 was at record levels, the steel market slowed down towards the end of the year,
reducing the utilization of the world steel production capacity from 80.8 percent in January 2011 to 71.1
percent in December 2011. The slowdown in the global steel output towards the end of 2011 fuelled by
weaker demand from the Eurozone had a negative effect on the ferrous minerals and alloys market
during 2011.

SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION AND SALES OF PRIMARY AND PROCESSED FERROUS

MINERALS

Primary ferrous minerals

South Africas aggregated production of ferrous minerals increased by 0.9 percent to 77 430 kt (Table
61). Iron ore contributed 75 percent to the ferrous minerals total production, followed by chrome ore and
manganese at 14 percent and 11 percent, respectively. Manganese contributed mainly to the increase
in the ferrous production, increasing by 21 percent, while chrome and iron ore production both declined
by 1.4 percent and 1.1 percent, respectively. Total sales revenue of primary ferrous minerals contributed
21.9 percent (R 81.1) billion to total South Africas mineral sales, an increase of 33.7 percent over the
2010 revenue. The increase in the ferrous total sales was mainly due to increased export volumes in
2011 compared with 2010.

TABLE 61: SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION AND SALES OF PRIMARY FERROUS MINERALS, 2010
AND 2011

COMMODITY YEAR PRODUCTION LOCAL SALES EXPORT SALES TOTAL SALES

kt kt R mil kt R mil kt R mil
2011 10 721 7 434 5 382 2 000 3 237 9 434 8 620
Chrome ore
2010 10 871 7 267 4 159 1 929 2 459 9 196 6 619
2011 58 057 9 844 4 208 51 891 58 444 61 735 62 652
Iron ore
2010 58 709 10 561 3 270 47 493 40 148 58 053 43 419
Manganese 2011 8 652 1 855 1 325 6 773 8 570 8 628 9 895
ore 2010 7 172 1 930 1 321 5 986 9 340 7 916 10 661
2011 77 430 19 133 10 915 60 663 70 251 79 797 81 167
Total
2010 76 752 19 758 8 750 55 408 51 948 75 166 60 698
Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

Processed ferrous minerals

South Africas aggregated production of ferroalloys increased by 2.2 percent to 4 695 kt (Table 62).
Chromium alloys contributed 72.9 percent to the ferroalloys total production, followed by manganese
alloys at 23 percent. Manganese alloys and silicon production which increased by 35.0 percent and 5.1
percent respectively were the main contributors to the increase in ferroalloys production. Chromium

114
alloys and vanadium production both declined by 5.0 percent and 4.3 percent, respectively. Total sales
revenue of processed ferrous minerals stood at R 40.3 billion, an increase of 2.3 percent over the 2010
revenue.

TABLE 62: SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION AND SALES OF PROCESSED FERROUS MINERALS,
2010 AND 2011

COMMODITY YEAR PRODUCTION LOCAL SALES EXPORT SALES TOTAL SALES

kt kt R mil kt R mil kt R mil
Chromium 2011 3 426 451 3 431 3 048 23 793 3 499 27 224
alloys 2010 3 607 397 2 852 3 116 24 216 3 513 27 068
Manganese 2011 1 064 54 483 854 7 410 908 7 893
alloys 2010 790 65 601 751 7 016 816 7 617
2011 183 68 759 131 1 894 199 2 654
Silicon
2010 174 70 771 123 1 494 193 2 265
2011 22 2 270 18 2 288 20 2 558
Vanadium
2010 23 2 286 17 2 182 19 2 468
2011 4 695 575 4 943 4 051 35 385 4 626 40 328
Total
2010 4 594 535 4 509 4 007 34 908 4 542 39 418
Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

EMPLOYMENT

Employment in the ferrous mineral sector increased by 20.3 percent to 47 471 (Table 63), with the
manganese, chrome and iron ore sectors increasing employment by 25 percent, 17 percent and
23 percent, respectively. The increase in employment in these sectors could be attributed to the
expansion projects and opening of new mines. Total remuneration for the year increased by 68.4
percent to
R 10.9 billion, due to a payout of the Envision share scheme by Kumba Iron Ore to its employees,
thereby doubling the compensation of its employees in 2011.

TABLE 63: EMPLOYMENT AND GROSS REMUNERATION, 2005-2011

YEAR AVERAGE NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES TOTAL REMUNERATION (R'000)

2005 18 673 1 466 880

2006 22 016 1 919 137
2007 28 044 2 888 492
2008 30 726 3 923 861
2009 31 003 4 745 558
2010 39 459 6 524 615
2011 47 471 10 988 437
Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

OUTLOOK

Steel is the largest consumer of ferrous minerals and therefore change in the dynamics of the steel
industry will have an impact on the ferrous ore industry. World Steel Association forecasts that global
steel use will increase by 3.6 percent to 1 422 Mt in 2012 and by a further 4.5 percent in 2013, less than
the
5.6 percent growth in 2011. The decline in the growth rate follows a continuing slowdown of Chinese
steel demand and the Eurozone debt crisis. Chinas economic growth, which dominated world steel
production in 2011, is forecast to slow down significantly compared with the high growth rates achieved

115
in recent years. The slower growth in China is expected to negatively affect the demand for ores and
alloys of iron and manganese for steel production and chrome ore and ferrochrome for stainless steel
production. Demand for other applications such as batteries is likely to show some growth, with
manganese consumption expected to rise to approximately 60 kt by 2020 in this sector.

The ferrous minerals and alloys prices declined gradually during 2011, following a steady increase in
2010 post the 2008/2009 global financial crisis. The average spot price for Chinas chrome ore imports
from South Africa declined by 7 percent in 2011 to $253/t compared with 2010. Manganese ore annual
prices averaged $5.46/mtu in 2011, down by 25.6 percent compared with $7.33/mtu in 2010. Iron ore
spot prices reached $187/t in February 2011 before gradually declining throughout the year to close at
$136/t in December 2011. The continuing Eurozone debt crisis as well as the slowdown of Chinese steel
demand, are likely to negatively affect prices in 2012.
Iron ore is expected to account for the biggest share of South Africas total ferrous ore revenues between
2012 and 2015. Total ferrous ore export revenues are forecast to rise at 3.6 percent per annum over this
period. Transnets planned expansion of its rail and port infrastructure is expected to give new producers
an opportunity to participate in export markets. However, the intensification of the drive for local
downstream value addition in the country is likely to increase local consumption of the ferrous ores in the
medium to long term.

REFERENCES

1. DMR Mineral Economics, 2011

2. USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2012
3. WSA, 20010-2011, Monthly Steel Statistics, www.worldsteel.org
4. Metal Bulletin, 2011
5. The Tex Report

116
 CHROMIUM

Sqhelo Ntshobane

GLOBAL SUPPLY

Chrome

According to the International Chromium Development Association (ICDA), the global resources are
estimated at more than 12 billion tons of chromite, of which approximately 95 percent are concentrated in
southern Africa and Kazakhstan. The global chrome ore reserves are estimated at 3.666 billion tons
(Table 64). South Africas Bushveld Complex (BC) accounts for 84.6 percent of the worlds chrome ore
reserves, followed by Kazakhstan and Zimbabwe with 8.7 percent and 3.8 percent, respectively.

TABLE 64: WORLD CHROME ORE RESERVES, PRODUCTION AND EXPORTS, 2011

COUNTRY RESERVES+ PRODUCTION+ EXPORTS+

Mt % Rank kt % Rank kt % Rank
Australia - - - 342 1.4 9 209 1.8 8
Brazil 14 0.4 6 599 2.4 7 60 0.5 9
China - - - 300 1.2 11 5 0 10
Finland 41 1.1 4 693 2.8 6 0 0 11
India 27 0.7 5 2 835 11.3 3 478 4.2 4
Iran - - - 330 1.3 10 330 2.9 6
Kazakhstan 320 8.7 2 3 655 14.6 2 888 7.7 3
Albania - - - 384 1.5 8 357 3.1 5
South Africa 3 100 84.6 1 10 404 41.5 1 5 382 46.9 1
Turkey - - - 2 528 10 4 1 918 16.7 2
Zimbabwe 140 3.8 3 781 3.1 5 212 1.8 7
Other 24 0.7 2 220 8.9 1 634 14.2
TOTAL: 2011 3 666 100 25 071 100 11 473 100
2010 3 666 24 228 10 358
Source: ICDA Statistical Bulletin 2012

The major application of chromite is for the production of ferrochrome. The stainless steel industry
consumes over 90 percent of the global ferrochrome production. Global chrome ore output increased by
3.5 percent to 25.1 Mt in 2011 compared with 2010 (Table 64). South Africa remained the largest chrome
ore producer in the world, accounting for 41.5 percent of world production, followed by Kazakhstan and
India at 14.6 percent and 11.3 percent respectively. Global chrome ore exports grew by 10.8 percent to
11.5 Mt in 2011, with South Africa accounting for 46.9 percent. China was the major export destination of
South Africas chrome ore in 2011.

Ferrochrome

Global ferrochrome production increased by 3.8 percent to 9.2 Mt compared with 2010, due to sustained
high demand from the stainless steel industry (Table 65). South Africa, Kazakhstan, India and China
accounted for nearly 90 percent of the global ferrochrome production. Despite a decline of 8.9 percent in
ferrochrome output, South Africa remained the world leading producer in 2011. South Africas market
share of the global ferrochrome production declined by 5 percent to 36 percent compared with 2010. The
decline is attributable to Chinas increased production, which grew by approximately 26.5 percent to 2.8
Mt in 2011. This resulted in Chinas share of the global ferrochrome production market increasing from
25 percent in 2010 to 30 percent in 2011.

117
TABLE 65: WORLD FERROCHROME PRODUCTION AND SALES, 2011

COUNTRY PRODUCTION EXPORTS

kt % Rank kt % Rank
Albania 29 0.3 11 29 0.5 9
Brazil 140 1.5 8 8 0.1 10
China 2 798 30.3 2 4 0.1 11
Finland 231 2.5 6 102 1.8 6
India 985 10.7 4 466 8.4 3
Kazakhstan 1062 11.5 3 924 16.7 2
Russia 271 2.9 5 107 1.9 5
South Africa 3 337 36.1 1 3 190 57.8 1
Sweden 80 0.9 10 76 1.4 7
Turkey 140 1.5 9 45 0.8 8
Zimbabwe 163 1.8 7 187 3.4 4
Other 4 0 384 7
TOTAL: 2011 9 240 100 5 522 100
2010 8 903 5 646
Source: ICDA Statistical Bulletin 2012

Global ferrochrome exports stood at 5.5 Mt in 2011, with South Africa contributing 57.8 percent, followed
by Kazakhstan at 16.7 percent. Indias exports continued to decline in 2011, dropping by 13.7 percent
compared with 2010.

GLOBAL DEMAND

According to the International Stainless Steel Forum (ISSF), world stainless steel production increased to
a record 32.1 Mt in 2011, an increase of 3.3 percent compared with 2010, in line with the 3.8 percent
growth rate of ferrochrome production. China remained the leading producer of stainless steel,
accounting for approximately 40 percent of the worlds total stainless steel output in 2011 (Figure 48).
Chinas production increased by 11.9 percent to 12.6 Mt in 2011 compared with 2010. According to the
ISSF, South Africa accounted for just 1.4 percent of the global stainless steel production in 2011.

Stainless steel end-use consumption increased by 7.6 percent in 2011 to a record high of 30.7 million
tonnes compared with 2010. However, Japans nuclear crisis, the Eurozone debt crisis, the uncertainty in
the United States economy and the Arab Spring political uprising all impacted negatively on industrial,
manufacturing and consumer confidence in the second half of 2011 and slowed down ferrochrome
demand (ISSF).

118
FIGURE 48: REGIONAL STAINLESS STEEL PRODUCTION, 2011

Western
Europe/Africa
25% China
39%
Americas
8%
Asia/Excl. China
27%

Central/Eastern
Europe
1%

Source: International Stainless Steel Forum

PRICES

Chrome ore prices declined gradually in 2011, after a steady increase in 2010 following the recovery
from the 2008/2009 global financial crisis. Chrome ore prices opened the year at an average price of
$290/t in January 2011 and closed the year at an average price of $200/t in December 2011, a decrease
of 31 percent. The average spot price for Chinas chrome ore imports from South Africa declined by 7
percent in 2011 to $253/t compared with 2010. The decline in prices could be attributed to the oversupply
of chrome ore in the global market resulting from increased UG2 chrome ore (produced as a by-product
of platinum production) supply from South Africa.

FIGURE 49: CHROME AND FERROCHROME PRICES, 2011

320 1.35

300 1.3 Ferrochrome Price ($/lb)

Chrome Ore Price ($/t)

1.25
280
1.2
260
1.15
240
1.1
220 1.05

200 1
Feb-11

Mar-11

Apr-11

Oct-11
Jan-11

Jun-11

Aug-11

Sep-11

Nov-11

Dec-11
Jul-11
May-11

Chrome Prices Ferrochrome Prices

Source: CRU Group

According to CRU, ferrochrome annual average prices increased from $1.16/lb in 2010 to $1.19/lb in
2011 (Figure 49), due to increased stainless steel production in China. However, prices slowed down in
mid 2011 due to falling demand from Japan and the European Union. Ferrochrome opened the year at

119
an average price of $1.22/lb in January 2011 and closed the year at an average price of $1.07/lb in
December 2011, a decline of 12 percent.

DEVELOPMENTS IN SOUTH AFRICA

Production and Sales

According to the Department of Mineral Resources (DMR), South Africas chrome ore production
declined slightly by 0.4 percent from 10.9 Mt in 2010 to 10.8 Mt in 2011 (Table 66). However, South
Africas chrome ore total sales volumes increased by 10.1 percent to 10.1 Mt in 2011 compared with
2010, due to an increase in both local sales and export sales volumes of 10.9 percent and 6.9 percent,
respectively. Total sales revenues amounted to R9.2 billion, increasing by 39 percent partly due to higher
sales volumes in 2011 compared with 2010. The increase in local sales volumes, which accounted for
approximately
63 percent of total sales volumes, was due to high consumption levels by local ferrochrome producers.
Revenue from local sales increased to R5.8 billion in 2011 from R4.2 billion in 2010.

Export sales volumes reported by primary chrome ore producers to the DMR stood at 2.1 Mt, while
export data reported by the ICDA stood at 5.4 Mt. The export data discrepancy between the two
institutions could be attributed to the unaccounted chrome ore production and exports of chrome tailings
from UG2 reef platinum production in South Africa. Chrome ore exports increased by more than 100
percent in 2011 compared with 2005, with South Africa being the dominant supplier of chrome ore in this
period.

TABLE 66: SOUTH AFRICAS CHROME ORE PRODUCTION AND SALES, 2002 2011

YEAR PRODUCTION LOCAL SALES EXPORT SALES

Mass Value Unit Value Mass Value Unit Value
kt kt R' mil R/t kt R' mil R/t
2002 6 436 5 300 787 148 651 314 483
2003 7 405 6 334 977 154 502 178 354
2004 7 677 6 743 1 369 203 513 319 622
2005 7 552 6 128 1 469 240 657 442 673
2006 7 418 6 384 1 802 282 735 500 679
2007 9 665 7 389 2 347 315 904 676 747
2008 9 683 7 116 4 131 581 762 1 268 1 664
2009 6 865 4 855 2 066 426 1 035 1 196 1 155
2010 10 871 7 267 4 159 572 1 929 2 459 1 275
2011 10 824 8 061 5 814 721 2 063 3 358 1 628
Source: DMR Mineral Economics

South Africas ferrochrome production declined by 5.1 percent to 3.4 Mt in 2011 compared with 3.6 Mt in
2010 (Table 67). Local sales volumes increased by 12.8 percent to 448 kt, despite the decline in local
stainless steel production by 7.7 percent in 2011 compared with 2010. Export sales volumes decreased
by 2.5 percent to 3.0 Mt in 2011 compared with 2010. The declining export sales volumes could be
attributed to the growth in Chinas ferrochrome production which has depressed demand for ferrochrome
imports in the global market. Local sales revenue increased by 17 percent to R3.4 billion on the back of
higher local sales volumes, while export sales revenue declined by 2.5 percent to R23.7 billion due to
declining export sales volumes.

120
TABLE 67: SOUTH AFRICAS FERROCHROME PRODUCTION AND SALES, 2002 2011

YEAR PRODUCTION LOCAL SALES EXPORT SALES

Mass Value Unit Value Mass Value Unit Value
kt kt R' mil R/t kt R' mil R/t
2002 2 351 211 595 2 820 2 199 6 117 2 782
2003 2 813 301 886 2 945 2 640 7 659 2 901
2004 3 032 484 1 856 3 836 2 646 10 110 3 821
2005 2 802 358 1 422 3 968 2 480 9 923 4 001
2006 3 030 353 1 352 3 832 2 581 10 370 4 017
2007 3 561 395 1 995 5 047 2 972 15 534 5 227
2008 3 269 334 3 416 10 227 2 525 28 356 11 230
2009 2 346 432 2 253 5 215 2 621 15 882 6 059
2010 3 607 397 2 852 7 183 3 116 24 216 7 772
2011 3 422 448 3 414 7 620 3 037 23 739 7 817
Source: DMR Mineral Economics Directorate

Employment

Employment in South Africas chrome industry increased by 17 percent to 16 337 in 2011 compared to
2010, due to expansion projects (Table 68). The average remuneration increased by 29 percent to
R2.7 billion in 2011. Productivity per employee decreased by 14.9 percent to 663 t compared with 2010.

TABLE 68: EMPLOYMENT IN SOUTH AFRICAS CHROME INDUSTRY, 2007 2011

EMPLOYEE PRODUCTIVITY PER

YEAR EMPLOYEES TOTAL REMUNERATION TON
R' 000
2007 9 757 876 699 991
2008 12 279 1 297 315 789
2009 10 966 1 457 367 626
2010 13 959 2 081 837 779
2011 16 337 2 700 242 663
Source: DMR Mineral Economics Directorate

Industry Developments

The Xstrata-Merafe Chrome Ventures total installed capacity is expected to increase to over 2.3 Mt per
annum when Phase Two of the Lion ferrochrome plant (Lion II) is commissioned in 2013. Lion II is
projected to yield 360 kt per annum upon completion. Lion II will use the proprietary Premus technology,
which cuts electricity consumption by between 33 percent and 50 percent. Project Tswelopele, a 600 kt
per annum pelletising and sintering plant, is expected to be fully operational in 2013. The plant will
agglomerate UG2 tailings in addition to primary ore, significantly improving cost and operational
efficiencies. Xstrata-Merafe completed the development of the Waterval mine to produce 360 kt per
annum of chrome ore in 2011.

Anglo American Platinum will commission a chrome recovery plant at the Waterval mine in a joint
venture with International Ferrometals (IFM) by January 2012. IFM will be entitled to 15 kt of chrome
concentrate from the plant, which will provide 30 percent of IFMs annual chrome supply requirements
until 2020.

Hernic Ferrochromes development of the Bokone underground mine commenced early 2010; once
operational it will ensure security of supply that will allow Hernic Ferrochrome to produce ferrochrome for
the next 60 years.

121
OUTLOOK

Stainless steel is the dominant consumer of ferrochrome and therefore a change in the dynamics of the
stainless steel industry has an impact on the ferrochrome industry. Demand for chrome ore, which is
driven by ferrochrome demand, will move in line with the increase in the global stainless steel production.
South Africa will remain the leading global supplier of chrome ore and ferrochrome as it already has an
established chrome industry. Demand for UG2 chrome tailings is expected to drive demand for South
African chrome ore over the next few years.

New ferrochrome expansion projects are expected to come on line in the next few years which will
increase production. South Africas ferrochrome industry has not been operating at full capacity in recent
years, due to various factors that affected the sector; however, it is expected that the low capacity
utilization will be corrected by an increase in demand which will increase the capacity utilization levels.

The oversupply of UG2 in the market, as well as the slow growth in Chinas stainless steel industry will
impact negatively on the chrome ore and ferrochrome prices. The chrome ore prices are anticipated to
reach $215/t for the remainder of 2012 and $240/t in 2013.

REFERENCES
1. International Chromium Development Association Statistical Bulletin 2011
2. International Chromium Development Association Statistical Bulletin 2011
3. International Chromium Development Association Overview of the Chromium Industry 2012
4. USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries, Chromium, January 2011
5. USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries, Chromium, January 2012
6. DMR Mineral Economics
7. KPMG Special Commodity Insights Bulletin: Chrome And Ferrochrome 2012
8. www.worldsteel.org; accessed September 2012
9. www.sassda.co.za; accessed September 2012
10. International Stainless Steel Forum, August 2012
11. http://www.me aferesources.co.za/?page_id=90r
12. www.crugroup.com; accessed August 2012

122
 IRON ORE
Sqhelo Ntshobane
GLOBAL SUPPLY

According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), global iron ore reserves stood at 80 billion
tons in 2011. Australia accounted for 21.3 percent of the worlds reserves, followed by Brazil and Russia
at
20 percent and 17.5 percent, respectively. South Africa hosts 650 Mt of iron ore reserves; contributing
only 0.8 percent to global reserves. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD), estimates that at current global production levels, reserves of iron ore will last approximately 44
years.

TABLE 69: WORLD IRON ORE RESERVES, PRODUCTION AND EXPORTS, 2011

COUNTRY RESERVE# PRODUCTION+ EXPORTS+

Mt % Rank Mt % Rank Mt % Rank
Australia 17 000 21.3 1 487.9 25.4 1 438.8 38 1
Brazil 16 000 20 2 391 20.3 2 348.6 30.2 2
Canada 2 300 2.9 6 37.1 1.9 9 34 3.0 5
China 7 200 9.0 4 321.9 16.7 3 - - -
India 4 500 5.6 5 196.0 10.2 4 78.8 6.8 3
Russia 14 000 17.5 3 103.1 5.4 5 27.0 2.3 7
South Africa 650 0.8 10 52.9 2.8 8 52.2 4.5 4
Sweden 2 200 2.8 7 26.1 1.4 10 21.0 1.8 8
United States 2 100 2.6 8 53.6 2.8 7 10.0 0.9 9
Ukraine 2 100 2.6 8 81.2 4.2 6 34.1 3.0 5
Other 11 950 14.9 171.9 8.9 110.5 9.6
TOTAL: 2011 80 000 100 1 922.5 100 1 155 100
2010 87 350 1 836.1 1 063
Source: Sources: + UNCTAD Trust Fund on Iron Ore, 2011
# USGS, 2010 (Reserve Iron content)

Global production of iron ore increased by 4.7 percent in 2011 compared with 2010, to a record high of
1 922.5 Mt, largely to satisfy surging demand from China. Australia, China, Brazil and India together
accounted for approximately 72.6 percent of iron ore global production in 2011. Australia was the largest
producer and exporter accounting for 25.4 percent to total world production and 38 percent to total global
exports. South Africa accounted for just 2.8 percent of the total world production of iron ore.

Global iron ore production was dominated by three companies, namely: Brazil-based Vale, Rio Tinto and
BHP Billiton. The three companies accounted for 34.7 percent of world iron ore production in 2011
compared to 35 percent in 2010. All three companies are ramping up their production capacities
significantly; however, BHP Billiton has acknowledged that their expansion plans are subject to existing
demand, prices and the ability to spend capital on expansion projects.

GLOBAL DEMAND

Growth in global crude steel production drove the demand for iron ore throughout the world. International
iron ore exports reached a record 1 155 Mt in 2011, an increase of 8.7 percent compared with 2010.
China has driven the global recovery in crude steel production since the global financial crisis of 2008/09,
increasing the demand for iron ore. China imported 686.7 Mt of iron ore in 2011, an increase of 11
percent compared with 2010. According to the OECD, developing countries, including China, accounted
for approximately 68.1 percent of total iron ore imports in 2011 (Fig. 50), a 2.1 percent increase as
compared with 2010.

123
FIGURE 50: GLOBAL IRON ORE IMPORTS, 2011

Others
Korea 9%
6%
Japan
12%

Europe China
12% 61%

Source: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

Australia and Brazil were the global leaders in iron ore exports; together accounting for approximately 68
percent of total exports in 2011 (Fig. 51). Australias iron ore exports increased by 8.9 percent to 438.8
Mt, while Brazils exports increased by 12.1 percent to 348.6 Mt. India, the third largest exporter,
recorded a 17.8 percent decline in iron ore exports to 78.8 Mt in 2011 compared with 2010. The decline
was attributed to a clamp down on illegal mining, increased regulatory measures and high levies and
charges by the government. South African exports increased by 11 percent compared with 2010, to 52.2
Mt in 2011.

FIGURE 51: GLOBAL IRON ORE EXPORTS, 2011

South Africa
5% Others
20%
Australia
38%
India
7%

Brazil
30%

Source: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

PRICES

Following the 2008 financial crisis, major iron ore producers have dropped annual contract-pricing in
favour of a shorter-term quarterly-pricing scheme. Spot prices tend to exceed contract prices; which
means that iron ore producers are not reaping the maximum profits possible. Iron ore spot prices
reached $187/t in February 2011 before gradually declining throughout the year to close at $136/t in
December 2011. The average spot iron ore price increased by 9.8 percent to $168/t (CIF) in 2011
compared with the average iron ore spot price of $153/ton (CIF) in 2010.

124
FIGURE 52: IRON ORE SPOT PRICES, 2010 AND 2011

200
190
180
Prices ($/t)

170
160
150
140
130
120

Oct-10

Oct-11
Jul-10
Jan-10

Jun-10

Dec-10
Jan-11

Jun-11
Jul-11

Dec-11
Feb-10
Mar-10
Apr-10

Feb-11
Mar-11
Apr-11
Aug-10
Sep-10

Nov-10

Aug-11
Sep-11

Nov-11
May-10

May-11
Source: International Monetary Fund

SOUTH AFRICAS IRON ORE INDUSTRY

Production and Sales

South Africas iron ore output declined by 1.1 percent to 58.1 Mt in 2011, compared with 2010 (Table 70).
Local sales volumes declined by 6.8 percent to 9.8 Mt in 2011 while export sales volumes increased by
9.3 percent to 51.9 Mt due to increased global crude steel demand. Total sales revenue increased by 44
percent to R62.7 billion on the back of higher export volumes and prices compared with 2010.

TABLE 70: SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION AND SALES OF IRON ORE

YEAR PRODUCTION LOCAL SALES EXPORT SALES

Mass Value Unit Value Mass Value Unit Value
kt kt R' mil R/t kt R' 000 R/t
2002 36 484 11 057 1 009 91 24 303 4 305 177
2003 38 085 12 079 1 061 88 24 076 3 130 130
2004 39 322 12 430 1 146 92 27 745 3 440 124
2005 39 542 12 009 1 273 106 26 628 6 247 235
2006 41 326 11 989 1 395 116 27 370 8 532 312
2007 42 083 12 407 1 749 141 29 724 11 681 393
2008 48 983 11 258 1 975 175 32 766 20 267 619
2009 55 313 8 369 1 889 226 44 550 25 243 567
2010 58 709 10 561 3 270 310 47 493 40 148 845
2011 58 057 9 844 4 208 427 51 891 58 444 1126
Source: DMR Mineral Economics Directorate

EMPLOYMENT

Employment in South Africas iron ore industry was 22.7 percent higher in 2011 compared with 2010 due
to expansion projects (Table 71). The compensation of employees doubled in 2011, mainly due to a
payout of R2.3 billion by Kumba Iron Ore to its employees under the Envision share scheme. In terms of
tons per employee, productivity declined by 19 percent to 2 597t per employee.

125
TABLE 71: SOUTH AFRICAS IRON ORE INDUSTRYS EMPLOYMENT AND REMUNERATION

YEAR EMPLOYEES TOTAL REMUNERATION

R' 000
2007 13 858 1 362 392
2008 13 256 1 667 836
2009 13 727 2 178 041
2010 18 216 3 037 690
2011 22 342 6 504 656

Source: DMR Mineral Economics Directorates

Beneficiation

South Africa is a major producer of iron ore, which is the key input for iron and steel production. Despite
the decline in local sales volumes in 2011, local iron ore sales volumes are expected to increase in the
future when the new Beneficiation Strategy of South Africa is implemented. The Beneficiation Strategy
identified the iron and steel value chain as critical for South Africas beneficiation drive. Key interventions
required to encourage downstream beneficiation of iron and steel include addressing import parity pricing
for downstream users in order to encourage local fabrication projects.

Industry Developments

Kumba Iron Ores Kolomela mine is expected to come into production in the first half of 2012, ramping up
production to 9 Mt in 2013. The mine will increase Kumba Iron Ores production capacity to 50 Mt by the
end of 2012, in line with the companys long term strategy to produce 70 Mt of ore per annum by 2019.
The total capital invested in the project is R8.5 billion, of which R5.3 billion has already been spent. The
mine is expected to create more than 800 permanent employment opportunities when it reaches full
production.

Assmang has production expansion plans for its Khumani and Beeshoek iron ore mines. Khumani iron
ore mine currently produces around 12 Mt and the expansion will increase production to 14 Mt by 2013,
after Assmang has secured railway allocation. Production from the Beeshoek iron ore mine will expand
to 2.5 Mt from the current 2 Mt.

The Anglo American-owned Minas Rio venture in Brazil, which plans to reach a capacity of 26 million
tons by 2015, is facing further delays due to the strict environmental process requirements and project
designing changes.

OUTLOOK

On the basis of an unchanged relationship between iron ore demand and crude steel production, the
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) estimated that iron ore use will
increase from 1.92 billion tons in 2011 to about 2 billion tons in 2012 and to 2.08 billion tons in 2013.
World crude steel production is expected to reach approximately 1 530 Mt in 2012; nearly 4 percent
higher than in 2011. A short term forecast from the World Steel Association (Worldsteel) predicted steel
use to increase by 3.6 percent in 2012, followed by an increase of 4.5 percent in 2013. Worldsteel
estimated that global steel demand growth rates will remain high; however, forecasted growth rates are
below the pre-crisis levels.

Chinas economic growth is forecast to slow down significantly compared to the high growth rates
achieved in recent years. The slower growth in China is expected to negatively affect the demand for iron
ore as the major input into iron and steel production.

Growth in supply is expected to outpace the growth in demand due to the anticipated increase in
production capacity in the medium term, leading to declining prices. Average prices are forecast to
decline to $143/t in 2012 and $140/t in 2013.

126
REFERENCES

1. USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries, Iron Ore, January 2012

2. DMR Mineral Economics, 2011
3. KPMG Quarterly Commodity Insights Bulletin April 2012
4. International Stainless Steel Forum Annual Review 2012
5. International Stainless Steel Forum Steel In Figures 2012 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
Steelmaking Raw Materials: Market And Policy Development 2012
6. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development The Iron Ore Market In 2011
7. Worldsteel Association Steel Statistical Yearbook 2011
8. Worldsteel Association Steel Statistical Yearbook 2011
9. Worldsteel Association Steel and Raw Materials Fact Sheet
10. Salman Partners Iron Ore Review 2012
11. CRU Iron Ore Long Term Outlook 2011
12. www.unctad.org
13. www.imf.org; accessed October 2011
14. www.worldsteel.org; accessed September 2012
15. www.issb.co.uk; accessed September 2012
16. The Iron Ore Market 2009 -2011, UNCTAD June 2010
17. Merafe Resources Annual Report 2011
18. CRU Monthly Steel Raw Material

127
 MANGANESE

Keneilwe Ratshomo

WORLD DEMAND

Demand for manganese ore in 2011 was driven mainly by China, on the back of increasing steel output
in that country. The country imported 13 Mt of seaborne ore in 2011, up by 12 percent from 11.6 Mt in
2010. India and Korea increased their demand for manganese ore in 2011 and both imported
approximately 1 Mt of the ore, driven by their increase in manganese alloys production capacities. Global
unit consumption of manganese ferroalloys continued to vary significantly from region to region due to
different steel production processes, the quality of the raw materials used and types of steel products
produced. The global average consumption was about 10 kg gross weight of manganese ferroalloys per
ton of steel produced in 2011.

World crude steel output, which continued to be driven mainly by China, increased by 6.8 percent to 1
527 Mt in 2011 compared with 2010, according to the Worldsteel Association (WSA) (Fig. 53). Chinas
steel production increased by 8.9 percent, raising its share of world steel production from 44.7 percent in
2010 to 45.5 percent in 2011. The rest of the Asian region increased steel production by 6.2 percent in
2011. Steel output in the European Union increased by 2.8 percent, with its share of world steel
production lower at 11.6 percent in 2011 compared with 12.1 percent in 2010. Although output for the
year was at record levels, the steel market slowed down towards the end of the year. The utilization of
the world steel production capacity went down from 80.8 percent in January 2011 to 71.1 percent in
December 2011, due to poor demand from the end-use markets.

FIGURE 53: WORLD STEEL PRODUCTION, 2002 2011

800
700
600
Production (Mt)

500
400
300
200
100
0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Europe Americas Africa Asia excl. China China Oceania

Source: WSA, 2002 2011

WORLD SUPPLY

Manganese ore reserves were revised upwards for South Africa as well as for Brazil and downwards for
Gabon in 2011. As a result, South Africa accounted for 24 percent of the worlds reserves in 2011 from
19 percent in 2010, followed by Ukraines 22 percent and Brazils 17 percent (Fig. 54). In response to
increasing demand for manganese ore during 2011, the industry ramped up production by 9 percent to
15.8 Mt in terms of manganese units contained. This amounted to a gross of 48 Mt of manganese ore,
up by 4.6 percent from 45.9 Mt in 2010, with an average grade of 32.8 percent manganese (Mn). World
exports of manganese ore increased by 12.6 percent to 22.3 Mt in 2011. South Africa accounted for 29.7
percent of the exports, followed by Australias 29.5 percent and Gabons 13.4 percent.

128
FIGURE 54: WORLD MANGANESE ORE RESERVES, 2011

2% 15%
22%

Australia
17%
Brazil
China
Gabon
India
Mexico
South Africa
24% 7% Ukraine
3% Others
1% 9%

Total = 630Mt

Sources: USGS 2012

World manganese alloys output rose by 7 percent to 16 Mt in 2011, in line with growth in the steel sector.
Silico-manganese (SiMn) production, accounted for 62 percent of total manganese alloys production at
9.8 Mt, followed by high carbon ferromanganese (HCFeMn), which accounted for 28 percent at 4.5 Mt
and the remaining 10 percent was refined ferromanganese (MCFeMn) at 1.6 Mt.

Global exports of SiMn amounted to an estimated 2.7 Mt in 2011, with Ukraine accounting for about 24.5
percent of the exports. India at 23.2 percent and South Africa at 11 percent ranked second and third.
World exports of HCFeMn increased by 18.2 percent to 1.4 Mt in 2011. South Africas share of HCFeMn
exports rose from 27.8 percent in 2010 to 32 percent in 2011 due to increased production capacity,
followed by Norways 10.1 percent and Australias 9.4 percent.

WORLD PRICES

Manganese ore prices declined during 2011 (Fig. 55), continuing the trend from the last two quarters of
2010 after reaching a post crisis peak of $8.40/mtu in May 2010. Annual prices averaged $5.46/mtu in
2011, down by 25.6 percent compared with $7.33/mtu in 2010. This could be due to the drop in
manganese alloys prices as well as the oversupplied ore market during this period. Prices averaged
$6.10/mtu during the first quarter of 2011 and $5.32/mtu during the second quarter, down by 4.4 percent
and 12.8 percent, respectively, compared with the previous quarters. The market improved slightly during
the third quarter of 2011, with prices increasing marginally by 0.6 percent to $5.35/mtu. However, the
recovery did not last as prices dropped 5.3 percent to $5.07/mtu during the last quarter of the year and
by a further 9.2 percent to $4.60/mtu during the first quarter of 2012, the lowest level since June 2009.

129
FIGURE 55: MONTHLY MANGANESE ORE PRICES, 2007 2011

20
18
16
Prices ($/mtu)

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Mar-08

Mar-09

Mar-10

Mar-11

Mar-12
Nov-08

Nov-09

Nov-10

Nov-11
Jan-08

Jul-08
Sep-08

Jan-09

Jul-09
Sep-09

Jan-10

Jul-10
Sep-10

Jan-11

Jul-11
Sep-11

Jan-12
May-08

May-09

May-10

May-11
Source: CRU, 2008-2012

The slowdown in global steel output towards the end of 2011 as well as weaker demand from the
Eurozone had a negative effect on the manganese alloys market during 2011. MCFeMn prices went from
$2 070/t in January 2011 to $1 645/t in December 2011, averaging $1 907/t for the year, which was a
15.7 percent decline compared with 2010 (Fig. 56). The HCFeMn annual average price declined by 5.3
percent to $1 300/t in 2011 from $1 373/t in 2010, while the SiMn annual average price declined by 7.2
percent to $1 302/t from $1 402/t in 2010. However, prices showed a modest improvement during the
first quarter of 2012, with SiMn prices outperforming the other alloys mainly due to supply cutbacks.

FIGURE 56: MONTHLY AVERAGE PRICES OF MANGANESE ALLOYS, 2008 2011

4550
3900
3250
Prices ($/t)

2600
1950
1300
650
0
Apr-11
Apr-08

Oct-08

Apr-09

Oct-09

Apr-10

Oct-10

Oct-11
Jan-08

Jul-08

Jan-09

Jul-09

Jan-10

Jul-10

Jan-11

Jul-11

Jan-12

HCFeMn MCFeMn SiMn

Source: CRU, 2007-2011

SOUTH AFRICA

South Africas manganese ore production increased by 21 percent to 8 652 kt in 2011 compared to 2010
(Table 72). Local sales volumes declined by 3.9 percent while corresponding revenue increased slightly
by 0.4 percent to R1.33 billion due to higher local unit values. Exports sales volumes increased by 13
percent to 6 773 kt, while export sales value decreased by 8 percent to R8.57 billion due to a 19 percent
decline in unit values.

130
TABLE 72: SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION, LOCAL AND EXPORTS SALES OF MANGANESE ORE,
2002 2011

YEAR PRODUCTION LOCAL SALES EXPORT SALES

Mass Mass Value Mass Value
kt kt R'000 R/t kt R'000 R/t
2002 3 322 W 583 603 W 1 539 1 042 952 678
2003 3 501 W 614 393 W 1 956 852 983 436
2004 4 282 W 656 435 W 2 403 1 082 285 450
2005 4 612 W 681 860 W 2 119 1 518 965 717
2006 5 213 W 727 182 W 2 846 1 518 652 534
2007 5 996 W 934 901 W 3 691 2 636 526 697
2008 6 807 W 1 761 848 W 4 689 15 581 560 3 323
2009 4 575 W 583 601 W 3 975 5 003 011 1 258
2010 7 172 W 1 320 564 W 5 986 9 340 026 1 560
2011 8 652 W 1 325 213 W 6 773 8 569 854 1 265
Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics
Note: W = Withheld

South Africas production of HCFeMn and MCFeMn, which accounted for 67 percent of the total
manganese alloys production in 2011, increased by 51 percent to 714 kt in 2011 compared with 2010
(Table 73). Local sales volumes declined by 1 percent to 20 t while revenues generated from local sales
declined by 9 percent R169.5 million. Exports sales volumes increased by 14 percent to 556 kt while the
corresponding revenues increased by 7 percent to R4.4 billion, despite a 6 percent decline in exports unit
values.

TABLE 73: SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION, LOCAL AND EXPORT SALES OF HIGH AND MEDIUM-
CARBON FERROMANGANESE, 2002-2011

YEAR PRODUCTION LOCAL SALES EXPORT SALES

Mass Mass Value Mass Value
kt kt R'mil R/t kt R'mil R/t
2002 619 162 530 3 280 476 1 805 3 795
2003 607 151 494 3 272 437 1 352 3 093
2004 612 153 784 5 127 446 2 496 5 600
2005 571 140 601 4 289 375 1 711 4 565
2006 656 128 451 3 543 556 2 303 4 143
2007 699 151 835 5 546 565 3 703 6 551
2008 503 79 1 115 14 085 500 8 883 17 774
2009 275 23 213 9 310 262 1 820 6 940
2010 473 21 186 9 036 488 4 094 8 397
2011 714 20 169 8 347 556 4 389 7 892
Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

Production of other manganese alloys increased by 11 percent to 350 kt in 2011 (Table 74). Local sales
volumes declined by 23 percent to 34 kt while revenues generated from local sales declined by 24
percent to R313.6 million. Export sales volumes increased by 10 percent to 298 kt while exports sales
revenues increased by 1 percent to R3.02 billion, driven by higher sales volumes despite lower unit
values.

131
TABLE 74: SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION, LOCAL AND EXPORT SALES OF OTHER
MANGANESE ALLOYS, 2002-2011

YEAR PRODUCTION LOCAL SALES EXPORT SALES

Mass Mass Value Mass Value
kt kt R' mil R/t kt R' mil R/t
2002 316 35 123 3 495 215 1 257 5 840
2003 313 42 140 3 346 270 1 182 4 373
2004 374 39 148 3 798 308 1 833 5 956
2005 275 25 121 4 811 184 1 080 5 865
2006 278 31 130 4 266 149 813 5 468
2007 328 35 216 6 115 223 1 700 7 614
2008 259 47 653 13 958 182 3 021 16 568
2009 118 45 385 8 600 151 1 805 11 955
2010 317 44 413 9 372 271 2 979 10 974
2011 350 34 314 9 276 298 3 020 10 131
Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

Employment in the manganese industry increased by 25 percent to 7 356 in 2011 due to new projects
(Table 75). Productivity declined by 3.6 percent to 1 176 t per employee per year due to an increase in
employment from operations that are still under construction and outside contractors. Each employee
generated R1.35 million in 2011, a 26 percent decline compared with 2010.

TABLE 75: SOUTH AFRICAS MANGANESE MINES EMPLOYMENT AND REMUNERATION, 2007-
2011

YEAR EMPLOYEES TOTAL REMUNERATION

R'000
2007 3 240 405 313
2008 3 934 666 356
2009 4 988 731 618
2010 5 879 946 139
2011 7 356 1 263 289
Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

OUTLOOK

According to Management Engineering & Production Services (MEPS), world crude steel output is
expected to grow by 3.7 percent to 1 600 Mt in 2012. World Steel Associates (WSA) forecasts that global
apparent steel use will increase by 3.6 percent to 1 422 Mt in 2012, a decline from a 5.6 percent growth
in 2011 as a result of the continuing slowdown of Chinese steel demand and the Eurozone debt crisis. In
2013, it is forecast that world steel demand will grow by a further 4.5 percent to around 1 486 Mt.

The use of manganese in the production of steel will continue to dominate demand. However demand for
manganese for batteries is likely to show some growth, with manganese consumption in this sector
expected to rise to approximately 60 kt by 2020. World demand for manganese is expected to increase
by around 6 percent per year over the next five years. Although supply is expected to increase in the
coming years, power restrictions and industry restructuring will add some upward pressure to prices of
ore and alloys. Manganese ore prices are expected to remain stable with occasional spikes.
Ferromanganese prices are expected to increase slightly faster than silico-manganese, reflecting faster
expansion of the flat steel products market. As a result, manganese prices could be 20-30 percent higher
in five years time compared with end of 2011 levels.

South Africas high grade ore will continue feeding into the major ferroalloys markets, where the domestic
ores are typically low grade and unsuitable for production of good quality manganese ferroalloys. The

132
countrys planned new mining capacity, with three new mining projects comprising a total output of about
6.3 Mt per year of saleable ore or sinter, could increase South Africas share of the worlds manganese
ore production. This provides investment opportunities for increasing manganese alloys production
capacity in the country, and increasing South Africas share of global manganese alloys markets.

REFERENCES

1. The Tex Report

2. WSA, www.worldsteel.org
3. CRU, Bulk Ferroalloys Monitor, www.crumonitor.com
4. DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

133
 SILICON

Nomsa Mahlangu

WORLD DEMAND

Silicon is the second most abundant element, constituting 27.7 percent of the earths crust. It occurs
naturally as the mineral quartz and is widely used in the iron, steel and non-ferrous metal industries in
the form of silicon metal and ferrosilicon. Silicon metal is used for alloying with aluminium (45%) and for
the production of chemicals (35%), while the demand for ferrosilicon is driven by the production of cast
iron (15%) and steel (85%). China remained the largest producer in 2011, accounting for 67 percent of
the world silicon production, followed by Commonwealth of Independent States at 10 percent and
America at 9 percent (Fig. 57).

FIGURE 57: REGIONAL CONTRIBUTION OF SILICON PRODUCTION, 2011

EU Others Africa America

CIS 7% 5% 1% 9%
10% Asia
1%

China
67%

America: Brazil, Canada, United States, Venezuela

Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS): Russia, Ukraine
Europe (EU): France, Iceland, Norway

Source: USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries, 2012

134
Silicon metal

The global production of silicon metal increased by approximately 49.9 percent to 2 723 kt in 2011, from
1 816 kt in 2010 (Table 76). China remained the top producer accounting for 60.6 percent in 2011,
followed by Brazil at 8.4 percent while South Africa contributed only 2.2 percent of global silicon metal
production. World silicon metal exports grew by 1 percent to 1 377 kt in 2011 when compared with 2010.

TABLE 76: WORLD PRODUCTION AND EXPORTS OF SILICON METAL, 2011

COUNTRY PRODUCTION EXPORTS

Mass (kt) % Rank Mass (kt) % RANK
Brazil 228 8.4 2 191 13.9 2
Canada 48 1.8 8 43 3.1 7
China+ 1 650 60.6 1 584 42.4 1
CIS 208 7.6 3 189 13.7 3
France 137 5.0 6 - - -
Norway 193 7.1 4 180 13.1 4
South Africa* 59 2.2 7 63 4.6 6
USA 145 5.3 5 82 6.0 5
Others 55 2.0 45 3.3
Total: 2011 2 723 100 1 377 100
2010 1 816 1 364
Source: Data estimated (in silicon content) from information supplied by various bureaux
* DMR, Mineral Economics Directorate
+ USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries, 2012 (Production)

Ferrosilicon

World ferrosilicon production was estimated at 7 312 kt in 2011, an increase of 32.6 percent when
compared with 2010 (Table 77). China remained the largest producer of ferrosilicon contributing 79.3
percent, with South Africa contributing only 1.7 percent. World ferrosilicon exports increased by 6.7
percent to 2 021 kt in 2011, in line with global crude steel production, which increased by 7 percent to 1
499 Mt in 2011.

TABLE 77: WORLD PRODUCTION AND EXPORTS OF FERROSILICON, 2011

PRODUCTION EXPORT
COUNTRY
Mass (kt) % Rank Mass (kt) % Rank
Brazil 157 2.1 5 106 5.2 4
China+ 5 800 79.3 1 923 45.7 1
CIS 717 9.8 2 336 16.6 2
France 80 1.1 7 45 2.2 6
Iceland 58 0.8 8 38 1.9 7
Norway 161 2.2 4 189 9.4 3
South Africa* 124 1.7 6 68 3.4 5
USA 173 2.4 3 20 1.0 8
Others 42 0.6 296 14.6
Total: 2011 7 312 100 2 021 100
Total: 2010 5 369 1 894
Source: Data estimated (in silicon content) from information supplied by various bureau
* DMR, Mineral Economics Directorate
USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries, 2012 (Production)

135
PRICES

Year-on-year, the prices of silicon metal and ferrosilicon rose by 12.8 percent and 5.8 percent,
respectively, from 2010 to 2011. However when comparing with the average prices of the first half of
2010 with the first half of 2011, there were significant increases of 26 percent for silicon metal and 16
percent for ferrosilicon. During the second half of 2011 prices of both silicon metal and ferrosilicon
stabilized and recorded only modest increases of 2 percent and 3 percent, respectively, when compared
to the second half of 2010. In 2011, silicon metal prices opened the year 2011 at $3 500/t and closed the
year at $3 150/t, a decrease of 10 percent, while ferrosilicon opened the year at $1 770/t and closed the
year at $1 510/t, a decrease of 15 percent. If the weak demand from China and other parts of the world is
not reversed, the prices are likely to drop even further.

FIGURE 58: SILICON METAL AND FERROSILICON SPOT PRICES IN THE US, 2011

4000
3500
3000
2500
Prices ($/t)

2000
1500
1000
500
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

SILICON METAL FERROSILICON

Source: CRU

SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION AND SALES OF SILICON METAL AND FERROSILICON

Silicon metal

South Africas production of silicon metal increased by 26.8 percent to 58.8 kt in 2011, from 46.4 kt in
2010 (Table 78). Local sales volumes and values both declined by 1.9 percent and 37.2 percent,
respectively, while export sales volumes and values increased by 1.2 percent and 27.8 percent,
respectively.

136
TABLE 78: SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION AND SALES OF SILICON METAL, 2001-2011

PRODUCTION LOCAL SALES EXPORT SALES

YEARS
Mass kt Mass kt Value (R'mil) Mass kt Value (R'mil)
2001 39.4 2.2 15.2 39.4 313.6
2002 42.5 4.3 38.6 29.7 320.0
2003 48.5 5.7 49.7 40.8 392.6
2004 50.5 8.8 65.4 45.9 389.4
2005 53.5 5.5 47.9 41.6 450.2
2006 53.3 7.8 72.3 47.4 503.6
2007 50.3 8.9 101.8 46.3 570.8
2008 51.8 3.9 87.4 53.5 1213.1
2009 38.6 6.4 91.6 38.4 640.4
2010 46.4 10.8 106.0 62.4 840.1
2011 58.8 10.6 66.6 63.1 1073.7
Source: DMR, Mineral Economics Directorate

Ferrosilicon

South Africas production of ferrosilicon declined by 2.6 percent to 124.3 kt in 2011 from 127.5 kt in 2010
(Table 79). Despite a 4.0 percent decrease in local sales volumes in 2011, local sales revenues
increased by 4.2 percent compared with 2010 due to higher prices. Export sales volumes and values
increased by 11.8 percent and 25.5 percent, respectively, in 2011.

TABLE 79: SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION AND SALES OF FERROSILICON, 2001-2011

PRODUCTION LOCAL SALES EXPORT SALES

YEAR
Mass kt Mass kt Value (R' mil) Mass kt Value (R' mil)
2001 107.6 65.9 245.9 31.4 110.8
2002 141.7 79.5 325.2 73.0 306.9
2003 135.3 79.0 364.7 65.7 280.3
2004 140.6 84.3 436.1 57.8 268.9
2005 127.0 73.4 388.4 41.3 223.2
2006 148.9 79.5 444.3 49.0 301.5
2007 139.6 91.7 616.4 54.7 395.4
2008 134.5 71.2 842.2 44.2 512.0
2009 110.4 61.0 659.9 43.6 460.9
2010 127.5 59.6 664.6 60.5 654.1
2011 124.3 57.2 692.6 67.6 820.8
Source: DMR, Mineral Economics Directorate

Developments in South Africa

In July 2010 INSIAVA (Injection-enhanced Silicon in Avalanche), a South African start-up company
established by the University of Pretoria, announced an important milestone in the companys
programme to develop CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) optical chip-to-chip
interconnects. This was to enable INSIAVAs technology to attain data communication in the range of
multiple Gb/s (gigabytes per second) in conventional all-silicon technology.

In November 2011 INSIAVA announced that it had reached its milestone of developing the fastest known
all-silicon electroluminescent devices (switching at frequencies above 1 Ghz) as well as the fastest all-
silicon optical data links (data rates of 10 Mb/s) in the world.

137
In 2011, Emvelo and German based FG.de created a joint venture company FG Emvelo, a South African
independent power developer of concentrated solar plants. FG Emvelo together with its partners is
developing a pipeline of CSP and CPV projects at the 1.1 GW Karoshoek Solar Valley site that will
concentrate thermal power plants capable of generating dispatchable solar electricity. These
developments are likely to increase the use of silicon within the country and hence drive the countrys
beneficiation strategy.

OUTLOOK

The silicon market has shown a declining trend in 2011 though the production capacity has increased
compared with 2010. The driving force for an increase in production capacity was the expansion of
smelters particularly in China which added about 350 000 tons. About 180 000 tons were added via plant
expansions in Australia, China, Kazakhstan, Russia and Thailand. The growing demand of silicon from
the aluminium, steel and solar power generation industries had contributed to an increase of production
capacity. Demand for silicon metal from the aluminium industry has grown steadily due to increased
usage of aluminum in structural engineering, aircraft manufacture and the automotive industry. The value
of the global aluminium market is anticipated to reach $112.3 billion in 2012.

World crude steel production increased by 7 percent to 1 499 Mt in 2011, from 1 401 Mt in 2010.
Demand for ferrosilicon in steel is expected to grow due to rising steel production with crude steel
production forecast to grow by annual average of 5 to 6 percent through to 2015.

South Africas silicon metal industry is likely to grow in response to the countrys growing demand for
electricity and its intention to reduce 34% of carbon emissions by 2020. This could involve engaging the
countrys power utility, Eskom, in projects to develop solar energy.

REFERENCES

1. DMR, Mineral Economics

2. USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries, 2012
3. CRU, Bulk Ferroalloys Monitor, 2011 Dec and 2012 Mar
4. RoskiIl, www.roskill.com
5. www.insiava.com
6. www.emvelo.co.za

138
 VANADIUM

Keneilwe Ratshomo

WORLD DEMAND

The major application of vanadium is in high strength low alloy (HSLA) steels, but it is also used in tool
and some engineering steels. Vanadium is an active grain refiner (i.e. it reduces the grain size of a metal
or alloy) and is a strong de-oxidant. Vanadium is usually added to steel in the form of ferrovanadium
(FeV). It is also used to increase the strength and temperature stability of titanium, which consumes
about 4 percent of global vanadium produced, as well as in lithium-vanadium cells for batteries. The
basic vanadium compound, vanadium pentoxide (V 2O5), is used as a catalyst for the production of
sulphuric acid.

The Worldsteel Association (WSA) reported a 6.8 percent increase in world steel production to 1 527 Mt
in 2011 compared with 2010. Asias steel production, which increased by 7.9 percent in 2011, accounted
for 64.7 percent of the worlds production, led by China which accounted for 45.5 percent of the worlds
production. As a result, the region was the largest consumer of vanadium.

WORLD SUPPLY

World vanadium resources exceed 63 Mt, however, since vanadium is usually recovered as a by-product
or co-product, demonstrated world reserves of the element are not fully indicative of available supplies.
World reserves were estimated at 14 Mt in 2011, 2.9 percent higher compared with 2010. China and
Russia accounted for the largest vanadium reserves at 37 percent each, followed by South Africa at 26
percent (Fig. 59). The three countries account for almost 100 percent of worlds known vanadium
reserves. The US has insignificant reserves of less than one percent.

FIGURE 59: WORLD VANADIUM RESERVES, 2011

South Africa
26%
China
37%

Russia
37%

Source: USGS, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2012

Global vanadium production increased by 6.2 percent to 61.2 kt in 2011 compared with 57.6 kt in 2010
due to higher demand for high strength steel. China was the biggest producer, accounting for 38 percent
of the worlds vanadium output while South Africas 35 percent and Russias 25 percent ranked second
and third (Fig. 60). South Africas vanadium production declined by 4.2 percent in 2011 while Chinas
increased by 4.5 percent and Russias remained unchanged compared with 2010.

139
FIGURE 60: WORLD VANADIUM PRODUCTION, 2011

Russia *South Africa

25% 35%

Others
2%
China
38%

Source: USGS, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2012

*DMR, Mineral Economics

PRICES

Vanadium prices, which stabilized during the second half of 2010, started to decline during the second
quarter of 2011 due to weaker demand (Fig. 61). FeV prices averaged $28.90/kg in 2011, 3.6 percent
lower compared with 2010 while V2O5 prices declined by 2.2 percent to $6.76/lb. FeV prices fell to an
average of $24.25/kg in December 2011 from $30.37/kg in January 2011 while V 2O5 dropped to $6.22/lb
from $6.93/lb during the same period. However, prices recovered slightly during the first quarter of 2012,
driven by increased demand from steel and alloys producers, which was partly due to the rise of
vanadium content in steels produced in developing countries, coupled with supply shortages.

FIGURE 61: MONTHLY FERROVANADIUM AND VANADIUM PENTOXIDE PRICES, 2011

8 40
7 35
6 30

Prices ($/kg)
Prices ($/t)

5 25
4 20
3 15
2 10
1 5
0 0
Jan-09

Jan-10

Jan-11

Jan-12
Jul-09

Jul-10

Jul-11
Mar-09

Mar-10

Mar-11

Mar-12
Sep-11
Sep-09
Nov-09

Sep-10
Nov-10

Nov-11
May-09

May-10

May-11

V2O5 FeV

Source: USGS Monthly Mineral Commodity Reports, 2011

SOUTH AFRICA

South Africas vanadium production declined by 4.2 percent to 21.7 kt in 2011 compared with 2010
(Table 80), due to lower demand, maintenance shutdowns and labour related issues. Local sales
volumes declined by 8.5 percent to 1.7 kt due to lower domestic demand, while revenues from local
sales declined by 5.6 percent, despite a 2 percent increase in prices in 2011. Export sales volumes
increased by 6 percent to 17.9 kt in 2011 while revenues from export sales increased by 4.9 percent to
140
R2.29 billion, despite slightly lower export prices. Over 90 percent of total vanadium products sold were
exported in 2011. The biggest consumer of the countrys vanadium was Europe, which accounted for 73
percent of the exported volumes in 2011, followed by America at 16.4 percent and Asia at 9.3 percent.

TABLE 80: SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION AND SALES OF VANADIUM, 2002-2011

YEAR PRODUCTION LOCAL SALES EXPORT SALES

Mass Value (FOB) Mass Value (FOB)
kt kt R mil R/kg kt R mil R/kg
2002 25.2 0.4 36 91 20.0 1 145 57
2003 27.2 1.1 109 97 18.8 1 072 57
2004 23.3 2.6 416 158 16.3 1 675 103
2005 22.6 2.8 1 154 406 15.3 3 758 246
2006 23.8 2.0 452 222 15.6 2 653 170
2007 23.5 2.3 446 191 14.3 2 319 163
2008 20.3 2.3 893 391 12.1 3 090 256
2009 14.4 1.8 267 149 11.9 1 360 116
2010 22.6 1.9 286 152 16.9 2 182 129
2011 21.7 1.7 270 155 17.9 2 288 128
Source: DMR, Mineral Economics
Notes: Mass data is given in units of vanadium contained. Consumption of vanadium slag and fused pentoxide or trioxide in the
production of other downstream saleable products is eliminated from both production and sales figures to avoid double and triple
counting. These figures, therefore apply to production and sales of the final product which is sold after processing yield losses. The
production and export data include all exported slag and fused pentoxide, which may have a yield loss of vanadium during
subsequent processing. In world supply terms, these outputs might regularly be counted more than once as production, overstating
the figures.

EMPLOYMENT

Average annual employment in South Africas vanadium industry increased by 3.9 percent to 1 436 in
2011 (Table 81), while remuneration grew by 13.4 percent to R520 million. Productivity dropped by 7.8
percent to 15 t per employee per year in 2011 compared with 16.4 t in 2010 due to lower demand,
maintenance shutdowns and labour related issues coupled with increased employment, while each
employee generated R1.78 million in 2011, a 0.3 percent decrease compared with 2010.

TABLE 81: EMPLOYMENT IN SOUTH AFRICAS VANADIUM INDUSTRY, 2007 2011

YEAR EMPLOYEES TOTAL REMUNERATION

R' 000
2007 1 151 244 614
2008 1 253 291 857
2009 1 313 376 688
2010 1 382 458 577
2011 1 436 520 250
Source: DMR, Mineral Economics

141
OUTLOOK

The world steel market weakened during the fourth quarter of 2011. However, world steel demand for the
year grew by 5.6 percent, due to the strong performance of the market during the first half of the year.
This was despite widespread challenges facing the industry, including the ongoing Eurozone sovereign
debt crisis, earthquakes in Japan, the political unrest in the Middle East resulting in a surge in oil prices,
and the tightening of government monetary measures in many emerging economies.

The Eurozone debt crisis had the greatest negative impact on the global steel market. However, signs of
stability are emerging and recovery is expected to resume in the second half of 2012, leading to a higher
growth forecast for 2013. The WSA forecasts that global apparent steel use will increase by 3.6 percent
to 1 422 Mt in 2012, while world steel demand is expected to grow by a further 4.5 percent to around 1
486 Mt in 2013.

Over the period 2012-13, vanadium supply is forecast to increase by 11 percent, while demand is
expected to grow by a minimum of 11 percent. Vanadium demand is also expected to grow at an annual
growth rate of 7.8 percent through to 2015, due to anticipated increasing demand for stronger and lighter
steel alloys.

Vanadium is mainly supplied by co-product, slag-based and primary vanadium producers. However,
when the global demand exceeds supplies significantly it forces suppliers to look for vanadium from
relatively high-cost secondary sources. The cost of production from these sources defines the minimum
sustainable vanadium market price. The figure is currently estimated at about $29/kg for FeV. Although
the prices are currently below this level, prices are forecast to reach $45/kg in 2014. At these price
levels, the South African vanadium industry has the opportunity to expand its production capacity of
added value products (mainly ferrovanadium and vanadium chemicals) consistent with South Africas
Beneficiation Strategy.

REFERENCES

1. DMR, Mineral Economics

2. USGS Monthly Mineral Commodity Reports Vanadium, 2010
3. www.metalbulletin.com
4. www.worldsteel.org
5. www.vanadiumsite.com

142
 INDUSTRIAL MINERALS OVERVIEW
Refiloe Motsie

INTRODUCTION

Industrial minerals are generally high volume, low value commodities compared with other economic
minerals. Most deposits appear near surface and are usually exploited through opencast mining methods
rather than underground mining, presenting an opportunity for small-scale mining development. Because
of industrial minerals low value, some companies mining these minerals have a high degree of vertical
integration, in that they mine raw materials and beneficiate them to the stage of final product.

Industrial minerals play a vital role in many end-user markets with the main ones being the agriculture,
construction, chemical, metallurgical and pigment sectors, which account for the bulk of the local
purchases. Markets for industrial minerals are often diverse, highly technical and require unique
marketing and sales expertise.

SALES TRENDS

From 2007 to 2011, total sales of primary industrial minerals have grown at a compound annual rate of
3.7 percent (Fig 62). In 2011, industrial minerals contributed 3.3 percent to total revenue generated from
South Africas primary mineral sales, of which R10.6 billion was from local sales and R1.8 billion came
from exports (Table 83). Sales trends improved in most sectors in 2011, particularly in the refractories
and construction sectors, in spite of the slowdown in demand for minerals in most parts of Europe
because of the debt crisis in Greece and other countries.

FIGURE 62: INDUSTRIAL MINERAL SALES, 2007 2011

16
14
Sales in billion rands

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Year
Local Sales Export Sales Total Sales

Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

DOMESTIC SALES

Consumption of industrial minerals is mostly driven by domestic demand from the construction and
agricultural sectors. As most industrial minerals are low priced commodities and sold in large volumes,
their economic exploitation is highly affected by transport costs and distance to markets. Aggregate &
sand and limestone & dolomite accounted for 63 percent of industrial minerals local sales value with
consumption driven mainly by the construction sector (Fig 63). Local sales value of industrial minerals
increased by 12 percent from R9.4 billion in 2010 to R10.6 billion in 2011 (Table 82 and Table 83), As a
result of improvement in activity in the construction industry and rise in demand from the agricultural
sector.

Growth in real gross fixed capital expenditure by Government was strong in the fourth quarter of 2011,
supported by provincial and local government capital spending in the areas of housing, construction
works and water projects, including the construction of waste and water treatment facilities. The real
value added by the construction sector expanded at an annualised rate of 1.9 percent in the same
period, driven by a rise in demand for residential and non-residential buildings. Furthermore, Transnets

143
new multi-products pipeline and upgrading of the road network by South African National Roads Agency
Limited (SANRAL) gave rise to increased spending on construction works, while the Airports Company of
South Africa (ACSA) continued with the improvement of facilities, including the runways and taxiways at
the East London Airport. Increased construction activity also reflected a continuation of work undertaken
by various public corporations, such as the resumption of construction activity at the Medupi and Kusile
power stations after earlier labour disputes that had adversely affected operations.

FIGURE 63: LOCAL SALES VALUE OF INDUSTRIAL MINERALS, 2011

Aggregate and sand

40%

Other
28%

Silica
Lime stone and lime
5% Granite Sulphur 23%
2% 2%

Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

EXPORT SALES

Export sales value of industrial minerals increased by 64 percent from R1.1 billion in 2010 to R1.8 billion
in 2011, mainly owing to a rise in demand for andalusite from Belgium and vermiculite from Great Britain.
The biggest contributors to export sales of industrial minerals were andalusite (30 percent), vermiculite
(20 percent), granite (11 percent) (Fig 64). The bulk of South Africas primary industrial mineral exports,
were destined for Europe, accounting for 63 percent of exports followed by Pacific Rim countries with
26 percent.

FIGURE 64: EXPORT SALES OF INDUSTRIAL MINERALS, 2011

Other Andalusite
34% 30%

Sulphur
5%
Granite Vermiculite
11% 20%

Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

144
IMPORTS

In 2011, spending on imports of primary industrial minerals increased by 71 percent to R1.8 billion
compared with 2010, driven by an increase in demand for sulphur in agricultural applications
(Table 84 & Fig 65). Imports of manufactured industrial commodities improved by 10 percent to R7.7
billion in the same period (Table 85).

FIGURE 65: IMPORTS OF PRIMARY AND MANUFACTURED INDUSTRIAL MINERALS, 2007 2011

9
8
Imports in billion rands

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
2,007 2,008 2,009 2,010 2,011
Year
Imports Primary Minerals Imports Manufactured

Source: RSA, Commissioner for South African Revenue Service, 2006 2010

EMPLOYMENT

Employment in the industrial minerals sector grew at a compound annual rate of 1.8 percent between
2007 and 2011 (Fig 66). The industrial minerals sector accounted for 3.6 percent of the total mining
workforce. Average earnings per employee increased by 34 percent to R144 799/employee in 2011
compared with 2010.

FIGURE 66: EMPLOYMENT IN THE INDUSTRIAL MINERALS SECTOR, 2007 2011

20,000
Growth = 1.8 % pa
18,000
16,000
Number of employees

14,000
12,000
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
2,000
0
2,007 2,008 2,009 2,010 2,011
Year

Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

145
OUTLOOK

The current subdued global economic conditions affected by the financial debt crisis in the Eurozone had
a direct negative impact on demand for South Africas mineral commodities due to South Africas close
financial and trading ties with Europe. However, the future prospects for South Africas construction
sector looks positive in the medium term as Government becomes more aware of the dire need for key
critical infrastructure development, supported by greater attention on effective planning, which is the
focus of the National Planning Commission. Although the residential sector remains under pressure,
there has been an improvement in demand for housing, albeit at a slow pace, specifically for smaller
more affordable units.

According to Industry Insight, investment in residential building is expected to grow at an annual rate of
3.8 percent while investment in non-residential buildings is expected to grow at an annual rate of
4.1 percent between 2012 and 2016. Growth forecasts for both the residential and non-residential
sectors have been revised downward due to uncertain global and domestic market conditions, tight
budgets in the private sector, higher administrative expenses and overall higher costs being relayed onto
the consumer. However, ongoing capital expenditure on civil construction undertaken by State Owned
Enterprises (SOEs) and projected expenditure by Government on social infrastructure will counter the
subdued conditions in the residential and non-residential building subsectors. The domestic construction
market is expected to grow at 3.8 percent annually over the next few years taking the industry value to
R196.8 billion
(US$22.7 billion) by 2016.

Use of industrial minerals in the agricultural sector is expected to rise in the short to medium term on the
back of a continuous increase in demand for fertiliser products both globally and domestically. South
Africa imports over half of its nutritional fertiliser needs. Therefore, opportunities exist in this field for
investors to carry out expansion projects and development of new plants that will satisfy local fertiliser
demand and reduce the needs for imports.

Vermiculite prices, particularly for coarse grades are expected to fall in the short term as a result of
additional supplies from Uganda and China. Furthermore, South Africas Palabora Mining Company
(PMC) has announced significant expansion plans, which could push prices down even further as soon
as additional output comes on stream.

Mining will continue to be a cornerstone of the economy for many years to come, contributing
significantly to economic activity, job creation and foreign exchange earnings. Industrial minerals will
continue to support this growth as their applications contribute to almost every sector of the economy.
Since, growth in industrial minerals is mainly driven by the construction and agricultural sectors, the
outlook is optimistic on the back of rising demand for fertilisers from the agricultural sector and
improvement in activity in the construction sector.

146
TABLE 82: SOUTH AFRICAS PRIMARY INDUSTRIAL MINERAL PRODUCTION AND SALES 2010

COMMODITY PRODUCTION LOCAL SALES (FOR) EXPORT SALES (FOB) TOTAL SALES
Mass (t) Mass (t) Value (R) Mass (t) Value (R) Mass (t) Value (R)

General
Andalusite 189 185 91 663 167 666 856 133 798 321 933 121 225 460 489 599 977
Asbestos * * * * * * *
Barytes * 319 133 980 * * 319 133 980
Calcite * * * * * * *
Feldspar 94 307 69 921 56 204 410 * * 69 921 56 204 410
Fluorspar ** ** ** ** ** ** **
Gypsum 513 310 292 149 32 228 284 * * 292 149 32 228 284
Kieselguhr * * * * * * *
Limestone &
lime 22 479 956 19 225 592 2 271 133 023 10 124 13 325 062 19 235 716 2 284 458 085
Magnesite ** ** ** ** ** ** **

Mica 904 794 2 077 140 126 744 786 920 2 821 926
Perlite ** ** ** * * ** **
Pigments
minerals 244 66 22 440 * * 66 22 440
Phosphate
rock 2 493 904 1 880 058 ** 25 020 ** 1 905 078 **
Pyrophyllite ** ** 47 761 762 ** 16 662 321 ** 64 424 083
Salt 394 493 423 156 126 305 196 * * 423 156 126 305 196
Silica 2 863 441 3 026 801 470 618 138 1 042 1 632 226 3 027 842 472 250 364
Sulphur 375 422 255 982 168 911 649 95 571 48 794 652 351 553 217 706 301
Talc 3 150 5 370 5 572 676 * * 5 370 5 572 676
Vermiculite 199 285 10 413 12 926 929 166 465 216 305 068 176 878 229 231 997

Dimension
and building
stone
Granite 280 733 219 561 487 65 429 120 406 539 346 161 339 968 026
Sandstone 7 776 4 530 250 * * 7 776 4 530 250
Slate 47 805 12 906 914 * * 47 805 12 906 914

Clays
Attapulgite 57 606 57 285 17 585 669 * * 57 285 17 585 669
Bentonite 82 341 124 584 82 044 072 1 290 1 667 366 125 874 83 711 438
Plastic clays 551 612 146 535 17 187 122 * * 146 535 17 187 122
Flint clay 39 690 39 118 29 730 499 492 909 878 39 610 30 640 377
Kaolin 29 929 28 233 9 960 493 * * 28 233 9 960 493

Aggregate &
sand 52 624 697 3 864 613 171 * * 52 624 697 3 864 613 171

Miscellaneous 1 813 387 635 2 139 898 842

TOTALS 9 433 069 795 1 068 892 226 10 501 962 021

Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

Notes: All quantities are in metric tons, unless otherwise specified
Nil
**Classified, included under Miscellaneous

147
TABLE 83: SOUTH AFRICAS PRIMARY INDUSTRIAL MINERAL PRODUCTION AND SALES 2011

COMMODITY PRODUCTION LOCAL SALES (FOR) EXPORT SALES (FOB) TOTAL SALES
Mass (t) Mass (t) Value (R) Mass (t) Value (R) Mass (t) Value (R)

General
Andalusite 186 242 126 413 233 311 788 123 433 322 940 593 249 846 556 252 381
Asbestos * * * * * * *
Barytes * 189 79 380 * * 189 79 380
Calcite * * * * * * *
Feldspar 101 559 98 875 61 031 019 * * 98 875 61 031 019
Fluorspar 195 502 18 846 ** 175 365 ** 194 211 **
Gypsum 476 118 322 553 36 831 361 * * 322 553 36 831 361
Kieselguhr * * * * * * *
Limestone &
lime 21 629 706 18 518 892 2 591 077 562 11 153 14 337 430 18 530 045 2 605 414 992
Magnesite ** ** ** * * ** **
Mica 633 431 1 161 112 174 1 001 191 605 2 162 303
Perlite ** ** ** * * ** **
Pigments
minerals 244 66 22 440 * * 66 22 440
Phosphate
rock 2 564 820 2 154 755 ** * ** 2 349 542 **
Pyrophyllite ** ** 45 266 871 ** 15 837 040 ** 61 103 911
Salt 381 177 441 233 140 438 554 * * 441 233 140 438 554
Silica 2 722 491 3 052 618 489 727 370 3 882 5 154 232 3 056 500 494 881 602
Sulphur 337 972 217 147 116 738 765 120 291 199 435 740 337 438 316 174 505
Talc 4 453 5 489 6 050 201 * * 5 489 6 050 201
Vermiculite 170 571 9 623 16 578 549 166 424 328 921 154 172 047 345 499 703

Dimension
and building
stone
Granite 227 154 233 338 630 111 231 150 212 064 338 385 383 550 694
Sandstone 1 218 2 135 357 * * 1 218 2 135 357
Slate 53 643 13 252 491 * * 53 643 13 252 491

Clays
Attapulgite 14 448 14 449 6 572 386 * * 14 449 6 572 386
Bentonite 120 417 177 012 118 344 790 165 255 924 177 177 118 600 714
Plastic clays 785 641 779 999 24 066 685 * * 779 999 24 066 685
Flint clay 29 968 25 188 31 410 938 693 1 301 529 25 881 32 712 467
Kaolin 15 220 22 397 10 374 640 * * 22 397 10 374 640

Aggregate &
sand 52 285 603 4 066 141 840 * * 52 285 603 4 066 141 840

Miscellaneous 2 311 484 628 715 311 287 3 026 795 915
TOTALS 10 555 422 517 1 754 708 184 12 310 130 701

Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

Notes: All quantities are in metric tons, unless otherwise specified
*Nil
** Classified, included under Miscellaneous

148
TABLE 84: SOUTH AFRICAS IMPORTS OF SELECTED PRIMARY INDUSTRIAL MINERAL
COMMODITIES, 2009-2011

COMMODITY 2009 2010 2011

Mass (t) Value (R) Mass (t) Value (R) Mass (t) Value (R)

Salt (25.01) 2 811 20 947 823 3 882 21 557 566 5 363 12 830 375

Iron pyrites (25.02) 245 588 783 415 700 293 341 940 227

Sulphur (25.03) 525 469 354 611 195 592 828 377 801 360 714 629 1 073 705 268

Graphite Natural (25.04) 921 8 657 476 1 108 12 891 254 1 053 18 178 053

Sands (25.05) 6 027 11 410 732 6 894 12 016 399 5 171 9 607 781

Quartz (25.06) 57 599 741 227 2 388 420 408 1 877 186

Kaolin (25.07) 11 049 31 468 649 18 077 36 232 857 13 013 30 533 235

Bentonite (25.08.10) 17 447 44 928 483 22 822 50 358 356 28 255 45 196 964

Fire clay (25.08.30) 28 906 021 31 1 100 398 178 961 624

Other clays (25.08.40) 2 121 9 941 765 4 189 15 810 325 4 348 13 476 855

Alumino silicates (25.08.50) 147 406 390 166 323 825 164 323 974

Mulite (25.08.60) 25 287 459 151 1 023 375 50 412 825

Chamotte (25.08.70) 173 1 233 056 138 1 014 102 77 504 361

Chalk (25.09) 1 825 3 674 704 652 1 549 958 353 870 211

Phosphates (25.10) 49 277 85 422 787 124 474 120 735 436 93 191 116 297 833

Barytes & Witherite (25.11) 2 998 15 351 992 4 142 17 462 123 3 170 11 921 315

Kieselguhr (25.12) 3 930 16 075 153 4 580 17 495 811 5 261 19 572 143

Natural Abresives (25.13) 1 208 7 419 355 1 920 6 837 448 2 095 6 392 899

Slate (25.14) 2 056 5 860 897 2 945 6 117 287 2 401 6 206 264

Marble (25.15) 647 4 382 782 355 1 588 829 80 469 448

Granite (25.16) 7 970 9 953 527 8 663 12 867 732 4 930 9 405 849

Pebbels (25.17) 1 087 2 902 235 2 207 3 045 744 2 138 2 693 491

Dolomite (25.18) 1 127 1 747 777 1 532 2 833 395 1 106 2 625 248

Magnesite & Magnesia (25.19) 44 368 150 024 963 77 999 215 982 203 106 670 339 631 034

Gypsum & Plasters (25.20) 7 218 16 579 261 30 893 18 787 472 9 150 15 742 308

Limestone (25.21) 74 359 385 195 409 702 434 1 015 808 609 645

Slaked,quick, hydraulic lime (25.22) 48 849 905 75 125 955 34 143 47 768 748 30 787 004 42 883 920

Asbestos (25.24) 0 0 0 0 0 0

Mica (25.25) 358 933 778 483 1 151 947 507 1 353 541

Steatite (25.26) 10 254 23 850 792 9 818 26 908 026 7 126 28 015 008

Borates Natural (25.28) 888 4 565 732 759 2 524 403 1 517 4 889 887

Feldspathoids (25.29) 6 680 14 880 753 5 706 13 254 819 4 332 9 389 122

Other Minerals (25.30) 48 890 43 136 770 56 879 38 341 840 47 848 38 633 395

TOTAL 969 214 826 1 089 970 447 1 866 151 289

Source: RSA, Commissioner for South African Revenue Service, 2009 - 2011

149
TABLE 85: SOUTH AFRICAS IMPORTS OF MANUFACTURED INDUSTRIAL MINERALS
COMMODITIES, 2009-2011

Commodity 2009 2010 2011

Value (FOB) Value (FOB) Value (FOB)
R R R

Articles of stone, plaster, cement, asbestos, mica or similar materials 1 009 658 338 1 130 254 588 1 160 052 109
Building stone (68.02) 302 991 368 284 596 178 272 751 878
Worked slate & articles of slate (68.03) 26 003 210 24 914 545 17 081 007
Millstones and grindstones (68.04) 99 337 903 99 466 862 123 129 954
Natural abrasive powders (68.05) 179 180 989 195 997 424 190 832 414
Slag wool, rock wool & similar mineral wools (68.06) 257 273 614 332 151 056 390 513 421

Articles of asbestos-cement (68.11) 31 406 156 33 461 484 35 215 937

Fabricated asbestos fibres (68.12) 4 330 868 41 248 079 6 856 316
Friction material (68.13) 91 113 244 100 965 464 108 652 598
Worked mica & articles thereof (68.14) 18 020 986 17 453 496 15 018 584

Refractories 940 536 488 1 003 933 033 1 092 062 112

Of siliceous fossil meals (69.01) 3 166 451 5 575 510 2 787 686
Other bricks (69.02) 815 881 695 851 513 107 943 968 648
Other refractory ceramic goods (69.03) 121 488 342 146 844 416 145 305 778

Ceramic products 2 615 128 759 3 039 879 634 3 429 467 451
Ceramic building bricks (69.04) 738 325 417 378 338 705
Roofing tiles (69.05) 5 991 174 6 389 272 8 612 039
Ceramic pipes (69.06) 702 276 2 097 397 3 264 033
Unglazed ceramic (69.07) 129 924 074 107 759 876 130 960 409
Glazed ceramic (69.08) 549 498 926 692 581 300 774 677 170
Ceramic wares for laboratory (69.09) 1 477 519 764 1 699 927 499 1 956 428 462
Ceramic sinks (69.10) 103 085 549 111 549 981 112 522 005
Tableware (69.11) 167 771 123 187 421 119 193 404 476
Ceramic tableware (69.12) 135 406 928 168 267 899 187 068 177
Ceramic articles (69.13) 27 819 291 46 444 531 49 903 695
Other ceramic articles (69.14) 16 671 329 17 023 382 12 288 280

Glass and glassware (70.00) 1 708 053 194 1 797 039 345 2 002 294 168

TOTAL 6 273 376 779 6 971 106 600 7 683 875 840

Source: RSA, Commissioner for South African Revenue Service, 2009 - 2011
Note: Codes in brackets refer to subchapters of the Harmonised System

150
 AGGREGATE AND SAND

Refiloe Motsie and Marvin Simango

SUPPLY

South Africas local sales volume of sand and aggregate decreased slightly by 0.65 percent to 52.3 Mt in
2011 compared with the previous year, due to reduced activity within the construction industry (Table
86). The slowdown within the construction industry was attributed to low activity in the housing market.
Housing and other associated infrastructure make up about 50 percent of the local building and
construction market. Local sales values increased by 5.2 percent to R4.1 billion, owing to favourable
market prices.

TABLE 86: SOUTH AFRICAN SALES OF SAND AND AGGREGATE BY MASS, 2002 2011

+ x
YEAR COARSE FINE TOTAL
Mass Value (FOR) Mass Value (FOR) Mass Value (FOR)
kt R'000 R/t kt R'000 R/t kt R'000 R/t
2002 22 106 880 469 39.1 6 810 78 249 11.5 28 916 958 718 33.2
2003 26 852 1 281 263 47.7 5 735 74 808 13.0 32 587 1 356 071 41.6
2004 39 035 1 948 642 49.9 8 347 136 721 16.4 47 381 2 085 364 44.0
2005 37 923 2 000 985 52.8 12 046 221 034 18.3 49 970 2 222 019 44.5
2006 47 144 2 549 709 54.1 11 419 239 846 21.0 58 563 2 789 555 48.0
2007 50 678 3 077 423 60.7 13 143 298 941 22.7 63 821 3 376 364 52.9
2008 45 218 3 358 639 74.3 13 391 416 364 31.1 58 609 3 775 003 64.4
2009 41 182 3 491 901 84.8 12 422 403 784 32.5 53 604 3 895 685 72.7
2010 38 714 3 385 661 87.5 13 910 478 952 34.0 52 625 3 864 613 73.0
2011 38 169 3 560 469 93.3 14 116 505 672 36.0 52 285 4 066 142 77.8
Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics
+
Notes: Includes crusher sand
x
Natural sand

DEMAND

South Africas sand and aggregate sector is driven by demand from the construction industry. The
construction industry comprises residential building, non residential building and civil construction. The
increase in the number of companies within the aggregate and sand sector has resulted in fierce
competition within the industry resulting in lower contract prices. Demand for aggregate and sand was
weak due to the fall in demand for residential and non-residential buildings but this was offset by growth
in civil construction, which was driven by public sector investment. The construction sector experienced
growth of 0.8 percent in 2011 compared to the 0.9 percent year-on-year increase in 2010.

CONSTRUCTION

The construction boom that preceded the current subdued conditions saw many new construction
companies entering the market, which has resulted in a situation of overcapacity in the current
environment of reduced demand for construction services. Further, with fewer major contracts in the
offing, competition in the construction sector has intensified. Aggressive pricing, in an effort to secure
contracts, has resulted in pressure on company margins, with several of the major participants in the
market reporting loss of market share.

According to the South African Reserve Bank, approximately R176 billion was spent on construction
works during 2011, up R10 billion compared to R166 billion spent in 2010. However, real value of
recorded building plans passed by larger municipalities fell by 2.1 percent year-on-year in 2011, while the
real value of buildings reported as completed (at constant 2005 prices) decreased by 5.6 percent (-
R1.7323 billion).

151
According to Industry Insights public sector expenditure for residential contracts awarded amounted to
R1.5 billion (Mar 12-Moving Annual Total) falling by 32.5 percent year-on-year from R2.3 billion
(Mar 11-Moving Annual Total). However, activity in social housing has showed signs of improvement
recording an annual increase of 15 percent year-on-year in 2011. The number of low cost housing
projects awarded, including hostels, grew to 94 projects from 82 from the previous year. ABSA reported
that affordability in the residential market improved slightly as a result of low interest rates.

Non-residential investment recorded an annual decrease of 2 percent to R1.48 billion in 2011. Awarded
contract values in the public sector for the non-residential sector amounted to R1.5 billion in 2011
improving from R784 million in 2010. The public sector recorded a 63 percent increase in contracts
awarded from R8.54 billion in 2010 to R13.6 billion in 2011.

According to Industry Insight total investment in civil construction has increased by 5.8 percent in 2011.
Spending on civil construction (excluding spending on machinery and equipment) is estimated to have
increased by 6 percent year-on-year, compared to a 39% decrease in 2010.

EMPLOYMENT

The sand and aggregate sector employed 7 086 employees in 2011, an increase of 1.3 percent
compared with 2010 (Table 87). Labour productivity decreased by 1.6 percent to 7.4 kt/employee, while
revenue generated per employee increased by 3.6 percent to R573 827/employee.

TABLE 87: SOUTH AFRICAS AGGREGATE AND SAND QUARRIES EMPLOYMENT AND
REMUNERATION, 2005 2011

YEAR EMPLOYEES TOTAL REMUNERATION

R'000
2005 5 210 312 073
2006 5 133 371 897
2007 5 970 463 528
2008 6 438 538 700
2009 6 773 604 730
2010 7 009 693 767
2011 7 086 737 739
Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

OUTLOOK

South Africa's construction industry is expected to grow steadily, with real year-on-year (y-o-y) growth
forecast at 2.7 percent for 2012. The medium term growth is expected to average 3.8 percent until 2016
taking the construction industry value to R181.6 billion. Furthermore, the South African governments
strong policy focus on infrastructure is set to stimulate growth within the aggregate and sand industry
with R800 billion committed over the next three to five years for massive infrastructure development
projects. With government focusing investment on the manufacturing sector in order to boost economic
activity, this will also create possible higher demand for aggregates and sands. Based on key economic
variables, investment in residential building is expected to grow by an annual rate of 3.8 percent, while
the non-residential investment is expected to average 4.1 percent between 2012 and 2016.

South Africa plans to invest R100-billion on the Renewable Energy Independent Power Producer
Programme (REIPPP), which is aimed at diversifying its power supply. Through the REIPPP, the
government aims to procure 3 725 MW of capacity, which could be introduced into South Africas power
generation mix between 2014 and 2016. Power utility Eskom is awaiting the approval of its licence
application to roll out its 100 MW Sere wind farm project plans near Vredendal in the Western Cape,
worth 3 billion. These developments are set to sustain the aggregate and sand industry through the
construction of these plants and will create job opportunities in South Africa.

152
REFERENCES

1. ABSA House Price Index , ABSA, www.absa.co.za

2. Afrimat, Annual Report, 2011
3. www.africaeconomicoutloook.org/southafrica
4. DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics
5. Engineering news online prospect for 28 renewables bidders
6. Industry Insight, The state of the construction industry, 2012 Quarter 2
7. PPC, Annual Report, 2011
8. Statistics South Africa, Selected building statistics by local government institutions 2012

153
 ALUMINO-SILICATES

Mphonyana Modiselle

WORLD SUPPLY

Global production of the three alumino-silicate minerals namely: andalusite, kyanite and sillimanite
increased by 7.9 percent from 429 kt in 2010 to 463 kt in 2011, owing to the continued demand for
refractory minerals. South Africa, at 58 percent, remained the worlds largest producer of alumino-
silicates, followed by the United States (US) 21 percent and Frances 14 percent (Fig. 67).

FIGURE 67: WORLD PRODUCTION OF ALUMINO-SILICATES BY COUNTRY, 2011

India, 5% Other, 2%

France, 14% South Africa, 58%

United States, 21%

Sources: USGS, 2012

WORLD DEMAND

Demand for alumino-silicates is driven by the manufacturing of refractories. The total world refractories
market for refractory minerals was estimated at 24 Mt of which crude steel manufacturing accounted for
69 percent of demand for refractory minerals (Fig. 68). Global crude steel output rose by 6.8 percent year
on year in 2011 to 1.5 billion tons. Demand for andalusite will remain high because it has a very low
expansion when it converts to mullite at high temperatures in furnaces and can, therefore, be used in the
raw state, eliminating the need for energy input into the raw material before use.

154
FIGURE 68: WORLD REFRACTORIES MARKET BY END-USERS, 2011

Other 5%
Chemicals 4%
Non-Ferrous 5%
Iron & Steel 69%
Ceramics 5%

Glass 5%

Cement & Lime 7%

Source: Andalusite Resources

WORLD DEVELOPMENTS

Imerys, the leading global supplier of refractory minerals has commissioned a new andalusite plant in
Yilong, China, which will provide high quality products for the domestic market.

Perus Andalucita S.A., which was established three years ago, announced its expansion from 15 kt per
annum of output of andalusite to around 48 kt per annum. This company produces a very high quality
product, which is well received in the market.

PRICES

According to the Industrial Minerals, general prices increased in 2011. The prices for South African
exports (2 000 ton bulk, FOB) of 57-58 percent aluminium trioxide (Al2O3) andalusite concentrate were in
the range 230-265/t in 2011, up from 225-255/t in 2010 (Fig 69). The European FOB prices for 55-
59 percent Al2O3 andalusite were in the range 345-400/t up from 335-385/t in 2010. The US prices for
raw and calcined 54-60 percent Al2O3 kyanite ranged from $224-$320/t and $373-$439/t, respectively.
Prices rose as a result of the strengthening demand for andalusite and kyanite as a substitute for
bauxite.

155
FIGURE 69 : WORLD ALUMINO-SILICATES PRICES, 2008 2011

400 450
350 400
300 350
300
250
250

Price $/s. ton

200
Price /t

200
150
150
100 100
50 50
0 0
Dec '08 Dec '09 Dec '10 Dec '11

South African, andalusite FOB European, andalusite FOB

USA ex-works, raw kyanite s.ton USA ex-works, calcined kyanite s.ton

Source: Industrial Minerals

TRADE

Despite price increases, South Africas exports of andalusite decreased in 2011 owing to a number of
factors including financial uncertainty in Europe and muted recovery in construction markets in the
Western countries. The major consumers of South African andalusite were Belgium, which accounted for
54 percent of the total export sales followed by Germany at 14 percent and Spain at 9 percent (Fig. 70).

FIGURE 70: SOUTH AFRICAS EXPORTS OF ANDALUSITE BY DESTINATION, 2011

Other
Netherlands 11%
5%
Belgium
Japan 54%
7%

Spain
9%

Germany
14%

Sources: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

SOUTH AFRICA

Of the three alumina-silicates minerals, South Africa only produces andalusite having ceased the
production of sillimanite several years ago in 1998. Andalusite Resources and the Damrec group are the
only producers of andalusite in South Africa. Imerys South Africa, the subsidiary of Imerys through parent
company Damrec, produces almost 80 percent of the andalusite in the country. Simang Resources, is
part of the Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) consortium that holds a 26 percent interest in
Andalusite Resources. Damrec (Imerys overseas affiliate) has four mines in South Africa namely: the
Annesley mine on the outskirts of Burgersfort in the Limpopo Province, the Havercroft mine in

156
Sekhukhuneland in Limpopo and the Rhino Andalusite mine near Thabazimbi in the Limpopo Province.
The fourth mine Krugerpost, owned by Imerys South Africas subsidiary Samrec, is located near
Lydenburg in the Mpumalanga Province.

South Africas production of andalusite for the past decade increased at an annual rate of 0.2 percent
(Table 88). In 2011, the market was stagnant and growth was minimal. The andalusite industry
experienced output and quality problems, which made it difficult to maintain growth which led to loss of
customers. This resulted in the retrenchment of some senior employees in order to contain costs and
keep the company competitive.

TABLE 88: SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION, LOCAL SALES AND EXPORTS OF ANDALUSITE,
20022011

LOCAL SALES EXPORTS

YEAR PRODUCTION Mass Value (FOR) Mass Value (FOB)

Kt kt R000 R/t Kt R000 R/t

2002 165 46 48 800 1 051 112 118 064 1 056
2003 165 44 53 515 1 212 130 166 736 1 282
2004 235 50 64 430 1 284 168 211 719 1 263
2005 228 47 57 568 1 236 135 186 229 1 380
2006 221 47 59 022 1 249 129 183 581 1 421
2007 265 51 70 554 1 382 175 282 164 1 612
2008 217 75 115 292 1 534 148 289 175 1 954
2009 165 53 97 918 1 855 109 253 554 2 326
2010 189 92 167 667 1 829 134 321 933 2 406
2011 * * * * * * *
Source: DMR, Mineral Economics
Note: *Data withheld for reasons of confidentiality

Employment in the alumino-silicate industry decreased by 9.1 percent in 2011 compared with 2010
(Table 89).

TABLE 89: SOUTH AFRICAS ALUMINO-SILICATE MINES: EMPLOYMENT, 20062011

TOTAL REMUNERATION
YEAR EMPLOYEES R000
2006 501 38 776
2007 567 48 581
2008 742 62 956
2009 765 68 471
2010 472 65 953
2011 429 *
Source: DMR, Mineral Economics
*Total Remuneration figures withheld for reasons of confidentiality

OUTLOOK

The andalusite market is expected to remain subdued in the medium term, due to oversupply. This is
likely to lead to further improvements of efficiencies and consolidation wherever possible. In the long run,
prospects for andalusite remain very positive. It is one of the few mid- to high-grade alumina-based
refractory raw materials that is not under Chinese control. As a consequence, a gradual shift away from
Chinese bauxite, mullite etc. to alternatives (e.g. andalusite) is anticipated. However, this could take time,
as refractory recipes have to be adjusted, which takes a lot of research and development. South Africas
Andalusite Resources is working closely with refractory engineering consultants in order to assist
customers to make the switch to andalusite.

157
Being the largest consumer of refractories, China is expected to continue to be the driving force of the
global market. However, above average growth is expected in India, Eastern Europe, North America and
Western Europe due to their large industrial bases. Eastern Europe is enjoying the highest growth rate
among these regions, reflecting the areas continued industrialization. Demand for refractories is
expected to rise owing to increasing steel production. As steel production recovers, demand for alumino-
silicates is expected to strengthen as many refractory customers seek alternative products to refractory
bauxite. Further demand for refractories is expected from the cement, ceramics and glass sectors. The
full potential of andalusite around the world remains untapped, but there is growing interest from the
refractory industry because of its benefits compared to other alternatives. South Africa, with its vast
andalusite deposits could expand andalusite production to exploit the anticipated higher demand.

REFERENCES

1. Industrial Minerals, 2011.

2. Stompie du Toit, Samrec Pty Ltd, Personal communication
3. Hester Enslin, Andalusite Resources Pty Ltd, Personal communication
4. Arnold O. Tanner, Kyanite and Related Materials Review, USGS 2012
5. Mineral Economics Directorate, DMR

158
 DIMENSION STONE

Refiloe Motsie and Marvin Simango

WORLD SUPPLY

World dimension stone production volumes increased by 4 percent from 114 Mt in 2010 to 118.5 Mt in
2011 (Fig 71). The increase was mainly due to production increases in Asian countries, with China
leading the way by accounting for one-third of world production. The other six major producers of
dimension stone which are India, Iran, Turkey, Brazil, Italy and Spain accounted for 44 percent of world
quarry output production, one percent higher than in 2010 and eight percent better than 2005, confirming
the trend of new entrants in the markets.

The dimension stone industry demonstrated a unique specific capacity to counteract the effects of the
difficult short term economic prospects in the European countries. The European continent sales
volumes increased by 8.1 percent to 302 kt of marble and granite, consequently increasing the sales
value by
14.5 percent to 2.4 million in 2011. However, export quantities from Italy, which is one of major players
in the industry, fell by 2.6 percent in 2011 compared with the previous year. Similarly, Italian imports fell
by
4 percent, confirming that recession in the processing sector on the back of weak demand for finished
products.

FIGURE 71: DIMENSION STONE PRODUCTION DURING 2007 2011

120000

115000
Volume (kt)

110000

105000

100000
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
YEAR

Source: IMM Carrara, 2010

XXIII World Stone Industry

WORLD DEMAND

Demand for dimension stone is mainly driven by activity in the construction industry and real estate
markets, which account for over 80 percent, followed by the funerary monumental industry with
approximately 15 percent while various special applications account for 5 percent
(Fig 72).

159
FIGURE 72: WORLD CONSUMPTION OF DIMENSION STONE BY SECTOR

other
Floors and Paving
4%
Memorial art 35%
16%

steps
3%
Structural works
6%

Cladding
Special works
18%
18%

Source: Minus273, 2010

SOUTH AFRICA

South Africas granite industry is dominated by two companies, Kelgran Investments (Spain) and Marlin
Corporation (subsidiary of Finstone Srl, Luxembourg), which together account for more than half of South
Africas total granite production. South Africas granite industry has established itself as a major player
globally owing mainly to the unique gabbros from the Bushveld not found elsewhere in the world,
exporting to four continents. Other types of commercially mined granites include sensu stricto, dolerite,
syenite charnockite and igneous, and these are found over a large part of South Africa. About 600 000 to
800 000 tons of South African granite is conveyed annually from quarries in the Rustenburg,
Potgietersrus, Belfast and Springbok districts to Durban, Cape Town and Richards Bay for export to the
Far East, South America, North America and Europe.

Local sales volumes decreased by 16.1 percent to 282 kt as demand was subdued within the residential
sector. Export sales volumes surged by 70 percent to 111.2 kt in 2012 due to the discovery of new
markets in South America (Table 90). The value of local sales increased by 5.1 percent to R237 million
due to price increase within the local market while export sales value increased by 24.8 percent to R150
million as the rand weakened in 2011, stimulating exports.

TABLE 90: SOUTH AFRICAS DIMENSION STONE SALES, 20022011

LOCAL SALES EXPORTS

YEAR Mass Value (FOR) Mass Value (FOB)

kt R000 R/t kt R000 R/t
2002 75.2 37 229 495 630.6 837 332 1 328
2003 78.5 47 824 609 384.7 718 746 1 868
2004 177,9 147 273 828 370.7 342 284 888
2005 302.5 165 783 548 305.0 260 493 854
2006 284.4 185 234 651 211.9 209 754 990
2007 394.8 319 455 809 159.3 156 810 984
2008 458.0 489 346 1 069 85.6 211 674 2 474
2009 334.6 340 493 1 018 61.7 126 508 2 050
2010 336.3 236 999 545 65.4 120 407 1 840
2011 282.0 248 726 1 009 111.2 150 212 1 350
Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

160
OUTLOOK

Global output of dimension stone is expected to be depressed in the short term as global markets
continue to be subdued due to the economic conditions in the Eurozone. This has led to low business
confidence in European countries, thus reducing European trade substantially.

South Africas dimension stone production is expected to slow down in the short term as Europe is one of
its biggest markets. However, the subdued export conditions will be offset by expected activity in the
local construction industry, which has shown signs of recovery. The housing market which is the core
driver of dimension stone activity is set to be stimulated by low interest rates. The marginal easing of the
lending criteria on the part of banks is also expected to lead to more transactions being approved,
encouraging investment within the sector. To remain competitive in the current market conditions,
companies will have to differentiate themselves as customers are becoming more selective in terms of
their products.

REFERENCES
1. XXIII World Stone Industry Report ,2012
2. Directorate Mineral Economics, DMR
3. http://www.spoornet.co.za/Website/granite.html
4. Minus273 consulting, Dimension Stone Marketing
5. South African commercial property news online, Property Market Outlook upbeat, provided Interest Rate holds, accessed
22/05/2012
6. The Journal of the Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy

161
 FLUORSPAR

Mphonyana Modiselle
WORLD SUPPLY

Total world production of fluorspar increased by 3.3 percent from 6.01 Mt in 2010 to 6.21 Mt in 2011,
owing to the restart of operations by some mines that has been placed on care and maintenance during
the 2008 to 2009 recession. China remained the worlds leading fluorspar producer accounting for 53
percent of world production followed by Mexicos 18 percent, Mongolias 7 percent while Russia and
South Africa accounted for 4 percent each (Fig.73).

Traditional Chinese supplies of acid grade fluorspar were dwindling as China withheld exports for
domestic consumption. This presented a problem for fluorspar consumers, particularly western
consumers and created opportunities for new and prospective producers.

FIGURE 73: WORLD FLUORSPAR PRODUCTION, 2011

Other
Spain 12%
2%
South Africa
4%
Russia
4%
Mongolia
7%

Mexico
18% China
53%

Source: USGS, 2012

DEMAND

World demand for fluorspar in 2011 was 5.6 Mt per annum with an estimated value of $2 billion. The
value of downstream products including fluorochemicals was estimated at $112 billion in 2011.
Demand is supported by established uses in fluxes in the steel and aluminium industries. However, there
is a growing market for acid grades used in the manufacture of fluorine chemicals including new
applications of high-tech and green technology products such as: new generation low-greenhouse gas
potential refrigerants, propellants and proppants; fluoropolymers; super-magnets for wind turbines and
electric vehicle motors; and lithium battery electrolytes Lithium Hexafluorophosphate (LiPF6).

Despite the economic stagnation, the market for fluorspar and downstream fluorine chemicals was
reportedly tight, owing to the export restrictions imposed by China. Concerns around future supplies have
led to a wave of backward integration, which resulted in two major fluorspar consumers, Arkema Inc.
(France) and Solvay (Belgium) acquiring equity stakes in fluorspar mining ventures to secure supply.

162
TRADE

China has become the largest global hub for the production and consumption of fluorochemicals. While
previously a major source of low-cost bulk commodities, in recent years, China has imposed export
restrictions on certain key steelmaking raw materials (including fluorspar) in favour of its domestic
industries. These restrictions were the subject of a World Trade Organization (WTO) complaint brought
by Europe, Mexico and the US, which in January 2012 was upheld by the WTOs appellate body. Now
China will have to align its policies with its WTO obligations - but it remains to be seen what shape
Chinas new export system will take and what effect this will have on fluorspar exports. However, China
successfully argued that certain measures relating to export licensing requirements and minimum export
prices are not WTO violations. Internationally, most fluorspar is sold on long term contracts or through
long-term supply arrangements.

PRICES

Fluorspar prices continued to rise in 2011, with Chinese export (spot) prices reaching $550/t at the end of
the year (Fig 74). All grades of fluorspar registered more price changes when compared to the previous
year, as a result of market tightness and the increasing shipping costs. Mexican acidspar price levels
increased as producers were sold out. However, South African acidspar prices remained stagnant for the
second half of the year.

FIGURE 74: WORLD ACID GRADE FLUORSPAR PRICES, 2007 2011

600

500

400
Price $/t

300

200

100

0
Jun '07 Dec '07 Jun '08 Dec '08 Jun '09 Dec '09 Jun '10 Dec '10 Jun '11 Dec '11
Chinese, CIF South African,FOB Mexican, CIF

Source: Industrial Minerals, 2011

SOUTH AFRICA

South Africas fluorspar production increased by 24.8 percent from 157 kt in 2010 to 196 kt in 2011
(Table 91) subsequent to the alleviation of operational bottlenecks encountered by fluorspar producers.
The industry faced several operational challenges, which included water shortages, power supply
challenges, lower ore grades to the plant as well as maintenance shutdowns in 2010. Local sales
volumes increased by 5.5 percent from 18 kt in 2010 to 19 kt in 2011, owing to stronger local demand.
Export sales volumes decreased by 2.2 percent to 175 kt in 2011 compared with 179 kt in 2010 due to
the Eurozone sovereign debt crisis that placed a damper on markets and demand.

163
TABLE 91: SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION OF FLUORSPAR, 2002 2011

YEAR PRODUCTION LOCAL SALES EXPORTS

Mass Value (FOR) Mass Value (FOB)
Kt Kt R000 R/t kt R000 R/t
2002 227 34 18 423 537 210 205 687 980
2003 235 21 16 225 767 211 153 309 727
2004 265 23 18 247 793 233 183 329 787
2005 266 25 21 576 863 250 215 652 863
2006 256 27 25 798 973 218 244 933 1 125
2007 285 30 31 446 1 048 252 307 511 1 220
2008 299 25 * * 276 * *
2009 198 18 * * 135 * *
2010 157 18 * * 179 * *
2011 196 19 * * 175 * *
Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics
Note: Sales figures withheld for reasons of confidentiality

Labour productivity decreased by 18.9 percent to 0.43 kt per employee in 2011 compared with 0.53 kt
per employee in 2010. Average earnings decreased by 10.1 percent to R150 821 per employee in 2011
compared to R167 798 per employee in 2010 (Table 92). The lower average can be attributed to higher
employment figures resulting from employment of non-producing contract workers to do plant
expansions. Revenue generated per employee is withheld due to confidentiality.

TABLE 92: SOUTH AFRICAS FLUORSPAR QUARRIES: EMPLOYMENT AND REMUNERATION,

2007-2011

YEAR EMPLOYEES TOTAL REMUNERATION

R000
2007 490 51 608
2008 605 62 027
2009 432 59 128
2010 297 49 836
2011 453 68 322
Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

Sephaku Fluoride (SepFluor) has announced that it will invest R2.1 billion ($242 million) in a new
fluorspar mine and fluorochemicals facility, at its Nokeng project in Gauteng province. Construction of the
mine, located 80 km north of Pretoria, will begin in the fourth quarter of 2012 with the first production
scheduled for the second quarter of 2014. Mine construction will cost R900 million ($104 million) while
investment for the fluorochemicals site will total R1.2 billion ($139 million). The fluorochemicals
beneficiation hub will produce hydrofluoric acid, aluminium fluoride and anhydrite from the second
quarter of 2014. During construction, an independent economic impact study estimated that the project
would generate
R660.5 million to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and create 2 145 employment opportunities.

UK-listed Fluormin rapidly emerged as a serious investor in the African continent in 2011, purchasing a
63 percent stake in Sallies (South Africa) and a 20 percent stake in Kenya Fluorspar Co. (Kenya), to
complement its Zriba-Guebli fluorspar project in Tunisia. In March 2012, Fluormin announced it had sold
its interest in Kenya Fluorspar for $13 million in order to concentrate on improving the ore feed grade at
the Witkop mine in the North West province of South Africa. Fluormin has engaged financial advisers to
undertake a review of Witkop mine, through its subsidiary Sallies. The company has reported rising costs
at Witkop, which resumed production in March 2011 following refurbishment and upgrading that was
linked to low ore grades, water shortages and power outages. Fluormin has also formed a fluorspar
trading company, FluorOne Trading Ltd, taking 49 percent in the joint venture and Mr Jeffery Kofsky,

164
managing director and a leading trader of fluorspar owns 51 percent. FluorOne exclusively represents
Sallies for sales of fluorspar outside South Africa, with orders reported in China, Europe, India, Japan
and North America.

Eurasian Natural Resources Corp. (ENRC) subsidiary, SA Fluorite, is developing the Doornhoek
fluorspar project, which is 150 km from Johannesburg. The companys current drilling programme is
focused on proving the substantial shallow opencast resource to indicated category. It has forecast a
minimum 20-year mine life, producing around 1.5 Mt per annum ore.

Globe Metals and Mining, which is developing the Mount Muambe REE-Fluorite project in Mozambique,
announced in January 2012 that it had extended its fluorspar zone to over 600 metres strike length from
the main mineralization zone. In April 2011, Globe entered into a partnership with state-owned East
China Minerals Exploration and Development Bureau to assist its ventures in Africa.

OUTLOOK

Global demand for fluorspar is forecast to reach 6 Mt by 2017. Fluorspar demand over the next
few years is expected to be boosted by increasing demand for aluminium fluoride, for
applications such as electric arc furnaces. Global demand for fluorochemicals is forecast to rise
by 3 percent per year to 3 Mt by 2013 valued at $16 billion.

The fluorspar markets are expected to remain tight. The vertical integration of the fluorochemical
industry, which has been rapidly gaining momentum over the last decade, both forward from raw
materials producers, and backwards from downstream chemical manufacturers, is expected to intensify.

After the imposition of export restrictions by the Chinese authorities, major investment in fluorspar
properties is likely to move to Mexico where there are numerous former operations that could be
reactivated. The ongoing uncertainty of future Chinese fluorspar supplies and rising prices could force
fluorspar consumers to look outside China for more competitive prices, which could help other suppliers
to win back market share previously lost to China. These producers are likely to offer more steady supply
on a long term contract basis.

South Africas beneficiation of fluorspar presents an opportunity for further industrialisation of the
economy and growth of the mining and minerals industry. The Fluorochemical Expansion Initiative (FEI),
which is intended to ensure that there is a sustained and continuous improvement of existing
technologies and development of new cutting edge fluorochemical technologies, is likely to improve the
prospects for investment in South Africas fluorspar industry. South Africa, with its vast fluorspar
reserves, presents good opportunities for investors, particularly in local downstream value addition.

REFERENCES

1. Garvin Clarke, Sallies Limited, personal communication

2. Industrial Minerals, 2011
3. Kevin Dabinett, Vergenoeg Mining Co (Pty) Ltd, personal communication
4. Miller MM, Fluorspar Reviews, USGS
5. Mineral Economics Directorate, DMR
6. Mining Weekly Online
7. Sephaku Holdings Fluorspar Fact Sheet, September 2010

165
 LIMESTONE AND DOLOMITE

Refiloe Motsie and Marvin Simango

SUPPLY

South Africas production of limestone and dolomite decreased by 3.8 percent to 21.63 Mt in 2011
compared with 22.48 Mt in 2010, as steel production fell by 12.7 percent from 7.67 million tons to
6.7 million tons in the same period. Local sales volume also experienced a 3.7 percent decline from
19 226 kt to 18 519 kt in 2011 (Table 93), but local sales value increased by 14.4 percent to R2.6 million
due to price increases.

TABLE 93: SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION AND LOCAL SALES OF LIMESTONE AND DOLOMITE
FOR NON-AGGREGATE USE, 2002 2011

YEAR PRODUCTION LOCAL SALES

Mass Value (FOR)
kt kt R000 R/t
2002 20 738 16 901 1 055 733 62.5
2003 21 267 17 502 1 198 800 68.5
2004 22 031 17 466 1 227 322 70.3
2005 24 813 18 877 1 306 527 69.2
2006 27 366 20 359 1 517 661 75.0
2007 23 941 20 493 1 698 586 83.0
2008 23 495 19 781 1 899 279 96.0
2009 22 698 20 008 2 105 297 105.0
2010 22 480 19 226 2 271 133 118.0
2011 21 630 18 519 2 591 078 140.0
Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

DEMAND

Demand for limestone and dolomite products is mainly driven by the construction, agriculture and
metallurgical sectors. The principal use of limestone in South Africa is in the manufacture of cement,
followed by metallurgical applications (as a fluxing agent in steel making), production of lime and
agricultural uses (Fig. 75).

FIGURE 75: DEMAND FOR LIMESTONE BY SECTOR, 2011

Other uses
12%
Metallurgical
10%

Agricultural
5%

For cement
73%

Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

166
Cement manufacture accounted for 73 percent of limestone and dolomite demand in 2011. Local sales
volume of limestone for the manufacture of cement decreased by 8.1 percent to 12.37 Mt in 2011, as
growth in the construction industry slowed down (Table 94). Local sales volume of metallurgical grade
carbonates decreased by 8.6 percent to 1.75 Mt in compared with the previous year as steel production
fell by 12.7 percent from 7.67 million tons to 6.7 million tons in the same period. However local sales
volumes of agricultural limestone and dolomite (aglime) increased by 17 percent to 916 kt as a result of
increased demand from various fertiliser applications.

TABLE 94: SOUTH AFRICAS LOCAL SALES OF LIMESTONE AND DOLOMITE BY APPLICATION,
2002 2011

YEAR CEMENT METALLURGICAL AGRICULTURAL OTHER

Mass Value (FOR) Mass Value (FOR) Mass Value (FOR) Mass Value (FOR)
Kt R000 R/t Kt R000 R/t Kt R000 R/t kt R000 R/t

2002 11 218 188 653 17 2 088 98 690 47 993 49 281 50 1 017 230 879 227
2003 11 893 216 148 18 1 972 104 861 53 935 53 732 57 1 110 260 981 235
2004 11 565 225 433 19 2 041 107 887 53 948 48 404 51 1 139 275 612 242
2005 13 519 279 474 21 1 964 114 205 58 604 35 948 60 1 328 297 219 224
2006 14 225 313 038 22 2 183 131 284 60 707 51 779 73 1 533 335 919 219
2007 14 647 350 922 24 1 569 117 847 75 860 59 304 69 1 774 366 980 207
2008 14 252 403 215 28 1 372 120 083 87 879 72 263 82 1 646 381 021 231
2009 14 860 462 122 31 1 237 117 632 95 855 81 762 96 1 616 404 149 250
2010 13 458 443 978 33 1 910 190 589 100 783 86 553 109 1 780 447 341 251
2011 12 373 456 522 37 1 745 194 458 111 916 104 267 114 1 946 471 378 242
Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

The market for cementitious products in South Africa is divided into civil engineering and building
sectors. South Africas cementitious sales increased by 3.2 percent to 11.2 Mt in 2011 compared with
2010 (Fig 76), owing to improved demand from the housing market. Lime sales picked up during the last
quarter of 2011, on the back of improved demand from exports and the local steel industry.

FIGURE 76: SOUTH AFRICAN CEMENTITIOUS PRODUCT SALES, 2005 2011

16
MILLION TONS CEMENT

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
YEAR

Source: Cement and Concrete Institute, 2011

167
EXPANSIONS IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY

South Africa

Pretoria Portland Cement (PPC) plans to upgrade and increase capacity at its Riebeeck operation and
De Hoek operation near Piketberg instead of building a single new factory. The upgrade of the existing
plant will increase capacity in the Western Cape by approximately 50 percent by 2016. The upgrade plan
will allow PPC to increase capacity with reduced impact on the surrounding communities and the
environment and at a lower capital outlay. The new plan requires a budget of R3 billion over the next six
years.

Construction works at Sephaku Cements Aganang production facility in the North West province are still
on track with the workforce expected to increase to 1 500 by January 2013. The project will cost
R2.3 billion and will have the capacity to produce 2.5 Mt per annum. Production is scheduled to start in
September 2013 after the commissioning of the clinker in August 2013.

CEMENT IMPORTS

South Africas imports of cement increased by 120 percent to 534 kt in 2011 compared with the previous
year (Fig 77). The exponential increase in imports resulted from high demand for other types of Portland
cements not produced locally, which increased from 184 kt to 443 kt in 2011. Clinker imports continued
on a downward trend since 2008, recording a decline of 32 percent to 13 kt in 2011. White cement
imports increased by 88.9 percent to 68 kt, while aluminous cement imports decreased by 1.2 percent to
4.15 kt.

FIGURE 77: SOUTH AFRICAN IMPORTS OF CEMENT PRODUCTS, 2009 2011

500
450
400
350
mass (kt)

300
250
200
150
100
50
0
2009 2010 2011

Cement Clinker White cement Aluminious cement Other Hydraulic cement Other

Source: South African Revenue Service, 2011

LIME

Lime is an important raw material used in many industrial processes such as pyrometallurgical, water
purification and the chemical industry. The local sales volume of lime increased by 19.1 percent to 1.54
Mt compared with the previous year, driven by increased demand for quicklime in the steel and alloys
industries (Table 95). The total sales volume of quicklime for pyrometallurgical and chemical applications
increased by 20.5 percent to 1.42 Mt, while sales values increased by 25.1 percent to R1.2 billion.
Hydrated lime sales for water purification decreased by 1.8 percent to 55 kt, while hydrated lime used for
chemical purposes increased by 33.3 percent to 40 kt. Sales values for hydrated lime increased by
13.8 percent to R134 million in the same period.

168
TABLE 95: SOUTH AFRICAS LOCAL SALES OF LIME, 2010 2011

LIME PRODUCT, 2010 2011

BY SECTOR USE Mass Value (FOR) Mass Value (FOR)
Kt R000 R/t Kt R000 R/t
Quicklime
Pyrometallurgical 598 503 990 843 700 597 061 853
Chemical 581 479 129 825 721 632 735 878
SUB-TOTAL 1 179 983 119 834 1 421 1 229 796 866
Hydrated lime
Water purification 56 53 990 974 55 60 561 1 110
Chemical 30 32 102 1 085 40 45 469 1 143
Other 27 32 269 1 180 23 28 626 1 232
SUB-TOTAL 113 118 361 1047 118 134 656 1 162
TOTAL 1 292 1 101 480 853 1 539 1 364 452 1014
Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

EMPLOYMENT

The limestone and dolomite industry employed 2 761 people in 2011, an increase of 4.7 percent
compared with 2010 (Table 96). Labour productivity decreased by 8.2 percent to 7.8 kt/employee, while
revenue generated per employee increased by 9.3 percent to R938 456/employee owing to an increase
in limestone prices. Average annual earnings decreased by 0.6 percent to R154 657/employee.

TABLE 96: SOUTH AFRICAS LIMESTONE AND DOLOMITE QUARRIES: EMPLOYMENT AND
REMUNERATION, 2007 2011

YEAR EMPLOYEES TOTAL REMUNERATION

R000
2007 2 452 286 461
2008 2 517 321 698
2009 2 490 359 959
2010 2 636 409 973
2011 2 761 427 009

Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

OUTLOOK

Global markets remain stressed as the debt crisis in Europe continues to unfold with the ripple effect
being felt by the South African economy. The downward trend in building activity is likely to keep the
housing market weak, with growth expected to remain in single digits in the short term. Although the
residential sector remains under pressure, there has been an improvement in demand for housing,
specifically smaller more affordable units, which is likely to increase construction investment slightly
within the sector.

The construction industry, which is the main driver for cement demand, is expected to grow modestly in
the medium term on the back of the state-led infrastructure drive that focuses on development of energy,
transport and logistics, schools, hospitals and nursing colleges. Consequently the growth in the
construction industry will lead to increased demand for limestone, which is the input raw material for
cement production. Demand for limestone in the agricultural sector is expected to continue growing on
the back of increased crop production to accommodate the growing population. However, demand for
limestone for metallurgical applications is set to decrease in the short term owing to the overcapacity that
the steel industry is experiencing.

169
Investment in non-residential buildings is expected to grow by an annual average of 4.1 percent, while
investment in residential buildings is expected to increase by 3.8 percent year-on-year after weakening
during 2011.
REFERENCES

1. Cement and Concrete Institute, Cementitious Sales Statistics, 2011

2. DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics
3. Engineering news, SA steel production falls by 12.7 % , world output up 6.8 %
4. Industrial Minerals, June 2012
5. PPC, Annual Report, 2011
6. South African Revenue Services (SARS)
7. Stainless steel, September 2011

170
 PHOSPHATE ROCK

Munyadziwa Muravha

WORLD SUPPLY

World production of phosphate rock increased by 5.5 percent to 191 Mt in 2011 compared with 181 Mt in
2010 due to increased demand for phosphoric acid in fertilizers. China remained the worlds largest
phosphate producing country in 2011, accounting for 36 percent of production followed by the United
States and Morocco & Western Sahara both at 14 percent. Russias contribution remained unchanged at
6 percent similar to 2010 (Fig.78). Global phosphate sales expanded by 6 percent in 2011 when
compared with 2010.

FIGURE 78: PHOSPHATE ROCK PRODUCTION BY COUNTRY, 2011

Other Countries United States

21 % 14%
Brazil
3%

Morroco and
Western Sahara 14
%

Russia
6%
China
Jordan Egypt 36 %
3% 3%

Source: USGS, 2012

World production of phosphoric acid (H3PO4), measured as P2O5 content, increased by 9.7 percent to
40.6 Mt in 2011, compared with 37.0 Mt in 2010, following the sharp rebound of economic activity and
tight agricultural commodity markets. South Africas sole phosphate rock producer, Foskor, is one of the
largest suppliers of phosphoric acid to India. Global production of phosphate fertilizers is estimated to
have amounted to 40.7 Mt following a full recovery from the economic down turn in 2010.

WORLD DEMAND

The agricultural sector is the principal consumer of phosphate rock, accounting for 80-85 percent of total
production. The principal end uses for nonfertilizer phosphates are detergents, food and beverages,
metal treatment, water treatment and toothpaste. Phosphate rock demand continues to increase
particularly in China and India, where there is an enormous need for fertilizers. In the United States more
than 95 percent of the phosphate rock produced was used to manufacture phosphoric acid and super
phosphoric acid, which were used as intermediate feedstock for the manufacture of fertilizers and animal
feed supplements. The world phosphate market is currently firm due to strong demand.

TRADE

World phosphoric acid trade was 15.9 Mt in 2011. The bulk of this volume went to India, Japan,
Netherlands and Bangladesh. Morocco is the leading phosphoric acid exporter followed by China whose
export volumes remain consistently high despite tariffs. Exports from the USA were subdued as USA
producers responded to softening prices by curtailing production.

171
PRICES

Phosphate rock prices increased by 7.1 percent to $150/t in 2011 compared with $140/t in 2010.
Phosphoric acid prices surged by 128.0 percent to $1 030/t in 2011 compared with 450/t in 2010, due to
higher demand for fertilizer applications. Diammonium phosphate (DAP) prices declined by 65.1 percent
to $350/t and trisodium phosphate (TSP) prices increased by 94.3 percent to $680/t in 2011 (Fig. 79).
Phosphate products prices began to rise again in 2011 as a result of the return of Indian spot buyers, but
still below the levels seen in 2009.

FIGURE 79: PRICES OF PHOSPHATE RESOURCES, 2006 2011

2000

1500

1000

500

0
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Phosphoric acid Phosphate rock DAP bulk TSP bulk

Source: Fertilizer International, 2011

SOUTH AFRICA

Phosphate rock concentrate is sold locally to fertilizer producers and used as a raw material input to
produce phosphoric acid, which is then exported to different countries. South Africas production of
phosphate rock increased by 19.9 percent to 2 575 kt in 2011 compared with 2 148 kt in 2010, as a result
of market demand on the back of depleting stock levels (Table 97). Local sales mass increased by
14.6 percent to 2 155 kt compared with 1 880 kt in 2010, due to the stronger demand from phosphoric
acid and granular fertilizer producers.

TABLE 97: SOUTH AFRICA'S PRODUCTION AND SALES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK, 2001 2011

YEAR PRODUCTION LOCAL SALES EXPORTS

Mass Mass Mass
kt kt kt
2001 2 420 2 591 555
2002 2 803 2 532 349
2003 2 643 2 665 250
2004 2 735 2 484 268
2005 2 577 2 498 91
2006 2 629 2 252 0
2007 2 556 2 523 36
2008 2 287 2 687 0
2009 2 237 2 268 0
2010 2 148 1 880 25
2011 2 575 2 155 194

Source: Foskor

172
 Foskor is the sole producer of phosphate rock in South Africa, with a design capacity of approximately
2.8 Mt per year. Foskor embarked on a Pyroxenite Expansion Project (PEP) in September 2008, which
was divided into two phases PEP1 and PEP2. PEP 1, involved the construction of a new pyroxenite ore
opencast mine together with the installation of a new primary gyratory crusher and an overland conveyor
system, which was completed in June 2010. PEP 2 focused on de-bottlenecking the existing Extension 8
plant to improve its throughput rate in order to meet its original design capacity. This was completed in
February 2011.

Foskor aims to increase its revenue to R10 billion by 2016 on the back of rising demand for phosphoric
acid and granular fertilizer. This will be accomplished by raising the companys production capacity of
phosphate rock to 4 Mt per annum. In addition, the phosphoric acid and granulation plants capacities will
each be increased to 1 Mt each per annum. The company also plans to locally beneficiate downstream
products to produce NPKs (Nitrogen-phosphate-kalium based fertilizers), defluorinated acid and water
soluble fertilizers. The additional revenues will be generated from new product streams that will be
developed by 2017.

Farmers World Limpopo, a subsidiary of Meridian International Group, whose main focus is to
manufacture and distribute fertilizers, will be taking ownership of the mothballed Sasol Nitro plant in
Phalaborwa. The company is currently in the process of finalizing the various transfers with Sasol and
plans to bring the plant back to its full production of approximately 300 kt pa P2O5. The company has
invested R100 million towards repairs, maintenance and salaries for the start-up period.

OUTLOOK

World phosphate demand remained firm in 2011, consolidating the global phosphate industry recovery
experienced in 2010. Consumption of phosphate products rose in almost all consuming countries thus
supporting record levels of production. World production is expected to increase to 256 Mt by 2016 as a
result of mine expansion projects and development of new mines in several countries. There is unlikely
to be any shortage of phosphate concentrate in the medium term if all these projects proceed as
planned.

Global phosphoric acid capacity is expected to continue increasing in 2013, owing to the rising global
demand for food supplies. The global market for phosphoric acid showed relatively tight conditions in
2011 and these are expected to continue through to 2013 with supply estimated to reach 47.8 Mt P2O5.

World capacity for phosphate fertilizers is forecast to increase by 2013 1.5 Mt P 2O5 annually to
49.8 Mt P2O5 by 2016. The main additions to capacity will occur in Brazil, China, Morocco and Saudi
Arabia, with the expansions of DAP capacity accounting for three-quarters of this increase.

The phosphate rock industry fundamentals in South Africa are expected to remain strong in 2013 as a
result of growth in the agricultural sector as demand for food, feed and fuel continue to rise. The effect of
population growth, food shortages and climate change patterns are expected to continue driving demand
for phosphates at an annual compounded rate of 2 to 5 percent per annum. Capacity expansion at
Foskor and the re-commissioning of Sasol Nitro Plant in Phalaborwa by Farmers World Limpopo will
ensure that there is a sufficient fertilizer for agricultural use.

REFERENCES

1. Fertilizer international magazine, May August 2012

2. Foskor Annual Report 2011 and 2012
3. Patrick Heffer and Michael Prudhomme, Fertilizer Outlook 2011-2015. International Fertilizer Industry Association
4. United States Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, Phosphate Rock, January 2012

173
 SPECIAL CLAYS

Munyadziwa Muravha

WORLD SUPPLY

Clays are a complex group of naturally occurring fine grained minerals, which shows plasticity through a
variable range of water content, and which can be hardened when dried. The term special clays refers to
attapulgite, bentonite and kaolin. Bentonite is derived from its decomposition from a lava ash causing a
highly variable mineral makeup. Attapulgite is distinguished by its unique colloidal properties, especially
resistance to high concentrations of electrolytes. Kaolin has weak bonds between its silicate-gibbsite
layers that causes the cleavage and softness of this mineral.

Total world kaolin production increased by 0.6 percent from 33.1 Mt in 2010 to 33.3 Mt in 2011 due to
improvement in the paper market and construction activities (Fig.80).The United States (US) and
Uzbekistan account for 16.5 percent each of the total world production of kaolin, followed by Germany at
13.5 percent. Bentonite production increased by 6.6 percent from 10.6 Mt in 2010 to 11.3 Mt in 2011
owing to greater demand from the foundry and the oil drilling industries. The US accounts for 43.7
percent of total world bentonite production, followed by Turkeys 13.2 percent, Greeces 7.9 percent and
Mexicos
5.3 percent. World attapulgite production increased by 1.3 percent from 3.2 Mt in 2010 to 3.3 Mt in 2011
due to increased demand from the ceramic tile market. The US remained the major primary producer
accounting for 62.8 percent of total world attapulgite production, followed by Spains 24.5 percent and
Mexicos 5.4 percent.

FIGURE 80: WORLD PRODUCTION OF SPECIAL CLAYS, 2011

40000
35000
30000
Production ( Mt)

25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Kaolin Bentonite Attapalgite

Source: USGS, 2012

WORLD DEMAND

Markets improved slightly for most clays in 2011, due to increase in demand. Kaolin is used in various
applications with paper coating and filling accounting for roughly 43 percent of kaolin sales. Its second
largest end user market is ceramics, linked closely to construction and residential start-ups, accounting
for roughly 28 percent. Demand for kaolin for construction purposes has been weak, due to stricter
conditions on mortgage applications in many countries stemming from the 2008 financial crisis. Other
end user markets for kaolin include fibreglass, refractories, rubber and paints.

Demand for bentonite strengthened throughout 2011 driven by the foundry and specialities sectors, while
demand from the civil engineering markets offset a decline in the pet litter grade. The rise of oil and gas
exploration has resulted in an increased demand for bentonite for use in drilling mud for wells used for
deep water drilling which increased considerably in 2011. Consumption of bentonite in oilfield
applications accounts for about 70-80 percent of the drilling grade bentonite produced and around 20
percent of the total bentonite produced.
174
PRICES
The kaolin price for No 1 paper coating grade increased by 3-5 percent by the end of 2011 compared
with 2010, while No 2 paper coating grade, ex-works USA remained stable for 2010 and 2011 (Table
98).The prices for US bentonite (ex-works Wyoming) also remained stable except for the American
Petroleum Institute (API) grade, bagged, railcars, ex-works Wyoming and Iron Ore Pelletising (IOP)
grade, crude, bulk, ex-works Wyoming. The API grade increased from a range of $70-100/s.ton in 2010
to $78-120/s.ton by the end of 2011. The Iron Ore Pelletising (IOP) grade also increased from a range of
$48-55/s.ton in 2010 to 55-60/s.ton in 2011. The Indian, crushed, dried, loose, in bulk, cat litter grade
price remained constant for the period 2010 and 2011.

TABLE 98: WORLD PRICES OF KAOLIN AND BENTONITE, 2010-2011

KAOLIN 2010 2011

No 1 paper coating grade $146-185/s.ton $150-195/s.ton

No 2 paper coating grade $95-147/s.ton $100-155/s.ton

BENTONITE 2010 2011

Cat litter, grade 1-5 mm, bulk, FOB Main European port 42-60 42-60

Indian, cat litter grade, crushed, dried, loose, in bulk, FOB Kandla $34-38/s.ton $34-38/s.ton
Oil Companies Materials Association (OCMA)/Foundry grade,
crude and dried, bulk, FOB Milos 50-75 50-75
American Petroleum Institute (API) grade, bagged, railcars, ex-
works Wyoming $70-100/s.ton $78-120/s.ton

Foundry grade, bagged, railcars, ex-works Wyoming $90-115/s.ton $90-115/s.ton

Iron Ore Pelletising (IOP) grade, crude, bulk, ex-works Wyoming $48-55/s.ton 55-60/s.ton
Source: Industrial Minerals

SOUTH AFRICA

South Africas production of kaolin declined by 49.1 percent in 2010 to 15.2 kt in 2011 due to weaker
local demand that resulted in some mines not producing for several months (Table 99). Furthermore,
production was affected by increased operational costs. Local sales mass decreased by 20.7 percent to
22.4 kt but local sales value increased by 4.2 percent to R10.4 million in 2011 compared with the
previous year owing to higher unit values. Kaolin imports declined by 28.2 percent to 13.0 kt in 2011
owing to competition from cheaper ceramics in the market which do not contain kaolin.

175
TABLE 99: SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION, LOCAL SALES AND IMPORTS OF KAOLIN, 2001-2011

#
YEAR PRODUCTION LOCAL SALES IMPORTS
Mass Value (FOR) Mass Value (FOB)
Kt Kt R000 R/t Kt R000 R/t
2001 83.5 71.3 32 219 452 15.7 31 491 2 009
2002 86.7 79.4 37 332 470 17.8 53 254 2 988
2003 86.4 72.9 40 573 556 11.6 24 925 2 156
2004 81.9 67.8 42 880 633 15.9 23 562 1 478
2005 59.4 52.7 30 321 575 9.8 16 641 1 690
2006 51.6 39.1 15 809 404 17.6 31 219 1 774
2007 50.8 39.3 10 232 260 15.8 27 927 1 768
2008 39.2 33.5 9 068 271 10.2 25 775 2 527
2009 31.0 30.1 9 343 311 11.0 31 469 2 861
2010 29.9 28.2 9 960 353 18.1 36 233 2 002
2011 15.2 22.4 10 375 463 13.0 30 533 2 346

Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

Source: # RSA, Commissioner for South African Revenue Services, 2001-2011
Notes: Import figures also include other kaolinitic clays

Bentonite production increased by 46.2 percent from 82.3 kt in 2010 to 120.4 kt in 2011, due to
increased demand for iron ore pelletising and civil applications (Table 100). The persistent demand for
the pelletising application was driven by ferrochrome production and civil applications. The local sales
volume increased by 42.1 percent to 177.0 kt in 2011 as a result of increased demand for bentonite from
two new customer plants that became operational in 2011, while local sales value increased by 44.2
percent to
R118.3 million. Export sales volumes decreased by 87.2 percent from 1.3 kt in 2010 to 165 t in 2011,
despite the increase in drilling oil activity globally. Currently, there is only one producer in South Africa
that exports bentonite in a form of drilling mud combined with clay (attapulgite) in relatively small
volumes.

Ecca Holdings will continue to be the supplier of bentonite to Eskoms Medupi project after the
completion date was moved to 2013. Bentonite is used in civil engineering as a support fluid, which aims
to support the sides of panel excavations for diaphragm walls. The location and the low value of
bentonite continue to pose challenges to the producers who try to keep the price affordable to the
customers without impacting on their profits.

TABLE 100: SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION, LOCAL SALES AND EXPORTS OF BENTONITE,
2001-2011

YEAR PRODUCTION LOCAL SALES EXPORTS

Mass Value (FOR) Mass Value (FOB)
Kt Kt R000 R/t Kt R000 R/t
2001 108.3 51.8 19 793 382 0 - -
2002 101.1 67.8 32 916 485 10.0 4 065 408
2003 145.1 74.4 31 210 420 11.0 3 728 338
2004 55.9 75.5 35 662 473 10.5 5 956 566
2005 139.8 75.9 35 738 471 6.9 4 778 688
2006 32.9 75.1 39 005 520 4.0 2 887 715
2007 45.8 87.3 49 749 570 3.2 2 434 761
2008 44.1 96.1 64 670 673 3.4 4 399 1 294
2009 40.3 59.8 37 585 628 1.8 2 529 1 393
2010 82.3 124.6 82 594 659 1.3 1 667 1 293
2011 120.4 177.0 118 34 669 0.2 255 1 551

Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

South Africas production of attapulgite decreased by 74.9 percent to 14.4 kt in 2011 and local sales
volume decreased by 74.8 percent to 14.4 kt in 2011 as a result of replacement products such as silica

176
gel and low demand for cat litter (Table 101). Sales of attapulgite were serverly affected by the closure of
a major attapulgite consumer. The local sales value declined by 62.6 percent to R6.6 million in 2011
compared with 2010. The main demand for attapulgite is for cat litter and as a carrier for pesticides.

Attapulgite, like most industrial minerals, is faced with the challenge of being a high bulk-low value
product. As a result distance and transport is a critical issue. Producers have tried to minimize the
effects, some successfully doing so by adding value to attapulgite. Consequently, the industry has never
been successful with overseas exports, but is making sales of drilling mud in Africa, a market that seems
to be growing.

TABLE 101: SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION, LOCAL SALES AND EXPORTS OF ATTAPULGITE,
2001-2011

YEAR PRODUCTION LOCAL SALES EXPORTS

Mass Value (FOR) Mass Value (FOB)
Kt Kt R000 R/t T R000 R/t
2001 9.2 5.8 3 224 549 20 11 574
2002 13.3 11.0 5 883 535 0 - -
2003 14.6 14.5 6 750 466 0 - -
2004 20.4 20.2 8 962 443 0 - -
2005 33.7 29.8 10 785 362 0 - -
2006 49.2 49.0 13 201 270 0 - -
2007 68.4 68.4 17 989 263 0 - -
2008 69.9 69.9 20 783 297 0 - -
2009 54.4 54.2 16 015 295 0 - -
2010 57.6 57.3 17 585 290 0 - -
2011 14.4 14.4 6 572 455 0 - -

Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

OUTLOOK

The kaolin industry continues to be an important product particularly in the paper and ceramics
industries. Although the paper and fibreglass markets have improved, the ceramics market is expected to
remain weak. The current fragile economic recovery has led to a decrease in the number of consumers
in applications such as sanitary ware. Although production continues to decline due to the anaemic
demand, South Africas kaolin output is expected to rise from 2013 as demand from construction industry
strengthens.

Global production of bentonite is expected to increase by approximately 2.5 percent per annum to 17 Mt
by 2016. The US and China will remain the worlds leading producers of bentonite, and are expected to
account for 30 and 24 percent, respectively, of the global output by 2016. South Africas production of
bentonite is forecast to continue increasing until 2013 then decline after the completion of Eskoms
Medupi project. Production is expected to remain flat thereafter as there are no major plans announced
to boost consumption. The continuing influx of imports is expected to put some downward pressure on
local prices, as competition for customers increases.

REFERENCES

1. Industrial Minerals magazine 2011,2012

2. Mike Faure, Atta Clay: Attapulgite, personal communication
3. Roskill Information Services, Ltd.
4. Mineral Economics Directorate, DMR
5. The Fredonia Group Inc
6. USGS. Mineral commodities, 2012
7. Verdine Donnelly, Ecca Holdings/SAMREC: Bentonite and Attapulgite, personal communication
8. Richard da Silver, G & W Base and Industrial Minerals, personal communication
9. DMR, Special Clays Industry In The Republic of South Africa,2009

177
 SULPHUR

Mphonyana Modiselle
WORLD SUPPLY

World production of sulphur in all forms (SAF) increased by 900 kt to 69.1 Mt in 2011 from 68.1 Mt in
2010. Domestic phosphate rock consumption was higher in 2011 than in 2010, resulting in increased
demand for sulphur to process the phosphate rock into phosphate fertilizers. China was the largest
producer of sulphur accounting for 14 percent, followed by the United States (US) at 13 percent, Canada
and Russia at
10 percent each (Fig. 81). Global output of elemental sulphur increased by 6.1 percent to 53.7 Mt in 2011
compared with 50.6 Mt in 2010.

FIGURE 81: WORLD PRODUCTION OF SULPHUR BY COUNTRY, 2011

China
Other 14%
34%

United States
13%

Kazakhstan
4% Canada
Japan 10%
5% Saudi Arabia Russia
Germany
5% 5% 10%

Source: USGS, 2012

WORLD DEMAND

Strong demand from end-user sectors particularly agrochemicals, petroleum refining and metal mining
pushed world demand of SAF to an estimated 71.8 Mt in 2011. About 90 percent of sulphur was
consumed in the form of sulphuric acid. Agricultural chemicals, primarily fertilisers account for 68 percent
of sulphuric acid consumption followed by petroleum refining with 24 percent and metal minings 5
percent. The remaining 3 percent is used in a range of other industrial applications.

WORLD PRICES

The South African fertiliser industry pricing of raw materials and final products is linked to international
prices, both through international procurement and pricing mechanism. In addition to being dependent on
phosphate-based fertiliser prices, sulphur prices depend largely on swings of sulphur production. The
industry has, therefore, been alternating between periods of shortage and excess during the last few
years with a dramatic impact on prices. In 2010, sulphur prices started increasing and reached $160/t in
February (Fig. 82). From February until August sulphur prices dropped and most refiners were forced to
pay for the removal of excess sulphur from their plants. However, prices started to pick up in November
2010. Prices stabilized in 2011 ranging from $185/t in February to $220/t in November amid thin trading,
as China continued to lower the export taxes for phosphate fertilisers and also in response to high
energy prices and strong worldwide fertiliser demand driven by rising crop prices.

178
FIGURE 82: INTERNATIONAL SULPHUR PRICES, (US$/TON SPOT, FOB VANCOUVER), 2007-2011

800
700
600
500
$/ton

400
300
200
100
0

Source: Various sources, 2007-2011

SOUTH AFRICA

In South Africa, elemental sulphur is recovered from pyrite, sulphide smelter gasses, coal and crude oil.
Most elemental sulphur is converted to sulphuric acid. Sulphur was recovered as a by-product from one
oil refinery/ synthetic fuels producer, one gold mine, seventeen platinum mines, two zinc mines and one
copper mine in 2011.

South Africas production of SAF decreased by 10.0 percent to 338 kt in 2011 compared with 375 kt in
2010 due to closure of the Vaal River operations and Zincor (Table 102). Sulphur recovery from synthetic
fuels registered a 20.7 percent decrease to 163 kt in 2011 owing to plant inefficiency related issues. The
protracted shutdown at the Engen refinery also contributed to the reduction in production. Sulphuric acid
from iron pyrite from gold mining was zero in 2011 owing to the closure of the Vaal River gold mine.
Sulphuric acid production from Palabora Mining Companys (PMC) copper mine surged by 98.0 percent
to 97.5 kt in 2011 because of increased anode copper production and the easing demand constraints in
the sulphuric acid markets. Sulphuric acid production from zinc mines decreased by 28.1 percent to 40.5
kt in 2011 owing to the closure of Exxaro Base Metals Zincor refinery in the later part of 2011. The move
was part of Exxaro's strategic plan to divest from its zinc assets, because of the difficult conditions in the
zinc market, including its cyclical nature, low margins as well as the significant impact of higher electricity
prices and the exchange rate. Sulphuric acid production from PGM mines increased by 8.7 percent to
37.1 kt in 2011, owing to added extra facilities by Anglo Platinum.

TABLE 102: SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION OF SULPHUR IN ALL FORMS, 2010-2011

SOURCE 2010 2011

Mass Mass
t % t %
Oil refineries / Synthetic fuels 205 411 55 162 884 48
Gold mines 30 309 8 0 0
Copper mines 50 159 13 95 955 28
Zinc refinery 56 373 15 40 522 12
PGM mines 34 097 9 37 075 11
375 422 100 337 972 100
Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

Local sales mass of SAF, which includes elemental sulphur and sulphuric acid, decreased by 15.2
percent to 217 kt in 2011, while local sales value declined by 30.9 percent to R116.7 million. A reduction
in sulphuric acid sales was attributed to the closure of PMCs phosphoric acid plant and the Zincor plant.
Export sales mass of SAF rose by 25.0 percent to 120 kt in 2011 (Table 103). Export sales value rose by

179
308.7 percent to R199.4 million, owing to increased demand in the global acid market resulting from the
buoyant fertilizer and metals demand.

TABLE 103: SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION AND SALES OF SULPHUR IN ALL FORMS, 2002-2011

YEAR PRODUCTION LOCAL SALES EXPORT SALES

Mass Mass Value Mass Value
Kt Kt Kt R'000 R/t Kt R'000 R/t
2002 532 324 168 233 520 43 22 993 533
2003 614 480 237 783 495 32 21 799 671
2004 633 390 201 706 517 69 47 677 692
2005 776 481 231 118 481 103 65 592 638
2006 643 351 181 450 517 124 77 919 630
2007 642 358 212 258 593 125 96 571 770
2008 571 315 548 705 1 740 110 351 860 3 190
2009 536 332 293 105 883 62 27 193 436
2010 375 256 168 911 660 96 48 795 511
2011 338 217 116 739 538 120 199 436 1 658
Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

South Africas imports of crude sulphur increased by 38.1 percent to 906 kt in 2011 compared with 656 kt
in 2010 (Table 104). South Africa imports crude sulphur mainly from Canada, United Arab Emirates,
Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Iran.

TABLE 104: SOUTH AFRICAS IMPORTS OF SULPHUR, 2007 2011

+
YEAR CRUDE/UNREFINED SUBLIMED & OTHER TOTAL
Mass Value (FOB) Mass Value (FOB) Mass Value (FOB)
Kt R000 R/t Kt R000 R/t Kt R000 R/t
2007 599 365 921 610 78 87 705 1 124 677 453 626 670
2008 791 3 436 560 4 344 173 754 037 4 358 964 4 190 597 4 347
2009 525 354 611 675 46 10 141 220 571 364 752 639
2010 593 377 801 637 63 51 396 816 656 429 197 654
2011 715 1 073 705 1 502 191 336 572 1 762 906 1 410 277 1 557
Source: RSA, Commissioner for South African Revenue Service, 2007 2011
Notes: All forms of sulphur other than those specifically referred to

OUTLOOK

World sulphur production is forecast to increase at an average annual rate of 6.7 percent to 95.4 Mt in
2016. A significant increase in production is expected from sulphur recovery at liquefied natural gas
operations in the Middle East and expanded oil sands operations in Canada. Approximately 60 percent
of this growth is expected to come from the global natural gas processing sector. Global consumption is
expected to grow at 4 percent per annum to reach 96.8 Mt by 2016, as a result of sustained growth in the
use of sulphuric acid in the manufacture of fertilizers and firm industrial demand, particularly for ore
leaching.

The sulphur market remains difficult to forecast as sulphur regularly alternates between periods of
surplus and deficit. Global economic uncertainty is expected to delay new projects coming on stream,
thus affecting some sulphur markets particularly fertiliser manufacturing, which had returned to pre-crisis
levels during 2011, and metal ore leaching.

South Africas local fertiliser industry is exposed to international markets and the uncertainty of the
exchange rate. The agricultural value chain contributes between 17 to 24 percent to Gross Domestic
Product (GDP). In 2011, the country became the net importer of over 60 percent of fertiliser products in a
bid to satisfy its local demand. In order to reduce the reliance on imports many smaller blending plants
and companies are being set up to change the complexion within the local fertiliser industry, which will

180
ensure a long term sustainable conducive business environment and long-term investments into the
South African fertiliser industry.

REFERENCES

1. DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

2. Fertilizer Society of South Africa, www.fssa.org.za
3. FSSA Journal 2011, the Fertiliser Society of South Africa.
4. Grain SA fertiliser report, 2011
5. Industrial Minerals Magazine, 2011
6. Ober, J., 2011, Sulphur Review, USGS [pdf]. Internet. http://www.usgs.gov
7. Palabora Mining Company (PMC)
8. Sasol Oil Refinery
9. South African Revenue Services
10. Sulphur magazine, 2011
11. Sulphuric Acid Marketing Update, April 2011, Anglo American
12. Zincor Base Metals

181
 VERMICULITE

Munyadziwa Muravha
WORLD SUPPLY

World vermiculite production increased by 8.2 percent to 580 kt in 2011 compared with 536 kt in 2010.
The increase in world output was attributed to several new projects coming online and existing
companies ramping up their production capacity. Ugandan Gulf Industrials started production in
September 2011 while Brasil Minerios and Xinjuiang Weili Xinlong Vermiculite Company increased their
capacities significantly. South Africa is still the world largest vermiculite producer, accounting for 29
percent of total world output, followed by Chinas 22 percent and the United States 17 percent (Fig. 83).

FIGURE 83: WORLD PRODUCTION OF VERMICULITE BY COUNTRY, 2011

Other Countries United States

Uganda 8% 17%
3%
Australia
3%

South Africa Brazil

29% 10%

Russia China
4% India 22%
Egypt
3% 1%

Source: USGS, 2012

Palabora Mining Company (PMC), a member of the Rio Tinto group, is South Africas sole producer of
vermiculite and the largest producer in the world, followed by Chinas Xinjuiang Weili Xinlong Vermiculite
Company and Virginia Vermiculite in USA. Other significant producers are Gulf Industrials and Basils
Minerios Ltd.

DEMAND

Globally vermiculite is consumed by the construction industry for light concrete aggregates (Fig. 84). It is
also used for loose fill fireproof insulation and for horticulture in the agricultural sector. Demand levels for
vermiculite in the construction sector have recovered well in recent years after the global economic
slowdown, and with countries like the USA experiencing occasional supply shortages, it is evident that
the markets have now recovered.

182
FIGURE 84: VERMICULITE CONSUMPTION BY SECTOR, 2011

Concrete
Aggregates Agriculture
32% 40%

Insulation
8%

Concrete
20%

Source: USGS Commodity Summaries 2012

TRADE

South Africa, China and Brazil are the major exporters of vermiculite. South Africas export volumes
amounted to 162.4 kt in 2011 (Table 106), with Europe and North America accounting for about 96
percent of the countrys exports.

PRICES
Tight supply conditions have been the driver of the rocketing vermiculite prices. Vermiculite prices
depend largely on size, with coarser grades demanding much higher prices.The price of unprocessed
vermiculite concentrate has almost doubled since 2008, reaching $400-850/t FOB Antwerp in mid-
2011(Fig 85), as a result of limited supply of coarse grades. However, vermiculite supply from new
producers could ease the current market tightness and limit further price rises in the medium to long
term.

FIGURE 85: VERMICULITE PRICES, 2006-2011

900
800
700
600
Prices ($/t)

500
400
300
200
100
0
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Year

Source: Various editions of Industrial Minerals Magazine

SOUTH AFRICA

PMC reports that reserves at its Phalaborwa mine deposit amount to approximately 23.4 Mt, at an
average grade of 17.8 percent vermiculite.

South Africas production of vermiculite decreased by 16 percent to 165.0 kt in 2011, compared to 196.3
kt the previous year (Table 105), as a result of unscheduled operational maintenance performed to

183
improve safety and the impact of wet weather on ore feed in the first quarter. The upgrade of the furnace
refractory maintenance plan also affected production for two-and-a-half weeks. In the fourth quarter,
lower ore feed grades and excessive ore moisture resulting from wet weather affected production further.

Local sales tonnages decreased by 7.6 percent to 9.6 kt in 2011 compared with 10.4 kt in 2010, while
local sales values increased by 28.2 percent to R165.7 million in the same period, due to a surge in
prices. Export volumes decreased by 2.4 percent to 162.4 kt in 2011 compared with 166.4 kt in 2010,
owing to lower production volumes, logistical constraints and the shift in global demand from the coarser
grades to the finer grades. Export sales values increased by 52.1 percent to R329 million in 2011 from
R216.3 million in 2010, owing to higher prices and the weaker rand in the second half of 2011. PMCs
mix of vermiculite has shifted towards the fine and superfine grades due to grade constraints and lower
recovery rates from the open pits.

TABLE 105: SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION, LOCAL SALES AND EXPORTS OF VERMICULITE,
2002 2011

YEAR PRODUCTION LOCAL SALES EXPORTS SALES

Mass Mass Value (FOR) Mass Value (FOB)
kt kt R000 R/t kt R000 R/t
2002 210.0 6.5 4 498 692 170.0 205 681 1 208
2003 182.8 6.5 5 114 784 163.3 144 759 886
2004 196.9 7.3 6 229 855 178.8 150 944 844
2005 209.9 6.9 6 368 923 163.7 188 402 1 151
2006 197.8 7.6 7 087 927 166.7 170 029 1 056
2007 198.5 9.1 8 896 981 173.2 195 577 1 129
2008 199.8 10.7 11 002 1 026 204.5 273 239 1 336
2009 193.3 9.5 10 236 1 073 164.6 238 295 1 448
2010 199.3 10.4 12 927 1 241 166.5 216 305 1 299
2011 167.5 9.6 16 576 1 722 162.4 328 921 2 215

Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

In South Africa, vermiculite is used in refractory bricks (15%), fire proofing (18%), agriculture (20%),
metallurgical (17%) and light concrete aggregates (12%). Smaller niche markets (18%) include: animal
feeds, brake linings, sanitation and packaging. Other opportunities exist in the manufacture of insulating
and sound proofing material.

OUTLOOK

Global supply is expected to increase in the medium to long term as producers continue to raise
capacity, in line with the recovery in the construction industry. Demand for coarser grades continues to
dominate the vermiculite market. However, demand is expected to shift to finer grades, as consumers try
to contain cost.

Vermiculite prices, particularly for coarse grades are expected to fall in the short term as a result of
additional supplies from Uganda and China. South Africas PMC has laid out significant expansion plans,
which could see prices fall as soon as additional output comes online. However, transportation costs,
especially higher fuel prices might militate against significant decrease in prices.

South Africas production is forecast to increase on the back of PMCs plans to raise current production
capacity, supported by governments continued infrastructural development programmes which could
stimulate the construction industry and strengthen vermiculite demand further.

REFERENCES

1. Department of Mineral Resources, Directorate Mineral Economics

2. Industrial Minerals magazine, 2012.
3. Palabora Mining Company annual report, 2011
4. Ultralightweight Aggregates: Global Industry Markets and Outlook 2011 Edition
5. USGS commodity summaries, 2012

184
 STATISTICS FOR OTHER INDUSTRIAL MINERALS

Refiloe Motsie and Marvin Simango

NOTE: The following applies to all tables.

** Withheld for reasons of company confidentiality
* Nil

1. NATURAL ABRASIVES

TABLE 106: SOUTH AFRICAS IMPORTS OF NATURAL ABRASIVES, 20022011

YEAR Mass Value (FOB)

t R000 R/t
2002 1 590 7 695 4 840
2003 1 750 8 010 4 577
2004 1 554 5 573 3 586
2005 1 706 3 610 2 112
2006 1 311 4 888 3 728
2007 1 282 6 095 4 654
2008 1 183 5 198 4 394
2009 1 208 7 419 6 141
2010 1 919 6 837 3 563
2011 2 095 6 393 3 051
Source: RSA, Commissioner for South African Revenue Service, 20022011

2. BARYTES

TABLE 107: SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION AND LOCAL SALES OF BARYTES, 20022011

YEAR PRODUCTION LOCAL SALES

Mass Mass Value (FOR)
t t R000 R/t
2002 * 470 183 391
2003 * 355 149 420
2004 * 275 116 795
2005 * 146 61 418
2006 * 126 52 413
2007 * 535 225 421
2008 * 432 181 419
2009 * 284 119 419
2010 * 319 134 420
2011 * 319 189 592
Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

TABLE 108: SOUTH AFRICAS IMPORTS OF BARYTES, 20022011

YEAR Mass Value (FOB)

t R000 R/t
2002 2 925 5 329 1 822
2003 3 245 4 352 1 341
2004 3 056 7 008 2 293
2005 2 013 7 748 3 849
2006 2 736 7 908 2 890
2007 3 114 14 921 4 792
2008 3 568 14 106 3 953
2009 2 823 13 805 4 890
2010 4 105 17 200 4 190
2011 3 146 11 747 3 740
Source: RSA, Commissioner for South African Revenue Service, 20022011

185
3. DIATOMACEOUS EARTH (KIESELGUHR)

TABLE 109: SOUTH AFRICAS IMPORTS OF DIATOMACEOUS EARTH, 20022011

YEAR Mass Value (FOB)

t R000 R/t
2002 4 788 20 406 4 262
2003 5 002 14 975 2 994
2004 4 594 10 670 2 323
2005 5 318 12 944 2 434
2006 5 032 14 321 2 846
2007 4 828 18 930 3 921
2008 5 539 23 205 4 189
2009 3 930 16 075 4 090
2010 4 580 17 496 3 820
2011 5 261 19 572 3 720
Source: RSA, Commissioner for South African Revenue Service, 20022011
Note: Production statistics are not published because there is only one producer

4. FELDSPAR

TABLE 110: WORLD PRODUCTION OF FELDSPAR, 2011

COUNTRY Mass
kt % Rank
China 2100 10 3
France 650 3 4
Iran 500 2 11
Italy 4 700 24 1
Japan 600 3 7
Korea 630 3 5
Poland 550 2 10
Saudi Arabia 500 3 11
Spain 580 3 8
Thailand 620 3 6
Turkey 5 000 24 2
United States 690 3 9

Other 3 435 17
Total 20 700
Source: USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries, 2012: www.usgs.gov

TABLE 111: SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION, LOCAL SALES AND EXPORTS OF FELDSPAR,
20022011
+
YEAR PRODUCTION LOCAL SALES EXPORT SALES
Mass Value (FOR) Mass Value (FOB)
kt kt R000 R/t kt R000 R/t
2002 66.6 61.0 26 334 432 0.5 822 1 591
2003 57.7 57.4 29 943 521 * * *
2004 53.7 66.4 37 477 565 * * *
2005 57.5 75.2 44 256 588 * * *
2006 75.4 85.2 54 649 641 0.2 218 903
2006 75.4 85.2 54 649 641 0.2 218 903
2007 90.2 106.8 62 080 581 * * *
2008 105.8 70.1 49 260 702 * * *
2009 101.4 72.9 55 248 758 * * *
2010 94.3 69.9 56 204 804 * * *
2011 101.5 98.9 61 031 617 * * *
Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics
Note: + Exports are largely of the potassium type and consist almost entirely of ground material

186
5. GRAPHITE

TABLE 112: SOUTH AFRICAS IMPORTS OF NATURAL GRAPHITE, 20022011

YEAR Mass Value (FOB)

t R000 R/t
2002 1 533 7 751 5 056
2003 1 447 4 926 3 404
2004 1 427 4 879 3 419
2005 1 270 3 909 3 078
2006 1 220 5 193 4 257
2007 1 008 8 207 8 142
2008 1 003 20 101 20 041
2009 921 8 657 9 400
2010 1 108 12 891 11 634
2011 1 099 54 293 49 390
Source: RSA, Commissioner for South African Revenue Service, 20022011

6. GYPSUM

TABLE 113: WORLD PRODUCTION OF GYPSUM, 2011

COUNTRY Mass
kt % Rank
Australia 3 500 2 9
Canada 2 300 2 10
China 47 000 32 1
France 2 300 9 11
Iran 13 000 2 2
Italy 4 100 4 8
Japan 5 700 4 6
Mexico 5 800 8 7
Spain 11 500 8 3
Thailand 8 500 6 5
USA 9 400 6 4
Other 34 100 23
Total 148 000 100
Source: USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries, 2012: www.usgs.gov

TABLE 114: SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION, LOCAL SALES, AND CONSUMPTION OF NATURAL
GYPSUM, 20022011

YEAR PRODUCTION LOCAL SALES CONSUMPTION

+#
Mass Value (FOR) FOR CEMENT
kt kt R000 R/t kt
2002 422 438 20 014 46 369
2003 394 427 20 832 49 410
2004 524 459 18 783 41 452
2005 547 503 18 690 37 500
2006 557 370 30 605 83 550
2007 627 388 33 517 86 543
2008 571 393 33 666 86 519
2009 598 397 36 616 92 ***
2010 513 307 32 228 105 ***
2011 476 323 36 831 114 ***
Sources: Cement and Concrete Institute
DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics
Notes: + Based on cement sales and assuming 38,5t gypsum/1 000t cement.
#
Includes synthetic gypsum.
*** Not available

187
TABLE 115: SOUTH AFRICAS IMPORTS OF GYPSUM AND GYPSUM PLASTERS, 20022011

YEAR GYPSUM GYPSUM PLASTERS

Mass Value (FOB) Mass Value (FOB)
t R000 R/t T R000 R/t
2002 1 861 2 909 1 564 4 893 7 021 1 435
2003 1 931 2 732 1 415 5 256 6 560 1 248
2004 2 624 3 039 1 158 4 761 6 365 1 337
2005 1 971 2 218 1 125 4 268 5 704 1 337
2006 2 408 3 703 1 537 5 313 8 827 1 661
2007 3 007 4 555 1 515 17 205 15 004 872
2008 1 939 3 343 1 724 11 290 14 303 1 267
2009 3 427 8 379 2 445 3 790 8 200 2 164
2010 24 506 7 884 321 6 386 10 903 1 707
2011 2 969 4 816 1 622 6 181 10 926 1678
Source: RSA, Commissioner for South African Revenue Service, 20022011

7. MAGNESITE

TABLE 116: SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION AND LOCAL SALES OF MAGNESITE AND DERIVED
PRODUCTS, 20022011

LOCAL SALES
YEAR PRODUCTION Mass Value (FOR)
kt Kt R000 R/t
2002 87.2 113.6 25 379 223
#
2003 86.1 131.3 33 165 253
2004 65.9 122.9 25 513 208
2005 54.8 103.4 31 327 303
2006 73.3 110.8 35 104 317
2007 80.7 117.4 42 323 360
2008 83.9 111.1 51 864 467
2009 47.6 72.3 43 234 598
2010 27.7 73.6 63 982 869
2011 31.9 68.7 61 484 895
Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics
Note: # Exports amounting to 4 798 tons valued at R30 044 868 were recorded

TABLE 117: SOUTH AFRICAS IMPORTS OF MAGNESITE AND MAGNESIA, 20022011

MAGNESITE MAGNESIA
YEAR Mass Value (FOB) Mass Value (FOB)
kt R000 R /t kt R000 R/t
2002 13.4 18 243 1 363 46.4 95 144 2 052
2003 15.3 17 030 1 116 40.0 64 898 1 624
2004 11.6 15 007 1 202 42.1 62 299 1 480
2005 13.4 24 599 1 840 38.6 58 729 1 521
2006 11.2 15 444 1 379 36.2 61 115 1 688
2007 24.9 51 790 2 080 48.0 91 115 1 898
2008 15.3 39 509 2 582 36.2 136 071 3 759
2009 25.5 10 850 4 254 41.8 139 175 3 328
2010 12.3 10 389 844.6 65.7 205 594 3 129
2011 10.4 14 709 1 410 96.2 324 992 3376
Source: RSA, Commissioner for South African Revenue Service, 20022011

188
8. MICA

TABLE 118: WORLD PRODUCTION OF MICA, 2011

COUNTRY Mass
kt % Rank
Canada 15 1 7
China 750 69 1
Finland 70 6 3
France 20 2 6
Korea 28 3 5
Russia 100 9 2
United States 64 6 4
Other 4
Total 1 090 100
Source: USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries, 2012: www.usgs.gov

TABLE 119: SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION, LOCAL SALES AND EXPORTS OF SCRAP AND
FLAKE
MICA, 20022011

YEAR PRODUCTIO LOCAL SALES EXPORT SALES

N
Mass Value (FOR) Mass Value (FOB)
t t R000 R/t t R000 R/t
2002 880 390 ** ** 481 ** **
2003 1 003 470 ** ** 470 ** **
2004 285 55 ** ** 766 ** **
2005 922 * * * 856 ** **
2006 828 254 1 136.7 4 480 327 2 070.0 6 331
2006 828 254 1 136.7 4 480 327 2 070.0 6 331
2007 437 201 870 727 4 329 261 1 679.8 6 428
2008 426 179 ** ** 232 ** **
2009 299 245 ** ** 106 ** **
2010 904 794 ** ** 25 ** **
2011 633 ** ** 174 ** **
Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

TABLE 120: SOUTH AFRICAS IMPORTS OF MICA, 20022011

YEAR Mass Value (FOB)

t R000 R/t
2002 270 1 286.0 4 763
2003 375 1 021.3 2 720
2004 495 846.6 1 709
2005 581 1 073.2 1 847
2006 901 1 365.0 1 515
2007 865 1 667.4 1 928
2008 296 1 103.1 3 727
2009 358 933.8 2 608
2010 483 1 152 2 385
2011 507 1 353 2 668
Source: RSA, Commissioner for South African Revenue Service, 20022011

189
9. MINERAL PIGMENTS

TABLE 121: SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION AND SALES OF MINERAL PIGMENTS, 20022011

YEAR PRODUCTION LOCAL SALES EXPORT SALES

Mass Value Mass Value
t t R000 R/t t R000 R/t
2002 282 1 023 446 435 * * *
2003 764 1 080 678 628 * * *
2004 512 1 027 769 749 20 44 2 181
2005 510 801 554 692 226 472 2 091
2006 590 811 751 927 * * *
2007 232 737 769 1 043 * * *
2008 39 288 94 327 * * *
2009 183 119 40 339 * * *
2010 244 66 22 340 * * *
2011 226 19 7.6 400 * * *
Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

10. POTASH

TABLE 122: WORLD POTASH RESERVES AND PRODUCTION, 2011

COUNTRY RESERVES PRODUCTION

Mt K2O % Rank kt K2O % Rank
Belarus 750 000 8 3 5500 15 3
Brazil 300 000 3 4 400 1 11
Canada 4 400 000 46 1 11200 30 1
Chile 130 000 1 7 800 2 8
China 210 000 2 4 3200 9 5
Germany 150 000 2 5 3300 9 4
Israel 40 000 0.4 8 2000 5 6
Jordan 40 000 0.4 8 1400 4 7
Russia 3 300 000 35 2 7400 20 2
Spain 20 000 0.2 11 420 1 10
UK 22 000 0.2 10 430 1 9
USA 130 000 1 6 1100 3 8
Other 50 000 1 -
Total 9 542 000 100 37 000 100
Source: USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries, 2012: www.usgs.gov

TABLE 123: SOUTH AFRICAS IMPORTS OF POTASH, 20022011

POTASSIUM POTASSIUM POTASSIUM TOTAL

YEAR
CHLORIDE SULPHATE NITRATE
kt R000 kt R000 kt R000 kt R000
2002 304.9 362 295 25.3 55 835 39.0 101 411 369.2 519 541
2003 245.8 197 952 31.2 47 621 35.2 80 245 312.2 325 818
2004 276.8 253 155 22.6 30 776 40.0 99 972 339.4 383 903
2005 198.3 241 859 39.0 58 400 30.1 85 496 267.4 385 755
2006 260.4 381 811 40.2 79 892 20.6 79 737 321.2 541 440
2007 255.4 409 632 38.8 93 446 26.0 79 083 320.2 582 181
2008 271.4 1 546 452 46.1 330 639 26.2 281 162 343.7 2 158 253
2009 139.6 618 360 24.0 129 297 14.8 101 451 178.4 849 108
2010 267.4 697 166 46.2 159 251 23.6 106 461 337.2 962 878
2011 265.1 867 674 52.6 219 149 0.68 3 497 318.4 1 090 320
Source: RSA, Commissioner for South African Revenue Service, 20022011
Note: Up to 10 percent of the imports were probably for non-fertiliser uses

190
11. PYROPHYLLITE

TABLE 124: SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION, LOCAL SALES AND EXPORTS OF PYROPHYLLITE,
20022011

YEAR PRODUCTION LOCAL SALES EXPORT SALES

Mass Value (FOR) Mass Value (FOB)

t t R000 R/t t R000 R/t
2002 ** ** 22 965 ** ** 14 584 **
2003 ** ** 24 541 ** ** 8 876 **
2004 ** ** 34 824 ** 11 683 1 266 **
2005 ** ** 34 798 ** ** 6 038 **
2006 ** ** 34 576 ** ** 52 879 **
2007 ** ** 39 962 ** ** 7 483 **
2008 ** ** 42 230 ** ** 8 438 **
2009 ** ** 38 449 ** ** 9 795 **
2010 ** ** 49 566 ** ** 16 762 **
2011 ** ** 45 266 ** ** 15 837 **
Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

12. SALT

TABLE 125: SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION, LOCAL SALES AND EXPORTS OF SALT,
20022011

YEAR PRODUCTION LOCAL SALES EXPORTS

Mass Value (FOR) Mass Value (FOB)
kt kt R000 R/t kt R000 R/t
2002 429 450 82 770 184 <1 23 860
2003 441 467 84 113 180 1,2 140 114
2004 332 349 65 730 188 <1 70 168
2005 399 436 79 306 182 * * *
2006 405 425 89 583 211 * * *
2007 411 450 101 951 227 * * *
2008 430 437 123 537 282 * * *
2009 408 438 104 309 321 * * *
2010 394 423 126 306 298 * * *
2011 381 441 140 438 318 * * *
Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

13. SILICA

TABLE 126: SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION, LOCAL SALES AND EXPORTS OF SILICA, 20022011

YEAR PRODUCTION LOCAL SALES EXPORT SALES

Mass Value (FOR) Mass Value (FOB)
kt kt R000 R/t t R000 R/t
2002 2 251 2 253 158 964 71 1 038 1 742 1 679
2003 2 311 2 070 165 096 80 884 1 199 1 356
2004 2 249 1 996 187 474 94 649 1 007 1 551
2005 2 671 2 290 189 469 83 652 1 017 1 560
2006 3 231 2 884 236 296 82 424 896 2 113
2007 3 352 2 726 280 191 103 806 1 541 1 913
2008 3 342 3 059 351 474 115 959 1 486 1 550
2009 2 306 2 431 330 404 136 1 222 1 652 1 352
2010 2 863 3 026 470 618 155 1 042 1 632 1 567
2011 2 722 3 052 489 727 160 3 882 5 154 1 328
Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

191
14. TALC

TABLE 127: SOUTH AFRICAS PRODUCTION AND SALES OF TALC, 20022011

YEAR PRODUCTION LOCAL SALES EXPORT SALES

Mass Value (FOR) Mass Value (FOB)
t t R000 R/t t R000 R/t
2002 2 511 12 395 4 552 367 * * *
2003 6 719 7 286 4 051 542 * * *
2004 8 141 8 094 4 163 514 * * *
2005 8 469 7 439 4 319 581 * * *
2006 10 966 7 134 4 957 695 * * *
2007 14 281 7 326 5 639 770 * * *
2008 5 145 6 591 5 606 851 * * *
2009 4 718 6 213 5 893 948 * * *
2010 3 150 5 370 5 573 1 038 * * *
2011 4 453 5 489 6 050 1 102 * * *
Source: DMR, Directorate Mineral Economics

TABLE 128: SOUTH AFRICAS IMPORTS OF TALC, 20022011

YEAR Mass Value (FOB)

t R000 R/t
2002 5 522 2 519 456
2003 6 000 7 063 1 177
2004 5 480 11 713 2 137
2005 10 541 17 713 1 694
2006 9 565 20 344 2 127
2007 11 721 26 040 2 222
2008 8 142 25 114 3 084
2009 10 254 23 851 2 326
2010 9 818 26 908 2 741
2011 7 126 28 015 3 931
Source: RSA, Commissioner for South African Revenue Service, 20022011

192
 PART THREE: GENERAL INFORMATION

DIRECTORATE: MINERAL ECONOMICS RECENT PUBLICATIONS

(Updated 20/12/2012)

REVIEWS

South Africas Mineral Industry 2009/2010 (General Overview of SA Mineral Industry including
commodity summaries for precious metals and minerals, energy minerals, ferrous, non-ferrous &
industrial minerals)

Invest in an Intense and Diverse Mineral Industry, 2011 (Explanatory booklet about investment in South
Africa)

INFORMATION CIRCULAR

MB Bulletin Trimester publication (Mineral related articles of current and future trends)

STATISTICS

Mineral Production and Sales Statistics (Monthly and Annually)

BULLETINS

B1/2012: Minerals - South Africa: Statistical Tables 1980-2011

REPORTS

R39/2010: Investment in South Africas Mineral Sector

R40/2006: Possible Financial Sources for small-to-junior Mining Companies in SA

R42/2005: An Overview of South Africas Primary Industrial Mineral Imports and Exports

R43/2003: A Review of the Dolomite and Limestone Industry in South Africa

R44/2004: The Silica Industry in the Republic of South Africa

R45/2008: An Overview of the South African Iron, Manganese and Steel Industry during the period
1986-2006

R46/2005: Bentonite, Pyrophyllite and Talc in SA

R47/2005: The Kaolin Industry in South Africa, 2005

R48/2005: South African Ferrous Minerals Production Trends, 1994-2003

R49/2005: Limestone & Dolomite in SA: Supply and Demand

R50/2006: South Africas Mineral Production and Sales, 1985-2004

R51/2012: An Overview of Current Platinum-group Metal Exploration Projects and new mine
Developments in South Africa

193
R52/2006: South African Ferroalloy Production Trends, 1995-2004

R53/2006: Review of the Dimension Stone Industry

R54/2006: An Analysis of the impact of a third player on SA Manganese Industry 2006

R55/2008: An Overview of South Africas Vanadium Industry during the period 1997-2006

R56/2007: Provision of Export Facilities for BEEs at the Richards Bay Coal Terminal

R57/2007: Uranium: Future Sources (South Africa)

R58/2008: Overview of the Sand and Aggregate Industry

R59/2010: Minings Contribution to the National Economy, 1996-2005

R60/2007: The Impact of Chrome Ore Exports on the Local Ferrochrome industry, 2007

R61/2007: Historical Diamond Production (South Africa)

R62/2007: Structure of the Salt industry in South Africa

R63/2007: An Overview of SA Zircon Industry and the role of BEE

R64/2007: Mineral Abrasives in SA

R65/2007: Nepheline Mineral Production in SA

R66/2007: An Overview of Value Systems of Selected Ferrous Mineral Commodities 2007

R68/2010: An Overview of South African Gold Exploration projects & new mine developments in
South Africa

R69/2008: Overview of South African Mineral Based Fertilizer Industry

R71/2008: An Overview of SAs Titanium Mineral Concentrate Industry

R73/2008: An Overview of South Africas Clay & Brick Industry

R74/2009: Overview of the Nickel Industry in South Africa, 1997-2006

R75/2009: Supply Demand Dynamics of Base Metals versus prices, 19972006

R76/2009: The future role of the Waterberg Coalfield in SA coal industry

R77/2009: Growth Prospects of SAs Coal exports and the effect on black economic empowerment
companies

R78/2009: Developments in the Economic contribution of Hydrocarbons, Natural Gas and Coal

R80/2009: Special Clays Industry in SA

R81/2009: Status of Fluorspar Industry in SA

R82/2009: Gypsum in SA

R83/2009: Structure of the Andalusite Industry in SA

R84/2010: Value Chain System of SA Heavy Minerals Industry

R85/2009: Lime Industry in SA

R86/2009: Chromium Industry Developments, 1997-2008

194
R87/2010: Ceramic Industry in SA

R88/2010: Overview of the Cobalt Industry in SA, 2000-2009

R89/2010: Refractory Clays in RSA

R90/2011: SAs Silicon Industry Developments, 2000-2009

R91/2012: The future role of the Catalytic Converters Industry in the Downstream Value Addition to
SAs Platinum Group Metals

R92/2012: South Africas Ferroalloys Production Trends, 2001-2010

R93/2011: Structure of the Salt Inudstry in the Republic of SA

R94/2012: Review of the South African Sand and Aggregate Industry

R95/2012: Review of the Fluorspar Industry in the Republic of SA

H1/2012: South African Ferroalloy Handbook

H2/2009: Precious Metals Trade - General Information Handbook

H3/2011: South African Steel Producers Handbook

DIRECTORIES

D1/2012: Operating Mines and Quarries and Mineral Processing Plants in the Republic of South
Africa)

D2/2012: Operating and Developing Coal Mines in the Republic of South Africa

D3/2011: Operating Gold Mines and Recovery Plants in the RSA

D4/2010: Salt Producers in the Republic of South Africa

D5/2012: South African Mineral Beneficiators

D6/2012: Platinum-group Metal Mines in South Africa

D7/2012: South African Diamond Handbook and Operating Diamond Mines Directory

D8/2011: Ferrous Mineral Commodities Produced in the Republic of South Africa

D9/2012: Producers of Dimension Stone in South Africa

D10/2012: Producers of Nonferrous Metal Commodities in South Africa

D11/2010: Producers of Industrial Mineral Commodities in South Africa

D12/2010: Operating and Developing Black Empowerment Mining Companies in the Republic of
South Africa

D13/2009: African Mining Mining Companies Government Department and Related Organizations

D14/2009: Producers of Sand and Aggregate in the RSA

195
 USEFUL ADDRESSES

DEPARTMENT OF MINERAL RESOURCES HEAD OFFICE

The Director-General Travenna Office Campus

Private Bag X59 www.dmr.gov.za Building 2B and 2C
0007 Arcadia Corner of Schoeman and Meintjie Street
Sunnyside, Pretoria

Tel: (012) 444 3000

Telefax: (012) 341 4134

SAMRAD online Helpdesk: (012) 444 3119

SAMRAD Online e-mail: [email protected]

MINERAL REGULATIONS REGIONAL DIRECTORATES

Regional Office: Mineral Regulation Corner of Mount and Diaz Rd

Eastern Cape Mount Croix
Private Bag X6076 Port Elizabeth
6000 Port Elizabeth

Tel: (041) 502 0300

Telefax: (041) 585 3881

Private Bag X 5252 PRD building

5099 Umthata Sutherland Road
Umthata

Tel: (047) 532 4488

Telefax: (047) 532 4547

Regional Office: Mineral Regulation DMR Building

Free State 314 Stateway Street c/o Bok Street
Private Bag X 33 Welkom
9460 Welkom

Tel: (057) 391 1300

Telefax: (057) 357 6003

Regional Office: Mineral Regulation UCS Building

c/o Smit Streets and Rissik Street
Gauteng Braamfontein
Private Bag X 5 2017
2017 Braamfontein

Tel: (011) 358 9700

Telefax: (011) 339 1858/242

196
Regional Office: Mineral Regulation Durban Bay House
KwaZulu/Natal 333 Smith Streets
Private Bag X 54307 Durban
4000 Durban

Tel: (041) 335 9600

Telefax: (041) 301 6950

Tel: (031) 335 - 9600

Telefax: (031) 301 - 6950

Regional Office Receiver of Revenue Building

Mpumalanga cnr Paul Kruger and Botha Avenue
Private Bag X 7279 Emalahleni
1035 Emalahleni
Tel: (013) 653 1448
Telefax: (013) 690 3288

Regional Office: Mineral Regulation Perm Building

Northern Cape 65 Phakamile Mabija Streets
Private Bag X 6093 Kimberley
8300 Kimberley
Tel: (053) 830 0800
Telefax: (053) 832 563/830 0827

Regional Office: Mineral Regulation Limpopo Broll building

Private Bag X9467 101 Dorp Streets
0700 Polokwane Polokwane

Tel: (015) 287 4700

Telefax: (015) 287 4729

Regional Office: Mineral Regulation North-West Vaal University of Technology building

Private Bag A1 Corner Margaret Prinsloo and
Voortrekker Street
2570 Klerksdorp Klerksdorp

Tel: (018) 487 9830

Telefax: (018) 487 9831/ 9836

th
Regional Office: Mineral Regulation 9 floor, Atterbury House
Western Cape Corner Riebeeck and Lower Burg Street
Private Bag X 9 Cape Town
8012 Roggebaai
Tel: (021) 427 1000
Telefax: (021) 427 1046

The Principal InspectorOffice Propcor Building

Rustenburg Cnr Beyers Naude and Unie Streets
PO Box 150 Rustenburg
0309 Tlhabane
Tel: (014) 565 6417
Telefax: (014) 565 6424

197
Regional Manager: Mineral Regulation Springbok Hopley centre
Private Bag X 14 c/o van der stel and Van Riebeeck Street
8240 Springbok Springbok

Tel: (027) 712 8160

Telefax: (027) 712 1959

ASSOCIATED GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS

Department of Energy c/o Visagie and Paul Kruger Street

Private Bag X447 www.energy.gov.za Pretoria
0001, Pretoria Cnr van der Walt & Pretorius Street

Tel: +27 (0) 12 406 8000

Fax: +27 (0) 12 406 7788

Department of Environmental Affairs Fedsure Forum Building

Private Bag X447 www.environment.gov.za North Tower
0001, Pretoria Cnr van der Walt & Pretorius Street

Tel: +27 (0) 12 310 3911

Fax: +27 (0) 12 322 2682

Department of Rural Development and Land Reform Cnr Jacob Mare & Paul Kruger Street
Private Bag X 833 www.ruraldevelopment.gov.za Pretoria
0001, Pretoria

Tel: +27 (0) 12 312 8911

Fax: +27 (0) 12 312 6072

Department of Science and Technology CSIR Campus (South gate entrance)

Private Bag X894 www.dst.gov.za Meiring Naude Road, Brummeria
0001, Pretoria Pretoria

Tel: +27 (0) 12 843 6300

Fax: +27 (0) 12 349 1037

Department of Trade and Industry DTI Campus Block E

Private Bag X84 www.thedti.gov.za Cnr Esselen & Meintjies Streets
0001 Pretoria Sunnyside, Pretoria

Tel: +27 (0) 861 843 384

Telefax: +27 (0) 12) 394-4612 / 0517

Department of Water Affairs and Forestry Sedibeng Building

www.dwaf.co.za 185 Schoeman Street
Pretoria

Tel: +27 (0) 12 336 7500/ 6696

Fax: +27 (0) 12 326 2715

198
Statistics South Africa 170 Andries Street
Private Bag X44 www.statssa.gov.za De Bruyn Park
0001, Pretoria Pretoria

Tel: +27 (0) 12 310 8911

Fax: +27 (0) 12 310 8500/8495

STATE OWNED ENTERPRISES

Council for Geoscience www.geoscience.org.za 280 Pretoria Road

Private Bag X112 Silverton
0001 Pretoria Pretoria

Tel: +27 (0) 12 841 1911

Telefax: +27 (0) 12 841 1221

CSIR www.csir.co.za Meiring Naude Road

P O Box 395 Brummeria
0001 Pretoria Pretoria,

Tel: +27 (0) 12 841 2911

Telefax: +27 (0) 12 349 1153

CSIR - Mining Technology (Miningtek) cnr Carlow & Rustenburg Avenue

P O Box 91230 www.csir.co.za/miningtek Mellville
2006 Auckland Park Johannesburg

Tel: +27 (0) 11 358 0000

Telefax: +27 (0) 11 726 5405

Eskom www.eskom.co.za Megawatt Park

P O Box 1091 Maxwell Drive
2000 Johannesburg Sunninghill Ext 3
Sandton

Tel: +27 (0) 11 800 8111

Telefax: +27 (0) 11 800 4299

nd
Mine Health and Safety Council 2 Floor Braamfontein Centre
Private Bag X63 www.mhsc.org.za 23 Jorissen Street
Braamfontein Braamfontein
2017 Johannesburg

Tel: +27 (0) 11 358 9180

Fax: +27 (0) 11 403 1821

Mining Qualifications Authority 74-80 Marshall Street

Private Bag X 118 www.mqa.org.za Union Corporation Building
th
Marshalltown 5 Floor
2107 Marshalltown
Johannesburg

Tel: +27 (0) 11 832 1022

Fax: +27 (0) 11 832 1027

199
Mintek www.mintek.co.za 200 Malibongwe Drive
Private Bag X3015 Randburg
2125 Randburg
Tel: +27 (0) 11 709 4111
Telefax: +27 (0) 11 793 2413

Petro SA www.petrosa.co.za 151 Frans Conradie Drive

Private Bag X5 Cape Town 7500
Parow, Cape Town
7499 Tel: +27 (0) 21 929 3000
Telefax: +27 (0) 21 929 3144

NECSA Church Street, West Extension

P O Box 582 www.necsa.co.za Pelindaba, Brits District
0001 Pretoria
Tel: +27 (0) 12 305 4911
Telefax: +27 (0) 12 305 3111

South African Agency for Promotion of Petroleum House

Petroleum Exploration and Exploitation (Pty) Ltd 151 Frans Conradie Drive
Petroleum Agency SA Parow, Cape Town
PO Box 1174 www.petroleumagencysa.com
Parow Tel: +27 (0) 21 938 3500
7499 Fax: +27 (0) 21 938 3520

The Industrial Development Corporation of SA Ltd 19 Fredman Drive

(IDC) www.idc.co.za Sandton
P O Box 784055
2146 Sandton
Tel: +27 (0) 11 269 3000
Telefax: +27 (0) 11 269 3116

OTHER MINERAL-RELATED ORGANISATIONS

Aggregate and Sand Producers Association of Chamber of Mines Building

South Africa (ASPASA) www.aspasa.co.za 5 Hollard Street
PO Box 61809 Marshalltown
2107 Marshalltown Johannesburg

Tel: +27 (0) 11 498 7265

Telefax: +27 (0)11 498 7269

Chamber of Mines of South Africa Cnr Sauer & 71 Marshall Street

PO Box 61809 www.bullion.org.za Marshalltown
2107 Marshalltown Johannesburg

Tel: +27 (0) 11 498 7100

Telefax: +27 (0) 11 834 1884

200
Copper Development Association (Pty) Ltd 53 Rendell Road
P O Box 14785 www.copper.co.za Wadeville
1422 Wadeville Germiston

Tel: +27 (0) 11 824 3712

Telefax: +27 (0) 11 824 3120

Federation of SA Gem & Mineralogical Societies 30 Van Wouw Street

P O Box 17273 www.fosagams.co.za Groenkloof
0027 Groenkloof 0181
Tel: +27 (0) 12 345 3939

Ferro Alloy Producers Association (FAPA) Metal Industries House

P O Box 1338 www.seissa.co.za 42 Anderson Street
2000 Johannesburg Johannesburg

Tel: +27 (0) 11 298 9400

Telefax: +27 (0) 11 298 9500

South African Mining Development Association (SAMDA) The Riviera Road

PO Box 2236 www.samda.co.za 606 Oxford corner North Avenue
2041, Houghton Ground Floor, Block 3
2196, Rosebank

Tel: +27 (0) 11 486 0510

Telefax: +27 (0) 11 447 7608

Steel and Engineering Industries

Federation of SA (Seifsa) Metal Industries House
P O Box 1338 www.seifsa.co.za 42 Anderson Street
2000 Johannesburg Johannesburg

Tel: +27 (0) 11 298 9400

Telefax: +27 (0) 11 838 1522

The Institute of Mine Surveyors of SA Chamber of Mines Building, Room 509

P O Box 62339 www.ims.org.za 5 Hollard Street
2107 Marshalltown Marshalltown

Tel: +27 (0) 11 498 7682

Telefax: +27 (0) 11 498 7681

The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy Chamber of Mines Building, 5th Floor
P O Box 61127 www.saimm.co.za 5 Hollard Street
2107 Marshalltown Marshalltown

Tel: +27 (0) 11 834 1273

Telefax: +27 (0) 11 838 5923/ 833 8156

201