Controllers & Positioners

BWR GENERIC FUNDAMENTALS
COMPONENTS
CHAPTER 8
CONTROLLERS AND POSITIONERS
INSTRUCTOR GUIDE
REV 2
1999 General Physics Corporation, Columbia, Maryland
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by
any means, without permission in writing from General Physics Corporation.
BWR INSTRUCTOR GUIDE
VOLUME: COMPONENTS TIME 4HRS
INSTRUCTOR GUIDE: CONTROLLERS AND POSITIONERS REV 2
REFERENCES
1. Instrumentation for Process Measurement and Control, 3rd Ed, Anderson, Chiffon, 1980.
2. U.S. Navy, Machinist Mate 3 & 2, Naval Education and Training Program Development Center,
1981.
3. Nuclear Power Plant Steam and Mechanical Fundamentals, General Physics, 1981.
RESPONSIBILITY SIGNATURE TITLE DATE
Origination _____________________ _____________________ _____________
Review/Concurrence _____________________ _____________________ _____________
Review/Concurrence _____________________ _____________________ _____________
Approval/Objectives _____________________ _____________________ _____________
Approval/Final _____________________ _____________________ _____________
BWR / COMPONENTS / CHAPTER 8 1 of 55 1999 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION

/ CONTROLLERS AND POSITIONERS REV 2
VOLUME: COMPONENTS TIME 4 HRS
OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this chapter, the student will be able to perform the following
objectives at a minimum proficiency level of 80%, unless otherwise stated, on an oral
or written exam.
1. List the five elements of a control system.
2. As it applies to control systems, explain the term feedback.
3. Describe the operation of a closed-loop system and an open-loop system.
4. State the purpose of a controller.
5. Describe the theory of operation of the following types of controllers:
a. Two-position
b. Proportional
c. Proportional-plus-reset (PI)
d. Proportional-plus-reset-plus-rate
6. Describe the operation of a valve controller, including seal-in features.
7. Describe the following characteristics of a flow control valve:
a. Linear
b. Quick opening
c. Equal percentage

OBJECTIVES
8. Describe the theory of operation of the following types of controllers:
a. Pneumatic
b. Electro-hydraulic
c. Electrical
9. State the function and describe the characteristics of valve positioners.
10. State the function and describe the operation of pressure and temperature controllers, including
pressure and temperature control valves.
11. State the function and describe the operation of flow and level controllers, including manual
and automatic modes and transferring mode control.
12. State the function and describe the characteristics of speed controllers.
13. Describe the operation of speed controllers.
14. Describe the safety precautions associated with the operation of controllers and positioners.

K/A OBJECTIVE CROSS REFERENCE

COMPONENTS: 291003 CONTROLLERS AND POSITIONERS
K/A # K/A STATEMENT IMPORTANCE RELATED
OBJECTIVE
RO SRO NUMBERS
K1.01 Function and operation of flow 3.5 3.7 4, 8, 11

controller in manual and automatic
modes.
K1.02 Function and operation of speed 3.5 3.6 12, 13

controller.
K1.03 Operation of a valve controller, 3.3 3.4 6

including seal-in features.
K1.04 Function and operation of pressure and 3.3 3.3 10

temperature controllers, including
pressure and temperature control valves.
K1.05 Function and characteristics of valve 2.8 2.8 9

positioners.
K1.06 Function and characteristics of 2.5 2.6 12

governors and other mechanical
controllers.
K1.07 Safety precautions with respect to the 2.8 2.8 14

operation of controllers and positioners.

K/A OBJECTIVE CROSS REFERENCE

COMPONENTS: 291003 CONTROLLERS AND POSITIONERS
K/A # K/A STATEMENT IMPORTANCE RELATED
OBJECTIVE
RO SRO NUMBERS
K1.08 Theory of operation of the following 2.2* 2.2* 8

types of controllers: electronic,
electrical, and pneumatic.
K1.09 Effects on operation of controllers due to 2.0* 2.2* 5

proportional, proportional and reset, and
proportional and integral features.
The following objectives, while not cross-referenced to specific K/As, ensure mastery of fundamental concepts: 1-4, and 7.
Note: Importance ratings that are marked with an asterisk (*) or question mark (?) indicates variability in rating responses
by reviewers. An asterisk (*) indicates that the rating spread was very broad. An asterisk (*) can also indicate that more
than 15% of the raters felt the knowledge or ability is not required for the RO/SRO position at their plant. A question mark
(?) indicates that more than 15% of the raters felt that they were not familiar with the knowledge or ability as related to the
particular system or design feature. A dagger () indicates that more than 20% of the raters indicated that the level of
knowledge or ability required by a SRO is different from the level of knowledge or ability required by a RO.

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
QUESTIONS/ANSWERS INSTRUCTOR GUIDE
I. INTRODUCTION
A. Greet students
1. Introduce self and lesson title
2. Explain overall structure and format of lesson
3. Encourage questions
4. Encourage student contribution of
information
5. Explain sequence of presentation
B. Read objectives
1. Relate objective to job
2. Objectives define required knowledge
3. K/As reviewed during lesson
4. K/As directly related to exam questions
C. Create interest
II. CONTROL SYSTEMS
A. The Goal Of A Control System
1. The purpose of control system to regulate
process
2. A process operation used for treatment of
material
3. Examples of process would be adding heat to
oil or removing impurities from water
4. The goal of process control system to
measure value of selected process parameter
and maintain this measured parameter at
desired value

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
B. Element Functions
1. The basic control system made up of five
Figure 8-1/TP 8-4 major elements
FINAL
DETECTOR TRANSDUCER TRANSMITTER CONTROLLER CONTROL
ELEMENT
a. The detector or sensor senses change in
Objective 1 value of parameter being measured (level,
pressure, flow, etc.) The transducer
converts output of detector to usable
electronic or pneumatic signal
b. The transmitter sends signal to controller
c. The controller compares value of
parameter from transmitter with desired
value (setpoint)
1) The difference between these two
signals, error signal, used to regulate
control signal to final control element
d. The final control element device that
varies process so that value of parameter
being measured may be kept within
desired band
1) The final control element can be
control valve, variable-speed pump or
bank of electric heaters
e. Note that functions of detector,
transducer, and transmitter may be
performed by one element and called
"transmitter"
C. Manually And Automatically Controlled
Processes
Figure 8-2/TP 8-5 1. Basic manually controlled process
HOT WATER IN
a. The outlet oil temperature variable that
VALVE A
T
measured and controlled
HEAT
COLD OIL
IN EXCHANGER
HOT OIL
OUT b. Outlet oil temperature kept at desired
value by changing flow of hot water
COLD WATER OUT

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
Figure 8-3/TP 8-6 2. Automatically controlled heat transfer process
TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE
HOT WATER
CONTROLLER TRANSMITTER a. The objective of this process to maintain
CONTROL TC TT
VALVE temperature of hot oil out of heat
SETPOINT
HEAT
exchanger at desirable value
COLD OIL HOT OIL
IN EXCHANGER OUT
b. Cold oil enters heat exchanger and heated
COLD WATER OUT
by hot water flowing on tube side
c. The parameter to be controlled, hot oil

temperature, measured by temperature
transmitter (TT) that produces output
proportional to actual oil temperature
3. The temperature controller compares actual
temperature signal with desired temperature,
called setpoint
a. If measured temperature not equal to
setpoint, error signal produced
b. This error signal used to position hot
water control valve
c. By changing flow of hot water to heat
exchanger, amount of heat added to oil
changed
d. The hot water flow automatically adjusted
until oil temperature equal to setpoint
Objective 3 D. Closed-Loop Systems
1. The system described above called
closed-loop system, since temperature to be
controlled compared with setpoint
a. In process control terminology, hot oil
temperature and hot water flow are called
controlled and manipulated variables,
respectively
b. The controlled variable parameter to be
kept within specified setpoints; and
manipulated variable parameter that
changes process to obtain desired results

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
Objective 2 2. Another term used in closed-loop control
system feedback
a. Feedback information on controlled
variable which sent, or fed, back to
controller via measuring element
b. Feedback aids in restoring balance or
decreasing effect of disturbance
c. When used in closed-loop control,
feedback results in stable process
d. If temperature of outlet oil increased
above setpoint, hot water flow reduced
Objective 3 E. Closed-Loop System Operation
1. The overall operation of closed-loop system
summarized below:
a. The controlled variable change sensed by
measuring element, temperature
transmitter, and sent as measured variable
to controller
b. The controller compares measured
variable with setpoint and generates error
signal
c. If measured variable less than setpoint,
controller sends signals to final control
element, flow control valve, which opens
valve
d. The final control element regulates
manipulated variable, shell side inlet
water flow, by increasing water flow
e. The heat exchanger reacts to increase in
hot water on shell side by increasing
amount of heat transferred to oil
f. The increase in temperature of controlled
variable caused by greater heat transfer
detected by measuring element

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
2. The control system response continues to
repeat itself until controlled variable has again
achieved same value as setpoint
a. The same type of response occurs if value
of controlled variable increases, or if
setpoint value increased or decreased
b. This type of response typical of
closed-loop control system that uses
feedback
3. The effects of failures on closed loop can be
determined if closed loop operation
understood
a. For example, if transmitter in Figure 8-3
fails high, controller will generate error
signal representing temperature above
setpoint
b. The controller output will close control
valve
c. With no hot water flow to heat exchanger,
oil outlet temperature will drop
d. The control loop will not be able to adjust
oil temperature automatically
Objective 3 F. Open-Loop Systems
1. Another method of control to regulate all
inputs to process by use of separate
controllers and separate final control elements
a. If controlled variable not used to adjust
any of inputs to process, system
considered to be open-loop control system
b. Open loop control, when used in industrial
applications, called feed forward control

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
Figure 8-4 / TP 8-2 c. Heat exchanger with open-loop control
HOT WATER IN
FT
2. This just one control scheme
TT TR
SETPOINT FC SETPOINT
FT FC
a. Many other open-loop control schemes
COLD OIL
IN
HEAT
EXCHANGER
HOT OIL
OUT
can be applied
COLD WATER OUT
b. The flow of oil through tube side of heat
exchanger held constant, by flow control
system consisting of flow transmitter (FT)
and flow controller (FC)
c. The flow of water through shell side of
heat exchanger also held constant
d. If two flow rates remain constant and are
properly proportioned, temperature of oil
leaving tube side should achieve stable
value and therefore considered controlled
3. A closer look at this control system shows
that rather complex
a. Although there are two feedback loops,
this open-loop control system since exit
oil temperature, which controlled variable,
not used to adjust any of other inputs
b. An intermediate form of feedback may be
applied by operator who would adjust
inputs when exit oil temperature becomes
too high or too low
Objective 3 G. Open-Loop System Operation
1. Operation of open -loop system described
below:
a. The controlled variable not used to adjust
any of inputs to system
b. The controller compares measured
variables with setpoint and generates error
signal if measured variable exceeds
setpoint

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
c. By maintaining inputs constant and
properly proportioned, measured variable
should remain constant
d. An intermediate form of feedback may be
required from operator to adjust inputs
when measured variable becomes too high
or low
III. CONTROLLERS
Objective 4 A. A controller device that compares input signal
with setpoint and generates output based on
difference (error signal)
1. The output signal error signal, representing
difference between measured variable and
desired value or setpoint
2. This error signal represents amount of
deviation between actual process system
operating point and desired process system
operating point
3. The error signal developed by controller
adjusts final control element to modify
process system and reduce deviation between
actual and desired process values
4. The characteristic of this output signal
depends on type of controller
5. Four types of controllers are discussed:
a. Two-position controller
b. Proportional controller
c. Proportional-plus-reset controller
d. Proportional-plus-reset -plus-rate
controller

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
Figure 8-5/TP 8-8 B. Two-Position Controller
VIN 1. The simplest type of controller two -position
controller
LC
h
a. It device that has two positions:
LS VOUT
1) Either completely on,
Objective 5.A
2) Or completely off
3) There no middle position
b. Closed-loop system using two -position
controller
c. The volume of water in tank process being
controlled
1) The level in tank controlled variable
2) It measured by level switch (LS) that
sends information to controller
d. The output of controller (LC) sent to final
control element, solenoid valve that
controls flow of water into tank
Figure 8-6/TP 8-9 2. The response of this system shown
TANK
LEVEL
a. As water level decreases, point reached
SETPOINT
where measured variable drops below
WATER
ON setpoint
FLOW
OFF b. This creates positive error signal
TIME
1) The controller fully opens final control

Objective 5.a element
2) Water subsequently injected into tank,
and water level rises
c. As soon as water level goes above
setpoint, negative error signal developed
which causes controller to fully shut final
control element
d. The opening and closing of final control
element results in cycling characteristic of
measured variable

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
3. A simple way to reduce cycling of controller
to make ON state and then OFF state of
controller occur at different points
a. This causes valve to open at lower level,
and to shut at higher level
b. Thus level must change by larger amount
before controller changes state
c. This additional level change requires more
time, therefore there more time between
controller changes of state
4. If controller output in ON state, increase in
measured variable to upper zone limit value
causes controller output to shift to OFF
state
a. When measured variable decreases, must
decrease to lower zone limit value for
controller output to shift back to ON
state
5. The deadband represents region of measured
variable overlap within which controller
output can be either on or off, depending on
state of controller output prior to measured
variable entering deadband
a. When measured variable below deadband,
controller output always on
b. When measured variable above deadband,
controller output always off
1) Notice also that controller output does
not change state within deadband
2) As such, controller causes process to
cycle above and below setpoint
c. The measured variable oscillates within
band defined by width of deadband

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
Figure 8-7/TP 8-10 6. The deadband describes region of overlap in
which controller does not change state
ON
OUTPUT DEADBAND
a. The controller response indicates turn off
OFF
point that higher than turn on point
b. The process variable must deviate above
LOWER ZONE
LIMIT
SETPOINT UPPER ZONE
LIMIT
or below setpoint by specific amount to
MEASURED VARIABLE cause controller to change state
7. Another application of two -position controller
in operation of safeguards equipment
a. Numerous two -position controllers
(typically called bistable trip units) start
pumps and align valves in response to
safeguard actuation signal
1) Unlike controller discussed above,
when safeguard signal actuated,
remains present until signal reset
2) This feature accomplished through use
of seal-in relay
b. For many components, safeguard
actuation signal must be reset before
operator control allowed
C. Proportional Controller
Objective 5.b 1. Proportional control allows final control
element to be throttled to various positions
that are dependent on process system
conditions
Figure 8-8/TP 8-11 a. A proportional controller provides
stepless output that can position control
valve at intermediate positions as well as
4 IN.
WATER
IN
fully open and fully shut
4 IN. VALVE
b. With proportional control, final control

0 IN. element has definite position for each
WATER
OUT
value of measured variable

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
2. Simplified proportional control system
a. The flow of supply water into tank
controlled to maintain tank water level
within prescribed limits
b. The demand changes placed on process
system are such that actual flow rates
cannot be predicted
c. Therefore, system designed to control
tank level within narrow band to minimize
chance of large demand change causing
overflow or runout
3. A fulcrum and lever assembly used as
proportional controller
a. A float chamber level-measuring element,
and 4-inch stroke valve final control
element
b. The fulcrum point set so that level change
of 4 inches causes full stroke of valve
1) Therefore, 100% change in measured
variable equals 4 inches, and 100%
change in controller output equals 4
inches
c. The ratio of output change to input change
called gain
1) Gain and its importance in
instrumentation and control systems
will be discussed in following section
Objective 5.b D. Gain And Proportional Band
1. Gain ratio of output change to input change
for proportional controller
Equation 8-1/TP 8-12 2. Equation 8-1
Output Change 3. Another term used to relate controller input
Gain = and output proportional band
Input Change

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
a. Proportional band change in input
required to produce full range change in
output
b. The proportional band of controller :
Equation 8-2/TP 8-12 4. Equation 8-2
% Change in Input 5. The gain and proportional band of controller
Proportion al Band (PB) = x 100%
% Change in Output are now:
4 - inch valve stroke
a. Gain = = 1.0
4 - inch level change
100% Change in Input
b. PB = x 100%
100% Change in Output
Example 8-1/TP 8-13 6. Example 8-1
WATER
IN
4 IN.
4 IN. VALVE
0 IN.
WATER
OUT
The gain and proportional band of the

controller are now:
Gain = = 1.0
100% Change in Input
PB = x 100%

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
Figure 8-9/TP 8-14 7. Proportional relationship between valve
4 IN.
OPEN position and float level of example
VALVE GAIN = 1.0
POSITION
2 IN.
PB = 100% proportional control system in Example 8 -1
OPEN
a. As shown in Example 8-1, controller with
0 IN.
OPEN gain of 1 produces 4 -inch change in
0 IN. 2 IN. 4 IN. output for 4 -inch change in input
FLOAT LEVEL (INCHES)
b. Also, controller can be described as

having proportional band of 100%, which
means input must change 100% to cause
100% change in output
c. Gain and proportional band are inversely
related
Equation 8-3/TP 8-15 100%
8. Gain =
100% PB
Gain =
PB 9. Example 8-2 shows same level co ntrol
system, with exception that now fulcrum
point has been changed to provide 100%
stroke of valve for 50% change in float level
Example 8-2/TP 8-16 10. Example 8-2
WATER
IN
4 IN.
4 IN. VALVE
3 IN.
2 IN.
1 IN.
0 IN.
WATER
OUT
The controller gain and the proportional

band are now:
Gain = =2
50% Change in Input
PB = x 100% = 50%

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
Figure 8-10/TP 8-17 11. Figure 8-10 shows proportional relationship
4 IN. between valve position and float level
OPEN
GAIN = 2.0
PB = 50%
a. As shown in figure, controller with gain
VALVE 2 IN.
POSITION OPEN of 2 produces 4 -inch change in output for
0 IN. 2-inch change in input signal
OPEN
1 IN. 2 IN. 3 IN.

b. Also, controller described as having 50%
FLOAT LEVEL (INCHES) proportional band, which means that input
must change only 50% to produce 100%
change in output
12. The fulcrum point can also be shifted in other
direction
a. This results in controller gains less than
1.0 and proportional bands greater than
100%
b. In summary, adjusting gain affects
sensitivity of process reaction, and
adjusting proportional band affects rate at
which process restored to normal
operating conditions
Objective 5.B E. Offset Error
Figure 8-11/TP 8-18 1. The general characteristics graph of output
versus measured variable for proportional
SLOPE BASED
ON GAIN
controller shown in
CONTROLLER
OUTPUT
a. The difference between setpoint and
SETPOINT
measured variable called error
1) This error signal used to maintain
MEASURED VARIABLE
control valve at specific position in
response to change in demand of
system
2) This inherent error means that
measured variable will equal setpoint
at one condition only
b. At all other conditions error, called offset
error, will exist between setpoint and
measured variable

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
c. Since slope of characteristic changes with
change in gain, magnitude of offset error
also changes
1) The larger gain, smaller offset error
2) The smaller gain, larger offset error
2. Offset error disadvantage of proportional
controllers
a. As process rate changes, system never
returns to its prescribed setpoint
b. The error results in offset when system
restored using proportional controller
c. The controller could be manually reset to
match setpoint, but this may be time
consuming
F. Proportional-Plus-Reset Controller
Objective 5.C 1. Proportional-plus-reset controllers
automatically reset measured variable to
setpoint
a. Offset error thus eliminated
b. The controller accomplishes this by
continuing to change output after
proportional action has been made
2. The reset portion of controller performs
mathematical operation of integration
a. Thus, proportional -plus-reset controller
commonly called
proportional-plus-integral controller (PI)
or PI for short
b. The integral portion defined in "repeats
per minute"
c. This in reference to how often integral
gain term calculated
d. Essentially, integral gain term added to
proportional gain term

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
Figure 8-12/TP 8-19 3. Figure 8-12 compares reaction of proportional
control with PI control following system
DEMAND
CONTROL POINT disturbance

PROPORTIONAL
ONLY
(A) SETPOINT OFFSET ERROR
a. The PI control returns process variable to
MEASURED VARIABLE
(B)
PROPORTIONAL PLUS
LONG INTEGRAL TIME
setpoint over given time
(LOW VALUE OF
REPEATS/MINUTE)
b. This, of course, major advantage of PI

(C) PROPORTIONAL PLUS
OPTIMUM INTEGRAL
TIME control
PROPORTIONAL PLUS
(D) SHORT INTEGRAL TIME
(HIGH VALUE OF
c. However, two disadvantages exist:
REPEATS/MINUTE)
1) Wider variation of measured variable

TIME
2) Relatively long time required to return

measured variable to desired setpoint
4. Setting integral time constant to relatively
Figure 8-12/TP 8-19
long integral time (fewer repeats per minute)
Objective 5.c results in waveform (B) which peaks later and
at higher value
a. This result obtained due to addition of
integral action that causes larger change in
controller output for given error signal;
and because controller output larger, more
time passes until peak value reached
b. The advantages and disadvantages of each
controller type must be evaluated for each
particular process application
c. As discussed in this section, integral
action eliminates offset error
1) The disadvantage in this particular
case system time response increases
2) This results from relatively long
period of time that system control
point varies from setpoint
5. A reduction of integral time constant (more
repeats per minute) results in waveform (C),
which characterized by higher peak value, and
this peak occurs even later in time

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
a. Again, offset error eliminated, but now in
less time
b. For most processes that employ
proportional plus integral control mode,
waveform (C) represents optimum
characteristics
c. The increase in peak amplitude and cycle
period small sacrifice to pay for distinct
advantage of offset elimination
6. Setting integral time constant at excessively

low values, as in waveform (D), results in
even larger peak amplitudes and periods of
oscillation
a. Notice that average value of control point
returned to setpoint soon after demand
disturbance, but many processes cannot
tolerate large overshoots above and below
setpoint
Figure 8-12/TP 8-19 7. As shown by waveforms, addition of integral
action to proportional action does not improve
Objective 5.c
stability of process system
a. To contrary, actually makes system less
stable
b. The integral action eventually causes
controller output to be larger for given
error signal than would be obtained by
only proportional action
1) This can be viewed as integral action
causing increase in controller total
gain
2) The increase in total gain desirable
3) It provides larger change in position of
final control element to eliminate
offset error

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
c. Recall though, that increasing gain leads
to process system instability
d. To compensate for resulting instability
due to addition of integral action to
proportional action, proportional constant
of controller reduced to lower gain value,
which higher proportional band value
G. Proportional-Plus-Reset -Plus-Rate Controller
Objective 5.d 1. To overcome disadvantages of PI controller,
rate section may be added
a. The rate section responds to rate of
change of error signal
1) This accomplished by increasing
controller output as error signal rate of
change increases
2) Thus controller anticipates large error
signals
b. The rate portion of controller actually
performs mathematical operation of
differentiation
c. A gain term calculated based on rate of
change of error signal
1) A larger rate of change results in
larger derivative gain term
2) This derivative gain term added to
proportional and integral gain terms
d. For this reason,
proportional-plus-reset -plus-rate
controller commonly named by
mathematical operations performs -
proportional plus integral plus derivative
(PID), or PID for short

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
2. The proportional plus integral control mode
Objective 5.d can be used to control most processes
including those that are by nature difficult to
control
a. The derivative function added to decrease
initial overshoot amplitude and to reduce
period of cycles
Figure 8-13/TP 8-20 3. Figure 8-13 shows closed loop characteristic
waveforms resulting from demand
DEMAND
MEASURED VARIABLE disturbance in process controlled by

proportional plus integral plus derivative
PROPORTIONAL PLUS
(A) INTEGRAL PLUS SHORT
controller
MEASURED VARIABLE
DERIVATIVE TIME
(LOW RATE)
(B)
PROPORTIONAL PLUS
INTEGRAL PLUS
4. Waveform (A) shows that proportional action
OPTIMUM DERIVATIVE
TIME (OPTIMUM RATE) stabilizes process and integral action causes
(C) PROPORTIONAL PLUS
INTEGRAL PLUS LONG
control point to return to setpoint
DERIVATIVE TIME
(HIGH RATE)
a. The derivative action reduces initial
TIME overshoot amplitude and cyclic period,
but due to low derivative time set into
controller, waveform similar to that of
proportional plus integral control
5. Increasing derivative time setting results in
waveform (B), in which overshoot amplitude
and period of time between overshoot peaks
are reduced
a. For most processes that employ three
mode control, waveform (B) represents
optimum characteristics
6. Waveform (C) shows result of excessively
long derivative time
a. Notice that initial overshoot amplitude
low and period of cycles short
b. However, time needed for control point to
return to setpoint longer
c. Recall that increasing derivative time
setting in controller causes reduction in
effective integral action

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
d. The waveforms show that as derivative
time increased, longer time needed for
integral action to return control point to
setpoint
7. The optimum characteristics shown by
waveform (B) represent compromise between
waveform (A) and waveform (C)
a. Too much as well as too little derivative
action can reduce process stability
8. In general, addition of derivative action
results in adjusting controller for higher gain,
which lower proportional band
a. Higher gain desirable to help ensure that
controller sensitive to even smaller error
signals
1) The added stability resulting from
derivative action compensates for
lower stability resulting from higher
gain
b. The addition of derivative action allows
adjusting controller for lower integral
time, which equates to more repeats per
minute
1) This desirable to enable return of
control point to setpoint in shorter
time
c. Again, added stability resulting from
derivative action compensates for lower
stability resulting from increased integral
action
H. Industrial Controllers
1. To accomplish control of process, power
plants use electronic or pneumatic control
stations

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
a. These stations provide analog control of
final control element, whether control
valve, pump or heater
b. Note that two -position controllers can also
be electrical or pneumatic, and are simply
on-off sw itches as previously discussed
Figure 8-14/TP 8-21 2. Figure 8-14 block diagram of controller,
ERROR
showing major functional elements within
INDICATOR
instrument
a. The controller works same whether
MEASURED CONTROL TO FINAL
ERROR TRANSFER OUTPUT
VARIABLE NETWORK CONTROL
SUMMING SWITCH AMP
INPUT (AUTOMATIC) ELEMENT
SETPOINT
GENERATOR
MANUAL
OUTPUT
INDICATOR
employs electronic circuits or pnuematic
CONTROL
(THUMBWHEEL) PUSHBUTTONS
as power source to control process
b. The measured variable and setpoint are
summed at input to controller
1) This block generates error signal
which controller will act upon
c. The setpoint set on front of controller
using thumbwheel
d. The resultant error signal:
1) Displayed on indicator on front of
controller
2) Applied to automatic control network
3. When controller in automatic, this network
conditions input as determined by
characteristics selected for control of
particular process (proportional, integral
and/or derivative)
a. The transfer switch permits operator to
use automatic signal or manual signal to
control operation of final element
b. The auto-manual transfer switch and
manual control pushbuttons are on front
of controller

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
c. The output signal amplified and sent to
operate final control element, and also
displayed on meter on controller front
d. As mentioned, both electronic and
pneumatic controllers use these same
elements to produce signal to control
process
1) Typical output ranges are 4-20 Ma DC
and 1-5 VDC for electronic
controllers, and 3 -15 psig for
pneumatic controllers
Figure 8-15/TP 8-22 4. Figure 8-15 shows face of typical controller
SETPOINT / MEASURED VARIABLE
INDICATOR
a. The major features of electronic or
MEASURED VARIABLE / 60 SETPOINT
pneumatic controller are shown;
ERROR POINTER THUMBWHEEL
depending on manufacturer, controllers

50
will have slightly different configurations

OUTPUT
POINTER
OUTPUT
SIGNAL METER
of pushbuttons, meters and switches
0 50 100
MANUAL MANUAL
PUSHBUTTON
(Decrease Output)
CLOSE OPEN PUSHBUTTON
(Increase Output) b. The setpoint/measured variable indicator
M A
MANUAL
INDICATING
LIGHT
AUTOMATIC
INDICATING
LIGHT
(vertical scale) displays measured
MANUAL AUTOMATIC
variable, value of error signal and setpoint
BUTTON BUTTON
Objective 6
c. The tape scale typically reads out in
percent of full scale, but may be graduated
in process units (inches of level, lbm /hr
of flow, psig, etc)
1) The scale circular and rotates to
display current values
2) The hairline on scale fixed and
indicates current setpoint value

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
d. The error indicating pointer moves to
display value of measured variable and
deviation of measured variable from
setpoint
1) If pointer deflects above hairline, error
above setpoint indicated; if deflects
downward, error below setpoint
indicated
e. When setpoint thumbwheel rotated to
change setpoint, tape scale will move to
display value of setpoint at hairline
f. The horizontal meter output meter
1) It typically fixed meter, reading
controller output in percent of full
scale
2) The pointer moves to indicate
magnitude and direction of output
signal from controller, via either
automatic or manual control
g. Two pushbuttons are shown, which place
controller in either manual or automatic
1) In some controllers, automatic -manual
selection accomplished with one
switch
2) Some controllers have lights to
indicate automatic or manual
operation, as shown in this figure
h. When controller in manual operation,
operator has control of final element
1) This accomplished by manual
pushbuttons (labeled OPEN and
CLOSE)

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
IV. CONTROL VALVES AND CHARACTERISTICS
A. Types Of Control Valves
1. By far most common final control element
control valve
a. The use of control valve so great that
many books have been written about all
valve types available
b. To over-simplify bit, we can say that most
of these valves can be divided into two
major valve types: gate valves and globe
valves
2. Gate valves are used to either allow full flow
or stop flow
a. They are designed to seat well and allow
very little or no leakage
b. This characteristic of their design makes
them useful for purposes of isolating
systems
c. They are either open or closed which
makes them excellent control elements for
use with two -position controllers
d. They are typically not used to control rate
of flow because process flow wears edges
of valve seat resulting in system leakage
when valve fully closed
3. The globe valve or throttle valve finds
multitude of uses in control systems of
industry
a. It provides variable resistance to flow that
dependent upon its position
b. The plug or globe of valve seats to stop
flow
1) It also normally in line of flow
2) It constructed having rounded edges to
reduce wear by fluid stream

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
3) The distance between and seating
surface determines flow allowed
(along with size of driving force of
system)
B. Valve Characteristics
1. Operators should be familiar with these types
of control valves and with flow characteristics
of control valve
a. The flow characteristic of control valve
relationship between flowrate through
valve and percentage of valve travel
b. To compare and discuss flow
characteristics of valve, curve usually
plotted as percentage of travel versus
percentage of flow
Figure 8-16/TP 8-23 c. The three most common flow
100 characteristics are Linear, Quick
Opening, and Equal Percentage
(Figure 8-16)
QUICK
OPENING
2. The linear flow curve shows that flowrate
% FLOW
LINEAR
directly proportional to valve position
a. With this type of flow characteristics,
EQUAL
incremental change in valve position will
PERCENTAGE
cause constant incremental change in
0
0 100
flowrate at any given point in valve travel
% SPAN OF POSITIONER OUTPUT PRESSURE
SIGNAL 3 psig 6 psig 9 psig 12 psig 15 psig

INPUT 4 mA 8 mA 12 mA 16 mA 20 mA
Objective 7.a
Objective 7.b 3. A valve classified as quick-opening
produces large linear change in flowrate at
low valve travels to obtain about 90% of total
flow at only about 60% of total valve travel
a. This feature accounts for its name

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b. Any additional increases in valve travel
give sharply reduced changes in flowrate
until valve approaches wide open and
flowrate change essentially zero
Objective 7.c 4. An equal-percentage flow characteristic
exhibits flowrates that increase exponentially
with valve travel
a. The name derived from fact that for given
percentage increase in valve travel valve
produces equal percentage increase in
flowrate
b. In other words change in flowrate always
proportional to flowrate just before
change in valve plug position made
1) For example, when valve slightly open
and flow through valve small, change
in flowrate obtained by opening valve
given amount small
2) On other hand, when valve allows
large flow, change in flowrate
obtained by opening valve same given
amount large
5. It should be noted that these characteristics
are inherent to valve design; they are
observed with constant pressure drop across
valve
a. For process in which pressure drop may
vary, installed characteristic of valve
may be different
b. The inherent characteristic allows system
designers to select valves that provide
proper stability under expected operating
conditions of process
c. A throttle valve can have any of these
characteristics

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
V. VALVE ACTUATORS
A. The stem of valve normally moved by actuator
mechanism of one type or another
1. As with throttle valves, there are various
types of valve actuators
2. The most common types currently in use are
discussed in following sections
B. Manual Actuators
1. Manual actuators on automatic control valves
are essentially handwheels
a. In almost every case manual actuator
overrides automatic actuator
b. Therefore, unless local operator control
desired, take care to ensure that manual
actuator not unintentionally engaged,
since may restrict normal movement of
valve stem
Objective 8.a C. Pneumatic Control Valve Actuators
1. There are four types of pneumatic actuators
a. They are pnuematic cylinder,
b. pnuematic diaphragm,
c. pnuematic piston actuator, and
d. pnuematic vane actuator
Figure 8-17/TP 8-24 e. In control loops most commonly used of
these types pnuematic diaphragm actuator
DIAPHRAGM PNEUMATIC SUPPLY 2. The principle of diaphragm actuator very
DIAPHRAGM
simple
a. A diaphragm bolted to dished metal head,
PNEUMATIC
forming pressure -tight compartment
SUPPLY
VALVE STEM
b. A control pnuematic signal applied to this
compartment
FAIL OPEN FAIL CLOSED

c. Motion of diaphragm opposed by spring

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d. Attached to diaphragm valve stem, so that
any movement of diaphragm results in
same valve plug movement
3. Direct or indirect acting
a. In a direct-acting actuator, an increase in
the pnuematic pressure applied to the
diaphragm extends the valve stem.
b. In an indirect-acting actuator a increase in
the pnuematic pressure applied to the
diaphragm lifts the valve stem,.
c. The design of some actuators permits
action to be reversed
4. The plug may be attached to stem so that
lifting stem closes or opens valve
a. When a lifting stem opens the valve, the
valve is a normal seated valve;
b. When a lifting stem closes the valve, the
valve is a reverse seated valve.
5. The determination of valve action used
usually based on desired valve fail position
a. In one case, may be desirable to have
valve fail fully open when pnuematic
fails, as in example of cooling process
b. Obviously, on other applications system
would be better served by having valve
fail shut
6. Most pnuematic piston actuators used in
control valve applications are double -acting
a. This means that controlled pnuematic
pressure used on both sides of piston to
cause desired valve stroke

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
Figure 8-18/TP 8-18 b. The pneumatic piston valve works on
PNEUMATIC SIGNAL IN similar principle to that of diaphragm
valve, difference that valve stem
PISTON
connected to piston cylinder apparatus
rather than to flexible diaphragm
PISTON
PNEUMATIC 7. As sensed pressure or controller output signal
CYLINDER SIGNAL
IN varies, differential pressure between and
reference pressure causes piston to stroke
within cylinder
a. This design does not normally allow valve
failure position
VALVE STEM b. A means of achieving this function to
install backup pnuematic volume or
internal spring mechanism to cause valve
to fail in either shut or open position as
preferred
Objective 8B D. Electro-Hydraulic Actuators
Figure 8-19/TP 8-26 1. The electro-hydraulic actuator similar in
design and operation to pneumatic actuator
a. The piston-type hydraulic actuator
RIGID MOUNT
constructed with spring loaded piston in

cylinder
OIL
STEAM SUPPLY
FLUID
PRESSURE
b. The piston rod normally does not connect
COMBINED
SPRING
PRESSURE directly to valve disk, but rather to lever
PISTON B PISTON A
arm
c. The valve disk connected to opposite end
of lever by means of linkage
d. Normally valve disk linkage also spring
loaded
2. As hydraulic pressure supplied to top of
piston A, pushed down against spring
pressure
a. This action causes shifting of lever arm,
lifting valve plug against spring pressure

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
b. If oil pressure should be lost, either
accidentally or as intentional trip,
compressing springs rapidly shut valve
c. The amount of control available
dependent on amount of flexibility of oil
and spring pressures
d. The oil pressure may be controlled by
electric motor driven pump or by electric
solenoid valve
Objective 8.C E. Solenoid Actuators
1. If controller of system two -position or on -off
controller, very often electrical solenoid used
to either actuate control valve (if small) or
actuate pnuematic or hydraulic signal which
actuates control valve
a. In latter instance, solenoid acts as
positioner
Figure 8-20/TP 8-27 2. The solenoid consists of valve body, magnetic
core attached to valve stem and solenoid coil
a. As current flows through solenoid coil
magnetic field produced that develops
upward force on movable magnetic core
b. When magnetic force large enough to
overcome force applied to valve stem by
spring, valve opens
DE-ENERGIZED ENERGIZED
c. When current interrupted spring forces

valve shut
3. Solenoid valves may also be configured with
indirect-acting valve that fails in open
position
F. Electric Proportional Valve Actuators
Objective 8.C
1. Electric operators that provide valve
positioning proportional to electronic control
signal have found limited use in process
industries

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
a. Their major use has been to operate valves
located in remote areas where actuating
pnuematic unavailable
b. The primary disadvantage of electric
valve actuator slow operating speed
c. In addition, they are more expensive than
pneumatic actuators
d. Use of electric valve actuators for
throttling applications minimal because of
these disadvantages
Figure 8-21/TP 8-28 2. When input signal changes, error signal,
CONTROL
SIGNAL ERROR
difference between input signal and reference
ERROR SIGNAL POWER
SIGNAL
SIGNAL
AMP
CONDITIONER AMP
signal, produced (Figure 8 -21)
MOTOR
AC
REGULATED
LINE
SOURCE
TO
VALVE STEM
a. The error signal amplified and converted
VALVE
STEM
DC
REFERENCE
VOLTAGE
DRIVE GEAR
to AC signal by signal conditioner
BALANCING
POTENTIOMETER
b. The signal again amplified to provide

sufficient power to operate servo motor
c. In valve actuator output of power amp
Figure 8-22/TP 8-29
produces phase relationship necessary to
cause rotation of valve actuating motor
REVERSIBLE
AC MOTOR
3. The motor connected to valve stem through
gear train, shown in Figure 8 -22 to increase
force applied to valve stem by electric motor
a. Movement of valve stem positions wiper
MOTOR DRIVEN
PINION GEARS
arm of balancing potentiometer, which
reduces error signal to zero
VALVE STEM
b. When error signal reduced to zero, motor

rotation stops, and valve remains in this
new position until further changes in
control signal occur
4. Unless equipped with external driving force,
motor-driven electrical valve actuators and
their attached valves will fail "as-" on loss of
power

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
Figure 8-23/TP 8-30 5. Manual operation of actuator permitted
PROCESS
PIPING
LOCAL
POSITION
CLUTCH HANDLE TERMINAL BOX
AND
through use of clutch
INDICATOR POSITION
INDICATING
DEVICES
a. The clutch handle placed in manual
CONTROL
position, which decouples electric motor
VALVE
from gear box and allows manual
operation
HANDWHEEL
PROCESS CLUTCH AND GEARBOX ELECTRIC b. The clutch handle should only be
PIPING ASSEMBLY MOTOR
repositioned while motor not operating

G. Valve Positioner
Objective 9 1. The primary function of valve positioner to
maintain control valve plug at position that
directly proportional to its controller output
pressure
a. Additionally, positioner may function to
supply proportionally larger pnuematic
signal in order to move valve (typical
control pnuematic pressure of 8 -15 psig
may not be adequate)
b. To do this stem motion of valve actuator

compared to signal from controller
c. Any deviation from desired position
produces error signal that activates
pneumatic relay
d. Pnuematic pressure to valve actuator then
either increased or decreased to drive
valve stem to desired position
2. A positioner can be used to reverse signal to
valve and to overcome frictional forces within
valve on high pressure drop applications
3. In addition, positioner can be made to alter
inherent characteristics of control valve using
cams

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
Figure 8-24/TP 8-31 a. Figure 8-24 shows effects of different cam
100 100
arrangements on flow characteristic of
80 80
direct acting equal percentage and linear

PERCENT FLOW
PERCENT FLOW
60 60
40 40
valves
20 20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
4. Positioners are usually mounted on side of
PERCENT SPAN OF POSITIONER
OUTPUT PRESSURE
(A) FLOW CHARACTERISTICS OF EQUAL

PERCENT SPAN OF POSITIONER
OUTPUT PRESSURE
(B) FLOW CHARACTERISTICS OF LINEAR

diaphragm actuators and on top of piston and
PERCENTAGE VALVE USING
DIFFERENT CAMS
VALVE USING DIFFERENT CAMS
rotary actuators
Objective 9 a. Several designs are available in which
positioner integral part of actuator
5. Because of large volume of pnuematic
required to operate valve, positioner must
have independent regulated pnuematic supply
6. In many cases valve positioner greatly
improves performance of process control loop
a. The control loop would be more stable
without positioner in other cases
b. A properly sized spring and diaphragm
actuator provides satisfactory process
control in these cases
7. Studies have shown that use of positioners
clearly beneficial in slow processes, and
clearly detrimental in fast processes
a. Applications in which positioners should
be used include temperature control,
liquid level control, and gas flow control
mixing and blending
b. These studies have also shown that use of
positioners required where necessary to
split-range controller output to more than
one valve
8. For example: A temperature control loop
where output of controller from 3 -9 psi
operates valve controlling cooling liquid flow
to process while 9 -15 psi signal span operates
valve controlling steam flow that heats
process

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
9. A positioner also required when controller
output signal pressure of 3 -15 psi insufficient
to actuate control valve
a. In this situation positioner would be used
to amplify controller output to range of
higher pressures to provide increased
actuator thrust
10. Finally, use of positioner should be
considered for systems where necessary to
provide control of process with minimum
overshoot and fastest possible recovery
following disturbance
a. This especially critical for these process
control loops involving long transmission
lines between controller and actuator
VI. CONTROL LOOPS
A. At beginning of this chapter there was brief
description of basic control channel and elements
that comprise
1. In this section various circuits, instruments,
and mechanical devices previously discussed
in this text are combined to provide examples
of process control loops
2. Examples of simple temperature, pressure,
flow, and level control loops are discussed
below
Objective 10 B. Temperature Control Loop
Figure 8-25/TP 8-32 1. A simple temperature control loop illustrated
RTD in Figure 8-25
PROCESS
SUPPLY TT TIC
T a. The function of this system to maintain
TI
temperature of process fluid within
storage tank at some value by controlling
TZ 440 VAC
bank of electric heaters
PROCESS
LOAD
b. Temperature in tank sensed by resistance
temperature detector, RTD

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1) The symbol indicates that sensing
element enclosed by thermowell
c. The temperature transmitter (TT)
performs functions of transducer and
transmitter of basic control loop
d. It converts temperature dependent
resistance value of sensor into electrical
signal proportional to measured
temperature and transmits information to
local temperature indicator (TI) and to
temperature indicating controller (TIC) at
main control panel
2. The temperature indicating controller
compares actual process temperature to
desired temperature setpoint
a. When there no difference between two,
controller would normally be adjusted to
produce mid-range output signal, for
example 12 mA DC for 4-20 mA DC
range
1) The 12 mA DC signal causes heaters
to be supplied with sufficient power to
makeup for ambient heat loss from
process during steady state conditions
b. If temperature were to decrease, resulting
difference between actual process
temperature and desired temperature
would cause controller output signal to
increase from mid-range value
1) The increase in control signal current
would increase signal from power
control circuit (TZ), and thus increase
average power supplied to heaters
c. When temperature restored to setpoint,
power supplied to heaters would be just
sufficient to maintain proper temperature
at new steady state conditions

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
C. Pressure Control Loop
Objective 10
Figure 8-26/TP 8-33 1. The pressure control loop shown in Figure
INSTRUMENT
AIR SUPPLY 8-26 provides example of more complex
control application that requires controller
output to adjust two final control elements to
PIC
PT
maintain measured variable (pressure)
FO
ATMOSPHERIC
VENT a. The function of control system to
NITROGEN
SUPPLY
FC
STORAGE
TANK maintain constant pressure within closed
storage tank by controlling position of
nitrogen supply valve and atmospheric
vent valve
2. Pressure sensed by locally mounted pressure
transmitter (PT)
a. An electric signal proportional to storage
tank pressure sent from transmitter to
pressure indicating controller (PIC)
b. The controller compares actual tank
pressure to pressure setpoint and produces
control signal proportional to difference
between them
c. This signal transmitted to two
electric-to -pnuematic valve positioners,
nitrogen supply valve positioner and
atmospheric vent valve positioner
3. The nitrogen supply valve positioner
calibrated to position nitrogen supply valve in
lower half of output range of controller
a. The atmospheric vent valve positioner
calibrated to position atmospheric vent
valve in upper half of output range of
controller
b. When controller output mid -range, both
positioners keep valves in closed position
c. Both control valves are diaphragm
actuated globe valves

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
4. As result of calibration of valve positioners,
when storage tank pressure decreases below
setpoint, vent valve remains shut and nitrogen
supply valve opens to admit more nitrogen
into tank
a. The addition of nitrogen into tank
increases tank pressure to desired value
b. When tank pressure increases above
setpoint, supply valve shuts, and
atmospheric vent valve opens
c. Opening of vent valve allows nitrogen to
bleed off to atmosphere, which causes
storage tank pressure to decrease back to
setpoint
d. The position of either valve dependent on
magnitude of control signal
e. The further signal varies from mid-range
value, greater movement of valve stem
f. In this control application supply valve
fails shut on loss of signal and vent valve
fails open
5. This feature prevents overpressurization of
tank
Objective 11 D. Flow Control Loop
Figure 8-27/TP 8-34 1. The control loop illustrated in Figure 8 -27
regulates process flow by varying speed of
AUX centrifugal pump
FT FY FIC FZ
FR
AUX
220 VAC a. Flow in process measured by
variable-head flow meter
b. A differential pressure type flow
transmitter (FT) senses head produced
across flow nozzle and transmits signal
proportional to differential pressure to
square root extractor (FY)

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
c. The square root extractor converts
differential pressure information into
linear flow rate signal
d. Then transmits this information to flow
recorder (FR) and flow indicating
controller (FIC) both of which are located
at auxiliary control board
e. The flow indicating controller compares
actual flow in process to desired flow and
produces control signal to power control
circuit (FZ) that proportional to difference
between actual flow and setpoint
2. The power control circuit varies average (220
VAC) power to control pump speed, which
ultimately controls pump discharge pressure
a. As result, flowrate sensed at flow nozzle
can be varied by pump in order to return
process flow rate to setpoint
E. Level Control Loop
Objective 11
Figure 8-28/TP 8-35 1. The function of control loop illustrated in
SUPPLY
Figure 8-28 to control supply of fluid into
M tank in order to maintain tank level at desired
TANK
value
LT
DEMAND
LR a. Tank level measured by differential
LC
pressure type level transmitter
b. The sensing element of transmitter detects
difference between pressure exerted by
column of water within reference leg and
pressure exerted by column of water
within tank
c. Transducing circuits within transmitter
(LT) convert pressure difference to
electrical signal
2. The tank level signal then sent to level
recorder (LR) and level controller (LC)

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
a. The level controller compares actual tank
level to setpoint and produces electric
control signal proportional to difference
between them
b. The final control element in this control
loop motor operated globe valve
3. During alignment control loop adjusted so
that when actual tank level at setpoint, motor
operated control valve opens just enough to
allow supply flow into tank to equal demand
flow from tank
a. An increase in demand causes tank level
to decrease
b. The decrease in level sensed by level
transmitter and transmitted to controller
c. At controller difference signal produced
that results in increase in output from
controller
d. The motor operated globe valve then
opens to restore level to setpoint
4. If transmitter signal failed high, level
controller would "see" large error between
measured variable (level) and setpoint
a. The error signal would result in output
signal to close control valve
b. Demand on system would cause actual
tank level to drop
c. Automatic return of level to setpoint
would not be possible, since failed
transmitter would maintain controller
error signal with valve closed
F. Automatic-Manual Control Transfers
Objective 14 1. When transferring controller from one mode
of control to another, resulting change or
perturbation on system should be minimized

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
a. This accomplished by matching manual
signal to automatic controller signal when
transferring to manual and vice versa
when transferring to automatic
b. The smooth transfer of control from one
mode to another termed "bumpless
transfer"
c. Bumpless transfer prevents large
fluctuations in controlled variable and also
prevents possible damage to final control
element
2. To ensure bumpless transfer when shifting
controller from manual to automatic, manual
output adjustment of controller varied to
match controlled variable to setpoint, as
displayed on controller deviation indicator
a. When process has stabilized, controller
placed in automatic
b. After transfer, observe process response
(on deviation indicator and on output
indicator) to ensure automatic circuitry
controlling properly
3. An operator must pay particular attention to
auto/manual valve controllers placed in
manual mode because valve position will no
longer automatically change in response to
changes in system parameters
4. Most electronic controllers contain
self-balancing or tracking circuitry to ensure
that non-operating mode (manual or
automatic) follows operating mode
a. For example, when controller in
automatic, manual output signal will
follow automatic signal

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
b. Note that ability of controller to "track"
operating signal does not preclude need to
verify (and balance) controller output
signal to existing process conditions
before transferring modes
Objective 6 G. Seal-In Relay
1. Control loops provide analog control of
process system by throttling final control
element (valve, pump, motor, etc) These
loops can also provide logic and interlocking
features, generally actuated by relay contacts
in response to specific initiating events
a. The initiating event may be safeguard
system function, or design function to
protect equipment or system
b. The interlocking feature generally causes
final control element to assume fixed
position to provide safety function (such
as stroking control valve full open or full
closed)
1) Such feature known as seal -in relay
(also called lock-in relay)
c. The purpose of seal -in relay to hold final
control element in specific position, even
after initiating event terminated
1) For example, in control scheme which
opens valve under certain conditions,
seal-in relay will hold valve open after
conditions clear
d. The valve must be manually reset to
return to normal operating position
VII. SPEED CONTROL
Objective 12 & 13 A. Components Of A Speed Governor

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
Figure 8-29/TP 8-36 1. A speed governor performs functions of
SENSING DEVICE OUTPUT SENSING DEVICE OUTPUT PERMANENT MAGNET FIELD
sensing speed and operating throttle to control
GOVERNOR
SPRING
GOVERNOR
SPRING speed
PRESSURE
FROM PUMP
FIXED
ORIFICE a. In some applications, speed sensing
SUPPLY
ROTATION PROPORTIONAL TO ROTATION PROPORTIONAL TO

CONTROL
VALVE element can perform both functions
PRIME MOVER SPEED PRIME MOVER SPEED
b. If additional force required to operate

throttle, servomotor may be used to
couple speed sensing element to throttle
c. A speed governor may utilize mechanical
or electrical speed sensors, or combination
of both
Objective 12 & 13 B. Mechanical Speed Sensing
Figure 8-30/TP 8-37 1. Although variety of methods exist for
mechanically sensing speed, typical method
centrifugal ballhead, as shown in Figure 8-30
a. This speed sensor utilizes fact that force
required to compel rotating mass in
circular path
b. This force proportional to square of
rotational speed
2. A variation of centrifugal ball head that
Figure 8-31/TP 8-38
currently used in governors for internal
NON-ROTATING
combustion engines shown in Figure 8 -31
SPEEDER SPRING
a. The movement of flyweights converted to
FLYWEIGHT axial movement of speeder rod
b. The centrifugal force on flyweights
opposed and balanced by force exerted
from compressed speeder spring
ROTATING
BALLHEAD
c. The speeder rod transmits force to fuel
AXIS OF
NON-ROTATING ROTATION control mechanism through connecting
SPEEDER ROD
linkage

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
Figure 8-32/TP 8-39 3. Simple mechanical governor for engine
a. Assume engine operating under load and
SPRING that opposing forces in governor are
FLYWEIGHT
balanced, so that engine speed constant
b. If load increased, engine speed will
FULCRUM
decrease and resultant reduction will
occur in centrifugal force of flyweights
SERVO
LEVER
c. The spring pressure then becomes greater
FUEL ON
FUEL OFF
force, and acts on fuel control mechanism
FULCRUM
to increase quantity of fuel delivered to
engine
FUEL PIPE
d. The increase in fuel results in increase in

engine speed until balance of forces again
reached
4. When load on engine reduced or removed,
engine speed increases and centrifugal force
on flyweights increases
a. The centrifugal force then becomes
greater than spring pressure and acts on
fuel control linkage to reduce amount of
fuel delivered to cylinders
b. This causes engine speed to decrease until
balance between opposing forces again
reached and engine speed becomes
constant
C. Electronic Governor (EG) Governing System
Objective 13
Figure 8-33/TP 8-40 1. Block diagram of Electric Governor (EG) as
typically used for Emergency Diesel
FUEL
RACKS
HYDRAULIC POTENTIAL CURRENT
ACTUATOR TRANSFORMERS TRANSFORMERS
(PT'S) (CT'S)
Generators
DIESEL GENERATOR
OUTPUT
BREAKER
CENTRIFUGAL LOAD
SPEED SENSING
SENSING
a. During normal operation, speed controls

RESISTOR
BOX
CONTROL BOX
24 VDC
120 VAC
POWER SUPPLY
AND
sense speed and load of diesel generator
and send corresponding electrical signal to
FREQUENCY SENSING
COOLDOWN
SPEED SETTING CONTACT
POTENTIOMETER
actuator

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
b. The actuator, by use of hydraulics,
converts this electrical signal to
mechanical motion necessary to control
fuel racks
2. The actuator, in effect, two governors in one;
electric governor and mechanical governor,
each independently capable of positioning
output shaft
a. During normal operation, electric
governor controls fuel to prime mover
b. The mechanical governor may control
prime mover during starting and also
function as backup governor to prevent
runaway should electric control unit fail
and call for maximum fuel
c. The speed of mechanical governor set
approximately 20 rpm higher than electric
governor; when speed reaches level of
mechanical governor, this section will
assume and maintain control of prime
mover
d. Should electric signal be interrupted or
electric control unit fail and call for
decrease in fuel, prime mover will shut
down
Objective 12 D. Electrical Speed Sensing
1. Electrical speed sensing and control typically
are used in applications for steam driven
turbines
a. A common method uses 60 -toothed wheel
mounted on turbine shaft
b. As shaft rotates, teeth vary magnetic field
of permanent magnet and induce electrical
pulse in stationary pickup coil

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
c. The pickup coil produces sine wave
voltage whose frequency proportional to
speed of rotation
d. The measured speed signal compared to
reference (demand) speed signal and error
signal produced
e. This error used to control throttle
actuating device, increasing or decreasing
speed by varying steam flow to turbine
VIII. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS - CONTROLLERS
AND POSITIONERS
A. The following safety precautions apply to use and
operation of controllers and valve positioners
Objective 14 B. Controllers
1. Prior to transferring controller (electronic or
pneumatic) from automatic to manual or
manual to automatic, ensure controlled
variable balanced to setpoint (at or near zero
error) on deviation indicator
a. This check will prevent large change
("bump") in process system when transfer
accomplished
2. After transferring controller from manual to
automatic, observe controller and system
indications to ensure system stable and
controller maintaining measured variable at
setpoint
3. After transferring controller from automatic to
manual, observe system indications to ensure
manual controller output maintaining system
as desired
4. With controller in manual, system should be
monitored closely, since setpoint and final
control element positioning must be
accomplished manually, and feedback not
available to (automatically) control process

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
5. A controller should not be placed in automatic
with large deviation between measured
variable and setpoint (such as during system
startup)
a. In this instance, some controllers permit
measured variable to exceed setpoint by
large amount, and could exceed system
design or safety limit
6. Controller tuning dials (PB or Gain, Reset and
Rate) should not be adjusted with controller in
automatic
a. Adjustment of tuning constants may result
in large deviations of measured variable,
and may cause loss of control of process
Objective 14 C. Valve Positioners
1. Pnuematic or electric power supplies should
not be isolated from operating positioner
without understanding of failure modes
2. When returning positioner to service, observe
valve and system indications to ensure control
signal properly controlling process
a. Large or rapid valve oscillations should
not occur
3. When restoring pnuematic or electric power
to valve positioner, positioner and valve
response should be understood (should valve
open, close, or remain as is)
IX. SUMMARY
Direct trainees to refer to learning A. Review all objectives ensuring student
objectives in the student text. understanding
Point out where answers may be found in

student text.
B. Evaluation
Ask Summary Questions following to 1. Informal evaluations during class
ensure trainees mastery of objectives.

KEY POINTS, AIDS,
2. Formal evaluations with
a. Quizzes
b. Chapter Tests
c. Final Examination
C. Closing Remarks
Point out how the lessons learned in this
class are applicable to future lessons and
plant applications.

INSTRUCTOR GUIDE: CONTROLLERS AND REV 2

POSITIONERS
SUMMARY QUESTIONS
1. Q. Describe the op eration of a closed -loop system.
A. The closed-loop system directly measures the controlled variable for control. The
error signal developed from the comparison of the controlled variable with the
setpoint is applied to the final control element. The final control element regulates
the manipulated variable which return the controlled variable to the setpoint value.
2. Q. Explain how changes in gain and proportional band affect a proportional control system.
A. Gain is defined as the ratio of process system output change to the input change for
proportional controller. Therefore, by increasing the gain, the change in the
controlled variable required to produce the same change in the final control element
is smaller. Stated differently, as the gain increases, so does the sensitivity. The
disadvantage of increased gain is the time it takes for the system to stabilize. For
higher gains, more time is required for system stabilization.
The effect of proportional band is the opposite since proportional band is the inverse
of gain. Therefore, as the proportional band decreases, the offset decreases and the
stabilization time increases.
3. Q. Explain the advantage and disadvantages of the Proportional -Plus-Reset controller.
A. The advantage of a PI controller is the elimination of offset. The disadvantages are a

larger error signal and a decrease in system stability. This is because integral action,
after a period of time, causes the controller output to be larger for a given error
signal than would be obtained by proportional only action. This can be viewed as
causing an increase in controller total gain. To compensate for the resulting
instability due to the addition of integral action, the proportional constant of the
controller is reduced to a lower gain value.


POSITIONERS
SUMMARY QUESTIONS
4. Q. Prior to transferring a controller from manual to automatic, the __________ and
___________ should be balanced.
A. Measured variable, setpoint
5. Q. State the primary function and applications of the valve positioner.
A. The primary function of a valve positioner is to supply pnuematic pressure to operate

a valve in response to a signal from a controller. Pnuematic pressure is then either
increased or decreased to drive the valve stem to the desired position.
6. Q. Explain the basic operation of the pressure control loop in the figure below. The function
of the control system is to maintain a constant pressure within the storage tank.
A. The tank pressure is sensed by the pressure transmitter which sends an electrical
signal proportional to storage tank pressure to the pressure controller. The pressure
controller compares the pressure signal to setpoint pressure. When no difference
exists, a mid-range signal is developed which maintains both the supply valve and
vent valve in the shut position. As a result of the calibration of the valve positioners,
when tank pressure increases above setpoint, the controller opens the vent valve until
pressure is below the setpoint. Likewise, the supply valve is opened when below the
setpoint.
In this application, on the loss of power the supply valve fails shut and the vent valve
fails open to prevent overpressurization of the storage tank.


POSITIONERS
SUMMARY QUESTIONS
7. Q. Explain the operation of a spring -loaded centrifugal governor when engine load is reduced.
A. When the load on an engine is reduced or removed, the engine speed increases and
the centrifugal force within the governor increases. The centrifugal force then
becomes greater than the spring pressure and acts on the fuel control linkage to
reduce the amount of fuel delivered to the cylinders; this causes the engine to speed to
decrease until a balance between the opposing forces is again reached and engine
speed becomes constant.
8. Q. Why is it necessary for the operator to monitor a control system closely when the
associated controller is placed in manual?
A. With a controller in manual, the operator has full control of the process. Changes in
process conditions (observed on available indications) must be acted upon by
manually changing the controller output, since feedback is not available to the
controller to monitor and adjust the system.
9. Q. What is the measured variable signal compared to in a controller?
A. The measured variable is compared to the setpoint signal.
10. Q. Will adjustment of the setpoint thumbwheel affect the output of a controller with the
controller in manual? Why or why not?
A. No. The setpoint thumbwheel and error summing network only function when the
controller is in automatic.


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BWR GENERIC FUNDAMENTALS

INSTRUCTOR GUIDE: CONTROLLERS AND POSITIONERS REV 2

RESPONSIBILITY SIGNATURE TITLE DATE

Origination _____________________ _____________________ _____________

Review/Concurrence _____________________ _____________________ _____________

Review/Concurrence _____________________ _____________________ _____________

Approval/Objectives _____________________ _____________________ _____________

Approval/Final _____________________ _____________________ _____________

BWR / COMPONENTS / CHAPTER 8 1 of 55 1999 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION

INSTRUCTOR GUIDE: CONTROLLERS AND POSITIONERS REV 2

2. As it applies to control systems, explain the term feedback.

3. Describe the operation of a closed-loop system and an open-loop system.

4. State the purpose of a controller.

5. Describe the theory of operation of the following types of controllers:

6. Describe the operation of a valve controller, including seal-in features.

7. Describe the following characteristics of a flow control valve:

BWR / COMPONENTS / CHAPTER 8 2 of 55 1999 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION

INSTRUCTOR GUIDE: CONTROLLERS AND POSITIONERS REV 2

9. State the function and describe the characteristics of valve positioners.

13. Describe the operation of speed controllers.

BWR / COMPONENTS / CHAPTER 8 3 of 55 1999 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION

INSTRUCTOR GUIDE: CONTROLLERS AND POSITIONERS REV 2

K/A OBJECTIVE CROSS REFERENCE

K1.01 Function and operation of flow 3.5 3.7 4, 8, 11

K1.02 Function and operation of speed 3.5 3.6 12, 13

K1.03 Operation of a valve controller, 3.3 3.4 6

K1.04 Function and operation of pressure and 3.3 3.3 10

K1.05 Function and characteristics of valve 2.8 2.8 9

K1.06 Function and characteristics of 2.5 2.6 12

K1.07 Safety precautions with respect to the 2.8 2.8 14

BWR / COMPONENTS / CHAPTER 8 4 of 55 1999 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION

INSTRUCTOR GUIDE: CONTROLLERS AND POSITIONERS REV 2

K/A OBJECTIVE CROSS REFERENCE

K1.08 Theory of operation of the following 2.2* 2.2* 8

K1.09 Effects on operation of controllers due to 2.0* 2.2* 5

BWR / COMPONENTS / CHAPTER 8 5 of 55 1999 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION

BWR / COMPONENTS / CHAPTER 8 6 of 55 1999 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION

BWR / COMPONENTS / CHAPTER 8 7 of 55 1999 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION

c. The parameter to be controlled, hot oil

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BWR / COMPONENTS / CHAPTER 8 9 of 55 1999 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION

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BWR / COMPONENTS / CHAPTER 8 11 of 55 1999 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION

BWR / COMPONENTS / CHAPTER 8 12 of 55 1999 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION

1) The controller fully opens final control

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BWR / COMPONENTS / CHAPTER 8 14 of 55 1999 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION

b. With proportional control, final control

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BWR / COMPONENTS / CHAPTER 8 16 of 55 1999 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION

The gain and proportional band of the

BWR / COMPONENTS / CHAPTER 8 17 of 55 1999 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION

b. Also, controller can be described as

The controller gain and the proportional

BWR / COMPONENTS / CHAPTER 8 18 of 55 1999 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION

1 IN. 2 IN. 3 IN.

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BWR / COMPONENTS / CHAPTER 8 20 of 55 1999 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION

CONTROL POINT disturbance

b. This, of course, major advantage of PI

Origination ___________ _ ___

Review/Concurrence ___________ _ ___

Review/Concurrence ___________ _ ___

Approval/Objectives ___________ _ ___

Approval/Final ___________ _ ___