2.

008x

Machining
MIT 2.008x

Prof. John Hart

2.008x
 2.008x

Machine shop in the DC printing office (1909)

National Photo Company Collection v ia wikimedia. This
work is in the public domain.

A present-day CNC machine shop

KIM_6446. Kim Becker (CC BY 2.0) v ia Flickr

CNC Tools
Drill bit s et v ia Pixabay.
This work is in the public domain.
 2.008x

What is the highest

volume CNC machined
part in history?
Manufacturing the Macbook unibody
(+ iPhone etc) 2.008x

Excerpt from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sxbiIpXZfG8

about J ony Ive (Apple VP of Design): http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/02/23/shape-things-come
12 Macbook (released 2015)
2.008x

Terraced CNC housing to hold 30% more battery v olume; s ingle PCB
2.03 pounds, 0.51 thick (max), 9hrs using wifi at 75% brightness
http://www.apple.com/macbook/design/
What is machining?
2.008x

a general term describing a group of

processes that consist of the removal of
material and modification of the surfaces
of a workpiece after it has been produced
by various methods. (Kalpakjian and Schmid)

Traditional machining: a rotating cutter

containing several 'teeth' that removes
material from a local region of the part.

Other machining processes that use

different removal mechanisms and/or
energy sources include electron discharge
machining (EDM), laser machining, and
water jet cutting.

Kalpalkian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Machined parts: from small to large
2.008x
iPhone 5 and 6
housings

Watch m echanism
https://pixabay.com/en/watch-
time-gears-clock-time-clock-
932693/

Boeing 777 panel

outboard

Brass fittings
Image from Pixabay. This work is in the public domain.
Machining is good at flat and curved surfaces,
threads; tolerances ~0.001 2.008x

Brass fittings
Image from Pixabay. This work is
in the public domain.

0.5 m m

Diagram from Kalpalkian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology.

 2.008x

2 mm
Agenda:
Machining 2.008x

Tool-material interaction
Cutting mechanics
Geometry and motion
Forces
Energy and power

Demonstration experiments!
Cutting forces
Tools, finish, and wear

Milling (+iPhone housing)

Design for machining
Conclusion
 2.008x

Machining:

2. Basics of
tool-material
interaction
A lathe
2.008x

Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2.008x
CNC turning a chess rook (2X speed)
2.008x

Cutoff
(with saw)

Boring
(internal turning)

Turning Contour turning Facing

Video excerpt from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lcGHtI9Lql4

Diagrams adopted from Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
Basic cutting (turning) nomenclature
2.008x

The cutting tool is set to a

certain depth of cut and travels
to the left with a certain
velocity as the workpiece
rotates (spindle speed)

Feed: axial distance tool moves per

spindle revolution
Depth of cut: amount of material
removed perpendicular to workpiece
Spindle speed: rotation speed of
workpiece [RPM]

Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Example: cutting speed and MRR
2.008x

A 304 stainless steel rod is being turned on a lathe.

The rod is initially 2.0 cm diameter, and becomes 1.9 cm in a single cut.
The spindle rotates at N=300 rpm, and the tool is traveling at an axial speed of 20
cm/min.
The specific cutting energy is 4.0 W-s/mm3.

What is the initial cutting speed? (tangential velocity)

What is the initial material removal rate (MRR)?

Example: cutting speed and MRR
2.008x

What is the initial cutting speed? (tangential

velocity)

Vc = Do N = 0.31 m/s = 18.8 m/min

Example: cutting speed and MRR
2.008x

What is the initial material removal rate (MRR)?

MRR = D1 Nfd = Vc fd

Va
f = = 0.067 cm/rev
N
Do D f
d= = 0.05 cm
2
Example: cutting speed and MRR
2.008x

What is the initial material removal rate (MRR)?

MRR = D1 Nfd = Vc fd

Va
f = = 0.067 cm/rev
N
Do D f
d= = 0.05 cm
2

MRR = Vc fd = 1----
0.3 cm 3 /min
correct:
6.3 cm3/min
Material removal = controlled failure
2.008x

Material is removed (and a chip is produced) at the

head of the tool by plastically deforming and
continuously shearing the material
Excerpt from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mRuSYQ5Npek
What do the tool and material experience
during cutting? 2.008x

Force
Motion (sliding, vibration)
Heating

These lead to deformation

of the workpiece and wear
of the tool

All of these are coupled

and influence part quality!
How well understand cutting mechanics
2.008x

Step I:
Motion &
Deformation

Step II:
Forces

Step III:
Energy &
Power
 2.008x

Machining:

3. Tool motion and

material deformation
We assume a 2D (orthogonal) z
cutting path 2.008x

z
x

y
x
Oblique (3D)
Realistic, yet difficult to analyze
y

Orthogonal (2D)
Provides insight for understanding
2D model: angles and assumptions
2.008x

Three important angles:

Rake angle
Chip
Shear angle
- +
Relief angle

Tool
Assumptions:
The tool is perfectly sharp
Workpiece The tool moves at a
constant V and t0
A continuous chip is
Shear plane produced
What type of deformation do you see?
2.008x

Excerpt from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mRuSYQ5Npek

 Shear model of
orthogonal cutting 2.008x

tc

Chip

tc

Tool
t0

Workpiece

In reality the pages are very thin and

related to the microstructure of the
material being cut: ~0.001-0.01 mm
(10-3-10-4 in)
Analysis of shear
strain 2.008x

x bc + cd
= =
A ac
= cot ( ) + tan ( )
Analysis of shear strain
2.008x

= cot ( ) + tan ( ) Chip

- +

Shear plane
Tool
What do we learn?

= or =
2-4 (very large!) Workpiece

Think of the material

turning the corner
(Tesla video)
Mapping shear strains during cutting
2.008x

Here, digital image c orrelation (DIC) is used to map the s train field
NIST high s peed v ideos of tool/chip/material interaction: http://www.nist.gov/el/isd/sbm/hsds-machining-videos.cfm
 2.008x

Machining:

4. Cutting forces
Why do we study
cutting forces? 2.008x

Forces are related to the

material and cut geometry
Forces cause the tool and
workpiece to deform
Forces (and speed)
determine the power
required for cutting

The coupling of motion

and force at the cutting
interface influences quality,
tool life, and productivity!
Cutting force (FC)
2.008x

Chip

- +

FC

Workpiece
Demo #1: Measuring cutting force
2.008x
Measuring cutting force
2.008x
Cutting force data from
Chip
video 2.008x

- +

Tool


Workpiece

Cut Feedrate Spindle Rake angle Depth of cut Diameter Force

[in/rev] [RPM] [deg] [in] [in] [lb]
1 0.0042 140 60 0.03 2 0.43
2 0.0147 140 60 0.03 2 0.90
3 0.0147 140 0 0.03 2 1.83
4 0.0147 330 0 0.03 2 2.03
5 0.0147 330 0 0.06 2 3.87
6 0.0147 330 0 0.06 1 3.38
!
 Cutting force data for aluminum (AA2014)
2.008x

Here too, cutting force depends strongly on feed (f) but not on speed (Vc)

Gokkaya, The Effects of Machining Parameters on Cutting Forces,Surface Roughness, Built-Up Edge (BUE) and Built-Up Layer
(BUL) During Machining AA2014 (T4) Alloy, J ournal of Mechanical Engineering 56(2010)9, 584-593
Merchants relationship: relating the angles
(reference slides to be posted) 2.008x

[radians]
= +
4 2 2 = friction angle ( = tan )
is derived assuming that the shear angle () self-adjusts to
minimize the required cutting energy

if rake angle or friction angle : shear angle

consequences of smaller shear angle: Chip

chip thickness -
+
energy dissipation via shear
Tool
heat generation
temperature
Workpiece
Validating Merchants equation
2.008x

= +
4 2 2

Key assumptions:
Slow, orthogonal cutting
Constant material properties
with temperature
Chart adapted from: Metal Cutting Theory and Practice, Simple sliding friction
Stephenson and Agapiou
No strain hardening
 2.008x

Machining:

5. Field trip to IMTS

2.008x
Regular CNC machines
2.008x

Haas DT1 drill-tap c enter

https://www.haascnc.com/mt_spec1.asp?id=DT-1&webID=DRILL_TAP_VMC#gsc.tab=0
Giant machines (25 ton table capacity)
2.008x
Lots of tools
2.008x
Lots of tools
2.008x
2.008x
And tool mascots!
2.008x
And chip management systems
2.008x
And chip management systems
2.008x
 2.008x

Machining:

6. Tools, finish, and

wear
 Cutting tools
2.008x
Monolithic tool (e.g., HSS or Carbide)

Tooling with inserts

Diagrams from Kalpalkian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Demo #2: Tools, finish, and wear
2.008x
Demo #2: Data
2.008x

Tool Speed Depth of cut Feed MRR

Material [RPM] [in] [in/rev] [in3/min]

90 0.05 0.007 0.40

HSS 140 0.05 0.007 0.62

330 0.05 0.007 1.45

330 0.05 0.014 2.90

Carbide 385 0.05 0.014 3.29

585 0.05 0.014 5.15

Tool hardness, temperature rise
2.008x
speed V and feed f; a
a b and b are constants
Tmean V f that depend on the tool
and part

max

Kalpalkian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

 on
Tool wear
2.008x

Crater
Crater wear wear
Flank wear
Flank
wear
Crater Wear W
Thermal
on the Rake t
Cracking
Face

Wear on Deposition
the Flank causing a
Face Built Up
Edge
Depth of cut

Images from Figure 23.2 Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing (4th Edition) by Groover. (c) Wiley (2010).
Wear schematics from: http://www.sandvik.coromant.com/en-us/knowledge/milling/troubleshooting/tool_wear
Chips from demo: carbide tool, 385 RPM
Examine both sides 2.008x

Crater
wear
Flank
wear
Chip types (selected)
2.008x
Continuous chip (narrow primary shear zone)
Ductile materials @ high speed
Entanglement bad (use chip breakers)

Continuous chip with built up edge (BUE)

Bad for surface finish and tool wear

Discontinuous chip (good)

Brittle materials; very low or very high cutting
speeds

Discontinuous
Continuous with BUE
Continuous chip
Kalpalkian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology.
What determines surface roughness of
machined parts? 2.008x
Surface
roughness 2.008x

Figure 7.44 from "Product Design for Manufacture and Assembly (2nd Edition)" by
Marinescu, Boothroyd. Marcel Dekker Publishing (2002)
 2.008x

Taken using Zygo profilometer

Improved tool materials higher cutting speed
2.008x

Rate = 200x faster in

100 years
~5% increase per
year, (1.05)100
Machine
requirements?

Layers: 2-20 m thick

TiN: low friction
TiCN: wear resistance
Al2O3: high thermal
stability
Carbide: hardness and
fracture toughness Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology.
Figure 21-8 from DeGarmo's Materials & Processes in Manufacturing (10th Edition) by Black and Kohser, Wiley (2008).
 2.008x

Machining:

7. Cutting energy and

power
 2.008x

Step I:
Motion &
Deformation

Step II:
Forces

Step III:
Energy &
Power
A simple estimate of cutting force
2.008x

b = depth of cut (d in turning)

FC ~b t0 S t0 = feed (f in turning)
Chip
S = strength
- +

FC
Material UTS* (MPa)
Wax 0.86
Workpiece
Aluminum 110
Aluminum 6061-T6 310
Steel (high strength alloy) 760
ASTM A-514
Titanium alloys 900
*UTS = Ultimate Tensile Strength
Shear strength ~0.5*UTS
What other forces are present?
2.008x

Thrust: Ft
Ff
Cutting: Fc
Fs N Friction: Ff ( = Ff/N)
Tool normal: N
Fn Shear: Fs
R Ft
Chip Normal: Fn

Fc
Estimating the cutting power
2.008x
Power input = Power out + Power dissipated

Power input:
Machine: Pc = Fc * V

Plastically Fc
Power dissipation: Deformed Chip
Shear: Ps = Fs * Vs
Friction: Pf = Ff * Vc - +

Not deformed Vc
NOTE

Vc = velocity of chip
V = cutting velocity
Fc
(denoted VC earlier) Fs
Vs V
Contributions to cutting energy Plastically
Deformed Chip
Fc

specific energy = power/MRR - +

2.008x
Not deformed Vc

Fc
Fs
Vs V

Shear + Friction + Others = TOTAL

*Kalpakjian
neglects Units =
Power/(volume/time)
[W*s/mm3]
Lets estimate the cutting power and force
2.008x
A SS rod is initially 2.0 cm diameter, and
becomes 1.9 cm in a single cut (full rotation).
The spindle rotates at N=400 rpm, and the tool
is traveling at an axial speed of 20 cm/min.
The specific cutting energy is 4.0 W-s/mm3.

How much power is required?

MRR = Vfd = D1 Nfd

p
d
Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology C
Lets estimate the cutting power and force
2.008x
A SS rod is initially 2.0 cm diameter, and
becomes 1.9 cm in a single cut (full rotation).
The spindle rotates at N=400 rpm, and the tool
is traveling at an axial speed of 20 cm/min.
The specific cutting energy is 4.0 W-s/mm3.

How much power is required?

Pspindle = ut MRR MRR = Vfd = D1 Nfd

Pspindle ut MRR
Pinput = =
drive drive

P = 0.6 kW
with efficiency = 0.7

p
d
Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology C
Lets estimate the cutting power and force
2.008x
A SS rod is initially 2.0 cm diameter, and
becomes 1.9 cm in a single cut (full rotation).
The spindle rotates at N=400 rpm, and the tool
is traveling at an axial speed of 20 cm/min.
The specific cutting energy is 4.0 W-s/mm3.

What is the approximate cutting force?

MRR = Vfd = D1 Nfd
Pspindle = FcV = ut MRR
ut MRR utVfd
Fc = = = ut fd
V V
F = 1 kN

p
d
Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology C
Material-dependent cutting energies
2.008x

Also see machinability rating

Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
What did we learn so far? (summary)
2.008x

Cutting removes material from a workpiece by (severe) plastic

deformation.
Using a 2D approximation (applied to turning) we can relate the
geometry and motion of the tool to the cutting force and power
required.
Tool-material interaction is dominated by shear and friction,
causing deformation and heating.
Commercial machine tools easily exert many kN of force at
many kW of power.
Recommended cutting parameters are stated based on
material and tool limits.

Now lets talk about milling.

 2.008x

Machining:

8. Milling
How are milling and turning different?
2.008x

Excerpt from Ingersoll

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IUBQN1JfY80

Feed per tooth (f)

v = velocity of tool or workpiece
N = rotational speed
n = number of teeth (flutes)

Diagrams from Kalpalkian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

3-axis milling machine
2.008x
Climb milling versus 6061-T6 Aluminum with endmill
Spindle Speed: 4000rpm
Conventional milling Feed: 20.0ipm 2.008x
Depth of cut: .400
Width of cut: .070

Diagrams from Kalpalkian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Common milling operations
2.008x

Diagram from Kalpalkian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology.

 2.008x

Fly$cutter$ Face$mill
(single$point$for$making$
smooth$surfaces)

End$mill
 iPhone 6 teardown
2.008x

Logic board

Front-facing
camera

Housing

Battery
Type of joint Number
Camera
Bolted 44
Adhesive 5
Screen
(flipped) ClipiPhone 6 chassis assembly
8
Faceplate Threaded inserts 46
Counted from teardown s equence

Modified f rom: https://d3nevzfk7ii3be.cloudfront.net/igi/DSCkX6EfcARJYOHa.hug

iPhone 6 housing: What do we notice?
2.008x

Straight
tool path T-slot
endmill

Press-fit
threaded
insert

Curved
tool path

Plastic insert
2.008x
Feature sizes
2.008x

0.5 mm

0.5 mm

6 mm

2 mm
Tool paths
2.008x

Zig-zag tool path

Contour-parallel tool path

https://en.wikipedia.or g/wiki /CNC _po

cket_milling
How the toolpath for each area is designed
2.008x
Evaluate the shape of material to be removed
Contours of drilled holes and features such
as bosses
Boundary contours pf the pocket

Generate the pocket cutting paths

Contour-parallel tool path Direction-parallel tool path

Begin with offset elements Select reference line and mill along
of the contour to generate parallel lines
cutting paths
Zig milling: Feed along spindle
Step inwards or outwards direction
for subsequent passes
Zig-zag: Both directions (includes
significantly fewer tool retractions)

Add finishing passes

where needed Finishing pass around features

Contour parallel path

Diagrams from M. Held, O n the Computational G eometry of Pocket Machining; Lecture Notes in Computer Science; Springer Berlin Heidelberg: Berlin,
Heidelberg, 1991; Vol. 500.
Optimization for
cost or time? 2.008x

Cost of machining =
Machine use ($/time)
Tool cost
Taylors equation
V*(Tool_life)n = Constant
Tool change cost ($/time)
Nonproductive cost ($ for
load/unload operations
etc)

Time (1/rate) of machining =

Machining time
Tool change time
Nonproductive time
(load/unload etc)

Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

iPhone housing: 4 5 6
2.008x
Materials?
Advantages / disadvantages of each design?
Other notable differences?
4/5/6 back
2.008x
5-axis machining
2.008x

3-axis 5-axis

Photo from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CqePrbeAQoM

Diagrams fromhttp://www.awea.com/awea_en/milling/5-axes/fmv/overview.htm
5-axis machining
2.008x

Video excerpt from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mudofisRCjA

 2.008x

Machining:

9. Design guidelines
for Machining
 2.008x

Design for
Manufacturing (DFM):

The process of designing

parts/products to enable
easier* and more robust**
manufacturing.

*fewer steps, lower cost

**more reliable, better quality

Design for Machining
Dont Do 2.008x
D = 0.627 D = 0.625

Dont Difficult to
fixture

Use s tandard dimensions

Avoid long, narrow holes
Do
Dont Do
Easier to
hold
Design parts that are easy to
fixture
Provide access for tools Dont Do

Avoid long, thin sections that Impossible

Impossible
Use -
cause v ibration Radius s maller radius
than

Design for reasonable internal

pockets radii

From Otto and Wood, Product Design: Techniques in Reverse Engineering and New Product Development
DFM: whats wrong with this part?
2.008x

Sharp internal corners are

impossible!
Avoid thin sections
(deformation, poor surface
finish).

also
Minimize the number of tool changes, while considering overall
machining time (e.g., rough removal versus fine finishing).
Know the limits of tooling available (e.g. minimum size, maximum depth)!
Consider fixturing (how you will hold the part, and reference it if re-
fixtured)
 2.008x

Machining:

10. Conclusion
How is machining
advancing now? 2.008x

Higher speed machining, largely

driven by tool materials/coatings
lower cost and higher
throughput!

Growing demand for machining

of advanced materials, e.g.,
titanium, composites, etc.

Networked machines enabling

remote process monitoring and
optimization toolpath, cutting
speed, tool life, surface quality,
etc.
 High-speed machining: chip carries the heat away
2.008x

Total heat generated

100%
% to
workpiece

% to

Heat generated
tool

50% % to
chip

0
Excerpt from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8Lh600hVyt8 Low High
Cutting speed
Figure adopted from 20.31, Degarmo, Materials and Processes in Manufacturing
Conclusion: performance of machining
2.008x

Machining

Rate Low-Medium

Quality Good!

Cost Wide range, depends on design, material,

production volume

Flexibility High (within machine

constraints)
References
2.008x
1 Introduction

Photo of CNC Mill by Roland Josch on Pixabay. This work is in the public domain.

Photo of Machine Shop in DC Printing Office by National Photo Company from U.S. Library of
Congress. This work is in the public domain.

Photo of CNC Machine Shop by Kim Becker v ia Flickr (CC BY) 2.0

Photo of Drill Bit Set by Michael Schwarzenberger on Pixabay. This work is in the public domain.

Video of MacBook Pro Manufacturing Apple Inc.

Image of MacBook Pro Exploded View 2016 Apple Inc.

Machining Processes: Figure 1.5e "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (6th Edition)" by
Kalpakjian, Schmid. Upper Saddle River; Pearson Publishing (2010).

Photo of Mechanical Watch Mechanism by User: tookapic on Pixabay. This work is in the public
domain.

Photo of Brass Fittings by Ingbert Merz on Pixabay. This work is in the public domain.

Machined Part: Figure IV.3 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by
Kalpakjian, Schmid. Upper Saddle River; Pearson Publishing (2014).
References
2.008x
2 Basics of Tool-Material-Interaction

Lathe Picture: Figure 23.2 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian,
Schmid. Upper Saddle River; Pearson Publishing (2014).

Video of Rook Machining 2016 Glacern Machine Tools

Lathe Cutting Operations: Figure 23.1 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (6th Edition)"
by Kalpakjian, Schmid. Upper Saddle River; Pearson Publishing (2009).

Turning Schematic: Figure 21.2 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian,
Schmid. Upper Saddle River; Pearson Publishing (2014).

Videos of Iscar Chip Formation Rick Steinard.

3 Tool Motion and Material Interaction

Video of Iscar Chip Formation Rick Steinard.

Video of Titanium machining example, by NIST of the U.S. Dept. of Commerce 2009.

Photo of CNC Mill by Roland Josch on Pixabay. This work is in the public domain.
References
2.008x
4 Cutting Forces

Graphs by Gokkaya, The Effects of Machining Parameters on Cutting Forces, Surface Roughness, Built-Up
Edge (BUE) and Built-Up Layer (BUL) During Machining AA2014 (T4) Alloy, Journal of Mechanical
Engineering 56(2010)9, 584-593

Shear Angle Chart adapted from: Metal Cutting Theory and Practice, Stephenson and Agapiou

6 Tools and Wear

Lathe Cutting Tool: Figure 21.10 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian,
Schmid. Upper Saddle River; Pearson Publishing (2014).

Tooling with Insert: Figure 22.3 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian,
Schmid. Upper Saddle River; Pearson Publishing (2014).

Temperature Distribution: Figure 21.12 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by
Kalpakjian, Schmid. Upper Saddle River; Pearson Publishing (2014).

Hardness Chart: Figure 22.1 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian,
Schmid. Upper Saddle River; Pearson Publishing (2014).
References
2.008x
Crater Wear: Figure 23.2 from "Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing (4th Edition)" by Groover. John
Wiley & Sons Inc. (2010)

Wear schematics images 2000 Sandvik AB

Chip Types: Figures 21.5 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian,
Schmid. Upper Saddle River; Pearson Publishing (2014).

Machining Time: Figure 22.6 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian,
Schmid. Upper Saddle River; Pearson Publishing (2014).

Coating Cross-Section: Figure 22.8 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by
Kalpakjian, Schmid. Upper Saddle River; Pearson Publishing (2014).

Insert: Figure 21-8 from "DeGarmo's Materials & Processes in Manufacturing (10th Edition)" by Black and
Kohser, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (2008).

7 Cutting Energy and Power

Turning Schematic: Figure 21.2 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian,
Schmid. Upper Saddle River; Pearson Publishing (2014).

Cutting Energies: Table 21.2 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian,
Schmid. Upper Saddle River; Pearson Publishing (2014).
References
2.008x
8 Milling

Video of Face Milling Slow-Motion Ingersoll Cutting Tool Company

Parts Produced by Milling: Figure 24.1 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by
Kalpakjian, Schmid. Upper Saddle River; Pearson Publishing (2014).

Milling Operation Parameters: Figure 24.3 b) from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)"
by Kalpakjian, Schmid. Upper Saddle River; Pearson Publishing (2014).

Conventional vs. Climbing: Figure 24.3 a) from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by
Kalpakjian, Schmid. Upper Saddle River; Pearson Publishing (2014).

Milling Operations: Figure 24.2 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian,
Schmid. Upper Saddle River; Pearson Publishing (2014).

Image of iPhone 6 2000-2016 GSMArena.com

Image of iPhone 6 Exploded View 2016 iFixit

Image of T-Slot End Mill Cutter 2003 Bewise Inc. All Rights Reserved

Image of Tool Paths by Kangkan iitd on Wikimedia. (CC BY-SA) 3.0

Pocket Machining: Figure 1.3 from "On the Conceptual Geometry of Pocket Machining" by Held Springer-
Verlag (1991).
References
2.008x
Toolpaths: Figure 1.4 from "On the Conceptual Geometry of Pocket Machining" by Held Springer-Verlag
(1991).

Cost Optimization: Figure 25.17 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian,
Schmid. Upper Saddle River; Pearson Publishing (2014).

Diagrams of Advantages of 5-Axis Milling Machines AWEA Mechatronic Co. LTD. 2016. All Rights
Reserved.

Image of 5-Axis Vertical Machining Center Okuma America Corporation.

Video of Mazak Variaxis i700 John Hart Pty Ltd.

9 Design for Manufacturing

DFM Practice Diagram: Figure 14.10 from "Product Design: Techniques in Reverse Engineering and New
Product Development" by Otto and Wood, Upper Saddle River; Pearson Publishing (2001)

10 Conclusion

Image of Datron M8Cube 2016 DATRON Dynamics, Inc.

Heat vs. Speed Diagram: Figure 20-31 from "DeGarmo's Materials & Processes in Manufacturing (10th
Edition)" by Black and Kohser, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (2008).