Probability and Statistics Unit 1

Unit 1 Probability
Structure:
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.2 Features of Random Experiment
1.3 Definitions
Sample Space
Event
Mutually Exclusive Events
Kolmogorovs axioms of Probability
Exhaustive Event
Independent Event
Mutually and Pair wise independent Event
1.4 Additional theorems of Probability
1.5 Multiplication theorem of Probability for independent events
1.6 Conditional Probability
1.7 Bayes Theorem
1.8 Summary
1.9 Terminal Questions
1.10 Answers

1.1 Introduction
In the present chapter, we deal with some basic notions in the probability
theory which lies at the foundations of the mathematical theory of statistics.
Objectives:
At the end of this unit the student should be able :
To learn the definition of concept of random variables, sample space.
To explain mutually exclusive, equally likely, Exhaustive event.
To explain the concept of conditional probability.

1.2 Features of Random Experiment

a) Each experiment is capable of being repeated indefinitely under
essentially unchanged conditions.

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b) Although we are in general not able to state what a particular outcome

will be, we are able to describe the set of all possible outcomes of the
experiment.
c) As the experiment is performed repeatedly, the individual outcomes
seem to occur in a haphazard manner. However, as the experiment is
repeated a larger number of times, a definite pattern or regularity
appears.
Example:
1. Toss a die and observe the number that shows on top.
2. Toss a coin four times and observe the total number of heads obtained.
3. A missile is launched. At a specified time t, its three velocity
components, Vx, Vy and Vz are observed.
It should be noted that all the experiment described above satisfy the above
mentioned characteristics.

1.3 Definition
1.3.1 Sample Space: With each experiment E of the type we are
considering we define the sample space as the set of all possible outcomes
of E. We usually designate this set by S.
Example:
1. Toss a die and observe the number that shows on top.
The sample space corresponding to the above experiment is
S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
2. Toss a coin four times and observe the total number of heads obtained.
The sample space S = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}
3. Items are manufactured until 10 non-defective items are produced. The
total number of manufactured items is counted. The sample space
S = {10, 11, 12, 13}
4. From an urn containing only black balls, a ball is chosen and its color is
noted. Therefore sample space S = {black ball}.
5. A lot of 10 items contains 3 defectives. One item is chosen after another
(without replacing the chosen item) until the last defective item is
obtained. The total number of items removed from the lot is counted.
The sample space S = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}

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1.3.2 Event: An event A with respect to a particular sample space S

associated with an experiment E is a subset of the sample space S.
Note: A set of all possible outcomes i.e. S itself is an event and an empty
set is also considered as an event. Any individual outcome may also be
viewed as an event.
Example:
1. A die is tossed once. Let B be an event such that B = {even number
occurs on the top}. Therefore the number of favourable outcomes to an
event A is 3 i.e, B = {2, 4, 6}.
2. A coin is tossed 4 times. Let B be an event such that
B = {More heads than tails showed}

The number of possible outcomes to an event B is 5 i.e.

B = {HHHH, HHHT, HHTH, HTHH, THHH}

Note :

i) If A and B are events, A B is the event which occurs if and only if A

or B (or both) occur.
ii) If A and B are events, A B is the event which occurs if and only if A
and B occur.
iii) If A is an event, A is the event which occurs if and only if A does not
occur.
iv) If A1 . An is any finite collection of events, then
n
(a) A i is the event which occurs if and only if all the events Ai
i1
occur.
n
(b) A i is the event which occurs if and only if at least one of the
i 1
events A i occur.

1.3.3 Mutually Exclusive Events: Two events, A and B are said to be

mutually exclusive if they cannot occur together. We express this by writing
A B = ; that is, the intersection of A and B is the empty set.

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1.3.4 Kolmogorovs Axioms of Probability: Let E be an experiment. Let S

be a sample space associated with E. With each event A we associate a
real number, designated by P(A) and called the probability of A satisfying
the following properties.
(1) 0 P(A) 1
(2) P(S) = 1
(3) If A and B are mutually exclusive events, P (A U B) = P(A) + P (B)
(4) If A1, A2, ., An . are pair wise mutually exclusive events, then

P Ai
P(A 1 ) P(A 2 ) ..... P(A n ) ..
i 1

Theorem: If is the empty set, then P () = 0

Proof : We may write, for any event A, A = AU.

Since A and are mutually exclusive it follows from property (3) of definition
of Kolmogorovs Axioms of probability that
P (A ) = P (A) + P()
P(A) = P(A) + P()
P() = 0.
From this, the conclusion of the theorem is immediate.

Theorem : If A is the complementary event of A, then P(A) = 1 P( A )

Proof : We may write S = A A
A B
P (S) = P(A A )

1= P(A) + P( A ) A A = & P(S) = 1

Theorem: If A and B are any two events, then
A B AB A B
P(A B) = P(A) + P(B) P(A B)
Proof:
A B = A (B A )

Hence P(A B) = P(A) + P(B A ) (1)

A (B A ) =

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But B = (A B) (B A )

and P(B) = P (A B) + P (B A )
(A B) (B A ) = (2)
(1) (2) gives
P(A B) P(B) = P(A) P(A B)

P(A B) = P(A) + P(B) P(A B )

and hence the result follows.
Note:
1) If A, B and C are any three events, then P(A B C) = P(A) + P(B) +
P(C) P(A B) P(B C) P(A C) + P (A B C)
2) If A B, then P(A) P(B)

Verification:
B = A ( A B) B

P(B) = P(A) + P( A B) A

( A B) A =

P(B) P(A) P( A B) =

Definition :

If S is a sample space containing all possible outcomes then probability of

an event of interest E can also be defined as follows:

P(E) = Number of outcomes favourable to an event E

Total number of possible outcomes

1.3.5 Exhaustive Events: All possible outcomes of an experiment are

called exhaustive events.
For example, While rolling a die, the possible outcomes are 1,2,3,4,5 and 6
and hence the exhaustive numbers of cases is 6. In case of tossing of two
coins, the possible number of outcomes are 4 (i.e. 2 2 ) that is, HT, TH, TT,

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HH. In case of two dice the exhaustive number of cases is 36

(ie 6 2 ). In general in throwing of n dice the exhaustive number of cases is
6n .
1.3.6 Independent Events: Two or more events are independent if the
occurrence of one does not affect the occurrence of the other.
For example, if a coin is thrown twice, the result of the second throw is no
way affected by the result of the first throw. Thus the events are
independent events.
1.3.7 Mutually and Pair wise independent Events:
Mutually Independent events: Two events A and B are independent if and
only if P ( A B ) P ( A) P ( B ). This definition extends to the notation of
independence of a finite number of events.
For example, for four events A ,B ,C ,D to be mutually independent, we must
have P ( A B C D) P ( A) P ( B ) P (C ) P ( D).
Pair wise Independent events: The events A1 , A2 ,..., Ak are pair wise
independent if every possible pair of these events are independent. That is
P( A j Ak ) P( A j ) P( Ak ) for all j ,k ( j k ). It should be noted that pair
wise independence is not sufficient to guarantee that
P( A1 A2 ... An ) P( A1 ) P( A2 )....P( An ) .

Example: Find the probability that out of n ( 365) persons chosen at

random in a city there are no two persons having the same birthday in a
non-leap year.
Solution: There are n persons and 365 different days. Therefore, there are
365n ways in which n persons can have their birthdays. In order that these
persons have distinct birthdays, the first person can have any of the 365
days as his birthday, the second person can have any of the remaining 364
days as his birthday, and so on. Thus, the number of ways the n persons
can have distinct birthdays is 365.364. . 365 (n 1). Hence the
required probability is
365.364. ...... (365 n 1)
P
(365 )n

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1 2 n 1
1 1 ......... 1
365 365 365

Note: If n = 10, for example, we get P = 0.883

Example : Find the probability that a leap year selected at random will
contain 53 Sundays.
Solution: We note that a leap year consists of 52 complete weeks (which
contain 52 Sundays) and 2 additional days. The possible additional days are
S = {(Monday, Tuesday) (Tuesday, Wednesday), (Wednesday, Thursday)
(Thursday, Friday) (Friday, Saturday) (Saturday, Sunday), (Sunday,
Monday)}
Of these 7 possibilities, only the last two possibilities are favourable. Hence
the probability that a leap year has 53 Sundays is 2 .
7
Example : Find the probability that the birthday of 12 persons will fall in 12
different calendar months.
Solution: There are 12 persons and 12 calendar months. Since the
birthdays of any one of the 12 persons can fall in any one of the 12 months,
there are 1212 possible cases for analysis. To get the favourable cases, we
note that the first person may have his birthday in any one of the 12 months,
the second person in any one of the remaining 11 months, the third person
in any one of the remaining 10 months, and so on. Hence, the number of
favourable cases is 12 x 11 x 1 = 12 !

Therefore, the required probability is P (12)! 11.10.9 ...1 54

1212 12.12 ....12 10,000

Example : A book shelf containing 20 books of which 12 are on circuit

theory and 8 are on mathematics. If three books are taken out at random,
find the probability that all the three are on the same subject.

Solution: Out of 20 books, three can be taken out (drawn) in 20 C ways

3
(which is the total number of possible outcomes).

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Out of 12 circuit theory books, three can be drawn in 12 C ways. Therefore,

3

12 C 11
the probability of drawing three theory books is P1
3
20 C 57
3

Out of eight mathematics books, three can be drawn in 8 C ways. Therefore,

3
the probability of drawing three mathematics books is
8C 14
3
P2
20 C 285
3
Hence, the probability of drawing three books on the same subject is
11 14 69
P1 P2 24%
57 285 289

Example : An urn contains 5 red and 8 white balls. If seven of them are
drawn at random, what is the probability that the drawn lot contains 2 red
and 5 white balls

Solution:

The number of ways in which 7 balls can be drawn out of the given 13
is 13 C. The number of ways of drawing 2 red balls is 5 C and corresponding
7 2
to each of these 5 C ways of drawing a red ball, there are 8C ways of
2 5
drawing 5 white balls. Therefore, the total number of ways in which 2 red
and 5 white balls can be drawn is 5 C 8 C .
2 5

5C 8C 140
2 5
Accordingly, the required probability = 33%
13 C 429
7

Example: Suppose 2 items are chosen at random from a lot containing 12

items, of which 4 are defective. If A is the choice in which both items are
defective and B is the choice in which both items are non-defective, find
P(A) and P (B). What is the probability that at least one of these item
chosen is defective ?

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Solution:
The number of possible outcome is 12 C = 66. The number of outcomes in
2
which both items are defective in 4 C = 6. The number of outcomes in which
2
both items are non-defectives is 8 C = 28. Therefore
2

4C 8C
6 1 28 14
P( A ) 2
and P(B) 2

12 C 66 11 12 C 66 33
2 2

We note that the event (in which at least 1 item is defective in the
complement of B.
P(C) 1 P(B)

14 19
1
33 33

SAQ 1: If P ( A) 0.35 , P ( B ) 0.73 , P ( A B ) 0.14 , find P ( A B )

SAQ 2: When two dice are tossed, what is the probability of getting four as
the sum of the face numbers?

1.4 Additional theorems of Probability

Theorem 1: If A and B are two events such that A B then P ( A) P ( B ) .

Proof: Since A B, B A ( B A ) , A and ( B A )are disjoint events.

P( B) P( A) P( B A )

Hence, P(B) P( A ) ( P(B A ) 0)

Theorem 2: For any two events A and B, show that

P( A B) P( B) P( A B)

Proof: We know that A B and A B are disjoint events.

Therefore B ( A B ) ( A B )

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Take probability on both sides, we get

P( B) P( A B) P( A B)
ie., P( A B) P( B) P( A B)

Theorem 3: If P ( A) P ( B ) P ( AB), prove that P ( AB ) P ( A B ) 0

Proof: We may write AB A B A B & A B B A B A and are

mutually exclusive events and also that
P( A B) P( A) P( A B)
P( B A) P( B) P( A B)

Hence, it follows that

P( A B A B) P( A B) P( B A) P( A) P( B) 2 P( A B) 0
Since it is given that P ( A) P ( B ) P ( A B )

Theorem 4: For any two events A and B, prove that

P( A B) P( A) P( A B) P( A) P( B) .

Proof: Since A B A, P ( A B ) P ( A) ..(1)

A A B, P( A) P( A B)
and .(2)

We have
P(A B ) P ( A) P ( B ) P ( A B ) P ( A) P ( B ) ( P ( A B ) 0) .(3)
From (1), (2) and (3) we have
P(A B ) P ( A) P ( A B ) P ( A) P ( B ) .

1.5 Multiplication theorem of Probability for independent events

Theorem 1: If A and B are independent events, prove that A and B are
independent

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Proof: Since A and B are independent, we have

P( A B) P( A).P( B) (1)

B ( A B) ( A B)

Now A B and A B are disjoint.

P( B) P( A B) P( A B)

P( A B) P( B) P( A B)
P( B) P( A) P( B) by1
P( B)[1 P( A)]

P( B)[ P( A )]

P( A ) P( B)

Hence A and B are independent.

Theorem 2: If A and B are independent events, prove that A and B are

independent

Proof: Since A and B are independent, we have

P( A B) P( A).P( B) (1)

A ( A B) ( A B )

Now A B and A B are disjoint.

P( A) P( A B) P( A B )

P( A B ) P( A) P( A B)
P( A) P( A) P( B) by 1
P( A)[1 P( B)]

P( A)[ P( B )]

Hence A and B are independent.

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Theorem 3: If A and B are independent events, prove that A and B are

independent
Proof: Since A and B are independent, we have P( A B) P( A).P( B)

We know that A B AB

P( A B ) P( A B)
1 P( A B)
1 [ P( A) P( B) P( A B)]
1 P( A) P( B) P( A B)
1 P( A) P( B) P( A) P( B) (Since A and B are
independent)
1 P( A) P( B)[1 P( A)]
[1 P( A)][1 P( B)]

Ie., P( A B ) P( A ) P( B )

Hence A and B are independent.

1 1
SAQ 3: If A and B are independent and P ( A) , P( B) , find P( A B) .
3 4
SAQ 4: A coin is tossed thrice. What is the chance of getting all heads?

1.6 Conditional Probability

Let B be an event in a finite outcome set S with P (B) > 0. Thus the
probability that an event A occurs when B has already occurred, is called
the probability of A relative to B or the conditional probability of A, given that
an event B has occurred and denoted by P (A/B), is defined by

P( A B)
P (A/B) = (1)
P(B)

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Also, P(B/A) is defined by

P (B/A) = P( A B) (2)
P( A )
Properties:
1) 0 P(B/A) 1
2) P (S/A) = 1
3) P (B1 B2 / A) = P(B1/A) + P(B2/A) if B1 B2 =
4) P (B1 B2 . / A) = P(B1/A) + P (B2/A) + . if Bi Bj = for i j

Note:
The most important consequences of the definition of conditional probability
is obtained by writing it in the following form.
P(A B) = P(B/A) P (A)
or equivalently
P (A B) = P(A/B) P(B)

This is sometimes known as the multiplication theorem of probability. We

may apply this theorem to compute the probability of the simultaneous
occurrence of two events A and B.

Note:
The above multiplication theorem may be generalized to more than two
events in the following way:
P(A1 A2 An) = P(A1) P(A2/A1) P(A3/A1 A2) P(An /A1 . An1)

Definition:
We say that the events B1, B2, Bk represent a partition of the sample
space S if
a) Bi Bj = for all i j
k
b) B S
i
i 1
c) P (Bi) > 0 for all i.

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Note : For any two events A and B, we can write

B = (A B) ( A B) (A B) ( A B) = we have P(B) = P (A B) +

P ( A B)
Applying multiplication theorem, we see that P(B) = P(B/A) P(A) + P(B/ A )
P( A )
Similarly, we can write P (A) = P(A/B) P(B) + P(A/ B ) P( B )
Example : Consider a lot of 20 defective and 80 non defective items from
which we choose 2 items without replacement.
Let A = { the first chosen item is defective}
B = {the second chosen item is defective}
Now we can compute P(B) as follows
P(B) = P (B/A) P (A) + P (B/ A ) P ( A )
19 . 20 20 80 1

99 100 99 100 5

Mutually Independent events

Two events A and B are said to be mutually independent if the probability of
A is equal to the probability of A relative to B i.e. P(A) = P (A /B) and vice-
versa. i.e. conditional probabilities are equal to unconditional probabilities.
For such events, the result
P(A B) = P(A) P(B)

Note: If A and B are independent events then A and B are also

independent i.e. P ( A B ) = P( A ) P( B )

Example: A student A can solve 75% of the problems given in this book and
a student B can solve 70%. What is the probability that A or B can solve a
problem chosen at random.

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Solution: The student A can solve 75% of problems so that the probability
75 1
of his not solving a problem is P( A ) 1 .
100 4

Similarly, the probability of B not solving a problem is P( B) 1 70 3 .
100 10
As the events A and B are mutually independent, the probability of both

students not solving a problem is P( A B) P( A ) P(B) 3 by multiplication
40
theorem.
3 37
Therefore, the probability that A or B solves a problem is = 1
40 40
Example:
A problem is given to 3 students A, B, C whose chances of solving it are
1 , 1 , 1 respectively. Find the probability that the problem is solved.
2 4 5
Solution:
1 1
The probability that A fails to solve the problem is P( A ) 1
2 2
Similarly, the probabilities that B and C fail to solve the problem are,
respectively, P(B 1 3 1 4
) 1 ; P(C) 1
4 4 5 5

Since the events are independent, the probability that all the three students
fail to solve the problem is
1 3 4 3
P( A ) P(B) P(C) . .
2 4 5 10
7 3
Therefore the probability that the problem is solved 1
10 10
Example : A box A contains 2 white and 4 black balls. Another box B
contains 5 white and 7 black balls. A ball is transferred from the box A to the
box B. Then a ball is drawn from the box B. Find the probability that it is
white.
Solution:
The probability of drawing a white ball from box B will depend on whether
the transferred ball is black or white.

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Suppose the transferred ball is black, the probability of which is 4 . In this

6
case, there would be 5 white and 8 black balls in Box B. Then the probability

of drawing a white ball from box B is 5 . Thus, the probability of drawing a

13
4
5 10
white ball from box B if the transferred ball is black is P1 .
6 13 39
Similarly, the probability of drawing a white ball from box B if the transferred
ball is white is
2 6 2
P2
6 13 13
Since the two events corresponding to P1 and P2 are exclusive, the required
probability is P P P 10 2 16 .
1 2 39 13 39

SAQ 5: If P ( A) 0.9, P ( B / A) 0.8, find P ( A B )

1 3 11
SAQ 6: If P( A ) ,P(B) , find P( A B) , find P( A / B) and P(B / A )
3 4 12

1.7 Bayes Theorem

Let S be a finite outcome set (sample space) and A1, A2,An be events
such that (i) every two of these events are mutually exclusive and (ii) the
union of all these events is equal to S. Also, let B be any event.
Then for any i = 1,2, n,
P(B/A i )P(A i )
P (Ai /B) =
n
P(B/A j )P(A j )
j1
Example: In a certain college, 4% of men students and 1% of women
students are taller than 1.8m. Furthermore, 60% of the students are women.
If a student is selected at random and is found taller than 1.8m, what is the
probability that the student is a woman ?

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Solution: Let,
W = {Choosing a female student from among all students}; A = {choosing a
student who is taller than 1.8m}.
M = {Choosing a male student from among all students}.
P(A/W) = Probability of choosing a student who is taller than 1.8m, from
among the female students.
P (A/M) = Probability of choosing a student who is taller than 1.8m, from
among the male students. Then, from what is given, we have

P(W) = 60% = 0.6 P(M) = 40% = 0.4

P(A/M) = 4% = 0.04 P (A/W) = 1% = 0.01

We are required to find P(W/A), the probability, that the student selected is a
woman and is taller than 1.8m. By Bayes theorem, we get
P( W ) P( A / W )
P( W / A )
P( W ) P( A / W ) P(M) P( A / M)

(0.6) (0.01) 3
0.2727
(0.6) (0.01) (0.4) (0.04 ) 11
Example: A box contains 500 IC chips of which 100 are manufactured by
Company X and the rest by company Y. It is estimated that 10% of the chips
made by company X and 5% made by company Y are defective. If a
randomly selected chip is found to be defective, find the probability that it
came from company X.

Solution:
Let P(X) and P(Y) be the probabilities of choosing a chip produced by X and
Y respectively. Also, let P(d/X) and P(d/Y) be the probabilities of choosing a
defective item from the output of X and Y respectively. Then, from what is
given, we have
100 400 10 5
P( X) P( Y ) P(d / X) P(d / Y )
500 500 100 100

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We are required to find P(X/d), the probability that the chip selected is
produced by X given that it is defective. By Bayes theorem we find
1
P( d / X) P( X) 50 1
P( X / d)
P( X) P( d / X) P( Y ) P( d / Y ) 1 4 3
50 100

Example: Three machines A, B and C produce respectively 60%, 30% and

10% of the total number of items of a factory. The percentage of defective
output of these machines are respectively 2%, 3% and 4%. An item is
selected at random and is found to be defective. Find the probability that the
item was produced by machine C.

Solution: Let P(A), P(B) and P(C) denote the probabilities of choosing an
item produced by A, B, C respectively. Also, let P(X/A), P(X/B), P(X/C)
denote the probabilities of choosing a defective item from the outputs of A,
B, C respectively. Then, from what is given, we have
60 30 10
P( A ) 0.60 P(B) 0.30 P(C) 0.10
100 100 100
2 3 4
P( X / A ) 0.02 P( X / B) 0.03 P( X / C) 0.04
100 100 100
We are required to find P(C/X), the probability that the item selected is
produced by machine C given that the item is defective. By Bayes theorem,
we find that
P( X / C) P(C)
P(C / X)
P( A ) P( X / A ) P(B) P( X / B) P(C) P( X / C)

(0.04 ) (0.10 )

(0.60 ) (0.02) (0.30 ) (0.03 ) (0.10 ) (0.04 )

0.16
SAQ 7: There are 3 true coins and 1 false coin with head on both sides .A
coin is chosen at random and tossed 4 times. If Head occurs all the 4
times. If head occurs at all the 4 times, what is the probability that the false
coin has chosen and used?

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1.8 Summary
In this unit, we studied the concept of sample space, different types of
events, Probability, conditional probability and theorems based on it. Also
plenty of examples are solved in the unit for easy understanding of the
concept.

1.9 Terminal Questions

1. Let 5 men out of 100 and 25 women out of 1000 are colour blind. A
colour blind person is chosen at random. What is the probability of his
being male.(Assume that males and females are in equal proportion)
2. The contents of urns I,II and III are follows:
1white, 2red and 3 black balls
1white, 3 red and 1 black balls and
3 white, 1 red and 2 black balls. One urn is chosen at random and 2
balls are drawn. They happen to be white and red. What is the
probability that they came from urns I, II or III.
3. An author has 4 typists typing the manuscript of his latest book. Typist
A does 30% of typing; Typist B 25%; Typist C 20% and Typist D 25%.
Errors occur on 5% of the pages typed by A; on 4% typed by B; on 3%
typed by C; and on 2% typed by D. A page is chosen at random and
found to contain errors. What is the probability that it was typed by
Typist A ?
4. A bag contains 3 coins, one of which is coined with two heads while the
other two coins are normal and not biased. A coin is chosen at random
from the bag and tossed four times in succession. If heads turn up
each time, what is the probability that this is the two - headed coin?
5. Suppose that we have two urns, 1 and 2, each with two drawers. Urn 1
has a gold coin in one drawer and a silver coin in the other drawer
which urn 2 has a gold coin is each drawer. One urn is chosen at
random; then a drawer is chosen at random from the chosen urn. The
coin found in this drawer turns out to be gold. What is the probability
that the coin came from urn 2 ?
6. Find the probability that a non-leap year contains 53 Saturdays?

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Probability and Statistics Unit 1

7. Three bolts and three nuts are put in a box. If two items are chosen at
random, find the probability that one is a bolt and one a nut,
8. A box contains 20 fuses of which 5 are defective. If 2 fuses are chosen
together at random, what is the probability that both the fuses are
defective.
9. A class consists of 6 girls and 10 boys. If a committee of 3 is chosen at
random from the class, find the probability that
i) 3 boys are selected
ii) Exactly 2 boys are selected
iii) Atleast one boy is selected
iv) Exactly 2 girls are selected
10. A husband and wife appear for 2 vacancies of a post. The probability of
husbands selection is 1 and that of wifes selection is 1 . What is
7 5
the probability that
i) Both of these will be selected ?
ii) Only one of these selected ?
iii) Neither is selected?

1.10 Answers
Self Assessment Questions
1. 0.86
1
2.
12
1
3.
12
1
4.
8
5. 0.72
2 1
6. ,
9 2
16
7.
19

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Probability and Statistics Unit 1

Terminal Questions
2
1.
3
2
2.
11
5
3.
12
8
4.
9
2
5.
3
1
6.
7
3
7.
5
1
8.
19
3 27 27 15
9. , , ,
14 56 28 56
1 2 24
10. , ,
35 7 35

Sikkim Manipal University Page No.: 21