INDEX

S. No.

Topic

Pg. No.

1.

History

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Economy and Business

69

Geography

176

Int. and National Organization & Govt. Schemes

264

Books, Authors and Culture

326

Miscellaneous

348

Indian Polity

215

Science and Technology

286

Sports

338

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Ancient and Medival History

A.

PREHISTORIC PERIOD

I.

Palaeolithic Period or Old Stone Age

The earliest traces of human existence in India so far discovered, go back to the second interglacial period
between 4,00,000 and 2,00,000 BC. This is suggested by a large number of primitive stone tools found in
the Soan Valley (now in Pakistan) and in south India, chiefly in and around Chennai. In the Indian Subcontinent primitive humans in the Old Stone (Palaeolithic) Age, which lasted till 8,000 BC, used tools and
implements of stone roughly dressed by chipping, found throughout the country, except the alluvial plains
of the Indus, Ganga and Jamuna rivers. Flint was commonly used as it is hard but flakes easily. Tools
serve a variety of purposes, such as skinning of dead animals, cutting their flesh and splitting bones etc.
Humans during this period were essentially food gatherers. They were almost totally dependent on nature
for their food supply requirement of game animals and edible plants. In course of time they learnt to
control fire which helped improve the pattern of living in many ways. They used the skins of animals,
barks of trees and large leaves as clothes. Humans organised themselves in small wandering groups
consisting of a few men, women and children.

II.

Mesolithic Age or the Late Stone Age

From 8,000 BC (the end of the Ice Age) began an intermediate stage in the stone culture, called the
Mesolithic Age. It is also referred to as the Late Stone Age. In India, it continued well up to about 4,000
BC.
The characteristic tool of this transitional phase are the microliths, for instance the pointed or crescentic
blade. Some of these were used for killing fast moving animals. Some were stuck on handles of wood or
bone to make tools such as saws and sickles.

III.

Neolithic or the New Stone Age

This was the food producing stage when humans completely changed their way of life. Neolithic
settlements in the Indian subcontinent are not older than 4,000 BC even though in the world context they
began much earlier, in 7,000 BC. Traces of Neolithic communities have survived mostly in the northwestern region e.g. the Sulaiman and Kirtar hills, in the Vindhyas in Deccan and the Garo hills in the
north-east. Neolithic settlements in Baluchistan seem to be the oldest.
In the new way of life, humans began to domesticate animals and cultivate plants. The dog, goat and
sheep were probably the first to be domesticated. Among plants, wheat and barley, were the earliest
cereals grown. As a result, man began to settle down in certain selected areas. This led to the growth of
villages and farming communities.
The tools that they needed also changed: a heavy digging-stick used for digging the ground; a sickle
used for harvesting; an axe, used for cutting and felling trees; a quern and mortar for grinding grain, and
various types of pottery to store surplus grain and to hold liquids.

2
B.

HARAPPAN CIVILISATION (2700-1700 BC)

In 1921 -22, archaeology revealed the existence of a vast civilisation in the north-west of India, with its
two urban centres at Harappa and Mohenjodaro. The men behind the excavations were John Marshal,
Director-General of Archaeological Survey of India, and his colleague R D Bannerji.

I.

Origin and Evolution

Named after Harappa, the first site where the unique urban culture was discovered, the civilization is
dated between 2600 and 1900 BC. There were earlier and later cultures, often called Early Harappan and
Late Harappa in the same area. The Harappan phase characterised by distinctive objects such as seals,
beads, weights, stone blades and baked bricks is called the Mature Harappan culture to distinguish it from
these cultures.

II.

Important Centres
Harappa Harappa, located on the bank of river Ravi, was the first site to be excavated. It ranks as the
premier city of the civilization. What is intriguing is the fact that there are no cluster of settlement sites
around Harappa. In Harappa, a substantial section of the population was engaged in activities other than
food productionlike administration, trade, craft work or religion. The isolation of Harappa can be
explained by the fact that it was located in the midst of some important trade routes which are still in use.
These routes connected Harappa with Central Asia, Afghanistan and Jammu. Harappa's pre-eminent
position was therefore linked to its ability to procure exotic items from faraway lands.

a.

Mohenjodaro Mohenjodaro, located on the bank of river Indus, was the largest Harappan city,
i.e. it had a population of about 35,000an interesting development in those days. Excavations show that
people lived here for a very long time and went on building and rebuilding houses at the same location. As
a result the height of the remains of the building and debris is about 75 ft.

b.

Kalibagan Kalibangan, located on the dried-up bed of the river Ghaggar, was excavated in 1960
under the guidance of BK Thapar. This area had the largest concentration of Harappan settlement. It has
yielded evidence of early Harappan period.

c.

Lothal In Gujarat, settlements such as Rangapur, Surkotada and Lothal have been discovered.
Lothal located in the coastal flats of the Gulf of Cambay stood beside a tributary of Sabarmati. It
was an important centre for making objects out of stone, shells, and metal. This place seems to have
been an outpost for sea-trade with contemporary west Asian societies particularly Oman. Its excavator
S R Rao discovered a dockyard and a Persian gulf seal here.

d.

Dholavira city located on Khadir Beyt in the Runn of Kutch, was divided, unlike other cities, into three
parts and each part was surrounded with massive stone walls, with entrances through gateways. There
was also a large open area in the settlement where public ceremonies could be held. Another important
find is a sort of a public inscription comprising ten large sized signs of the Harappan scripts besides
water reservoirs.

3
III.

Major Characteristics

a.

Town Planning
The most remarkable feature of the Harappan civilization was its urbanisation. The Harappan settlements,
which were small towns, show a remarkable unity of conception and an advanced sense of planning and
organisation. Each city was divided into a citadel area where the essential institutions of civil and religious
life were located and the lower residential area where the urban population lived.
In the citadel area, the Great Bath at Mohenjodaro is the most striking structure. It is assumed
that it was meant for some elaborate ritual of vital importance for the people. To the west of the Great
Bath there are the remains of a large granary. At Harappa a remarkable number of granaries has also
beenfound ranged in two rows of six, with a central passage.

b.

Agriculture
The Harappans cultivated wheat and barley, \peas and dates and also sesame and mustard which were
used for oil. However, the people in Lothal cultivated rice as early as 1,800 BC. The Harappans grew
cotton. Irrigation depended on the irregular flooding of the rivers of Punjab and Sind. Canal irrigation was
not practised.

c.

Stock Breeding
No less important than agriculture was stock breeding. Besides sheep and goats, humped cattle, buffalo,
pig and elephant were domesticated. The camel was rare and the horse was probably not known to the
Harappans.

d.

Trade and Its Network

There was extensive inland and foreign trade. It has also been reasonably established that this trade
might have been overland as well as maritime. It is proved by the occurrence of small terracotta boats,
and above all, by the vast brick built dock at Lothal. As there is a no evidence of coins, barter must have
been the normal method of exchange of goods. But the system of weights and measures was excellent.

e.

Crafts
The various occupations in which the people were engaged spanned a wide rangeSpinning and weaving
of cotton and wool, pottery-making, bead-making (beads were made of gold, silver, copper, faience,
steatite, semi-precious stones, shell and ivory), and sealmaking (square or oblong of ivory, faience or
steatite).

f.

Science
The Harappans knew mining metal-working and the art of constructing well-planned buildings, some of
which were higher than two stories. They were also adept at manufacturing gypsum cement which was
used to join stones and even metals. They knew how to make long-lasting paints and dyes. Mohenjodaro
had a public bath worked by an ingenious hydraulic system.

4
IV.

Decline
Around 1,800 BC, the major cities in the core region decayed and were finally abandoned. Why? The
settlements in the outlying regions slowly de-urbanised.
Several explanations have been put forward. These range from climatic change, deforestation, excessive
floods, the shifting and/or drying up of rivers, overuse of landscape etc. Some of these causes may hold
for certain settlements, for instance catastrophic flooding of Mohenjodaro as a result of earthquake might
have led to its abandonment. But none of these reasons can explain the end of all cities; the collapse of
the entire civilization.

C.

The Vedic Age

The Vedic age spans almost a millenium (C.1500-500 BC) of Indian history, a period which witnessed
crucial changes in north India. For its reconstruction, textual evidence (the Vedas) formed the sole basis
till very recently. However, excavations conducted in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Northern Rajasthan, along
the Indus and Ghaggar rivers over the last 40 years have unearthed valuable archaeological evidences.
This has resulted in a clearer understanding of the processes of socio-economic changes.

I.

Early Vedic Society

The Rigvedic Samhita comprises 10 books or mandals of which Books II to VII are considered to be the
oldest and belong specifically to the Early Vedic phase. Books I, VIII, IX and X arc considered to be late
additions to the Samhita. However, even the earlier books are by no means free from interpolations, as is
evident from the references to agriculture in Book IV, which is generally regarded as late.

II.

Economy
The early Vedic society appears to have been primarily pastoral. Hymns from the RV yield extensive
evidence of the importance of cattle in the early Vedic society. The term gau is referred to as many as 176
times in relevant Mandalas, as well as in prayers for posit a term which included goats, sheeps, horses
and men as well. Further, the word used to denote a wealthy man, Gomat literally means a man who
possesses cattle. Many words for battle, such as 'gaviti' also imply a search for cattle, raids being
recognised as a legitimate means of acquiring animals. The raja or a chief is referred to as gopati, the lord
or protector of cattle; and the term for daughter is duhitri. She also milks the cattle. Godhuli is used as a
term for a measurement of time. Distance is called gavyuti.
The evidence regarding agriculture is much more limited and suggests its relative unimpor-tance. Most of
the references to agriculture belong to a later date. Apart from Yava or barley, no other grains are
mentioned. Land or grain do not figure as objects of dispute unlike cattle, nor is land mentioned as an
aritcle of donation in the danastutis.

III.

Society
The early vedic society was a tribal society in which social relations based on kinship ties were
predominant
The society was hot divided according to caste lines, and even the rajas (kings), thepurohits (priests), the
artisans etc. were parts of the clan networks. The tribe was referred to as the jana, the largest unit and
many references to different tribes are found in the RV. Inter-tribal conflicts were frequent, an example
being the Battle of the Ten Kings mentioned in the RV. Some of the tribes which fought in this battle were
the Bharatas, the Purus, the Vadus, the Druhyus, the Anus and the Turvasus. Tribal conflicts as mentioned

5
earlier, were related to cattle raids, cattle thefts etc. The chief of the tribe was the raja or the gopati. He
was the leader in battle and the protector of the tribe. His office was not based on heredity but he was
selected from the clansmen. The warrior group was the rajanya. Many clans (vis) formed a tribe.
The four-fold Varna System on the other hand was virtually absent. Thus, there are only fourteen
references to brahmanas, nine to kshatriyas and one to the shudra, the last one being referred to only in
the context of the 'Purusasukta', the cosmic man.
IV.

Polity
The tribal polity was not completely egalitarian. A division is found in the RV itself between the rajanyas,
or those who fought the wars and were credited to be the senior lineage. The rest of the clansmen or the
vis formed the junior lineage. Though none of the groups occupied a distinct social hierarchy, intra and
inter-group conflicts, together with the distribution system, helped create divisions in the society. The
clans and vis held largeyajnas or sacrifices to help the warrior groups winning the wars.
Tribal assemblies, e.g. the Gana, Vidhata, Sabha and Samiti are mentioned in the RV. The Sabha may
have been the council of select clan members while the Samiti was a general tribal assembly, comprising
the whole clan. These assemblies performed the functions of the government and were also involved in
the selection of the raja from the clansmen. They thus kept the power of the raja and rajanya in check.

V.

Religion
Rigvedic people venerated the natural forces around them (like wind, water, rain, thunder, fire, etc.)
which they could not control, and invested nature with divinity conceived in human forms, which were
mostly masculine. Very few female deities were venerated. The religion which reflected a patriarchical
society was one of primitive animism.
Indra, the God of strength, who was invoked to destroy the enemies. He was the God of thunder and
rain, and could not be vanquished. The concept of the tribal chief, who was a war lord is also found
represented in the character of Indra.
Agni, next in importance to Indra, was the God of fire. He was considered to be an intermediary between
heaven and earth, i.e. between God and man. Marriages were solemnized in his presence. The purifying
nature of fire was symbolized by Agni. The importance of Agni can be related to the frequency of yajna or
sacrifice in the early Vedic society. It was thought that the offering to Agni were carried to the Gods in the
form of smoke.
Varuna personified water, and he was the upholder of the natural order of the universe. Yama was the
God of death and had an important place in the early Vedic religious belief. The Ashwins were the twin
Gods of heaven.

VI.

Smriti Literature
Smriti is traditional knowledge and it designates almost the entire body of post-vedic classical Sanskrit
literature. Smriti literature generally includes the following overlapping subjects.
1. The Vedanga refers to certain branches of post-Vedic studies regarded as auxilliary to the Vedas. The
Vedangas are conventionally divided into six headings, namely, (a) Kaipa or the ritual canon, including the

6
dharma shastras or legal codes, (b) Jyotisha or astronomy, (c) Siksha or phonetics, (d) Chanda or metre,
(e) Virukta or etymology and (f) Vyakarana or grammar. The last four form the part of the study of
bhashika or philosophy.

D.

Jainism
Vardhaman Mahavira was born in 540 BC in a village near Vaishali in north Bihar. His father was the head
of a famous Kshatriya clan and his mother a Lichchhavi princess. At the age of 30, Mahavira became an
ascetic, and at the age of 42, he attained the state called Nirvana (cessation) or kaivalya (omniscience),
(a realization of one's own self). He was acclaimed as a Tirthankara (Path finder), a Kaivalin (supreme
omniscient), Jina (conquerer) and Arhant (blessed one), and one of the great spiritual teachers, ordained
to appear at regular intervals to enlighten mankind. He was thenceforth known as Mahavira, the 'Great
Hero'. He died at the age of 72 in 468 BC at a place called Pavapuri, near present day Rajgir.

I.

Tirthankaras Mahavira recognised the teachings of 23 earlier Tirthankaras, about which practically
nothing is known.
Only the last one is a historical personage, i.e., Parshva who hailed from Benaras. Most of them are
known only by their names and symbols. Mahavira is regarded as the historical founder of Jainism.
Jains claim that their religion is the most ancient one of India and existed long befor Aryan Hinduism.
Some of their scholars have produced evidence regarding the existence of Jainism in the Indus valley.
Rishabha was the first Jain Tirthankara. The word Rishabha means bull hence some scholars
discern a connection with the bull worship of Mohenjodaro.

II.

Vows of Jainism Jainism stressed that freedom from worldly bonds can be attained by leading a good
and pure life. There was no need for any Vedic ceremonies and invoking the Gods for help. He told his
followers that their deeds should be based on Right faith, Right knowledge and Right actionthe three
jewels or Ratna. Right knowledge is the knowledge of the Jain creed. Right faith is the belief in what
one knows. Right action or conduct is the practice of the five vows of Jainism. These are: noninjury to living beings, truth, non-stealing, not to own property, and to practice chastity.

III.

Life in Jainism Reality in Jainism is characterised by anekatva or plurality or multisidedness and

it is beyond the scope of finite minds to know all aspects of a thing. All our judgements are thus
necessarily relative. There is no certainty in any knowledge and Syad-Vada is the wisest course to adopt.
To every proposition the correct reply is Syad, i.e. Perhaps. There can be no absolute judgement on any
issue.
Jainism represents the universe as functioning according to an eternal law, continually passing through a
series of cosmic waves of progress and decline.
Jains believe in the dualistic principle of Jiva (eternal soul) and Ajiva (eternal element)
everywhere. The Jiva acts, and is effected by acts, it is a knowing self; the Ajiva is atomic and
unconscious.
Mahavira preached in Magadhi, the language spoken by the common people. His teaching was confined to
the Ganges valley, though in later centuries, Jainism moved to western India, parts of northern India (e.g.
Rajasthan) and to the south in the region of Karnataka. The main champions of Jainism were the trading
communities.

7
E.

Buddhism
Gautama Buddha or Siddharta was a contemporary of Mahavira. He was born in 563 BC in a Shakya
kshatriya family in Kapilvastu, situated in the foothills of Nepal. His mother was a princess from the
Koshalan
dynasty. At the age of 29, he left home and kept wandering for about seven years before attaining
knowledge or enlightenment at Bodh Gaya under npipal tree. Gautama Buddha delivered his first sermons
at Sarnath in Benaras and kept on preaching and meditating for 40 years. He passed away at the age of
80 in 483 BC, at a place called Kusinagara in Deoria district of eastern Uttar Pradesh.
Buddha discarded the Vedic religion in its totality. He strongly opposed rituals, sacrifices and ceremonial
worship. He condemned the caste system as being false and wrong. In this context Buddhism may be
regarded as a reaction to the pretensions of Brahmanas and the authority of the Vedas.

I.

Four Truths The four truths, Aryasatya enunciated by Buddha form the basis of Buddhism. These truths
relate to suffering, its cause and the means of release from it. The four truths are: (1) Suffering (dukha)
exists wherever there is life. (2) Desire is the cause of suffering, leading to endless rebirths. The desire for
things, existence, experience, immortality, sensual pleasure, worldly possession and power. (3) Release
from pain can be achieved only by abandoning desire, crushing one's individuality and giving up love of
worldly possessions. (4) The last concerns the way out of this circle of suffering and rebirth. This is called
the middle path which avoids the two extremes, namely, attachment to passion and worldly pleasure on
the one hand and the practice of self-mortification and asceticism on the other.

II.

Rules in Buddhism The guiding principles for this path are embodied in a series of precepts called the
eight-fold path (Ashtang-marga) which leads to wisdom, calmness, knowledge, enlightenment and
release. The eight rules to be adhered to are
1. right views
2. right aspirations
3. right speech
4. right conduct
5. right livelihood
6. right effort
7. right mindfulness and
8. right meditation.
The true follower of the eight-fold path attains salvation or nirvana. The attainment of nirvana is the chief
objective of Buddhism.
Buddha laid emphasis on self-effort or self-sufficiency, i.e. i 'one who looks unto himself. In Buddhism
nothing is left to the divine intervention. Buddha also believed that the soul does not exist, and that there
is no transmigration of the soul, The soul dies with the death of the person. What is called the soul is in
reality a physical or mental aggregate of five impermanent conditions. These are:
1. Form (the body)
2. Feelings
3. Idea or understanding
4. Will
5. Pure consciousness.

8
III.

Social life in Buddhism Buddhism took practical form in society as the Sangha (Church or Assembly), a
Buddhist order of monks and laymen. Its tenets, which constitute the Dharma (law) were enshrined in the
various Buddhist scriptures. Buddha himself was honoured as the chief of beings. Sometime after his
death, a credo was formalized for the Buddhist discipline: put my faith in the Buddha, the Dharma, and
the Sangha. This Buddhist credo is referred to as the Triratna.
Buddha started monasteries (viharas) which were places where monks lived and spent their time praying
especially during the rainy season. There is a mention of holding a special ceremony called Pavarana. It
was about the confessions of offences that the monks committed during their stay in nionastries. The
viharas were also used as schools attended by people from all strata of society. Some of the more famous
were in Nalanda and Vikramshila in Bihar; and Valabhi in Gujarat.
Buddhism, like Jainism, appealed to the socially downtrodden, the vaishyas who were economically
powerful but were not granted corresponding social status, and the shudras who were obviously
oppressed. And, Buddhism, spread in urban centres too. It also won over the patronage of many states,
e.g. Magadha, Kosala and Kausambi and several republican states. Ashvaghosha and Nagarjuna played an
important role in its spread after Buddha.
After the death of Buddha, four general councils of the Buddhist church were held. The first council met at
Rajagriha in 483 BC in which the discourse of Buddha were collected, compiled and emobodied in the Pali
canon. The literature is known as Tripitaka. The second Buddhist council was held at Vaisali (383 BC) and
the third in the reign of Ashoka at Pataliputra (250 BC). It was at this council that it was decided to send
missionaries to various parts of the subcontinent and (o make Buddhism an actively proselytizing religion.
The fourth Buddhist council attended by Hieun Tsang was held in Kashmir in the 1st century AD. It
recognized the schism in Buddhism. One branch was called Hinayana or the 'followers of the lesser
vehicle' and the other the Mahayana or the 'folllowers of the greater vehicle'. Eventually, Hinayana
Buddhism found its stronghold in Ceylon, Burma and the countries of south-east Asia, whereas Mahayana
Buddhism became the dominant sect in India, central Asia, Tibet, China and Japan.

F.

THE MAURYAN EMPIRE (321-185 BC)

I.

Chandragupta Maurya
Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the dynasty and under him the whole of northern India was
united. He conspired with Chanakya, the Minister of the Nandas, to overthrow the last of the Nanda kings
and occupy their capital Pataliputra. This success is linked with his accession to the throne around 321 BC.
A majority of scholars contend that Chandragupta ultimately established his control on western India and
Deccan as well. The only parts left out of his empire were the present day Kerala, Tamil Nadu and parts of
northern India. Details of his conquest in different parts of India are not available. However, the conquest
and subjugation of Saurashtra or Kathiawad in the extreme west is attested in the Junagadh Rock
Inscription of Rudradaman, of the middle of the 1st Century AD. This record refers to Chandragupta's
Viceroy or Governor, Pushyagupta who is said to have constructed the famous Sudarshana lake. This
further implies that Chandragupta had under control the Malwa region as well With regard to his control
over Deccan, we have sources like the medieval epigraphs informing us that Chandragupta had protected
parts of Karnataka.

9
Bindusara Son of Chandragupta, Bindusara, is said to have ascended the throne in 297 BC. Comparatively
little is known about him from either Indian or classical sources. In the classsical sources, he is referred to
as Amitrochates, and that he had contacts with the Seleucid king of Syria, Antiochus I. It is believed that
Bindusara extended the kingdom further and conquered the South as far as Mysore.
His religious leanings are said to have been towards the Ajivikas, while that of Chandragupta was towards
Jainism. Buddhist sources put the death of Bindusara around 273 to 272 BC. After his death, there was a
struggle for succession among his sons for about four years. Ultimately, around 269 to 268 BC, Ashoka
was crowned Bindusara's successor.
a.

Land Revenue
The system of taxation under the Mauryan rule constitutes a landmark in ancient India. The land revenue
collection was efficiently organised so as to appropriate the maximum possible surplus from the people.
Land tax (bhaga), the main item of revenue was quite high and was levied at the rate of one sixth of the
produce, though the Greek account puts them at the rate of one fourth. Share cropping was another way
by which the State collected agricultural resources. The share croppers were provided with seeds, oxen,
etc. and received arable land for cultivation. In this kind of situation, the peasants probably gave half of
the produce to the State.

b.

The Urban Economy

The development of the agrarian economy had given a solid economic basis to the Mauryan empire,
particularly in the Ganges valley. However, it was the expansion of the commercial economy that enabled
it to extend its resources to the other parts of the country. The security provided by Mauryan rule enabled
it to blossom. Major trade routes to West Asia and Central Asia passed through North-west India. The
main trade route in northern India were along the river Ganges and the Himalayan foothills. Pataliputra,
the capital of the Mauryas, had a particularly strategic location and it was conected by river and road in all
four directions.
Trade was intrinsically linked to the methods of production and its organisation. Craft production in
northern India was organized primarily on guild (sreni) lines. This was so in the pre-Mauryan period as
well. Under the Mauryas, when the number of artisan groups had increased, we find guilds organised in
different towns, inhabiting particular areas. These guilds generally worked and lived together in a closely
knit society.

c.

Society and Religion

The social organisation was based on the Varna system, with the four traditional Varnas becoming
endogamous, and therefore, rigid. This rigidity generated tensions in the society. The emergence of an
urban culture by its very logic demanded a more flexible social organisation. The incorporation of tribe and
people from the outlying areas into the social fabric also presented a problem. Through their participation
in trade and commerce, the vaishyas acquired enough wealth: Through their trade guilds, they often
controlled urban institutions. But they were denied the position and prestige which they felt they were
entitled to. The vaishyas were also Dvijas (twice-born) like the brahmanas and the kshatriyas, but were
socially inferior to them. Their support for such heterodox sects as Buddhism and Jainism may have been
an expression of their resentment towards the higher castes. The lower orders, the shudras, were no less
hostile to the upper classes. They were dissatisfied with the conditions of their life and hence indulged in

10
criminal activities. They also turned to the various heterodox sects. Thus, the brahmanical hold over
society, assiduously built through the later Vedic period, came under threat.
II.

Ashoka's Policy of Dhamma

It was against this background that Ashoka expanded his famous policy of Dhamma to eliminate social
tension and sectarian conflicts and to promote a harmonious relationship between the diverse elements of
the empire. Ashoka's private beliefs and his own perceptions of how he should respond to the problems of
his empire were responsible for the formulation of the policy of Dhamma. Dhamma is the Prakrit
equivalent of the Sanskrit word Dharma, translated as religion in modern times. But the term used in the
Ashokan edict has a much wider connotation.
Ashoka's insistence on abstinence from killing, on considerate relationships between parents and children,
elders, and young people, friends, masters and servants, and various religious sects and his excessive
concern form the general welfare of his subjects suggest that his Dhamma was: an ethical code aimed at
building up an attitude of social responsibility among people. It was a plea for the inculcation of virtuous
behaviour transcending all social, religious and cultural barriers.

III.

Mauryan Administration
Political
The Mauryan state had a vast administrative set-up with the king at the Centre. Megasthenes puts the
total number of the Mauryan army at 4,00,000. No other ruling house in ancient India maintained an army
bigger than that of the Mauryas. It gave the State immense coercive powerand enhanced the prestige and
glamour of the Mauryan king. According to the Arthasastra, royal order superseded all other sources of
authority including Dharma which could be interpreted by the king in the changing contexts of time.
Indisputable proof of the all-embracing power of the king is furnished by the Ashokan edicts, which squght
to regulate even the social and religious life of the people.
Ashoka undertook many measures for the people's welfare such as centres for the medical treatment of
men and beasts, shady groves, wells, fruit orchards and rest-houses. This implied a radically different
attitude for the king in the Arthasastra, who would not incur any expenses unless they brought more
revenues in return. Ashoka and his high officials also toured the country extensively to establish direct
contacts with his subjects with a view to promote their welfare.
Provincial Administration
The kingdom was divided into four provinces. From Ashokan edicts, we get the name of four provincial
capitalsTosali (in the east), Ujjain (in the west), Suvarnagiri (in the south), and Taxila located between
the Indus and Jhelum rivers (in the north), The head of the provincial administration was the kumara
(royal prince) who used to govern the provinces as the king's representative. The kumara was in turn
assisted by Mahamatyas and a council of ministers. The council of ministers at the provincial level not only
acted as a check on the kumara but at times had direct relations with the king. From the Ashokan edicts,
we understand that the Mahamatyas were performing various activities like looking after the border areas,
judicial work, etc. Their appointment, it appeals, could be made both by the king as well as by the
kumara.

11
G.

THE AGE OF THE GUPTAS

In AD 4th century a new Indian dynasty, the Guptas, arose in Magadha and established a large kingdom
over the greater part of northern India. Their rule lasted for more than 200 years. The rule of the Gupta
dynasty in northern India is often described as imperial government, but this description is not entirely
accurate. Centrali sed control, essential for an imperial structure, was not as fully realized under Guptas
as it had been under the Mauryas. The Gupta period is also referred to as the Classical Age of ancient
India. This description is true largely for northern India, where during this period, Hindu culture came to
be firmly established. But in regions of the Deccan and southern India, it was the post-Gupta period that
saw the evolution of a high level of civilization.

I.

Chandragupta I
The origin of the Guptas is somewhat obscure. It is possible that the family was one of the wealthy
landowners who gradually gained political control in the region of Magadha. It was Chandragupta I who
made his kingdom more than a principality. He married a Lichchhavei princess and ascended the throne in
about AD 319. He ruled over Saketa (the region of Ayodhya), Prayaga (Allahabad) and Magadha. The
kingdom was enlarged and made more powerful by his son, Samudragupta.

II.

Samudragupta
The basic information about his reign is provided by an inscription composed by Harisena, the poet at his
court and engraved on an Ashokan pillar at Allahabad or Prayaga prasasti. Samudragupta defeated four
kings of northern India and added the region of the present Delhi and western Uttar Pradesh to his
kingdom. He fought against a number of kings in the Deccan, south India and eastern India and also
attacked the forest tribes in the Deccan. He received tributes from the kings of Assam, the Ganga delta,
Nepal and northern India, from the nine tribal republics of Rajasthan, from the Kushana kings, the Shakas
and the king of Ceylon and perhaps from other islands as far as in South-east Asia. But his direct political
control, compared to the Mauryan kings, was over a smaller areathe Ganges valley as those who paid
tribute were not directly under the Gupta Government. The kings of the south soon broke away from
Gupta rule. The Shakas on the west remained unconquered, the tribes of Raj asthan merely paid tribute
and the Punjab was also not under its direct control.

III.

Chandragupta II (AD 376-415)

Also known as Vikramaditya, Chandragupta II conducted a victorious compaign in western India against
the Shakas (AD 388-409). This was a significant conquest, for the Guptas now gained control over
northern India. In addition, this gave them access to some of the Indian trade with the Mediterranean. He
made a marriage alliance with the Vakataka dynasty in western Deccan, the old Satavahana stronghold.
Other dynasties of the Deccan also married into the Gupta royal family. The Guptas thus ensured friendly
relations to the south of their domain. Chandragupta's conquests have been described in a pillar
inscription at Mehrauli on the outskirts of Delhi. According to the inscription, Chandragupta crossed the
Sindhu region of the seven rivers and defeated Valhikas (identified with Bactria) as well as the enemies
from Vanga (Bengal). Thus, Chandragupta II was able to extend the frontiers to the Gupta empire to
western, north-western and eastern India.

IV.

Gupta Administration
The Gupta monarch adopted high-sounding titles like Chakravarti, Parama-daivata, Paramabha-ttaraka,
probably to distinguish himself fromt helesser kings within the empire. In contrast to the Mauryas, the

12
Guptas do not seem to have possessed a big, organized army. Probably, the troops supplied by the
feudatories constituted the major portion of the Gupta military strength.
It is not as if the Guptas were ruling through their feudatories. They had an elaborate administrative
system which was in operation in the areas which were directly controlled by them, i.e. Bengal, Bihar and
UP.
The whole empire was divided into bhuktis or provinces, which were governed by upanikas, directly
appointed by the King. The province was further divided into districts or vishvas under an official called
Ayuktaka, appointed by the governor. Gupta inscriptions from Bengal show that the office of the district
head, Adhikarana, associated ifself with representations from major local communities the Nagarasresthi
(head of city merchants), Sarthavaha (caravan-leader), Prathama Kulika (head of the artisan community),
and Prathama Kayastha (head of the Kayastha community). The lowest unit of administration was the
village with its headman, called Gramapati. Different categories of villages, mentioned in the inscriptions
as Gramikas, Kutumbis and Mahattaras, sent their representatives to Astakuladhikarana, head of a unit
intermediate between a village and a district. The village disputes were settled by the village elders or
Grama Vriddhas, who also assisted the Gramapati in managing the affairs of the village.
V.
a.

Society
Women
The status of women continued to decline. In this period, certain features emerged which became
characteristic of their position in subsequent times. They were not permitted to undergo formal education.
Early marriages were advocated and often pre-puberty marriages. Celibacy was to be strictly observed by
widows. The practice of Sati found the approval of the jurists, but seems to have been confined to the
upper classes. The earliest evidence of this practice dates from AD 510 when it was commemorated in an
inscription from Eran in Madhya Pradesh. Women were denied any right to property except for stridhana
in the form of jewellery and garments. The change of women's gotra upon marriage can be dated to the
period after the 5th century. This constitutes an important development because it marked the
curtailment of their rights in their parental home and symbolised the final triumph of the patriarchal
system in the society.

b.

Religion
Both Buddhism and Hinduism received wide support during this period. Hinduism acquired characteristics
which have remained with it, while Buddhism assumed a form which was to lead to its decline. Buddhism
no longer received royal patronage in the Gupta period. Jainism remained unchanged and continued to be
supported by the merchant communities of western India. Christianity remained confined to the region of
Malabar.
Three important aspects of Hinduism became crytallized at this point. The image of the God emerged as
the centre of worship and worship superseded sacrifice. This in turn encouraged bhakti (devotional
worship), where the priest was not so dominant a figure as in the sacrifice. One could achieve liberation
through devotion to God, and God was made accessible to everybody through bhakti.

13
VI.

Art and Architecture

The Gupta age marks the beginning of the free standing temple architecture, though only a few of the
hundreds that must have been built have survived to house either representations of the Gcds, (mainly
incarnations of Vishnu) or lingas. Images of shakti cult goddesses also begin to appear in increasing
number and sizes particularly of Durga and the Mother Goddess.
The first dated sculptures in a full-fledged early Gupta style are from Vidisha and the nearby Udaygiri
caves in Madhya Pradesh. The caves at ground level are important not architecturally but for the
characteristic Images.
Sanchi was an important centre of sculpture in the 5th century. The seated Buddhas have splendidly
decorated haloes and large attendant figures; the style has affinities to Mathura and western UP rather
than with areas further east. The images have the downcast glance, thenceforth associated with Buddhas
of the Gupta tradition.
The most impressive achievement of the Gupta sculptors at Mathura are the standing Buddhas. The
largest surviving complete example is seven feet high. The finest Hindu sculpture is a Vishnu,
unfortunately, without legs or lower arms. There are some excellent Gupta mukhalingas (lingas with one
or more heads emerging.
The Sarnath Buddhas (late 5th century) show an almost unique perfection and their faces are those of
beings who have transcended the world of Samsara and exist in a state of perfect spiritual awareness.
Perfectly proportioned, the bodies too have a miraculous harmony. They are among the world's
masterpieces, classic both being unrivalled and in the historical sense; in determining the form which the
Buddha image was to take for centuries.

VII.

Science and Astronomy

The knowledge of metals improved tremendously as is Wide-need by the survival of the famous 230 foothigh iron pillar found at Delhi near Mehrauli, which has not rusted in the subsequent 15 centuries. There is
also a life-size standing image of Buddha cast in copper in two parts. Coins of the time were finely struck
and dies carefully engraved.
This was an intensely active period for mathematics. Numerals had been in use for some time. They were
introduced to the European world by the Arabs and gradually replaced Roman numerals. The decimal
system was in regular use among Indian astronomers in the 5th century.
Aryabhata was the first astronomer to pose the more fundamental problems of astronomy, in AD 499. It
was largely due to his efforts that astronomy was recognized as a separate discipline from mathematics.
He calculated to 3.1416 and the length of the solar year to 365.3586805 days, both remarkably close to
recent estimates. He believed that the earth was a sphere and rotated on its axis that caused day and
night and thaUhe shadow of the earth falling on the moon caused eclipses.

H.

Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries: The Delhi Sultanate

I.

The Slave Sultans

a.

Muhammad Ghori's conquests became the nucleus of a new political entity of Indiathe Delhi Sultanate.
Muhammad had left his Indian possessions in the care of his former slave, General Qutb-ud-din Aibak

14
(1206 - 11) who, on the death of his master, severed his links with Ghazni and asserted his
independence. He was the founder of what is referred to as the slave dynasty or the mamluks. He died as
a result of a fall from his horse while playing Chaugan.
b.

lltutmish (1211-36) He succeeded Qutb-ud-din Aibak as the sultan. He consolidated the Ghurid
acquisitions in India into a well-knit and compact state, the Sultanate of Delhi. He gave the new State a
capital, Delhi, a monarchical form of government and a governing class. He also procured a deed of
investiture from the caliph of Baghdad in 1229 for the State. However, the State under the Delhi Sultans
was not considered truly Islamic by the historian Barani because the Sultans supplemented the Muslim
law by their own regulations.
His governing class was entirely of foreign origin. It consisted of two groupsTurkish slave officers and
Tazik, i.e. non-Turkish foreigners of high lineage. He organised the iqtas, the army, and also the currency,
the three most important organs of the imperial structure of the Delhi Sultanate.

c.

Raziya (1236-40)
Iltutmish was succeeded by his daughter, Raziya, who also had to face these problems. Being a woman
ruler made it even more difficult for her. The intrigues of the Turkish chiefs sometimes called the forty or
chahalgamiincreased against the monarchy. Raziya was ultimately murdered,

d.

Balban (1265-85)
Court intrigue continued unabated until the emergence of Balban, who was himself a Turkish chief and
rose from the position of a minister to become a Sultan in 1265. Balban was more successful in solving
these problems than Iltutmish had been. He defended the Sultanate from the attacks of the Mongols on
the north and wrested Multan from them. But realizing the situation, he tacitly agreed to leave the whole
of the Punjab under Mongol control. He fought against the local rulers who were threatening the position
of the Sultan both within the Sultanate and along its borders. Slowly but firmly Balban broke the power of
the Turk chahalgami and made the Sultan all important. Balban, however, emphasised the need for
Turkish solidarity and made the office of Sultan, the symbol of Turkish power. Through changes in the
organisation of the army and the administration, he was able to control any revolt among the nobles.
Balban was able to save the Sultanate, but could not found a dynasty. After him, a new dynasty of the
Khilji came to power.

II.

The Khiljis (1290-1320)

The Khiljis used their Afghan descent to win the loyalties of ihe discontented Afghan nobles, who felt that
they had been neglected by the earlier Sultans. Led by Jalaluddin Khilji, they wrested power from the
incompetent successors of Balban in 1290. Jalaluddin (1290-96) was succeeded by his nephew, Alauddin
(1296-1316).
The hold of the Turk Sultan was limited to Delhi, the Gangetic region and eastern Rajasthan. Bengal and
Bihar remained outside their control during the greater part of the 131 century. Punjab remained under
the Mongols. In the Deccan, Malwa and Gujarat could not be annexed by them. Alauddin, however, was
ambitious and dreamt of an all-India empire.

15
Alauddin's military successes were because of a large standing army directly recruited and paid by the
State which reduced his dependance on the troops of provincial governors and vassals. To prevent
fraudulent musters, he began the practice of branding the horses (dagh) and of preparing descriptive rolls
of soliders (chehra).
The State needed revenue to maintain such a large army. Alauddin, therefore, brought about many
changes in the agrarian system. He took the bold step of revoking all grants made by previous Sultans.
Land was re-assessed and fresh grants made. The State's share was increased one half of the produce
(land tax or Kharaj). In addition, a house and cattle tax were also levied. Assessment was calculated on
the basis of average yields from a particular area. To prevent corruption, he kept a strict watch on the
revenue which the nobles got from their land and did not allow them to levy any additional cess as a
source of income.
III.

The Tughlaq Sultans (1320-1414)

The Tughlaqs also wished to rule an all-India empire. Ghiyas-ud-din's campaigns in Warangal, Orissa and
Bengal were directed towards this end. By 1324.

The territories of the Delhi Sultanate reached up to

Madurai. But his economic policy was not consistent with his political ambition. The measures taken by
Alauddin were either rescinded or relaxed. Price controls were removed, the land-tax was lowered and the
iqta-holders were permitted their earlier perquisites in the form of a variety of taxes. Gradually, power
slipped back into the hands of the nobles.
a.

Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq (1325-51)
He succeeded his father Ghiyas-ud-din. He has been referred to as an Mil-starred idealist' whose
experiments generally ended in failure. Muhammad's political ambitions extended even beyond' India, into
central Asia. To meet the expenses of maintaining a large army, he increased the revenue imposed on the
Doab. But, this time, the peasants refused to acquiesce and rebelled. Though the rebellion was
suppressed, the taxation policy had to be revised.
Another experiment which ended in failure was Muhammad's attempt to popularise token currency. This
was again a part of his attempt to obtain more money. The Sultan decided to issue token coins made of
brass and copper which had the same value as silver coins. This new idea might have solved some of his
financial problems, but unfortunately people began forging the new coins. The result was a financial
chaos, and token coins had to be discontinued. He also issued a new gold coin called Dinar by Ibn
Batutah.
Muhammad also decided to move the capital from Delhi to Deogir (which he renamed Daulatabad), to be
able to control the Deccan and extend the empire into the south. He himself camped for two years at a
place called Swargadwari, and moved the elite of Delhi and the mystics, who would perform the role of
acculturation, to the new capital. The plan ended in a failure because of the discontent amongst those who
had been forced to move. Muhammad also found that he could not keep a watch on the northern frontiers.
So Muhammad returned to Delhi.

b.

Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-88)

The nobles and theologians at the court selected Muhammad's cousin Firoz Shah as the next Sultan. His
immediate concern was to quell the rebellions, but many of his campaigns ended with conceding virtual
independence to the provinces, as in the case of Bengal. Having become Sultan with the support of the

16
nobles and the theologians, he had to appease them. First, the government prohibited siyasat, i.e.
infliction of death penalty or torture. But he put nothing in its place for political offenders. So
embezzlement of public revenue went unpunished. All the loans that the people owed to the state were
ceremoniously washed off. It was also ordered that kharaj (land-tax) be levied according to produce.
Thus, there was no uniform rule with reference to the state's share of the produce for the whole country.
He also decreed hereditary succession to iqta and other sinecures. This chiefly accounted for the absence
of rebellions by the nobels in his reign. It also made the Sultan dependent on a narrow oligarchy.
The soldiers and military officers were paid by the assignments on the land revenue of villages and not in
cash. This meant that a soldier had to either go to the villages to collect his salary, and absent himself
from services, or to give the assignment to some broker who would given him a half or one-third of its
value Firoz extended the principle of heredity to the army as well. The entire military administration
became lax. Arz, the annual review of horsemen became a mockery. The soldiers were allowed to pass
useless horses at the muster by bribing the clerks. The result of all this was the degeneration of the once
invincible army of the Sultanate.
IV.

The Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451)

The Tughlaq dynasty ended soon after but the Sultanate survived, though it was merely a shadow of its
former self, Timur's nominee captured Delhi and was proclaimed the new Sultan, the first of the Sayyid
dynasty, which was to rule during the earlier half to the 15th century.
Sayyid rule was short-lived and was confined to a radius of some 200 miles around Delhi. They kept the
machinery going until a more capable dynasty, the Lodis, took over. The Lodis were of pure Afghan origin,
which meant the eclipse of the Turkish nobility.

V.

The Lodi Sultans (1451-1526)

Bahlul Lodi was one of the Afghan Sardars who established rrimself in the Punjab after the Timurid
invasion. The most important Lodi Sultan was Sikander Lodi (1489-1517) who controlled the Ganga valley
as far as western Bengal. He moved the capital form Delhi to a new town which later became famous as
the city of Agra, to be able to control the kingdom better.
The Sultan had to deal with the tribal character of the Afghan nobles. The Afghan concept was of
partnership rather than subservience to the King. In matters of succession, they were guided by
considerations of suitability rather than the principle of heredity or nomination. The army turned into a
tribal militia, making it less effective. Some of the Sultan's privileges and prerogatives came to be
commonly used by some nobles. Recognised as the main props of the Lodi kings, attempts were made to
pacify them by granting them large iqtas. The first two Lodi kings modified the autorcracy of the Sultanate
and thus made an appeal to Afghan loyalty, but the last Lodi, Ibrahim, asserted the absolute power of the
sultan and did not consider tribal feelings. This led to his making enemies among them. Finally, they
plotted with Babar, the king of Kabul, a descendent of Tamerlane and Ghengiz Khan, and succeeded in
overthrowing Ibrahim in 1526 at the First Battle of Panipat. Rana Sanga of Mewar who dreamed of ruling
from Delhi also made an alliance with Babar, who however, founded his own dynasty in India and his
descendants, the Mughals, created their own empire in India.

17
VI.

Causes of the Downfall of the Delhi Sultanate

No individual Sultan can be held responsible for the downfall of the Delhi Sultanate. Regional factors of
disintegration were strong in medieval India. There were also numerous I powerful Chiefs who either had
a clan-following of their own, or had strong links with particular areas. They were always ready to rebel
when they found any weakness in the central Government. The Turkish Sultans tried to counter these
elements first by collecting a corpe of slaves, create a nobility completely dependent on the Sultan. The
main instrument of this devise was the iqta system. However, the Sultans found it difficult to control the
powerful and ambitious nobles even among this limited group, many of whom wanted to carve out their
own independent spheres of authority. Thus, it was always difficult to control the governors of distant
places such as Bengal, Sindh Gujarat, Daulatabad, etc.

I.

The fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries: The age of Vijaya Nagar and the
Bahmanis
Both these kingdoms arose when the control of the Sultanate over the Deccan became weak during the
reign of Muhammad-bin-Tughalq. Both were founded by officers who had rebelled against the Sultanate.

I.

The Bahmani Kingdom

By the 15th and early 16th centuries, the Sultanate in the north nad given way to a series of regional
kingdoms viz, Gujarat, Malwa, Jaunpur, Delhi itself, and Bengal. More-over in the Deccan and peninsular
India, the Sultanate incursions had overturned existing regimes, opening the way for new kingdoms to
emerge. Shortly after Muhammad bin Tughluq, whose efforts to expand South were more intensive,
withdrew from the capital he had established at Daulatabad in the Deccan, the Bahmanid kingdom, also
dominated by Muslims, was established in 1345. After roughly a century and a half, the Bahmani
kingdom, like the Sultanate, gave way to more localised powers across the Deccan, and these kingdoms
Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Berar, Bidar, and Golcondapersisted as Muslim dynasties from the late 15th
century well into the Mughal era.
Zafar Khan, also known as Bahman Shah became the founder of an important dynasty in 1345, which
ruled the Deccan for nearly two centuries. He made Gulbarga his capital instead of Daulatabad. He had to
fight various remnants of Muhammad Tughluq's troops, as well as the Hindu rulers of Orissa and Warangal
who had also expanded their spheres of influence as soon as Muhammad had left the Deccan. The Rajas
of Vijayanagar had established their empire almost at the same time as Bahman Shah had founded his
sultanate; they now emerged as his most formidable enemies. The reasons were that: (a) they both
claimed the Raichur Doab, the fertile land between the Krishna and lungabhadra, as part of their territory
which lay between the two kingdoms; (b) Golconda in the Bahmani kingdom had diamond mines and the
kings of Vijayanagara were eager, therefore, to conquer Golconda, and; the rulers of both these kingdoms
were very ambitious and wished to control the peninsula.

II.

Vijayanagar Empire
The Vijayanagar Empire was founded in 1336 as a direct response to the challenge posed by the sultanate
of Delhi. The empire was founded by brothers, Harihara and Bukka. Their dynasty was named after their
father, Sangama.
There is a long and acrimonious debate about the antecedents of these brothers among Indian historians

18
According to some (mostly those from Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh), the brothers fled from Warrangal
(Andhra Pradesh) after its capture by the Muslims; they then settled at Kampili, a small realm close to
what was to become the city of Vijaynagar, where they were taken prisoner by the sultan's army in 1327.
They were taken to Delhi and converted to Islam, whereupon the sultan sent them back to control Kampili
on his behalf. Then they came under the influence of the Hindu sage Vidyaranya, who reconverted them
to Hinduism, They soon headed the Hindu rebels against the Muslim rule and founded a new realm with a
capital at a strategic place south of the Tungabhadra river, where Harihara was crowned in 1336. It was
probably also due to Vidyaranya's influence that the rulers of Vijayanagar regarded themselves as the
representatives of the god Virupaksha, to whom the main temple of Vijayanagar at Hampi is dedicated.
Later rulers even signed documents in the name of Virupaksha. After defeating the Hoysala king whose
power had been weakened by fighting both against Delhi and Madurai, in 1346, Harihara held a great
celebration in the monastery of Sringeri, the seat of the Shankaracharyas, and thus also obtained the
necessary ritual sanction.
There were three main Vijayanagara dynasties: the following Sangamas from about 1336 to the late 15th
century, i.e., 1485; the Imperial Tuluvas from 1505 (after a brief Saluva interlude, 1485-1505) and the
Aravidis from 1550 (or effectively 1542) notionally to the late 17th century.
Krishnadeva Raya (1509-29), of the Tuluva dynasty was the greatest ruler of the Vijayanagar kingdom.
In addition to his great successes as warrior and administrator, Krishnadeva is also remembered as a
great builder. Almost all the big temples of Southern India (e.g. Chidambram) have temple towers which
were erected in Krishnadeva's time. u e was also a great patron of Telugu literature and composed noems
himself. He was praised as 'Andhra Bhoja' because he could rival the great 11th century Paramara king,
Bhoja, who had been one of the greatest patrons of literature in Indian history.
The Vijayanagara dynasties proclaimed a 'dharmic kingdom' after a campaign of 1365-70 against the
Muslims (more Tughluq rebels) who had captured Madurai. And, that supposedly, the kingdom stood for
the older religion and culture of the country and, was the 'last bastion of Hinduism' and when it fell, 'the
south died.'
In Vijayanagara, a vast fortified city, the rulers built many temples, and formed ceremonial spaces, so
that the capital presented itself as a celebration of the sacred character of the dynastyespecially the
great platform on which the king would appear to receive homage. The king's person was re-consecrated
annually in a ten-day festival (maha-navami) held in September/October to worship the city's tutelary
goddesses. Across the region, as temples promoted urban growth, similar rituals would be repeated. They
thus successfully made use of Hindu symbolism.
III.

Architecture
The capital cities of the Bahmanis, Gulbarga and Bidar boasted of many fine buildings. Some of these
continued on the older style of architecture. Others like the Jama Masjid of Gulbarga and Madrasa at Bidar
were built on the Persian style. Perhaps the best known of these buildings was to be the Gol Gumbaz at
Bijapur, the tomb of one of the Bija-puri kings. Its dome is said to be one of the largest in the world. Even
inside their forts, the kings of the Deccan built magnificent buildings. The forts at Daulatabad and
Golconda are examples of this.

19
IV.

Religion
The coming of Islam to India resulted in many things. One was the exchange of religious ideas between
the Hindus and Muslims. This led to the development of two popular religious movements: the Sufi
movement and the Bhakti movements.

J.

The Sufi Movement

No cultural pattern of the Sultanate period was more enduring for the Muslim population than that of Sufi
devotionalism. The mystics of Islam are called Sufis. The Sufi holy men typically adhered to the shari'a,
but they also stressed inner realisation of the divine presence, the practice of moral and physical
disciplines, and the need to submit to the authority of charismatic chains of saintly authority. They served
the rulers, yet, to a varying degree, sought to present themselves as distant from the corruption of
worldly rule. The founders of the most important Sufi lineages, Chisti, Suhrawardi, Qadiri, and
Naqshbandi, were central and west Asian in origin, but they flourished in the sub-continent. The Qadiri
order, for instance, was introduced in India by Shaikh Niamatullah and Makhdum Muhammad Jilani. Sufi
teachings were enriched and stimulated by the presence and competition of similar holy men of the Indie
bhakti traditions of devotion, Spiritual disciplines, and sophisticated monistic philosophies.
The Sufis believe that there was a small circle of such men around the Prophet Muhammad. Prominent
among them was the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet, to whom the Prophet transmitted the
knowledge of gnostic sciences, Imam All, who was to communicate these to his sons, Imams Hasan and
Husayn, and to a few close pupils, such as Hasan of Basra. They, in turn, passed the esoteric truths on to
their pupils, and so the chains of enlightenment have continued up to our present time.
The sufi orders were to perform a major role, not only in the spiritual development of individual seekers,
but also in the regeneration of the Muslim world when it was devastated by the Mongols. They carried the
message of Islam to distinct lands.
From the 11th century, (Shia) Sufi teachings spread from Sind and Punjab across north and central India.
The teachings were designed to express the experience, the rapturous love of god, culminating in
reverence for Sufi saints, e.g., Nizam-ud-din Aulya and his disciple Shaikh Nasiruddin Chirag-i-Dehlavi,
and for the holy places associated with them, like in the bhakti tradition of Hinduism. The Qawwati was a
familiar form of singing at their gatherings. Some Sufi orders gained more in influence the Chisti in
north India, the Suhrawardi in Sind and the Firdausi in Bihar.

K.

The Bhakti Movement

The Bhakti and Sufi movements were well developed before an active process of interaction between them
began from the 1 lth century onwards. The Bhakti movement was a continuation of the earlier devotional
cult. But what distinguished it now was that the Sufi ideas influenced its doctrines, as did also certain
Islamic concepts, particularly those of social justice. Their interaction grew till it reached a climax in the
16th century. Its impact, however, continued to shape popular minds and attitudes till the end of the 18th
century when new conditions were created with the advent of colonialism.
The Bhakti teachers taught that the relationship between man and god was based on love, and
worshipping the god with devotion was better than merely performance of religious ceremonies. Bhakti
teachers stressed the need for tolerance among men and religions. They also objected to the division of

20
society into castes and the low status given to women. They encouraged the women to join the
gatherings.
Bhakti leaders dating from this period whose teachings and cults persist to the present include
Ramananda (c. 1360-1470), Kabir (1440-1518), Guru Nanak (1469-1539), Mirabai (C.1498-C.1550),
Dadu (1544-1603), Tukaram (1608-1649), and Chaitanya (1486-1533). Ramananda was the first Bhakti
saint to use Hindi for the propagation of his message. Like the Sufis, the bhakti teachers emphasised the
individual's own devotion to the divine. A minor, but extremely significant strand, represented by Kabir
and Nanak, emphasised worship of a personal God without forms i.e. Nirguna. In so doing, they distanced
themselves from distinctive Hindu and Muslim symbols.

L.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

I.

Babar (1526-1530)
The conquest of Samarkand in Transoxiana forced Babar to move towards Hindustan and an invitation
issued by Alam Khan, an uncle of Ibrahim Lodi and a pretender to the throne of Delhi helped. He defeated
Ibrahim Lodi in the first Battle of Panipat outside Delhi in 1526.
Babar succeeded because: (a) of the cavalry that he had brought from Central Asia which was new to the
Indian army; (b) he rearranged his soldiers in such a way that they could be easily moved from one part
of the battle to the other; and (c) he was a good general.

II.

Humayun (1530-1556)
Humayun inherited a vast unconsolidated empire and an empty treasury. He also had to deal with the
growing power of the Afghans in the east The Afghan resistance rallied round Sher Shah who had Bihar
under his complete control. Soon he conquered Bengal as well. Sher Shah was also in close contact with
Bahadur Shah, the ruler of Gujarat, whose extensive sweep of conquest posed a threat to Delhi. He gave
heavy subsidies to Sher Shah. This, together with the revenue of Bihar and Bengal, enabled him to raise a
large army and challenge Humayun.

III.

Akbar (1556-1605)
Akbar was only 13 when he came to the throne, and his tutor Bairam Khan was appointed a regent.
Humayun died before strengthening the Mughal power in northern India. This job was left to Akbar.
Akbar's first conflict was with Hemu, a general of Adil Shah, under whom the Afghan resistance had
regrouped itself At the Second Battle of Panipat (1556) between Bairam Khan and Hemu, Hemu was
defeated and Akbar re-occupied Delhi and Agra which the Mughals had lost. Akbar soon ended the
regency of Bairam Khan and decided to extend Mughal power to other parts of the country. He proceeded
to conquer various important towns and forts such as Gwalior, Ajmer and Jaunpur. He also annexed the
kingdom of Malwa. This brought him into the neighbourhood of the Rajput kingdom.
Akbar brought the major part of Rajasthan under his' control. In this, the capture of Chittor and
Ranathambor, reputed to be the most powerful, were of crucial importance. Soon, most of the Rajput
rajas recognised the suzerainty of Akbar. Only Mewar continued to resist under Rana Pratap and his son
Amar Singh. Further, by his policy of inducting the Rajput rajas into Mughal service, treating them at par
with the Mughal nobility, allowing them to retain a large measure of autonomy, and entering into marriage

21
alliances (Jahangir was the son of the Raja of Amber's daughter), Akbar was able to cement his alliance
with the Rajputs. Further, by according broad religious toleration to his subjects, with the abolition of
pilgrimage tax in 1563 and abolition of Jaziya in 1564 and stopping of the practice of forcible conversion of
prisoners of war, Akbar strengthened the Mughal state.
Administration Akbar organised the nobility and his army by means of the Mansabdari system. Every
officer was assigned a rank (mansab), valued in terms of a certain number of mounted soldiers. The ranks
normally given to officers and nobels were valued from 10 to 5,000 (later raised to 7,000).
The mansabdars were assigned a jagir in lieu of cash payment.
a.

Organization of Government
Akbar reorganised the central machinery of administration on the basis of the division of power between
various departments, and of checks and balances. The office of the diwan or wazir, the head of the
revenue department and mir bakshi, the head of the military government, were almost at par with, and
supported and checked, each other. The third important officer was mir saman. He was in charge of the
imperial household. The fourth was the Chief qazi of the judicial department. His post was sometimes
combined with that of the Chief sadar who was responsible for charitable and religious endowments.

b.

Akbar divided the empire into 12 subas in 1580

The pattern of administration at the capital was repeated in each suba. Every suba was divided into a
number of sarkars and each of these into a number oiparganas. A group of villages made oneparagana.
Agovernor (subedar), a diwan, a bakshi, a sadar, a qazi and waqia-'navis or news reporters were
appointed to each of the provinces. The Icotwal, was in charge of town administration and responsible for
catching criminals, inspecting weights and measures and keeping a register of all the persons living in the
neighbourhood, including visiting foreigners.

c.

Religious Ideas
After his successes in military activities and administration, Akbar's insatiable questhis personal religious
needled him to build the Ibadat Khana or the Hall of prayer in 1575. Initially it was open only to the
Sunnis but later (1578) it was also opened to people of all religions; Su lis. Shias, Christians,
Zoroastraians, Hindus, Jains, even atheists. His aim was to ascertain the truth, to find out and disclose the
principles of genuine religion.

IV.

Jahangir (1605-1627)
Jahangir strengthened Mughal control over Bengal. Four successive campaigns between 1600 and 1613
forced Amur Singh of Mewar to accept Mughal suzerainty. He was accorded the same status as the rulers
of Jodhpur, Bikaner and Amber. Jahangir continued his father's policy of matrimonial alliances with Rajput
princes. Kangra was annexed to the empire. The frontier with the kingdom of Ahmednagar, which had
been a source of trouble due to Malik Ambar's guerrilla warfare, was settled. Many of the small chieftains
and Afgan nobles who had not yet acknowledged Mughal overlordship were made to do so and the empire
further strengthened. Moreover, Qandhar, an important point on the trade route to western Asia, was lost
to the Persians. The Mughal empire became more vulnerable to attacks from central and western Asia.
Towards the end of his reign, Jahangir had to deal with the rebellion of Shah Jahan, his son.

22
An important event of Jahangir's reign was the active interest taken by IN u r Jahan, his queen, in matters
of state. Persain art and culture acquired great prestige at the court. Jahangir fell ill for a long time.
During this time she ruled the empire. Even the coins were issued jointly in the names of Jahangir and Nur
Jahan.
V.

Shahjahan (1628-1458)
On his succession to the throne, the first thing he had to face was revolts in Bundelkhand and the Deccan.
The former he put down without too much trouble. But the latter was more difficult to handle and the
Deccan became a major trouble-spot for the Mughals. Finally, the kingdom of Ahmednagar was annexed
(1633). Bijapur and Golconda submitted to the Mughals and signed a treaty of peace in 1636.
Shah Jahan appointed his son, Prince Aurangzeb, as the Viceroy of the Deccan. Aurangzeb later tried hard
to annex these two Deccani kingdoms but did not succeed, Mean- while the Marathas also emerged as a
major threat to the authority of the Mughals.
Decline of the Mughal Empire (1706-61)
Aurangzeb's death in 1706 set off the rapid decline of the empire. His successors [see Box] were weak
and increasingly became mere tools in the hands of the nobles, who began to play the role of the
kingmakers. For instance Jahandar Shah, one of the four sons of Bahadur Shah who emerged victorious,
was supported by Zulfiqar Khan, a prominent noble of the time. And, later, Jahandar was defeated by his
nephew Farrukhsiyar, who was supported by the Sayyid brothers, and later murdered by them. The
successors, also, always faced a lurking danger of foreign invasions from the north-west frontier, Shah
Alam I, for instance, because of it spent his initial years as an emperor far away from his capital, Taking
advantage of this, the Rajputs, the Sikhs and the Afghans openly defied the authority ofthe Mughal
emperor. One notable Rajput principality that emerged was that of Amber. It rose to prominence under
Sawai Jai Singh (1699 -1743), who founded the new city of Jaipur in 1728. He was deeply interested in
Mathematics and Science. He got Euclid's 'Elements of Geometry' translated into Sanskrit and built five
astronomical observatories in India, for instance the Jantar Mantar or House of Instruments at Jaipur.
Even more disturbing was the fact that the assertion of independence had spread to other parts of the
empire.
The governors of Hyderabad, Bengal and Avadh established independent kingdoms and the Marathas,
reorganised under a new system of government, that of the Brahman ministersthe Peshwas, were
gradually extending their control towards North India. At the same time foreign invasions such as those of
Nadir Shah (1729) and Ahmed Shah Abdali (1747-61) further weakened the empire. The rising power
ofthe Marathas was temporarily checked by their defeat at the hands of Ahmad Shah Abdali in the Third
battle of Panipat in 1761. The Mughals were now reduced to the area around Delhi. Mughal emperors
continued to rule in name until 1857. Real political power in the 18th century had shifted to the hands of
the new kingdoms.

VI.

Aurangzeb (I658-1707)
Aurangzeb ruled for almost 50years. During his long reign, the Mughal empire reached its territorial
climax. At its height it stretched from Kashmir in the north to Jinji in the south, and from the Hindu Kush
in the west to Chittagong in the east. But much of Aurangzeb's time was spent in trying to put down
revolts in different parts of the empire. Aurangzeb sent his army to the Deccan to curtail the rising
Maratha power and to prevent them from overpowering the kingdoms of Bijapur and Golconda.

23
VII

Cultural Developments during the Mjughal Era

a.

Architecture
The Mughals built magnificent monuments. They also laid out many formal gardens with running water in
the neighbourhood of Agra and Lahore. Some other Mughal gardens, like the Nishat Bagh in Kashmir, the
Shalimar at Lahore, the Pinjore garden in the Punjab, etc. have survived to this day.
Akbar was the first Mughal emperor who had the time to undertake construction on a large scale. He built
a series of forts. The most famous is the fort at Agra built in red stone with its many magnificent gates.
Akbar built a fort-palace complex at Fatehpur Sikri, 36 km from Agra with red sandstone. The architecture
is an excellent blending of Persian, (half dome portal), central Asian (glazed blue tiles used for decoration)
and various Indian styles (square brackets at the entrances, the design of the caves). The mosque and
the Bulund Darwaza or lofty gate, built to commemorate Akbar's victory in Gujarat were the most
magnificent. The gate is in the half-dome portal style which subsequently became a common feature in
Mugha! buildings.
Humayun's tomb, built by Akbar in Delhi is also different from the earlier tombs of the Sultanate period.
Not only does it have more Tndian features, it is placed in the middle of a large, well-laid out garden. The
entrance to the tomb and garden is through a massive gateway, which is a monument in itself. This
feature of a garden and gateway are to be found in all Mughal style tombs.
The Taj Mahal brought together in a pleasing manner all the architectural forms developed by the Mughals
The chief glory of the Taj is the massive dome and the four slender minerates linking the platform to the
main building. The decorations were kept to a minimum; delicate marble screens, pietra dura inlay work
and kiosks {chhatris) adding to the effect. The building gains an aesthetic touch by being placed in the
midst of formal garden.

b.

Music
Tansen, the famous singer at Akbar's court, is credited with having enriched the Hindustani school or
north Indian style of music by composing many new melodies or ragas. One of the most popular of these
was the raga Darbari, believed to be Tansen's special composition for Akbar. The Hindustani school of
music had, by now, taken many features from Persian music.
Jahangir and Shah Jahan continued patronising this branch of cultural life. However, Aurangzeb in his later
years, banished singing from his court. New styles of singing such as the khayal which had been
developed in the Mughal court and the thumri became popular in the new centres which sprang up in the
provinces and small kingdoms.

c.

Literature
Persian prose and poetry reached a climax under Akbar's reign. Abul Fazal set a style of prose-writing
which was emulated for many generations. The leading poet of the age was his brother, Faizi Utbi). He,
together with Naziri were the two leading Persian poets, Apart from literary and historical works, a
number of famous dictionaries of the Persian language were also compiled during the period.

24
d.

Painting
The Mughals made a distinctive contribution in the field of painting. They introduced new themes depicting
the court, battle scenes and the chase, and added new colours and forms.
The revival began under Akbar. He organised painting in one of the imperial establishments (karkhanas).
Here painters from different parts of the country came together. Jaswant and Dasawan were two of the
famous painters at Akbar's court.
Indian themes and Indian landscapes became very popular, helping to free the school from Persain
influence. Indian colours like peacock blue, Indian red, began to be used. Above all, the somewhat flat
effect of the persain style began to be replaced by the roundness of the Indian brush, giving the pictures a
three-dimensional effect.
European painting was introduced at Akbar's court by the Portuguese priests. Soon principles of foreshortening, whereby near and distant images could be placed in perspective, were adopted.
Mughal paintings, especially portrait painting reached a climax under Jahangir. His court patronized many
of the best artists of the time like Bishan Das, Murad, Mansur and Bahzad.
While the tradition continued under Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb's lack of interest forced the artists to disperse
to various provincial capitals where local governors employed them. They helped in the development of
painting in the states of Rajasthan and the Punjab hills.
Another school of painting which flourished at this time was the Deccan school which was encouraged by
the Bijapuri kings.

M.

THE EUROPEANS IN INDIA

I.

The Portuguese
Vasco-de-Gama landed at Calicut in 1498. In his wake came the Portuguese to trade with India. The
Portuguese soon had a monopoly of the highly profitable eastern trade for nearly a century. Under the
viceroyalty of Captain-General Alfonso de Albuquerque, a series of forts were established so as to
dominate the East Indies and the Arabian Sea, The object of the former measure was to control the spice
trade at its principal sources from Java to the Molucca Islands and of the latter to cut off the Arabmanaged spice trade from South India to Egypt and the Persian Gulf.
The system worked with remarkable success for about a century and then broke down because of the
challenges from other European powers.

II.

The Dutch
Holland sent the first fleet to the east in 1595. They went straight to the source of the spice trade in the
East Indies, established themselves at Jakarta and proceeded to turn out the Portuguese. In 1602, the
Dutch East India Company was formed and the Dutch parl iament gave it a charter empowering it to make
war, conclude treaties, etc. They then proceeded to develop a great Asian network by establishing a chain
of posts through Ceylon and Capetown to connect themselves with their home base. India came within

25
their purview only as a link in this commercial chain. It was a source of textiles for sale in the East Indies
in exchange for spices while the extreme south and Ceylon were valuable for their own supplies of pepper,
cardamom and cinnamon. They established their earliest factory at Pulicat, followed by others at Cochin
and Negapatam.
III

The English
An English East India Companyto trade with the East was formed in 1600. Queen Elizabeth (15881603) was one of the shareholders of the company. The Dutch were well entrenched in south-east Asia so
the English turned to India, particularly for its textiles and spice trade.
The English set up a factory at Surat in 1608 and sent Captain Hawkins to Jahangir's court to obtain Royal
favours. Later in 1615 Sir Thomas Roe was successful in getting an imperial farman to trade and establish
factories in all parts of the Mughal Empire. But they could do nothing so long as the Portuguese controlled
the sea. The main trading settlements of the Portuguese were at Cochin, Goa, Daman and,.-,. -Diu. In
1612-14, at Swally off Surat, the English defeated the Portuguese and then at Ormuz in the Persian gulf in
1614. The Portuguese clashed with the Mughal power in Bengal in 1631 and were driven out of their
settlement at Hugli. The Dutch were forced out of their last possesion in India by the British by 1695.
From this time, the English company steadily developed its activities. Surat was its centre of trade till
1687 but by 1623 it had established factories at Broach, Ahmedabad, Agra and Masulipatam (1613).
They, soon shifted the centre of their activity to Madras. Its lease had been given to them by the local
Raja in 1639. Here they built their factory called. Fort St. George. The island of Bombay was acquired by
the British from the Portuguese as a part of the dowry to King Charles II for marrying a portuguese
princess in 1688 and was soon fortified. In Eastern India the English opened their first factory in Orissa in
1633. In 1651 it was given permission to trade from Hugli in Bengal. They opened factories at Palna,
Balasore, Decca and other places in Bengal and Bihar, But soon hostilities broke out between the English
and the Mughal Emperor in 1686 after the former had sacked Hugli and declared war on the Emperor. The
war ended disastrously for them and the English once again lapsed into the role of humble petitioner and
sought pardons.

26

Modern India History

A.

The Revolt of 1857

The cumulative effect of British expansionist policies, economic exploitation and administrative innovations
over the years had adversely affected the positions of all rulers of Indian states, sepoys, zamindars,
peasants, traders, artisans, pundits, maulvis, etc. The simmering discontent burst in the form of a violent
storm in 1857 which shook the British empire in India to its very foundations
The causes of the revolt emerged from all aspects socio-cultural, economic and politicalof daily
existence of Indian population cutting through all sections and classes. These causes are discussed below.

I.

ECONOMIC CAUSES
The colonial policies of the East India Company destroyed the traditional economic fabric of the Indian
society. The peasantry were never really to recover from the disabilities imposed by the new and a highly
unpopular revenue settlement. Impoverished by heavy taxation, the peasants resorted to loans from
moneylenders/traders at usurious rates, the latter often evicting the former, on non-payment of debt
dues. These moneylenders and traders emerged as the new landlords, while the scourge of indebtedness
has continued to plague Indian society to this day.
British rule also meant misery to the artisans and handicraftsmen. The annexation of Indian states by the
Company cut off their major source of patronage. Added to this, British policy discouraged Indian
handicrafts and promoted British goods. The highly skilled Indian craftsmen were forced to look for
alternate sources of employment that hardly existed, as the destruction of Indian handicrafts was not
accompanied by the development of modern industries

II.

POLITICAL CAUSES
The East India Company's greedy policy of aggrandisement accompanied by broken pledges and oaths
resulted in loss of political prestige for it, on the one hand, and caused suspicion in the minds of almost all
ruling princes in India, on the other, through such policies as of 'Effective Control', 'Subsidiary Alliance'
and 'Doctrine of Lapse'. The right of succession was denied to Hindu princes. The house of Mughals was
humbled when on Prince Faqiruddin's death in 1856, whose succession had been recognised conditionally
by Lord Dalhousie, Lord Canning announced that the next prince on succession would have to renounce
the regal title and the ancestral Mughal palaces, in addition to renunciations agreed upon by Prince
Faqiruddiny

III.

SOCIO-RELIGIOUS CAUSES
Racial overtones and a superiority complex characterised the British administrative attitude towards the
native Indian population. The activities of Christian missionaries who folloWed the British flag in India
were looked upon with suspicion by Indians. The attempts at socio-religious reform such as abolition of
sati, support to widow-remarriage and women's education were seen by a large section of the population
as interference in the social and religious domains of Indian society by outsiders

27
IV.

DISCONTENT AMONG SEPOYS

The conditions of service in the Company's Army and cantonments increasingly came into conflict with the
religious beliefs and prejudices of the sepoys. Restrictions on wearing caste and sectarian marks and
secret rumours of proselytizing activities of chaplains (often maintained on the Company's expenses) were
interpreted by Indian sepoys, who were generally conservative by nature, as interference in their religious
affairs.
To the religious Hindu of the time, crossing the seas meant loss of caste. In 1856 Lord Canning's
Government passed the General Service Enlistment Act which decreed that all future recruits to the
Bengal Army would have to give an undertaking to serve anywhere their services nujght be required by
the Government. This caused resentment

V.

BEGINNING AND SPREAD

The reports about the mixing of bone dust in atta (flour) and the introduction of the Enfield rifle enhanced
the sepoys' growing disaffection with the Government. The cartridge of the new rifle had to be bitten off
before loading and the grease was reportedly made of beef and pig fat. The Army administration did
nothing to allay these fears, and the sepoys felt their religion was in grave danger.
The greased cartridges did not create a new cause of discontent in the Army, but supplied the occasion for
the simmering discontent to come out in the open. The revolt began at Meerut, 58 km from Delhi, on May
10, 1857 and then, gathering force rapidly, soon embraced a vast area from the Punjab in the north and
the Narmada in the south to Bihar in the east and Rajputana in the west.
Even before the Meerut incident, there were rumblings of resentment in various cantonments. The 19th
Native Infantry at Berhampur, which refused to use the newly introduced Enfield rifle and broke out in
mutiny in February 1857 was disbanded in March 1857. A young sepoy of the 34th Native Infantry,
Mangal Pande, went a step further and fired at the sergeant major of his unit at Barrackpore. He was
overpowered and executed on April 6 while his regiment was disbanded in May. The 7th Awadh Regiment
which defied its officers on May 3 met with a similar fate.

VI.

CAUSES OF FAILURE OF REVOLT

Limited territorial spread was one factor; there was no all-India veneer about the revolt. The eastern,
southern and western parts of India remained more or less unaffected.
Certain classes and groups did not join and, in fact, worked against the revolt. Big zamindars acted as
"breakwaters to storm"; even Awadh taluqdars backed off once promises of land restitution were spelt
out. Moneylenders and merchants suffered the wrath of the mutineers badly and anyway saw their class
interests better protected under British patronage.
The Indian soldiers were poorly equipped materially, fighting generally with swords and spears and very
few guns and muskets. On the other hand, the European soldiers were equipped with the latest weapons
of war like the Enfield rifle. The electric telegraph kept the commander-in-chief informed about the
movements and strategy of the rebels.

28
The revolt was poorly organised with no coordination or central leadership. The principal rebel leaders
Nana Saheb, Tantia Tope, Kunwar Singh, Laxmibaiwere no match to their British opponents in
generalship.
VII.

CONSEQUENCES
The revolt of 1857 marks a turning point in the history of India. It led to changes in the system of
administration and the policy of the Government.
(i) The direct responsibility for the administration of the country was assumed by the British Crown and
Company rule was abolished. The assumption of the Government of India by the sovereign of Great
Britain was announced by Lord Canning at a durbar at Allahabad in the 'Queen's Proclamation' issued on
November 1, 1858.
(ii) The era of annexations and expansion ended and the British promised to respect the dignity and rights
of the native princes.
(iii) The Indian states were henceforth to recognise the paramountcy of the British Crown and were to be
treated as parts of a single charge.
(iv) The Army, which was at the forefront of the outbreak, was thoroughly reorganised and British military
policy came to be dominated by the idea of "division and counterpoise".
(v) Racial hatred and suspicion between the Indians and the English was aggravated.

B.

Religious and Social Reform Movements

I.

GENESIS OF THE AWAKENING

Indian society in the nineteenth century was caught in a vicious web created by religious superstitions and
social obscurantism. Hinduism had become a compound of magic, animism and superstition. The priests
exercised an overwhelming and, indeed, unhealthy influence on the minds of the people. Idolatry and
polytheism helped to reinforce their position, and their monopoly of scriptural knowledge imp&rted a
deceptive character to all religious systems. There was nothing that religious ideology could not persuade
people to do.
Social conditions were equally depressing. The most distressing was the position of women. Th 2 birth of a
girl was unwelcome, her marriage a burden and her widowhood inauspicious. Attempts to kill female
infants at birth were not unusual. Several women hardly had a married life worth the name, yet when
their husbands died they were expected to commit sati which Raja* Rammohan Roy described as a
'murder according to every shastra'. If they succeeded in overcoming this social coercion, they were
condenjned as widows to life-long misery, neglect and humiliation
The impact of modern Western culture and consciousness of defeat by a foreign power gave birth to a new
awakening. There was an awareness that a vast country like India had been colonised by a handful of
foreigners because of internal weaknesses within the Indian social structure and culture. For some time it
seemed that India had lagged behind in the race of civilisation. This produced diverse reactions. Some
English-educated Bengali youth developed a revulsion for Hindu religion and culture, gave up old religious
ideas and traditions and deliberately adopted practices most offensive to Hindu sentiments, such as
drinking wine and eating beef. The response, indeed, was varied but the need to reform social and
religious life was a commonly shared conviction.

29
II.

SOCIAL REFORM
In the beginning, organisations such as the Social Conference, Servants of India Society and the Christian
missionaries were instrumental in social reform along with many enlightened individuals like Jyotiba Phule,
Gopalhari Deshmukh, K.T. Telang, B.M. Malabari, D.K. Karve, Sri Narayana Guru, E.V. Ramaswami
Naicker and B.R. Ambedkar. In later years, especially with the onset of the twentieth century, the national
movement provided the leadership and organisation for social reform.

a.

Fight for Betterment of Position of Women: The reformers had to work against great odds. Women
were generally accorded a low status and were considered to be inferior adjuncts to men, with no identity
of their own. Their desire to give expression to their talents and energies were further suppressed by
practices such as purdah, early marriage, ban on widow-remarriage, sati, etc. Both Hindu and Muslim
worhen were economically and socially dependent, while education was generally denied to them. The
Hindu women had no right to inherit property or to terminate an undesirable marriage. The Muslim
women could inherit but only half as much as men could, while in matters of divorce there was no equality
between men and women. Polygamy was prevalent among Hindus as well as Muslims.
Their glorification as wives and mothers was the only way in which the society recognised the contribution
of women as members of society. The struggle for the improvement of the status of women in the society
was considered to be vital, since a radical change in the domestic spherewhere initial socialisation of the
Individual takes place and where a crucial role is played by womenwas the need of the hour. There was
a clear understanding that this change would translate into reformed homes and reformed men, and that
no country whose females were sunk in ignorance could ever make significant progress in civilisation.

b.

Abolition of Sati Influenced by the frontal attack launched by the enlightened Indian reformers led by
Raja Rammohan Roy, the Government declared the practice of sati or the burning alive of widows illegal
and punishable by criminal courts as culpable homicide. The regulation of 1829 was applicable in the first
instance to Bengal Presidency alone, but was extended in slightly modified forms to Madras and Bombay
Presidencies in 1830A

c.

Female Infanticide The practice of murdering female infants immediately after birth was common
among upper class Bengalis and Rajputs who considered females to be an economic burden. The Bengal
regulations of 1795 and 1804 declared infanticide illegal and equivalent to murder, while an Act passed in
1870 made it compulsory for parents to register the birth of all babies

d.

Widow Remarriage The Brahmo Samaj had the issue of widow remarriage high on its agenda and did
much to popularise it. But it was mainly due to the efforts of Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (182091), the principal of Sanskrit College, Calcutta, that the Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act, 1856, which
legalised marriage of widows and declared issues from such marriages as legitimate, was passed by the
Government. Vidyasagar cited Vedic texts to prove that the Hindu religion sanctioned widow remarriage.

e.

Education of Women The Christian missionaries were the first to set up the Calcutta Female Juvenile
Society in 1819. The Bethune School, founded by J.E.D. Bethune, president of the Council of Education in
Calcutta in 1849 was the first fruit of the powerful movement for women's education that arose in the
1840s and 1850s. Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar was associated with no less than 35 girls' schools in

30
Bengal and is considered one of the pioneers of women's education. Charles Wood's Despatch on
Education (1854) laid great stress on the need for female education
III.

A GENERAL SURVEY OF SOCIO-CULTURAL REFORM MOVEMENTS AND THEIR LEADERS

a.

Raja Rammohan Roy and Brahmo Samaj Raja Rammohan Roy, the father of Indian Renaissance, was
a man of versatile genius, and the Brahmo Samaj established by him was the earliest reform movement
of the modern type greatly influenced by modern western ideas.
As a reformist ideologue, Roy believed in the modern scientific approach and principles of human dignity
and social equality. He put his faith in monotheism. He wrote Gift to Monotheists (1809) and translated
into Bengali the Vedas and the five Upanishads to prove his conviction that ancient Hindu texts support
monotheism. In 1814, he set up Atmiya Sabha in Calcutta to campaign against idolatry, caste rigidities,
meaningless rituals and other social ills. Strongly influenced by rationalist ideas, he declared that the
Vedanta is based on reason and that, if reason demanded it, even a departure from the scriptures is
justified. He said the principles of rationalism applied to other sects also, particularly to the elements of
blind faith in them.
Roy was a gifted linguist. He knew more than a dozen languages including Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic,
English, French, Latin, Greek and Hebrew. A knowledge of different languages helped him broadbase his
range of study. As a pioneer in Indian journalism, Roy brought out journals in Bengali, Hindi, English,
Persian to educate and inform the public and represent their grievances before the Government. As a
political activist, Roy condemned oppressive practices of Bengali zamindars and demanded fixation of
maximum rents. He also demanded abolition of taxes on tax-free lands. He called for a reduction of export
duties on Indian goods abroad and abolition of the East India Company's trading rights. He demanded the
Indianisation of superior services and separation ofj the executive from the judiciary. He demanded
judicial eqiiality between Indians and Europeans and that trial be held by jury.
Raja Rammohan Roy founded the Brahmo Sabha in August 1828; it was later renamed 3rahmo Samaj.
The Samaj was committed to "the worship and adoration of the Eternal, Unsearchable, Immutable Being
who is the Author and Preserver of the Universe". Prayers, meditation and readings of the Upanishads
were to be the forms of worship and no graven image, statue or sculpture, carving, paining, picture,
portrait etc, were to be allowed in the Samaj buildings, thus underlining the Samaj's opposition to idolatry
and meaningless rituals. The long-term agenda of the Brahmo Samaj -to purify Hinduism and to preach
monotheismwas based on the twin pillars of reason and the Vedas and Upanishads. The Samaj also tried
to incorporate teachings of other religions and kept its emphasis on human dignity, opposition to idolatry
and criticism of social evils sucn as sati

b.

Maharishi Debendranath Tagore (1817-1905), father of Rabirtdranath Tagore and a product of the
best in traditional Indian learning and western thought, gave a new life to Brahmo Samaj and a definite
form and shape to the theist movement, when he joined $he Samaj in 1842. Earlier, Tagore headed the
Tattvabodhini Sabha (founded in 1839) which, along with its organ Tattvabodhini Patrika in Bengali, was
devoted to the systematic study of India's past with a rational outlook and to the propagation of Roy's
ides. A new vitality and strength of membership came to be associated with the Brahmo Samaj due to the
informal association of the two sabhas. Gradually, the Brahmo Samaj came to include prominent followers
of Roy, the Derozians and independent thinkers such as Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar and Ashwini Kumar

31
Datta. Tagore worked on two fronts: within Hinduism, the Brahmo Samaj was a reformist movement;
outside, it feso-lutely opposed the Christian missionaries for their criticism of Hinduism and their attempts
at conversion. The revitalised Samaj supported widow remarriage. women's education, abolition of
polygamy, improvement in ryots' conditions and temperence.
Prarthana Samaj In 1863, Keshub Chandra Sen helped four the Prarthana Samaj in Bombay. Earlier,
the Brahmo ideas spread in Maharashtra where the Paramhansa Sabha was founded in 1849. Here the
emphasis was on monotheism, on 'works' rather than on faith. They relied on education and persuasion
and not on confrontation with Hindu orthodoxy. There was a four-point social agenda also: (i) disapproval
of caste system, (ii) women's education, (iii) widow remarriage, and (iv) raising the age of marriage for
both males and females. The Prarthana Samaj had as its prominent leaders Mahadeo Govind Ranade
(1842-1901), R.G Bhandarkar (1837-1925) and N.G. Chandavarkar (1855-1923)
c.

Young Bengal Movement and Henry Vivian Derozio (1809 - 31) During the late 1820s and early
1830s, there emerged a radical, intellectual trend among thp youth in Bengal, which came to be known as
the 'Young Bengal Movement'. A young Anglo-Indian, Henry Vivian Derozio, who taught at the Hindu
College from 1826 to 1831, was the leader and inspirer of this progressive trend. Drawing inspiration from
the great French Revolution, Derozio inspired his pupils to think freely and rationally, question all
authority, love liberty, equality and freedom, and oppose decadent customs and traditions. The Derozians
also supported women's rights and education. Also, Derozio was perhaps the first nationalist poet of
modern India. The Derozians, however, failed to have a long-term impact. Derozio was removed from the
Hindu College in 1831 because of his radicalism. The main reason for their limited success was the
prevailing social conditions at that time, which were) not ripe for the adoption of radical ideas. Further,
supp/ort from any other social group or class was absent.

d.

Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar The great scholar and reformer, Vidyasagar's ideas were a happy blend of
Indian and western thought. He believed in high moral values, was a deep humanist and was generous to
the poor. Jn 1850, he became the principal of Sanskrit College. He was determined to break the priestly
monopoly of scriptural knowledge, and for this he opened the Sanskrit College to non-brahmirs. He
introduced western thought in Sanskrit College to break the self-imposed isolation of Sanskritic learning.
Also, as an academician, he evolved a new methodology to teach Sanskrit. He also devised a new Bengali
primer and evolved a new prose style.

e.

The Ramakrishna Movement The didactic nationalism of the Brahmo Samaj appealed more to the
intellectual elite in Bengal, while the average Bengali found more emotional satisfaction in the cult of
bhakti and yoga. The teachings of Ramakrishna Paramhansa (1834-86), a poor priest at the Kali temple in
Dakshineshwar, Calcutta, formed the basis of the Ramakrishna Movement. Two objectives of the
movement were(i) to bring into existence a band of monks dedicated to a life of renunciation and
practical spirituality, from among whom teachers and workers would be sent out to spread the universal
message of Vedanta as illustrated in the life of Ramakrishna, and (ii) in conjunction with lay disciples to
carry on preaching, philanthropic and charitable works, looking upon all men, women and children,
irrespective of caste, creed or colour, as veritable manifestations of the Divine.
Narendranath Datta (1862-1902), who later came to be known as Swami Vivekananda spread
Ramakrishna's message and tired to reconcile it to the needs of contemporary Indian society. He emerged
as the preacher of neo-Hinduism. Certain spiritual experiences of Ramakrishna, the teachings of the

32
Upanishads and the Gita and the examples of the Buddha and Jesus are the basis of Vivekananda'ft
message to the world about human values. He subscribed to the Vedanta which he considered a fully
rational system with a superior approach. His mission was to bridge the gulf between paramartha
(service) and vyavahara (behaviour), and between spirituality and day-to-day life. He believed in the
fundamental oneness of God and said, "For our own motherland a junction of the two great systems,
Hinduism and Islam, is the only hope." Emphasising social action, he declared that knowledge without
action is useless. He lamented the isolationist tendencies and the touch-me-not attitude of Hindus in
religious matters. He frowned at religion's tacit approval of the oppression of the poor by the rich. He
believed that it was an insult to God and humanity to teach religion to a starving man. He called upon his
couitf rymen to imbibe a spirit of liberty, equality and free thinking.
f.

Dayanand Saraswati and Arya Samaj The Arya Samaj Movement, revivalist in form though not in
content, was the result of a reaction to western influences. Its founder, Dayanand Saraswati (or
Mulshankar, 1824-83) was born in the old Morvi state in Gujarat in a brahmin family. He wandered as ari
ascetic for fifteen years (1845-60) in search of truth. The first Arya Samaj unit was formally set up by him
at Bombay in 1875 and later the headquarters of the Samaj were established at Lahore.
Dayanand's views were published in his famous work, Satyarth Prakash (The True Exposition).
Dayanand's vision of India included a classless and casteless society, a united India (religiously, socially
and nationally), and an India free from foreign rule, with Aryan religion being the common religion of all.
He took inspiration from the Vedas and considered them to be "India's Rock of Ages", the infallible and the
true original seed of Hinduism. He gave the slogan "Back to the Vedas". H&"had received education on
Vedanta from a blind teacher named Swami Virajananda in Mathura. Along with his emphasis on Vedic
authority, he stressed the significance of individual interpretation of the scriptures and said that every
person has the right of access to God. He criticised later Hindu scriptures such as the Puranas and the
ignorant priests for perverting Hinduism. Dayanand launched a frontal attack on Hindu orthodoxy, caste
rigidities, untouchability, idolatry, polytheism, belief in magic, charms and animal sacrifices, taboo on sea
voyages, feeding the dead through shraddhas, etc
It should be clearly understood that Dayanand's slogan of 'Back to the Vedas' was a call for a revival of
Vedic learning and Vedic purity of religion and not a revival of Vedic times. He accepted modernity and
displayed a patriotic attitude to national problems.

IV.

RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS

a.

Wahabi/Walliullah Movement Shah Walliullah (1702-62) inspired this essentially revivalist response to
western influences and the degeneration which had set in among Indian Muslims. He was the first Indian
Muslim leader of the 18th century to organise Muslims around the two-fold ideals of this movement: (i)
desirability of harmony among the four schools of Muslim jurisprudence which had divided the Indian
Muslims (he sought to integrate the best elements of the four schools); (ii) recognition of the role of
individual conscience in religion where conflicting interpretations were derived from the Quran and the
Hadis.
The teachings of Walliullah were further popularised by Shah Abdul Aziz and Syed Ahmed Barelvi who also
gave them a political perspective. India was considered to be dar-ul-Harb (land of the kafirs) and it

33
needed to be converted to dar-ul-lslam (land of Islam). Initially the movement was directed at Sikhs in
Punjab but after the British annexation of Rmjab (1849), the movement was directed against the British.
b.

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and the AligarhMovement The official view on the revolt of 1857 held the
Muslims to be the main conspirators. This view was further strengthened by the activities of the Wahabis.
But later, an opinion got currency among the rulers that the Muslims could be used as allies against a
rising tide of nationalist political activity represented, among others, by the foundation of the Indian
National Congress. This was to be achieved through offers of thoughtful concessions to the Muslims. A
section of Muslims led by Syed Ahmed Khan was ready to allow the official patronage to stimulate a
process of growth among Indian Muslims though better education and employment opportunities.

c.

Parsi Reform Movements The Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha (Religious Reform Association) was
founded in 1851 by a group of English-educated Parsis for the "regeneration of the social conditions of the
Parsis and the restoration of the Zoroastrian religion to its pristine purity". The movement had Naoroji
Furdonji, Dadabhai Naoroji, K.R. Cama and S.S. Bengalee as its leaders. The message of reform was
spread by the newspaper Rast Goftar (Truth-Teller). Parsi religious rituals and practices were reformed
and the Parsi creed redefined. In the social sphere, attempts were made to uplift the status of Parsi
women through removal of the purdah system, raising the age of marriage and education. Gradually, the
Parsis emerged as the most westernised section of the Indian society.

d.

Sikh Reform Movements The Sikh community could not remain untouched-by the rising tide of
rationalist and progressive ideas of the nineteenth century. The Singh Sabha Movement was founded at
Amritsar in 1873 with a two-fold objective(i) to make available modern western education to the Sikhs,
and (ii) to counter the proselytising activities of Christian missionaries as well as Hindu revivalists. For the
first objective, a network of Khalsa schools was established by the Sabha throughout Punjab. The Akali
movement was an offshoot of the Singh Sabha Movement. It aimed at liberating the Sikh gurudwaras
from the control of corrupt Udasi Mahants who were a loyalist and reactionary lot, enjoying government
patronage. The Government tried its repressive policies against the non-violent non-cooperation
satyagraha launched by the Akalis in 1921, but had to bow before popular demands and passed the Sikh
Gurudwaras Act in 1922 (amended in 1925) which gave the control of gurudwaras to the Sikh masses to
be administered through ShiromanL Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee (SGPC) as the apex body.

C.

MODERATE PHASE AND EARLY CONGRESS (1858-1905)

The rise and growth of Indian nationalism has beeivtraditionally explained in terms of Indian response to
the stimulus generated by the British Raj through creation of new institutions, new opportunities,
resources, etc.

FACTORS IN GROWTH OF MODERN NATIONALISM

a.

Understanding of Contradiction in Indian and Colonial Interests

b.

Political, Administrative and Economic Unification of theCountry

c.

Western Thought and Education

d.

Role of Press and Literature

e.

Rediscovery of India's Past.

f.

Progressive Character of Socio-religious Reform Movements

g.

Reactionary Policies and Racial Arrogance of Rulers

34
D.

POLITICAL ASSOCIATIONS BEFORE THE INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS

I.

Political Associations in Bengal

The Bangabhasha Prakalsika Sabha was formed in 1836 by associates of Raja Rammohan Roy.
The Zamindari Association, more popularly known as the 'Landholders' Society', was founded to safeguard
the interests of the landlords. Although limited in its objectives/ the Landholders' Society marked the
beginning of an organised political activity and use of methods of constitutional agitation for the redressal
of grievances.
The Bengal British India Society was founded in 1843 with the object of "the collection and dissemination
of information relating to the actual condition of the people of British India... and to employ such other
means of peaceful and lawful character as may appear calculated to secure the welfare, extend the just
rights and advance the interests of all classes of our fellow subjects".
In 1851, both the Landholders' Society and the Jtengal British India Society merged into the British Indian
Association. It sent a petition to the British Parliament demanding inclusion of some of its suggestions in
the renewed Charter of the Company, such as
(i) establishment of a separate legislature of a popular character
(ii) separation of executive from judicial functions
(iii) reduction in salaries of higher officers
(iv) abolition of salt duty, abkari and stamp dutfes.
These were partially accepted when the Charter Act of 1853 provided for the addition of six members to
the governor-general's council for legislative purposes.

a.

The Indian Association of Calcutta superseded tFve Indian League and was founded in 1876 by
younger nationalists df Bengal led by Surendranath Banerjea and Ananda Mohan Bose, who were getting
discontented with the conservative and pro-landlord policies of the British Indian Association. The Indian
Association of Calcutta was the most important of pre-Congress associations and aimed to
(i) create a stro: ig public opinion on political questions,and
(ii) unify Indian people on a common political programme

II.

Indian National Congress Its Aims and Objectives

Solid ground had thus been prepared for the establishment of an all-India organisation. The final shape to
this idea was given by a retired English civil servant, A.O. Hume, who mobilised leading intellectuals of the
time and with their cooperation organised the first session of the Indian National Congress at Bombay in
December 1885. As a prelude to this, two sessions of the Indian National Conference had been held in
1883 and 1885, which had representatives drawn from all major towns of India. Surendranath Banerjea
and Ananda Mohan Bose were the main architects of the Indian National Conference.

35
The first session of the Indian National Congress was attended by 72 delegates and presided over by
Womesh Chandra Bonnerjea. Hereafter, the Congress met every year in December, in a different part of
the country each time.
Aims and Objectives of the Congress These were to
(i) found a democratic, nationalist movement;
(ii) politicise and politically educate people;
(iii) establish the headquarters for a movement;
(iv) promote friendly relations among nationalist political workers from different parts of the country;
(v) develop and propagate an anti-colonial nationalist ideology;
(vi) formulate and present popular demands before the Government with a view to unifying the people
over a common economic and political programme;
(vii) develop and consolidate a feeling of national unity among people irrespective of religion, caste or
province.
(viii) develop promote and nurture Indian nationhood.
III.

METHODS OF POLITICAL WORK OF THE EARLY MODERATES (1885-1905)

The national leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozshah Mehta, D.E. Wacha, W.C. Bonnerjea, S.N.
Banerjea who domi-nated the Congress policies during this period were staunch believers in 'liberalism'
and 'moderate' politics and came to be labelled as Moderates to distinguish them from the neo-nationalists
of the early twentieth century who were referred to as the Extremists.
The moderate political activity involved constitutional agitation within the confines of law and shelved a
slow but orderly political progress. The Moderates believed that the British basically wanted to be just to
the Indians but were not aware of the real Conditions. Therefore, if public ppinion could be created in the
country and public demands be presented to the Government through resolutions, petitions, meetings
etc., the authorities would concede the$e demands gradually.

IV.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF MODERATE NATIONALISTS

Economic Critique of British Imperialism The early nationalists, led by Dadabhai Naoroji, R.C. Dutt,
Dinshaw Wacha and others, carefully analysed the political economy of British rule in India, and put
forward the "drain theory" to explain British exploitation of India. They opposed the transformation of a
basically self-sufficient Indian economy into a colonial economy (i.e., a supplier of raw materials and food
stuff, an importer of finished goods and a field of investment for British capital). Thus, the Moderates were
able to create an all-India public opinion that British rule in India was the major cause of India's poverty
and economic backwardness.

b.

Constitutional Reforms and Propaganda in Legislature

Legislative councils in India had no real official power till 1920. Yet, work done in them by the nationalists
helped the growth of the national movement. The Imperial Legislative Council constituted by the Indian
Councils Act (1861) was an impotent body designed to disguise official measures as having been passed
by a representative body. Indian members were few in number-thirty years from 1862 to 1892 only
forty-five Indians were nominated to it, most of them being wealthy, landed and with loyalist interests.
Only a handful of political figures and independent intellectuals such as Syed Ahmed Khan, Kristodas Pal,
V.N. Mandlik, K.L. Nulkar and Rashbehari Ghosh were nominated.

36
c.

Campaign for General Administrative Reforms These included the following:

(i) Indianisation of government en/ice: on the economic grounds that BrHish civil servants erU'd very high
emoluments while inclusion of Indians would be more economical; on political grounds that, since salaries
of British bureaucrats were remitted back home and pensions paid in England, this amounted to economic
drain; and on moral grounds that Indians were being discriminated against by being kept away from
positions of trust and responsibility.
(ii) Separation of judicial from executive functions.
(iii) Criticism of an oppressive and tyrannical bureaucracy and an expensive and ime-consuming judicial
system.
(iv) Criticism of an aggressive foreign policy which resulted in annexation of Burma, attack on Afghanistan
and suppression of tribals in the North-West.

Defence of Civil Rights These rights included the right to speech, thought, association'and a free press.
Through an incessant campaign, the nationalists were able to spread modern democratic idea$, and soon
the defence of civil rights became an integral part of the freedom struggle. It was due to the increased
consciousness that there was a great public outrage at the arrest of Tilak and several other leaders and
journalists in 1897 and at the arrest and deportation of the Natu brothers without a trial

E.

National Movement1905-1918

I.

WHY MILITANT NATIONALISM GREW

A radical trend of a militant nationalist approach to political activity started emerging in the 1890s and it
took a concrete shape by 1905. As an adjunct to this trend, a revolutionary terrorist wing also took shape

a.

Recognition of the True Nature of British Rule

b.

Growth of Confidence and Self-Respect

c.

Growth of Education

d.

International Influences

e.

Reaction to Increasing Westernisation

f.

Reactionary Policies of Curzon

F.

THE SWADESHI AND BOYCOTT MOVEMENT

The Swadeshi Movement had its genesis in the anti-partition movement which was started to oppose the
British decision to partition Bengal.
The Government's decision to partition Bengal had been made public in December 1903. The office reason
given for the decision was that Bengal with a population of 78 million (about a quarter of the population of
British India) had become too big to be administered. This was true to some extent, but the real motive
behind the partition plan was the British desire to weaken Bengal, the nerve centre of Indian nationalism.
October 16, 1905, the day the partition formally came into force, was observed as a day of mourning
throughout Bengal. People fasted, bathed in the Ganga and walked barefoot in processions singing Bande
Mataram (which almost spontaneously became the theme song of the movement). People tied rakhis on
each other's hands as a symbol of unity of the two halves of Bengal.

37
Soon, the movement spread to other parts of the countryin Poona and Bombay under Tilak, in Punjab
under Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh, in Delhi under Syed Haider Raza, and in Madras under Chidambaram
Pillai.
The Congress's Position The Indian National Congress, meeting in 1905 under the presidentship of
Gokhale, resolved to (i) condemn the partition of Bengal and the reactionary policies of Curzon, and (ii)
support the anti-partition and Swadeshi Movement of Bengal.
I.

THE MOVEMENT UNDER MILITANT LEADERSHIP

The Extremist Programme Emboldened by Dadabhai Naofoji's declaration at the Calcutta session
(1906) that self-government or swaraj was to'be_the goal of the Congress,, the Extremists gave a call for
passive resistance in addition to swadeshi and boycott which would include a boycott of government
schools and colleges, government service, courts, legislative councils, municipalities, government titles,
etc.
New Forms of Struggle The militant nationalists put forward several fresh ideas at the theoretical,
propaganda and programme levels. Among the several forms of struggle thrown up by the movement
were:
Boycott of foreign goods This included boycott and public burning of foreign cloth, boycott of foreignmade salt or sugar, refusal by priests to ritualise marriages involving exchange of foreign goods, refusal
by washermen to wash foreign clothes. This form of protest met with great success at the practical and
popular level.
Public meetings and processions These emerged as major methods of mass mobilisation and
simultaneously as forms of popular expression.
Corps of volunteers or 'samitis' Samitis such as the Swadesh Bandhab Samiti of Ashwini Kumar Dutta
(in Barisal) Emerged as a very popular and powerful method of mass mobilisation. These samitis
generated political consciousness among the masses through magic lantern lectures, swadeshi songs,
physical and moral training to their members, social work during famines and epidemics, organisation of
Schools, training in swadeshi crafts and arbitration courts.
Imaginative use of traditional popular festivals and melas The idea was to use such occasions as a
means of reaching out to the masses and spreading political messages. For instance, Tilak's Ganapati and
Shivaji festivals became a medium of swadeshi propaganda not only in western India, but also in Bengal.
In Bengal also, the traditional folk theatre forms were used for this purpose.
Emphasis given to self-reliance or 'atma shakti' This implied re-assertion of national dignity, honour
and confidence and social and economic regeneration of the villages. In practical terms, it included social
reform and campaigns against caste oppression, early marriage, dowry system, consumption of alcohol,
etc.

38
Programme of sivadeshi or national education Bengal nal College, inspired by Tagore Shantiniketan,
was set up with Aurobindo Ghosh as its principal. Soon national schools and colleges sprang up in various
parts of the country. On August 15, 1906, the National Council of Education was set up to organise a
system of educationliterary, scientific and technicalon national lines and under national control.
Education was to be imjparted through the medium of vernaculars. A Bengal Institute of Technology was
set up for technical education and funds were raised to send students to Japan for advanced learning.
Swadeshi or indigenous enterprises The swadeshi spirit also found expression in the establishment of
swadeshi textile miils, soap and match factories, tanneries, banks, insurance companies, shops etc. These
enterprises were based more on patriotic zeal than on business acumen.
Impact in the cultural sphere The nationalists of all hues took inspiration from songs written by
Rabindranath Tagore, Rajnikant Sen, Dwijendralal Ray, Mukunda Das, Syed Abu Mohammad and others.
Tagore's Amar Sonar Bangla written on this occasion was later to inspire the liberation struggle of
Bangladesh and was. adopted by it as its national anthem.
EXTENT OF MASS PARTICIPATION
The social base of the movement expanded to include certain sections of the zamindari, the students, the
women, and the lower middle classes in cities and towns. An attempt was also made to give political
expression to economic grievances of the working class by organising strikes in British-owned concerns
such as Eastern Indian Railways. But the movement was not able to garner support of the Muslims,
especially the Muslim peasantry, because of a conscious government policy of divide and rule helped by
overlap of class and community at places
II.

Annulment of partition
It was decided to annul the partition of Bengal in 1911 mainly to curb the menace of revolutionary
terrorism. The annulment came as a rude shock to the Muslim political elite. It was also decided to shift
the capital to Delhi as a sop to the Muslims, as it was associated with Muslim glory

III.

WHY DID THE SWADESHI MOVEMENT FIZZLE OUT?

By 1908, the open phase (as different from the underground revolutionary phase) of the movement was
almost over. This was due to many reasons
1. There was severe government repression.
2. The movement failed to create an effective organization or a party structure. It threw up an entire
gamut of techniques that came fb be associated with Gandhian politicsnon-cooperation, passive
resistance, filling of British jails, social reform and constructive workbut failed to give these techniques a
disciplined focus.
3. The movement was rendered leaderlesS with most of the leaders either arrested or deported by 1908
and with Aurobindo Ghosh and Bipin Chandra Pal retiring from active politics.
4. Internal squabbles among leaders, magnified by the Surat split (1907) did much harm to the
movement.
THE SURAT SPLIT
In December 1905, at the Benaras session of the Indian National Congress presided over by Gokhale, the
Moderate-Extremist differences came to the fore. The Extremists wanted to extend the Boycott and
Swadeshi Movement to regions outside Bengal and also to include all forms of associations (such as

39
government service, law courts, legislative councils, etc.) within the boycott programme and thus start a
nationwide mass movement. The Extremists wanted a strong resolution supporting their programme at
the Benaras session. The Moderates, on the other hand, were not in favour of extending the movement
beyond Bengal and were totally opposed to boycott of councils and similar associations. They advocated
strictly constitutional methods to protest against the .partition of Bengal. As a compromise, a relatively
mild resolution condemning the partition of Bengal and the reactionary policies of Curzon and supporting
the swadeshi and boycott programme in Bengal was passed. This succeeded in averting a split for the
moment.
At the Calcutta session of the Congress in December 1906, the Moderate enthusiasm had cooled a bit
because of the popularity of the Extremists and the revolutionary terrorists and because of communal
riots. Here, the Extremists wanted either Tilak or Lajpat Rai as the president, while the Moderates
proposed the name of Dadabhai Naoroji, who was widely respected by all the nationalists. Finally,
Dadabhai Naoroji was elected as the president and as a concession to the militants, the goal of the Indian
National Congress was defined as 'swarajya or self-government like the United Kingdom or the colonies'.
Also a resolution supporting the programme of swadeshi, boycott and national education was passed. The
word swaraj was mentioned for the first time, but its connotation was not spelt out, which left the field
open for differing interpretations by the Moderates and the Extremists.
The Extremists, emboldened by the proceedings at the Calcutta session, gave a call for wide passive
resistance and boycott of schools, colleges, legislativerouncils, municipalities, law courts, etc. The
Moderates, encouraged by the news that council reforms were on the anvil, decided to tone down the
Calcutta programme. The two sides seemed to be heading for a showdown.
The Extremists wanted the 1907 session to be held in Nagpur (Central Provinces) with Tilak or Lajpat Rai
as the president and reiteration of the swadeshi, boycott and national education resolutions. The
Moderates wanted the ion at Surat in or Tilak from the presidency, since a leader from the host province
could iot be session president (Surat being in Tilak's home province of Bombay). Instead, they wanted
Rashbehari Ghosh as the president and sought to drop the resolutions on swadeshi, boycott and national
education. Both sides adopted rigid positions, leaving no room for compromise. The split became
inevitable, and the Congress was now dominated by the Moderates who lost no time in reiterating
Congress commitment to the goal of self-government within the British Empire and to constitutional
methods only to achieve this goal.
IV

The Ghadr (The Ghadr Party was a revolutionary group ""organised around a weekly newspaper The
Ghadr with its headquarters at San Francisco and branches along the US coast and in thcf FarEast.
These revolutionaries included mainly ex-soldiers and peasants who had,migrated from the Punjab to the
USA and Canada in search of better employment opportunities. They were based in the US and Canadian
cities along the western (Pacific) coast.
The Ghadr programme was to organise assassinations of officials, publish revolutionary and antiimperialist literature, work among Indian troops stationed abroad, procure arms and bring about a
simultaneous revolt in all British colonies.
The moving spirits behind the Ghadr Party were Lala Hardayal, Ramchandra, Bhagwan Singh, Kartar Singh
Saraba, Barkatullah, Bhai Parmanand. The Ghadrites intended to bring about a revolt in India. Their plans

40
were encouraged by two events in 1914the Komagata Maru incident and the outbreak of the First World
War.

G.

HOME RULE LEAGUE MOVEMENT

The Home Rule Movement was the Indian response to the First World War in a less charged but a more
effective way than the response of Indians living abroad which took the form of the romantic Ghadr
adventure.
The Indian Home Rule Leagues were organised on the lines of the Irish Home Rule Leagues and they
represented the emergence of a new trend of aggressive politics. Annie Besant and Tilak were the
pioneers of this new trend.
Factors Leading to the Movement Some of the factors were as follows:
(i) A section of nationalists felt that popular pressure was required to attain concessions from the
Government
(ii) The Moderates were disillusioned with the Morley-Minto reforms.
(iii) People were feeling the burden of wartime miseries caused by high taxation and a rise in prices, and
were ready to participate in any aggressive movement of protest.
(iv) The War, being fought among the major imperialist powers of the day and backed by naked
propaganda against each other, exposed the myth of white superiority.
(v) Tilak was ready to assume leadership after his release in June 1914, and had made conciliatory
gestures to reassure the Government of his loyalty and to the Moderates that he wanted, like the Irish
Home Rulers, a reform of the administration and not an overthrow of the Government. He also said that
the acts of violence had only served to retard the pace of political progress in India. He urged all Indians
to assist the British Government in its hour of crisis.
(vi) Annie Besant, the Irish theosophist based in India since 1896, had decided to enlarge the sphere of
her activities to include the building of a movement for Home Rule on the lines of the Irish Home Rule
Leagues.
The Leagues Both Tilak and Besant realised that the sanction of a Moderate-dominated Congress as well
as full CQpperation of the Extremists was essential for the movement to succeed. Having failed at the
1914 session of the Congress to reach a Moderate-Extremist rapprochement, Tilak and Besant,decided to
revive political activity on their own.

I.

Tilak and Besant set up their separate leagues to avoid any friction.
Tilak's League was set up in April 1916 and was restricted to Maharashtra (excluding Bombay city),
Karnataka, Central Provinces and Berar. It had six branches and the demands included swarajya,
formation of linguistic states and education in the vernacular.
Besant's League was set up in September 1916 in Madras and covered the rest of India (including
Bombay city). It had 200 branches, was loosely organised as compared to Tilak's League and had George
Arundale as the organising secretary. Besides Arundale, the main work #as 4one by B.W. Wadia and C.P.
Ramaswamy Aiyar.

II.

The Home Rule League Programme The League campaign aimed to convey to the common man the
message of Home Rule as self-government. It carried a much wider appeal than the earlier mobilisations

41
did and also attracted the hitherto 'politically backward' regions of Gujarat and Sindh. The aim was to be
achieved by promoting political education and discussion through public meetings, organising libraries and
reading rooms containing books on national politics, holding conferences, organising classes for students
on politics, propaganda through newspapers, pamphlets, posters, illustrated post-cards, plays, religious
songs, etc., collecting funds, organising social work, and participating in local government activities. The
Russian Revolution of 1917 proved to be an added advantage for the Home Rule campaign.
Government Attitude The Government came down with severe repression, especially in Madras where
the students were prohibited from attending political meetings. A case was instituted against Tilak which
was rescinded by the High Court. Tilak was barred from entering the Punjab and Delhi. In June 1917,
Annie Besant and her associates, B.P. Wadia and George Arundale, were arrested. This invited nationwide
protest. In a dramatic gesture, Sir S. Subramaniya Aiyar renounced his knighthood while Tilak advocated
a programmeof passive resistance. The repression only served to harden the attitude of the agitators and
strengthen their resolve to resist the Government.

H.

National Movement 1919-1939 Era of Mass Nationalism

I.

Reasons for Rise

a.

Post-War Economic Hardships All Indians were experiencing hardships on various fronts.
Industry First, an increase in prices, then a recession coupled with increased foreign investment brought
many industries to the brink of closure and loss. TJtey now demanded protection against imports besides
goveqiment aid.
Workers and Artisans This section of the populace faced unemployment and bore the brunt of high prices.
Peasantry Faced with high taxation and poverty, the peasant waited for a lead to protest.
Soldiers Soldiers who returned from battlefields abroad gave an idea of their wide experience to the rural
folk.
Educated Urban Classes This section was facing unemployment.
These hardships coupled with high expectations of political gains from the Government created a charged
atmosphere in the country.

b.

Nationalist Disillusionment with Imperialism Worldwide The Allied powers, to rally the colonies to
their side during the war, had promised them an era of democracy
and self-determination after the war. During the war, both sides had launched vicious propaganda to
malign each other and expose each other's uncivilised colonial record. But soon it became clear from the
Paris Peace Conference and other peace treaties that the imperialist powers had no intentions of loosening
their hold over the colonies; in fact they went on to divide the colonies of the vanquished powers among
themselves. All this served to erode further the myth of the cultural and military superiority of the whites.
As a result the post-war period saw a resurgence of militant nationalist activity throughout Asia and
Africain Turkey, Egypt, Ireland, Iran, Afghanistan, Burma, Malaya, Philippines, Indonesia, Indo-China,
China and Korea.

c.

Impact of Russian Revolution (November 7, 1917) The Bolshevik Party of workers overthrew the
Czarist regime and founded the first socialist state, the Soviet Union, under the leadership of V.I. Lenin.
The Soviet Union unilaterally renounced the Czarist imperialist rights in China and the rest of Asia, gave

42
rights of self-determination to former Czarist colonies in Asia and gave equal status to the Asian
nationalities within its borders

I.

EMERGENCE OF GANDHI

I.

Early Career and Experiments with Truth in South Africa- Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born on
October 2, 1869 in Porbandar in the princely state of Katfeawar in Gujarat. His father was a diwan
(minister) of the state. Having studied law in England, Gandhi had gone to South Africa in relation with a
case involving his client, Dada Abdullah. In South Africa he witnessed the ugly face of white racism and
the humiliation and contempt to which Asians who had gone to South Africa as labourers were subjected.
He decided to stay in South Africa to organise the Indian workers to enable them to fight for their righjs.
He stayed there till 1914 after which he returned to India.
Phase of Passive Resistance Satyagraha (1906-1914) 1906, was characterised by the use-of the method
of passive resistance or civil disobedience, which Gandhi named satyagraha.
Satyagraha against Registration Certificates (1906) A new legislation in South Africza made it compulsory
for Indians there to carry at all times certificates of registration with their fingerprints. The Indians under
Gandhi's leadership decided not to submit to this discriminatory measure. Gandhi formed the Passive
Resistance Association to conduct the campaign. The Government jailed Gandhi and others who refused to
register themselves. Later, the authorities used deceit to make these defiant Indians register themselves.
The Indians under the leadership of Gandhi retaliated by publicly burning their registration certificates.
Campaign against Restrictions on Indian Migration The earlier campaign was widened to include protest
against a new legislation imposing restrictions oh Ihdian migration. The Indians defied this law by crossing
over from one province to another and by refusing to produce licences. Many 6i these Indians were jailed.

II.

GANDHI IN INDIA
During 1917 and 1918, Gandhi was involved in three strugglesin Champaran, Ahmedabad and Kheda
before he launched the Rowlatt Satyagraha.

a.

Champaran Satyagraha (1917)First Civil Disobedience Gandhi was requested by Rajkumar Shukla to
look into the problems of the indigo planters of Champaran in Bihar. The European planters had been
forcing the peasants to grow indigo on 3/20 of the total land (called tinkathia system). When towards the
end of the nineteenth century German synthetic dyes replaced indigo, the European planters demanded
high rents and illegal dues from the peasants in order to maximise their profits before the peasants could
shift to other crops. Besides, the peasants were forced to sell the produce at prices fixed by the
Europeans.
Within a decade, the planters left the area. Gandhi had won the first battle of civil disobedience in India.

b.

Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918)First Hunger Strike Gandhi now intervened in a dispute between mill
owners of Ahmedabad and the workers over the issue of discontinuation of the plague bonus. Gandhi
asked the workers to go on a strike and demand a 35 per cent increase in wages. The employers were

43
willing to concede a 20 per cent bonus only. Gandhi advised the workers to remain non-violent while on
strike. He undertook a fast unto death to strengthen the workers' resolve, but the fast also had the effect
of putting pressure on mill owners who finally agreed to give the vorkers a 35 per cent increase in wages.
c.

Kheda Satyagraha (1918)First Non-Cooperation Because of drought in 1918, the crops failed in Kheda
district of Gujarat. According to the Revenue Code, if the yield was less than one-fourth the normal
produce, the farmers were entitled to remission. The authorities refused to grant remission. Gandhi
supported the peasants' cause and asked them to withhold revenue. The authorities, not willing to openly
concede the peasants' demands, issued secret instructions that only those who could afford to pay should
pay. During the Kheda Satyagraha, many young nationalists as such aSardar Patel and Indulal Yagnik
became Gandhi's followers

J.

KHILAFAT AND NON COOPERAT1ON MOVEMENT

Background The background to the two movement was provided by a series of events after the First World
War which belied all hopes of the Government's generosity towards the Indian subjects. The year 1919, in
particular, saw a strong feeling of discontent among all sections of Indians for various reasons
1. The economic situation of the country in the post-War years had become alarming with a rise in prices
of commodities, decrease in production of Indian industries, increase in burden of taxes and rents etc.
Almost all sections of society suffered economic hardship due to the war and this strengthened the aniiBritish attitude.
2. The Rowlatt Act, the imposition of martial law in Punjab and the Jallianwalla Bagh massacre exposed
the brutal and uncivilised face of the foreign rule. .
3. The Hunter Commission on the Punjab atrocities proved to be an eyewash. In fact, the House of Lords
(of the British Parliament) endorsed General Dyer's action and the British public showed solidarity with
General Dyer by helping The Morning Post collect 30,000 pounds for him.
4. The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms with their ill-conceived scheme of dyarchy failed to satisfy the rising
demand of the Indians for self-government.
In this atmosphere emerged the Khilafat issue around which developed the historic Non-Cooperation
Movement.
The Khilafat Issue The Khilafat issue paved the way for the consolidation of the emergence of a radical
nationalist trend among the younger generation of Muslims and the section of traditional Muslim scholars
who were becoming increasingly critical of the British rule. This time, they were angered by the treatment
meted out to Turkey by the British after the First World War. The Muslims in India, as the Muslims all over
the world, regarded the sultan of Turkey as their spiritual leader, Khalifa, so naturally their sympathies
were with Turkey. During the War, Turkey had allied with Germany and Austria against the British. When
the War ended/ the British took a stern attitude towards Turkey Turkey was dismembered and the
Khalifa removed from power. This incensed Muslims all over the world.

I.

Congress Stand on Khilafat Question Congress felt inclined to support a non-coopeiatidn programme
on the Khilafat question because

44

it was felt that this was a golden opportunity to cement Hindu-Muslim unity and to bring Muslim masses
into the national mdveiitent; now different sections of societyHindus, Muslims, Sikhs, Christians,
peasants, artisans, capitalists, tribals, women, studentscould come into the national movement by
fighting for their own rights and realising that the colonial rule was opposed to them;

II.

Start of Movement September 1920 at a special session in Calcutta, the Congress approved a noncooperation programme till the Punjab and Khilafat wrongs were removed and swaraj was established.
The programme was to include

boycott of government schools and colleges;

boycott of law courts and dispensation of justice through panchayats instead;

boycott of Legislative Councils; (there were some differences over this as some leaders like C.R. Das were
not willing to include aipoycptt of councils, but bowed to Congress discipline; these leaders boycotted
elections held in November 1920 and the majority of the voters too stayed away);

boycott of foreign cloth and use of khadi instead; also practice of hand-spinning to be done;

renunciation of government honours and titles; the second phase could include mass civil disobedience
including resignation from government service, and non-payment of taxes.
During the movement, the participants were supposed to work for Hindu-Muslim unity and for removal of
untouchability, all the time remaining non-violent.
December 1920 At the Nagpur session of the Indian National Congress
(i) the programme of non-cooperation was endorsed;
(ii) an important change was made in Congress creed: now, instead of having the attainment of selfgovernment through constitutional means as its goal, the Congress decided to have the attainment of
swaraj through peaceful and legitimate means, thus committing itself to an extra-constitutional mass
struggle;

III

Spread of the Movement Gandhi accompanied by the Ali brothers undertook a nationwide tour. About
90,000 students left government schools and colleges anu joined around 800 national schools and
colleges which cropped up during this time. These educational institutions were organised under the
leadership of Acharya Narendra Dev, C.R. Das,Lala Lajpat Rai, Zakir Hussain, Subhash Bose (who became
the principal of National College at Calcutta) and included Jamia Milliaat Aligarh, Kashi Vidyapeeth, Gujarat
Vidyapeeth and Bih aif Vidyapeeth.
Many lawyers gave up their practice, some of whom were Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru, C.R. Das, C
Raja-gopalachari, Saifuddin Kitchlew, Vallabhbhai Patel, Asaf Ali, T. Prakasam and Rajendra Prasad. Heaps
of foreign cloth were burnt publicly and their imports fell by half. Picketing of shops selling foreign licjuor
and of toddy shops was undertaken at many places. Tilak Swaraj Fund was oversubscribed and one crore
rupees collected. Congress volunteer corps emerged as the parallel police.
In July 1921, the Ali brothers gave a call to the Muslims to resign from the Army as that was unreligious.
The Ali brothers were arrested for this in September. Gandhi echoed their call and asked local Congress
committees to pass similar resolutions to that effect.
Now, the Congress gave a cil to local Congress bodies to start civil disobedience if it was thought that the
people were ready for it. Already, a rio-tax movement against union board taxes in Midnapore (Bengal)
and in Guntur (Andhra) was going on.

45
In Assam, strikes in tea plantations, steamer services, Assam-Bengal Railways had been organised. J.M.
Sengupta was a prominent leader in these strikes.
In November 1921, the visit of the Prince of Wales to India invited strikes and demonstrations.
The spirit of defiance and unrest gave rise to many local struggles such as Awadh Kisan Movement (UP),
Eka Movement (UP), Mappila Revolt (Malabar) and the Sikh agitation for the removal of mahants in
Punjab.
IV.

Government Response Talks between Gandhi and Reading, the viceroy, broke down in May 1921 as the
Government wanted Gandhi to urge the Ali brothers to remove those portions from speeches which
suggested violence. Gandhi realised that the Government was trying to drive a wedge between him and
the Khilafat leaders and refused to fall into the trap. In December, the Government came down heavily on
the protestors. Volunteer corps were declared illegal, public meetings were banned, the press was gagged
and most of the leader- barring Gandhi were arrested.

V.

Chauri Chaura Incident A small sleepy village named Chauri- Chaura(Gorakhpur district, UP) has found
a pliace in history books due to an incident of violence on February 5, 1922 Which was to prompt Gandhi
to withdraw the movement. The police her Ha<4 beatefi up the leader of a group cf volunteers
rampaigriMg Against liquor sales and high food pric&s aind than opened fire on the crowd which had come
to protest before the police station. The agitated crtfwd torched the poKce>taton wflh policeitwn inside
who had taken shelter thera; those whio tried to flee were hacked to death and tfooWn back mto the fire.
Twenty-two policemen were killed in the vicrfence. Gandhi, not happy with the increasingly violent trend
of the movement, immediately announced the withdrawal of the movement.
The CWC met at Bardoli in February 1922 and resolved to stop all activity that led to breaking of law and
to get down to constructive work, instead, which was to include popularisation of khadi, national schools,
and campaigning for temperate, for Hindu-Muslim unity and against untouchability.

K.

CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT

Gandhi's Eleven Demands to carry forward the mandate given by the Lahore Congress, Gandhi presented
eleven demands to the Government and gave an ultimatum of January 31, 1930 to accept or reject these
demands. The demands were as follows.

I.

Issues of General Interest

1. Reduce expenditure on Army and civil services by 50 per cent.
2. Introduce total prohibition.
3. Carry out reforms in Criminal Investigation Department (CID).
4. Change Arms Act allowing popular control of issue of firearm licences.
5. Release political prisoners.
6. Accept Postal Reservation Bill.

II.

Specific Bourgeois Demands

7. Reduce rupee-sterling exchange ratio to Is 4d

46
8. Introduce textile protection.
9. Reserve coastal shipping for Indians.
III.

Specific Peasant Demands

10. Reduce land revenue by 50 per cent.
11. Abolish salt tax and government's salt monopoly.

IV.

Sequence of Events

a.

February 1930 With no positive response forthcoming from the Government on these demands, the
Congress Working Committee invested Gandhi with full powers to launch the Civil Disobedience
ftfovemerit (CDM) at a time and place of his choice.
Dandi March (March 12-April 6, 1930) On March 2, 1930, Gandrti informed the viceroy of his plan of
action. According to this plan (few realised its significance when it was first announced), Gandhi, along
with a band of seventy-eight members of Sabarmati Ashram, was to march from his headquarters in
Ahmedabad through the villages of Gujarat for 240 miles. On reaching the coast at Dandi, the salt law was
to be violated by collecting salt from the beach.

b.

Spread of Salt Disobedience Once the way was cleared by Gandhi's ritual at Dandi, defiance of the salt
laws started all over the country. In Tamil Nadu, C. Rajagopalachari led a march from Tiruchirapally to
Vedaranniyam. In Malabar, K. Kelappan led a march from Calicut to Poyannur. In Assam, satyagrahis
walked from Sylhet to Noakhali (Bengal) to make salt. In Andhra, a number of sibirams (camps) came up
in different districts as headquarters of salt satyagrah
Peshawar Here, Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan's educational and social reform work among the Pathans had
politicised them. Gaffar Khan, also called Badshah Khan and Frontier Gandhi, had started the first Pushto
political monthly Pukhtoon and had organised a volunteer brigade 'Khudai Khidmatgars', popularly known
as the 'Red-ShirtsVwho were pledged to the freedom struggle and non-violence
Dharsana On May 21, 1930, Sarojini Naidu, Imam Sahib and Manilal (Gandhi's son) took up the
unfinished task of leading a raid on Dharsana Salt Works. The unarmed and peaceful crowd was met with
a brutal lathicharge which left 2 dead and 320 injured. This new form of salt satyagraha was eagerly
adopted by people in Wadala (Bombay), Karnataka (Sanikatta Salt Works), Andhra, Midnapore, Balasore,
Puri and Cuttack.
Manipur and Nagaland These areas took a brave part in the movement. At the young age of thirteen,
Rani Gaidinliu of Nagaland raised the banner of revolt against foreign rule. She was captured in 1932 and
sentenced to life imprisonment.

V.

Extent of Mass Participation Several sections of the population participated in the movement.
Women Gandhi had specially asked women to play a leading part in the movement. Soon, they became a
familiar sight, picketing outside liquor shops, opium dens and shops seeing foreign cloth.
Students Along with women, students and youth played the most prominent part in boycott of foreign
cloth and liquor.

47
Muslims The Muslim participation was nowhere near the 1920-22 level because of appeals by Muslim
leaders to Muslim masses to stay away from the movement and because of active government
encouragement to communal dissension.
VI.

GANDHI-IRWIN PACT
On January 25, 1931 Gandhi and all other members of the CWC were released unconditionally. The CWC
authorised Gandhi to initiate discussions with the viceroy. As a result of these discussions, a pact was
signed between the viceroy, representing the British Indian Government, and Gandhi, representing the
Indian people, in Delhi on February 14,1931. This Delhi Pact, also known as the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, placed
the Congress on an equal footing with the Government. Irwin on behalf of the Government agreed on
1. immediate release of all political prisoners not convicted of violence;
2. remission of all fines not yet collected;
3. return of afl lands not yet sold to third parties;
4. lenient treatment to those government servants who had resigned;
5. right to make salt in coastal villages for personal consumption (not for sale);
6. right to peaceful and non-aggressive picketing; and
7. withdrawal of emergency ordinances. The viceroy, however, turned down two of Gandhi's demands
(i) public inquiry into police excesses, (ii) commutation of Bhagat Singh and his comrades' death sentence
to life sentence.
Gandhi on behalf of the Congress agreed
(i) to suspend the civil disobedience movement, and
(ii) to participate in the next RTC on the constitutional question around the three lynch-pins of federation,
Indian responsibility, andi reservations and safeguards that may be necessary in India's interests.

M.

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1935

(Amidst the struggle of 1932, the Third RTC was held in November, again without Congress participation.
The discussions led to the formulation of the Act of 1935.
Main Features The Government of India Act was passed by the British Parliament in August 1935. Its main
provisions weri as follows.

I.

An All India Federation

It was to comprise all British Indian provinces, all chief commissioner's provinces and Indian states. The
federation's formation was conditional on the fulfilment of two conditions: (i) states with allotment of 52
seats in the proposed Council of States should agree to join the federation; (ii) aggregate population of
states in the above category should be 50 per cent of the total population of all Indian states.
Since these conditions were not fulfilled, the proposed federation never came up. The Central Government
carried on upto 1946 as per the provisions of Government of India Act, 1919. ,

II.

Federal Level:

48
Executive
Governor-general was the pivot of the entire Constitution.
Subjects to be administered were divided into reserved and transferred subjects Reserved subjects
foreign affairs. defence, tribal areas and ecclesiastical affairswere to be exclusively administered by the
governor-general on the advice of executive councillors. Executive councillors were not to be responsible
to the Central Legislature. Transferred subjects included all other subjects and were to be administered by
the governor-general on the advice of ministers elected by tha legislature. These ministers were to be
responsible to the federal legislature and were to resign on losing the confidence of the body.
Governor-general could act in his individual judgement in the discharge of his special responsibilities for
the security and tranquillity of India.
Legislature
The bicameral legislature was to have an upper house (Council of States) and a lower house (Federal
Assembly). The Council of States was to be a 260-member house, partly directly elected from British
Indian provinces and partly (40 per cent) nominated by the princes. The Federal Assembly was to be a
375-member house, partly indirectly elected from British Indian provinces and partly (one-third)
nominated by the princes.
III.

Provincial Autonomy
Provincial autonomy replaced dyarchy.
Provinces were granted autonomy and separate legal identity.
Provinces were freed from "the superintendence, direction" of the secretary of state and governor-general.
Provinces henceforth derived their legal authority directly from the British Crown.
Provinces were given independent financial powers and resources. Provincial governments could borrpw
money on their own security.
Executive

Governor was to be the Crown's nominee and representative to exercise authority on the king's behalf in a
province.

Governor was to have special powers regarding minorities, rights of civil servants, law and order, British
business interests, partially excluded areas, princely states, etc.

Governor could take over and indefinitelyrun administration.

Legislature

Separate electorates based on Communal Award were to be made operational.

All members were to be directly elected. Franchise was extended; women got the right on the same basis
as men.

Ministers were to administer all provincial subjects in a council of ministers headed by a premier.

Ministers were made answerable to and removable by the adverse vote of the legislature.

Provincial legislature could legislate on subjects in provincial and concurrent lists.

40 per cent of the budget was still not votable.

Governor could (a) refuse assent to a bill, (b) promulgate ordinances, (c) enact governor's Acts.

49
N.

National Movement: Towards Freedom and Partition -1939-1947

Congress Position Before War: The Congress' hostility to Fascism, Nazism, militarism and imperialism had
been much more consistent than the British record. But the Indian offer to cooperate in the war effort had
two basic conditions:
1. After the war, a constituent assembly should be convened to determine political structure of a free
India.
2. Immediately, some form of a genuinely responsible government should be established at the centre.
The offer was rejected by Linlithgow, the viceroy. The Congress argued that these conditions were
necessary to win public opinion for war.
CWC Meeting at Wardha: Different opinions were voiced ort*me question of Indian support to British
war efforts
Gandhi advocated an unconditional support to the Allied powers as he made a clear distinction between
the democratic states of Western Europe and the totalitarian Nazis.

I.

AUGUST OFFER
To get Indian cooperation in the war effort, the viceroy announced the August Offer (August 1940) which
proposed:

dominion status as the objective for India.

expansion of viceroy's executive council.

setting up of a constituent assembly after the war where mainly Indians would decide the constitution
according to their social, economic and political conceptions, subject to fulfilment of the obligation of the
Government regarding defence, minority rights, treaties with states, all India services.

no future constitution to be adopted without the consent of minorities.

The Congress rejected the August Offer. Nehru said, "Dominion status concept is dead as a door nail."
Gandhi said that the declaration had widened the gulf between the nationalists and the British rulers.
The Muslim League welcomed the veto assurance given to the League, and reiterated its position that
partition was the only solution to the deadlock.
Evaluation For the first time, the inherent right of Indians to frame their constitution was recognised and
the Congress demand for a constituent assembly was conceded. Dominion status was explicitly offered.

III.

CRIPPS MISSION
In March 1942, a mission headed by Stafford Cripps was sent to India with constitutional proposals to
seek Indian support for the war. Stafford Cripps was a left-wing Labourite, the leader of the House of
Commons and a member of the British War Cabinet who had actively supported the Indian national
movement.

a.

Why Cripps Mission was Sent

Because of the reverses suffered by Britain in South-East Asia, the Japanese threat to invade India
seemed real now and Indian support became crucial.
Thfere was pressure on Britain from the Allies (USA, USSR, China) to seek Indian cooperation.

50
Indian nationalists had agreed to support the Allied cause if substantial power was transferred
immediately and complete independence given after the war.
b.

Main Proposals
The main proposals of the mission were as follows.
1. An Indian Union with a dominion status would be set up; it would be free to decide its relations with
the Commonwealth and free to participate in the United Nations and other international bodies.
2. After the end of the war, a constituent assembly would frame a new constitution. Members of this
assembly would be partly elected by the provincial assemblies through proportional representation and
partly nominated by the princes.
3. The British Government would accept the new constitution subject to two conditions: (i) a province not
willing to join the Union could have a separate constitution and Form a separate Union, and (ii) the new
constitution- making bpdy and the British Government would negotiate a treaty to effect the transfer of
power and to safeguard racial and religious minorities.
4. In the meantime, defence of India would, remain in British hands and the governor-general's powers
would remain intact.
The Congress objected to:
(i) the offer of dominion status instead of a provision for complete independence.
(ii) representation of the states by nominees and not by elected representatives.
(iii) right to provinces to secede as this went against the principle of national unity.
(iv) absence of any plan for immediate transfer of power and absence of any real share in defence; the
governor-general's supremacy had been retained, and the demand for governor-general being only the
constitutional head had not been accepted.

IV.

QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT

After Cripps' departure, Gandhi framed a resolution calling ror British withdrawal and a non-violent
nonrcooperation movement against any Japanese invasion. The CWG meeting at Wardha Quly 14, 1942)
accepted the idea of a struggle.

a.

Why Start a Struggle Now The reasons were several

1. The failure of the Cripps Mission to solve the constitutional deadlock exposed Britain's unchanged
attitude on constitutional advance and made it clear that any more silence would be tantamount to
accepting the British right to decide the fate of Indians without consulting them.
2. There was popular discontent because of rising prices and shortage of rice, salt, etc. and because of
factors such as commandeering of boats in Bengal and Orissa. There were fears of Britain following a
scorched earth policy in Assam, Bengal and Orissa agaipst possible Japanese advance.
3. News of reverses suffered by the British in South-East Asia and an imminent British collapse enhanced
popular willingness to give expression to discontent Popular faith in the stability of British rule was so low
that people were withdrawing deposits from banks and post offices.
4. The manner in which the British evacuated from South-East Asia leaving the subjects to their fate (two
roads were providedBlack Road for Indian refugees and White Road exclusively for European refugees),

51
and the rout by an Asian power shattered white prestige and exposed the racist tendencies of the rulers.
5. The leadership wanted to condition the masses for a possible Japanese invasion.
b.

AICC MeetingGowalia Tank, Bombay (August 8, 1942) The Quit India Resolution was ratified and the
meeting resolved to

demand an immediate end to British rule in India.

declare commitment of free India to defend itself against all types of Fascism and imperialism.

form a provisional Government of India after British withdrawal.

sanction a civil disobedience movement against British rule.

Gandhi was named the leader of the struggle.

c.

Gandhi's General Instructions to Different Sections

These were spelt out at the Gowalia Tank meeting but not actually issued. They were directed at various
sections of society.

Government servants: Do not resign but declare your allegiance to the Congress.

Soldiers: Do not leave the Army but do not fire on compatriots.

Students: If confident, leave studies.

Peasants: If zamindars are anti-government, pay; mutually agreed rent, and if zamindars are progovernment, do not pay rent.

Princes: Support the masses and accept sovereignty of your people.

Princely states' people: Support the ruler only if he is anti-government and declare yourselves to be a part
of the Indian nation.
Gandhi followed up with the now-famous exhortation: "Here is a mantra, a short one, that I give you. You
may imprint it on your hearts and let every breath of yours give expression to it. The mantra is: 'Do or
Die'. We shall either free India or die in the attempt; we shall not live to see the perpetuation of our
slavery."

d.

Spread of the Movement

Gandhi had carefully built the tempo through individual civil disobedience movements, organisational
revamping and a consistent propaganda campaign. The Government, however, was in no mood to either
negotiate with the Congress or wait for the movement to be formally launched. In the early hours of
August 9, in a single sweep, all the top leaders of the Confess were arrested and taken to unknown
destinations. Removal of established leaders left the younger and milrmnt elements at their pwn initiative.

Government Repression - Although martial law was not , the repression was severe. Agitating crowds
were lathi-charged, tear-gassed and fired upon. The nuipber of those killed is estimated at 10,000. The
press was muzzled. The military took over many cities; police and setaret service reigned supreme.
RetelUous villages were fined heavily and in many villages, mass flogging was done.

O.

WAVELL PLAN
The Conservative Government in Britain led by Churchill was keen to reach a solution on the constitutional
question in India. The viceroy, Lord Wavell was permitted to start negotiations with Indian leaders.
Congress leaders were released from jails in June 1945.

52
I.

Why the Government was Keen on a Solution Now ?

The general election in England was scheduled for mid-1945. Hie Conservatives wanted to be seen as
sincere on reaching a solution.
2. There was pressure from the Allies to seek further Indian cooperation in the war.
3. The Government wanted to divert Indian energies into channels more profitable for the British.

II.

The Plan
The idea was to reconstruct the governor-general's executive council pending the preparation of a new
constitution. For this purpose, a conference was convened by the viceroy, Lord Wavell, at Shimla in June
1945. The main proposals of the Wavell Plan were as follows.

With the exception of the governor-general and the ommander-in-chief, all members of the executive
council were to be Indians.

Caste Hindus and Muslims were to have equal representation.

The reconstructed council was to function as an interim government within the framework of the 1935 Act
(i.e. not responsible to the Central Assembly).

Governor-general was to exercise his veto on the advice of ministers.

Representatives of different parties were to submit a joint list to the viceroy for nominations to the
executive council. If a joint list was not possible, then separate lists were to be submitted.

P.

Possibilities were to be kept open for negotiations on a new constitution once the war was finally won.

The Indian National Army

The idea of the Indian National Army (INA) was first conceived in Malaya by Mohan Singh, an Indian
officer of the British Indian Army, when he decided not to join the retreating British Army and instead
turned to the Japanese for help.

I.

The First Phase

The Japanese handed over the Indian prisoners of war (POWs) to Mohan Singh who tried to recruit them
into an Indian NationaLArmy. After the fall of Singapore, Mohan Singh further got 45,000 POWs into his
sphere of influence. By the end of 1942, 40,000 men were ready to join the INA. The INA intended to go
into action only on invitation of the Indian National Congress and the people of India. It was also seen by
many as a check against the misconduct of the Japanese against Indians in South-East Asia and a bulwark
against a future Japanese occupation of India.

II.

The Second Phase

The next phase began with the arrival of Subhash Bose in Singapore in July 1943. Earlier, he had left the
Congress after having developed differences with Gandhi and had formed the Forward Bloc in 1940. In
March 1941, he escaped from India, where he had been under house arrest, and approached the Russian
leaders for help against Britain.. When in June 1941 the Soviet Union joined the war on behalf of the
Allies, Bose went to Germany and from there he reached Japan in February 1943. He asked for Japanese
help for an armed struggle against the British rule. He came to Singapore in July 1943 where he was
assisted by Rashbehari Bose and others, such as the Indian residents of South-East Asia and the Indian
POWs from Burma, Malaya and Singapore. In October 1943, he set up a Provisional Indian Government
with headquarters at Rangoon and Singapore. This Provisional Government was recognised by the Axis
powers. Recruits were trained and funds collected for the INA. Even a women's regiment called the Rani

53
Jhansi Regiment was formed. In July 1944, Subhash Bose asked for Gandhi's blessings for "India's last
war of independence".

Q.

THE CABINET MISSION

The Attlee Government announced in February 1946 the decision to send a high-powered mission of three
British Cabinet members (Pethick Lawrence, Secretary of State for India; Stafford Cripps, President of the
Board of Trade; and A.V. Alexander, First Lord of Admiralty) to India to find out ways and means for a
negotiated, peaceful transfer of power to India.

I.

Why British Withdrawal Seemed Imminent Now?

1. The success of nationalist forces in the struggle for hegemony was fairly evident by the end of the War.
Nationalism had penetrated into hitherto untouched sections and areas.
2. There was a demonstration among the bureaucracy and the loyalist sections, because the paucity of
ICS recruits and a policy of Indianisation had ended the British domination of the ICS as early as the First
World War and by 1939, there existed a British-Indian parity. The long war had caused weariness and
economic worries. Now only a depleted, war-weary bureaucracy battered by 1942 events remained.
3. The British strategy of conciliation and repression had its limitations and contradictions
This policy of an unclear mix presented a dilemma for the services, who nevertheless had to implement it.
The prospect of Congress ministries coming to power in the provinces further compounded this dilemma.
4. Constitutionalism or Congress Raj had proved to be a big morale-booster and helped in deeper
penetration of patriotic sentiments.
5. Demands of leniency for INA prisoners from within the Army and the revolt of RIN Ratings had raised
fears that the armed forces may not be as reliable if the Congress started a 1942-type mass movement,
this time aided by provincial ministries.
6. The only alternative to an all-out repression of a mass mbvement was an entirely official rule which
seemed impossible now because the necessary numbers and efficient officials were not-available.
7. The Government realised that a settlement was necessary for burying the ghost of a mass movement
and for good future Indo-British relations.
Now the overarching aim of the British policy-makers was a graceful withdrawal, after a settlement on the
modalities of the transfer of power and nature of post-imperial India-Britain relations.

II.

Cabinet Mission PlanMain Points

(i) Rejection of the demand for a full-fledged Pakistan, because
(ii) the Pakistan so formed would include a large non-Muslim population38% in the North-West and 48%
in the North-East;

54
(ii) the very principle of communal self-determination would claim separation of Hindu-majority Western
Bengal and Sikh- and Hindu-dominated Ambala and Jullundur divisions of Punjab (already some Sikh
leaders were demanding a separate state if the country was partitioned);
(iii) deep-seated regional ties would be disturbed if Bengal and Punjab were partitioned;
(iv) partition would entail economic and administrative problems, for instance, the problem of
communication between the western and eastern parts of Pakistan; and
(v) the division of armed forces would be dangerous.
Grouping of existing provincial assemblies into three sections Section-A: Madras, Bombay, Central Provinces, United Provinces, Bihar and Orissa (Hindu-majority
provinces).
Section-B: Punjab, North-West Frontier Province and Sindh (Muslim-majority provinces).
Section-C: Bengal andr Assam (Muslim-majority provinces).

Three-tier executive and legislature at provincial, section and union levels.

A constituent assembly to be elected by provincial assemblies by proportional representation (voting in

three groupsGeneral, Muslims, Sikhs). This constituent Assembly to be a 389-member body with
provincial assemblies sending 292, chief commissioner's provinces sending 4, and princely states sending
93 members.
This was a good, democratic method not based on weightage.

In the constituent assembly, members from groups A, B and C were to sit separately to decide the
constitution for provinces and if possible, for the groups also. Then, the whole constituent assembly (all
three sections A, B and C combined) would sit together to formulate the Union constitution.

A common centre would control defence, communication and external affairs.

Communal questions in central legislature were to be decided by a simple majority of both communities
present and voting.

Provinces were to have full autonomy and residual powers.

Princely states were no longer to be under paramountcy of British Government. They would be free to
enter into an arrangement with successor governments or the British Government.

After the first general elections, a province was to be free to come out of a group and after 10 years, a
province was to be free to call for a reconsideration of the group or the Union constitution.

Meanwhile, an interim government to be formed from the constituent assembly.

The statement contained dear hints of partition and even Balkanisation of the country into numeroustates
and was, in essence, a reversion of the Cripps Offer.

R.

MOUNTBATTEN PLAN, JUNE 3, 1947

The freedom-with-partition formula was coming to be widely accepted well before Mountbatten came. One
major innovation (actually suggested by V.P. Menon) was the immediate transfer of power on the basis of
grant of dominion status (with a right of secession), thus obviating the need to wait for an agreement in
the Constituent Assembly on a new political structure.

55
I.

Main Points
The important points of the plan were
Punjab and Bengal Legislative Assemblies would meet in two groups, Hindus and Muslims, to vote for
partition. If a simple Majority of either group voted for partition, then these provinces would be
partitioned.
In case of partition, two dominions and two constituent assemblies would be created.
Sindh would take its own decision.
Referendum in NWFP and Sylhet district of Bengal would decide the fate of these areas.
Since the Congress had conceded a unified India, all their other points would be met
(i) independence for princely states ruled out, they would either join India or Pakistan.
(ii) independence for Bengal ruled out.
(iii) accession of Hyderabad to Pakistan ruled out (Mountbatten supported the Congress on this).

Freedom Would come on August 15, 1947.

A boundary commission would be set up if partition was to be effected.

Thus, the League's demand was conceded to the extent that Pakistan would be created and the Congress'
position on unity was taken into account to make Pakistan as small as possible. Mountbatten's formula
was to divide India but retain maximum unity.
Why Congress Accepted Dominion Status The Congress was willing to accept dominion status despite its
being against the Lahore Congress (1929) spirit because
(i) it would ensure a peaceful and very quick transfer of power;
(ii) it was more important for the Congress to assume authority to check the explosive situation; and
(iii) it would allow for some much needed continuity in bureaucracy and army.
For Britain, the dominion status offered a chance to keep India in the Commonwealth, even if temporarily,
considering the economic strength, defence potential and greater value of trade and investment in India.

II.

Indian Independence ACT, 1947

On July 18, 1947 the British Parliament ratified the Mountbatten Plan as the "Independence of India Act
1947". The Act was implemented on August 15, 1947.
The Act provided for the creation of two independent dominions of India an Pakistan with effect from
August 15, 1947. Each dominion was to have a governor-general to be responsible for effective operation
of the Act. The constituent assembly of each new dominion was to exercise the powers of the legislature
of that dominion, and the existing Central Legislative Assembly and the Council of States were to be
automatically dissolved. For the transitional period, i.e., till a new constitution was adopted by each
dominion, the governments of the two dominions were to be carried on in accordance with the
Government of India Act, 1935.
As per the provisions of the Indian Independence Act, 1947, Pakistan became independent on August 14
while India got its freedom on August 15, 1947. M.A. Jinnah became the first Governor-General of
Pakistan. India, however, decided to request Lord Mountbatten to continue as the Governor-General of
India.

56

Modern World History

A.

Modern World: (1500 AD Onwards)

I.

Renaissance

The 16th century is commonly designated as the 'Age of Renaissance', also called the 'Revival of learning'.

It is said to have started from the capture of Constantinople (how Istanbul) by the Turks in 1453 and the
dispersal of the scholars throughout Europe, who sought asylum in Italy.

Italy practically became the home of the Renaissance-and fundamental to the Renaissance was the revival
of classical learning, art and architecture and the concept of the dignity of the man, which characterized
Humanism. It resulted in the emancipation of the mind of man from the shackles of effete dogmatism,
and in the creation of fresh intellectual atmosphere and ideals of life.

Great writers of the Italian Renaissance included Dante,, Petrarch, Boccaccio & Machiavelli. Great painters
of Italian Renaissance included Leonardo da Vinci (Famous Paintings:' The Last Supper'& 'Monalisa'),
Michelangelo('The Last Judgement & "The Fall of Man') & Raphel ('Madona'). Great astronomers of Italian
Renaissance included Bruno & Galileo.

II.

Reformation

The Reformation was another movement that the 16th century witnessed.

It was started by Martin Luther in Wittenburg, Germany in 1517 by publicly protesting against the sale of

(Indulgence : the letters which remitted punishments of the sinners who bought them and which began to

letters of Indulgence.
be considered as passports to heaven.)

It was a revolt against the control of conscience by the priests. fe Thanks to the inborn spirit of revolt
against the Catholic Church, Henry VIII of England could take the bold step of breaking away from the
papacy i.e., authority of the Pope on the issue of his first divorce in 1534. Henry VIII declared I? himself
the head of the church when the Pope would not give him permission I to divorce his wife, Catherine.

III.

Geographical Discoveries

Discovery

Year

Discoverer (Nationality)

Sponsered
by

Cape of Good Hope

1487

Bartholomew Diaz (Portuguese)

Portugal

America

1492

Christopher Columbus (Geneo, Italian)

Spain

Newfoundland

1497

John Cabot (Italian)

England

Sea-route of India via Cape of Good

1498

Vasco da Gama (Portuguese)

Portugal

Brazil

1500

Pedro Alvarez Carbal (portuguese)

Portugal

Strait of Magellan

1520

Magellan (Portuguese)

Spain

Island of Tasmania & New Zealand

1642

Tasman (Dutch)

Holland

Sandwich Island / Hawaiian Island

1770

Captain James Cook (British)

England

North pole

1909

Robert Peary (American)

USA

South Pole

1911

Amundsen (Norwegian)

Norway

Hope

57

A great development which marked the beginning of the modern age in Europe was a series of
geographical discoveries.

Helped by some remarkable inventions viz. the Compass and Astrolabe, daring sailors sailed from distant
lands.

They were financed by rulers and merchants.

The main motivation behind these adventures was the lure of profits that trade with the East would bring.

During 1288-93, Marco Polo (1256-1326), Venetian traveller, travelled from Venice to China and Japan.
He was the 'first European to visit China'. From his travelogue the Europeans learned about the all round
prosperity of the East.

The first great steps in the exploration of the earth were taken by the sailors under the patronage of
Portuguese and Spanish rulers.

IV.

Glorious Revolution : 1688, England

So a few leading menWhigs as well as Tories dispatched an invitation to William of Orange, ruler of
Holland, to succeed to the English throne and save England form Catholic tyranny.

William accepted the invitation and came to England for his purpose.

James II, throwing the great seal into the Thames, fled to France.

This event is known as Glorious or Bloodless Revolution in England.

Effects: (1) The despotic rule of the Stuarts ended; the supremacy of Parliament was established. (2) The
system of requiring estimate and accounts for supplies and, of specific appropriations which is nucleus
of modern budgetary system now became fixed. (3) The Bill of Right (1689) : It settled down the
problem of succession; it also laid the provision that no Roman Catholic can wear the Crown. As William
III and his wife Mary U (daughter of James II and a Protestant by faiths the joint monarchs accepted the
Bill of Rights.

V.

Industrial Revolution
The process of change that transformed Britain first and then other countries from agricultural to
industrial economics.
The Industrial Revolution began about 1750 when the agricultural revolution was well under way.
Inventions were made in the textile industry by such men as James Hargreave$ (Spinning Jenny, 1764),
RichardArkwright(Water Frame, 1769), Samuel Crompton (Mule, 1779), and Emmund Cartwright (Power
Loom, 1785), which made ijhe production of cloth much faster and the yarn produced of better quality.
These new machines required factories to house them, at first near rivers for water power and then, when
the steam engine was invented (by James Watt in 1769), near coalfields.
England, an agriculutral country was now turned into a manufacturing country.
The production increased manifold. Things were available at cheaper rates. Improved methods of
communication followed.
The economic progress and industrialisation of England influenced the social and cultural life of the people.
It had far-reaching affects on the political history fo England.
By 1850 the Industrial Revolution had penetrated into Belgium, France, Germany, Switzerland and USA.
By 1900 it had extended to Sweden, Italy, Russia, Japan & Argentina. Presently it is penetrating into
China, India and Africa.

58
B

IMPORTANT EVENTS MOVEMENTS AND REVOLUTIONS

I.

American Revolution or American War of Indpendence: 1775-83

The American Revolution is the name given to the struggle by which 13 colonies of England in North
America declared their independence from England and fought a war to make it a reality.

Attempts to collect new taxes such as the Stamps Act (1765) and Tax on tea (1767) angered the colonists
who maintained that the British government was imposing 'taxation without representation' and that only
the colonial representative assemblies could rightfully tax the Americans.

Boston Tea Party (1773) .The tax on tea led to trouble. In 1773, several colonies refused to unload the
tea coming in English ships. In Boston, when the governor ordered a ship to be unloaded, a group of
citizens dressed as American Indians, boarded the ship and dumped the crates of tea into the water. This
incident is known as the 'Boston Tea Party'.

On July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Independence was issued. Its author was Thomas Jafferson. The
Declaration started that all men are created equal; that they have a natural and inalienable right to life,
liberty and pursuit of happiness; and that they are justified in revolting when these rights are violated by
any government.

The colonies won the war against England. The American Revolution made possible the establishment of a
new nation, the United States of America (U.S.A.).

In 1783 England acknowledged American independence in the treaty of Paris and George Washington was
elected the first President of USA.

II.

French Revolution: 1789-93

The French Revolution was a great event in the history not only of France & Europe but of mankind as a
whole. It gave to humanity new ideas of 'Liberty, Equality & Fraternity'.

This political upheaval began in 1789. King Louis XTVand his successors had brought divine-right
absolutism to the peak. The French king, in the 18th century, had unlimited powers. Opponents were put
in prison without trial.

French society consisted of three estates or classes. The first (clergy) and second (nobility) estates were
privileged in many ways. Members of third estate commoners (middle class, workers & peasants ) were
the 'under dogs'. They made 90% of the population. Almost the entire tax burden fell on third estate. But
the privileged classes were exempted from these taxes.

These undemocratic features of French society were sharply criticised by able writers and thinkers like
Montesquieu (1689-1775), Voltaire (1694-1778) and Rousseau (1712-1778).

The French Revolution started with the fall of Bastille Fort. The mobs in Paris attacked the Bastille on July
14,1789, killed its governor and freed the prisoners.

Government in France broke down, as royal officials fled and the people stopped paying taxes. The
National Assembly governed France from 1789-1791. It drafted a constitution which created a limited
monarchy. Its preamble was the famous Declaration of the Rights of Man. All feudal rights were abolished.
Local government was reorganised.

The French Revolution was an event of fundamental importance not only for France but for whole of
Europe and ultimately for the whole world". In France, the Revolution established the political supremacy
of the middle class in the towns and transferred the bulk of landed property to the peasantry in the

59
countryside. For Europe and the world, it represented an ideal of popular sovereignty and equality before
the law.
III.

Unification of Italy : 1848-70

One of the major features of the history of Europe in 19th century was the struggle for the national
unification and independence. Italy & Germany were the two important nations which emerged as united,
independent states in the 19th century.

In the early 19th century, Italy was divided into a number of states in which the Kingdom of Sardinia was
the most powerful.

The struggle for Italian independence and unification was organised by the two famous revolutionaries
Mazzini&c Garibaldi. The movement led by them is known as the 'Young Italy' movement.

After the revolution of 1848, Count Cavour, the Prime Minister of Sardinia, took the initiative of uniting
Italy under the leadership of Sardinia.

IV.

Rome became the capital of united Italy.

Unification of Germany : 1848-71

Like Italy, Germany was also divided into a number of states. At the end of the Napoleonic wars (17921815) there were 38 independent states in Germany in which Prussia was the most powerful.

In 1815, the German states along with Austria were organised into a Germanic confederation.

The FrankfurtAssemblyproposed the unification of Germany as a constitutional monarchy under the king of
Prussia who would become the emperor of Germany.

Now Germany was to be unified not into a democratic country by the efforts of revolutionaries but by the
rulers into militaristic empire. The leader of this policy was Bismarckwho belonged to a Prussian
aristocratic family. He wanted to achieve the unification of Germany under the leadership of the Prussian
monarchy.

Bismarck described his policy of unification as one of 'blood and iron'. The policy of blood and iron meant a
policy of war.

He defeated Austria and dissolved the Germanic confederation. Thus Austria was separated from other
German states. In place of old confederation, he united 22 states of Germany into North German
Confederation in 1866.

C.

WORLD AFTER 1900

I.

First World War: July 28, 1914 Nov. 11,1918

a.

Causes : The causes of First World War are as under

1.

Militarism

2.

Narrow Nationalism or Competitive Patriotism

3.

Economic Imperialism

4.

Anglo-German Rivalry & The charter of William II

5.

Lack of International Organisation

60
b.

Immediate Cause : The immediate cause of the war was the murder of Archduke Ferdinand who was the
heir to the Austrian throne.

c.

Course of War : To begin with, Austria was in favour of local war but as time passed, the situation
became more grave. Other countries jumped into the fray. Germany, Austria-Hungary Turkey & Bulgaria
were on one side; they were called Central Powers. On the other side were England, France, Serbia,
Belgium, Japan and Russia; they were called the Allied Powers. The Allied powers joined by Italy in 1915
and USA in 1917. The war started on July 28,1914 and ended on Nov. 11,1918.

d.

Peace Settlement (1919-20) : The Central Powers were completely defeated by the Allied Powers and
an Armistice was signed on Nov. 11,1918, followed by a Peace Conference at Paris.
This Treaty rearranged the boundaries of Europe, and many new states Poland, Czechoslovakiya,
Yugoslavia, Estonia, Lithuania, etc. were formed. William II, the German Emperor, abdicated and took
asylum in the Netherland (Holland). The treaty also contained provisions for disarming Germany, the
strength of her army was to be limited to 1,00,000 troops. Germany was to pay 6,50,00,000 as warreparations for damage done to the Allies during the war. The Treaty of Versailles was followed by the
Treaty of St. Germaine (1919), the Treaty ofNeuilly (1919), the Treaty of Trianon (1920) and the Treaty
ofSeveres (1920).
At the instance of Woodrow Wilson, the President of America, the League of Nations officially came into
existence of Jan. 10,1920. Its headquarter was fixed at Geneva in Switzerland.

II.

Russian Revolution: 1917

The Russian Revolution of 1917 was one of the most significant events of 20th century. It established the
ideology of Marxism. It was a great revolution after French revolution which was not limited to Russia but
affected several countries of the world.

The great revolution in Russia took place in two stages. The first stage of Russian Revolution began
inMarch 1917 with the overthrowof the Czar Nicholas II. The second stage in Nov. of the same year led to
the establishment of the world's first communist state by Bolsheviks under Lenin.

The basic causes of the revolution were deep-seated. The government was autocratic.

The immediate cause of the event was however the suffering and confusion caused by Russian disastrous
defeats during world war I.

Russian Revolution began with March Revolution (February Revolution, according to old Russian
Calender). Disorders broke out in Petrograd (now Leningrad), the Russian capital, in March 1917. Czar
Nicholas IIwas forced to abdicate. (He and his family were later killed by the revolutionaries).

A provisional government composed of liberal and democratic elements (Mensheviks group) under the
successive premiership of Prince L vo vand then AleksandrKerenskylost ground to the radical wing
(Bolsheviks group) of the Social Democratic Labour Party.

The Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, seized Power in Petrograd on Nov. 7, 1917 Novemeber Revolution
(October Revolution, according to the old Russian calender). The Kerensky Government was overthrown
and authority was vested in a council of Commissars (Ministers) with Lenin as Premier.

The new Government immediately decreed the abolition of private land ownership and set up a
dictatorship of the Proletariatactually of the communist Party, as the Bolsheviks came to called.

In 1923, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.) came into being. Its constitution declared the
establishment of a 'republic of workers and peasants'. Ownership of the means of production, including

61
land, factories, mines, banks and railroads, was vested in the state. The state which is known officially as
the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U. S. S. R.), also commonly referred to as the Soviet Russia, or
just Russia.
III.

Chinese Revolution

a.

1911 (Republican Revolution)

In Oct., 1911, a revolution under the leadership of Sun Yat-sen ousted the Manchu or Ch'ing Dynasty and
a republic was set up.

A party known as the Kuomintang (KMT) or Nationalists (formed by Sun Yat Sen in 1912) was trying to
govern China and control the generals who were busy fighting each other. The KMT leaders were Sun Yat
sen and after his death in 1925, General Chiang Kai-shek.

The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was founded in 1921, and at first it cooperated with the KMT in its
struggle against the warlords.

The communists, under their leader Mao Tse-tunge (Mao Zedong), reacted vigorously, and after escaping
from surrounding KMT forces, embarked on the 6000 mile Long March (Oct. 1934-Oct. 35) to form a new
power base in northern China.

Civil war dragged on, complicated by Japanese interference with culminated in a full-scale invasion in
1937.

When the Second World War ended with defeat for Japan and their withdrawal from China, the KMT and
the CCP continued to fight it out.

b.

1949 (Communist Revolution)

Chiang Kai-shek had help from the USA, but in 1949 it was Mao Tse-tunge and the communists who
finally triumphed.

Chiang Kai shek and his supporters fled to island of Taiwan (Formosa).

Mao Tse-tunge quickly established control over the whole of China, and he remained leader until his death
in 1976.

IV.

Economic Depression of the World: 1929-34

In Economic terms, a decline in trade and general prosperity is called Depression.

The Great Depression of 1929-34 was worldwide, starting with an agricultural recession followed by
financial panic and collapse, known as the Wall Street Crash (Oct., 1929) in the USA.

The new Democrat President, Franklin D. Roosevelt, introduced policies known as the New Deal to try and
put the country on the road to recovery.

V.

Fascism in Italy

The unification of Italy was only completed in 1870, however, the new state suffered from economic and
political weaknesses.

The First World War (1914-18) was a great strain on her economy, and there was bitter disappointment at
her treatment by the Versailles settlement.

Gradually Mussolini took on the powers of a dictator and attempted to control the entire way of life of the
Italian people.

At first it seemed as though his authoritarian regime might bring lasting benefits to Italy, and he won
popularity with his adventurous and successful foreign policy.

62
V.

Nazism in Germany

In Jan., 1933, President Hindenberg appointed Hitler as Chancellor, and soon afterwards Hitler saw to it
that democracy ceased to exist; the Weimar Republic was at an end, and from then until April 1945, Hitler
was the dictator of Germany. Only defeat in the Second World War and the death of Hitler (April 30,1945)
freed the German people from the Nazi tyranny.

VI.

Militarism in Japan

During the 20 years after Mussolini's March on Rome (1922), many other countries, faced with severe
economic problems, followed the examples of Italy and Germany and turned to fascism or right-wing
nationalism.

In Japan the democratically elected government, increasingly embarrassed by economic, financial and
political problems, fell under the influence of the army in the early 1930s.

VII.

SECOND WORLD WAR : Sep. 1,1939 Sep. 2,1945 Causes :

a.

The causes of Second World War as under

b.

1.

The Treaty of Versailles (1919)

2.

Nationalist Movements of germany & Italy

3.

Conflict of Ideology between Dictatoriship & Democracy

4.

Inefficiency of League of Nations

5.

Colonial & Commercial Rivalry

6.

Aggressiveness of Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis

Immediate Cause: The immediate cause of the war was the refuse of Poland to surender. Germany gave
an ultimatum to Poland.

c.

Course of War : On one side were Germany, Italy and Japan, called the Axis Powers (or Central Powers),
and on the other were Great Britain, Francee, USSR, USA, China etc. called the Allied Powers (or Allies).

d.

Effects of WW II:
1. After about 15 months of preparatory work, the peace treaties were given a final shape by the 21
participating countries and they were signed on Feb. 10,1947, in Paris by the representatives of the five
enemy states and the Allied Powers. As regards Germany she was occupied by the Big Four. After its fall
in May, 1945, it was divided into four zones, each of which was administered separated by one of the
occupying powers. Berlin came under joint occupation. Ultimately out of one Germany came two countries
West Germany and East Germany Italy was also deprived of her colonies. As regards Japan, a peace
treaty was signed with her at San Francisco in 1951.
2. The United Nation Organisation (UNO) was established in Oct. 24,1945.

63
D.

Miscellaneous

I.

Important Dates

B.C.
776

First Olympiad in Greece.

753

Rome founded.

490

Battle of Marathon; the Greeks defeated thfe frar&ms/Fersiart&.

327-26

Invasion of India by Alexander, Battle of Hyd&speSi

221

Chin-Hung Ti Univesral Emperor in China, Great Wall of China completed.

55

Invasion of Britain by Julius Cesar, the Great Roman General

44

Assassinatiori of Julius Caeswhy Brutus.

Birth of Jesus Christ

A.D.
29

Crucifixion of Jesus Christ.

43

Roman conquest of Britain.

570

Birth of Prophet Muhammad at Mecca.

622

Migration at Muhammad from Mecca to Medina (Hijira), Beginning of Hijira Era (Muhammadan
calendar) on July 15.

800

Charlenagne crowned Roman Emperor at St. Peters.

871

Accession of Alfred the Gmatto the throne of Britain.

901

Death of king Alfred the Great

1066

Battle of Hastings; Norman invasion of England. William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy,
defeated the English king Harold II at Hastings.

1215

Magna Carta or the Great Charter signed by king John II at Runnymede in England on June 15.

1280

Gunpowder invented by Roger Bacon.

1338

The Hundred Yeats War brdke out; it lasted upto 1453.

1431

Joan of Arc, a brave French peasant girl, obtained victory over the English at Orleans. She was
burnt alive at the stakes.

1443

The Blade death i. e., plague broke out in England.

1453

The capture of Constantinople (the home ofclassacaHearning) by the Ottoman Turks compelled
the Greek scholars to flee to Italy &nd other West European countries, where they spread the
knowledge of Greek philosophy and literature. This was the beginning of Renaissance in Europe.

1486

Bartholomew Diaztouhded the Cape of Good Hope.

1492

Columbus sailed on his first expedition to the West Indies which later led to the discovery of
America (the New World).

1498

Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese, discovered the seat-route to India via the Cape of Good Hope.

1517

Beginning of Reformation.

1529-

Reformation in England under Henry VIII.

36
1564

Birth of Shakespeare.

1571

Battle of Lepanto; Turks defeated by the Christian League.

1577

Drake, the famous English Admiral, started his voyage round the world for the first time and

64
plundered Spanish ships and ports in South America.
1588

Admiral Drake defeated the Spanish 'Armada'; England became the 'Mistress of the Seas'.

1600

Establishment of the British East India Company in India (31st Dec.)

1605

Gunpowder plot in England to blow up the English Parliament.

1616

Shakespeare passes away.

1649

Trial and execution of Charles I, beginning of Commonwealth.

1649-

The Commonwealth and the Protectorate in England.

60
1660

Restoration of Monarchy in England.

1665

The Great Plague in London.

1679

Habeas Corpus Act.

1688

The Glorious or Bloodless Revolution in England. Despoticrule of the Stuarts ended, and the
Parliamentary rule began. Establishment of parliamentary supremacy and abolition of the Divine
Rights of Kings.

1704

Battle of Blenheim; Marlborough and Eugene inflicted a crushing defeat on the French army.

1707

Union of England and Scotland.

1763

Treaty of Paris; It ended the Seven Years' War (1756-63); weakened France, made England a
great colonial power.

1776

Declaration of American Independence and formation of a Federal Republic of 13 states called the
United States of America (July 4).

1783

Treaty of Versailles; England recognised the independence of the United States of America.

1789

George Washington elected First President of USA. Beginning of French Revolution : Fall of the
Bastille Fort 0uly 14).

1798

Battle of the Nile; The English under Nelson gained victory over the French.

1805

Battle of Trafalgar; Death of Nelson.

Battle of Austerliz Napolean Bonaparterouted a combined army of the Russians and the
Austrians.

1815

Battle of Waterloo Napolean was defeated and exiled to St. Helena.

Congress of Vienna, it aimed at rearranging the map of Europe; The Vienna settlement proved
unsatisfactory, because it disregarded national claims.

1821

Death of Napoleanat St. Helena (May 5).

2827

Battle of Navatdno; the allied fleets of England, Russia and France destroyed the Turkish fleet;
This victory practically secured the independence of Greece.

1832

Reforms Bill passed; French captured Antwerp.

1833

Emancipation Act of 1833; It abolished slavery in the British dominions.

1837

Accession of Queen Victoria to the throne of England.

1839

Introduction of Penny Postage system in England by Sir Rowland Hill; Aden annexed by England.

1854

The Crimean War began; Russia attacked Turkey; England and France came to the rescue of
Turkey.

1861

American Civil War started. Abraham Lincon elected 16th President of USA.

1863

Slavery abolished in America.

1869

Suez Canal opened for traffic.

1885

General Gordon captured and slain at Khartoum.

65
1899

Beginning of the Boer War.

1904

Outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War.

1905

Battle of the sea of Japan; Japan inflicted a crushing naval defeat on Russia; a wave of
nationalism spread in Asia.

1911

Chinese Republican Revolution; Amundsen reached South Pole (Dec. 14).

1914

Outbreak of World War I (July 28).

1916

Battle of Jutland (Naval Battle). The British Grand Fleet under Admiral Jellico defeated the
German Fleet under Admiral Scheer.

1917

March / Feb. Revolution in Russia : the Czar abdicated and later assassinated; reformist
Mensheviks came into power (Prince Lvov, Kerensky).
Nov. /Oct. Revolution in Russia: Revolutionary Bolsheviks came into power (Lenin)

1918

End of World War I (Nov. 11).

1919

The Paris Conference; the Treaty of Versailles.

1920

Foundation of the League of Nations (Jan. 10).

1921

The Irish Free State established with the status of a Dominion like Canada (Dec. 6).

1923

Turkish Republic proclaimed with Kemal Ataturk as its First President.

1924

Lenin died, and power passed into the hands of Stalin in Russia.

1925

Treaty of Locarno (between Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy and Belgium).

1928

Kellogg Pact (signed in Paris by the principal powers of the world for the prevention of war; it had
no effect).

1933

Hitler became the Chancellor of Germany.

1935

War between Italy and Abyssinia (Ethiopia); Italy annexed Abyssinia (Ethiopia); Plebiscite in
Saar.

1939

Germany invaded Poland : Outbreak of World War II (Sep. 1)

1940

Fall of France after German invasion (June 5); Italy entered World War II (June 11).

1941

Hitler invades Russia 0une 22); Framing of the Atlantic Charter (Aug. 14); Japan attacked Pearl
Harbour (Hawaii Islands) (Dec. 7); USA entered World War II (Dec. 8); China entered World War
II (Dec. 10) Air raids by Japan on Rangoon (Dec. 22).

1942

Capture of Singapore by Japanese forces (Feb. 15); Battle of Coral Sea, Japanese fleet suffered
heavy losses at the hands of the American fleet (May 3); Battle of Stalingrad (Sep. 19),

1943

Defeat of Germany at Stalingrad (Feb. 8); Battle of the Bismarck Sea, America defeated Japan in
a naval battle (March 4); Invasion of Italy by the Allies, Armistice between Italy & the Allies (Sep.
3).

1944

Allied forces landed in Normandy under the supreme command of General Ike (Eisenhower) (D
Day) (June 6); Liberation of Paris (Aug. 25).

1945

Execution of Mussolini (Apr. 22); Unconditional surrender of Germany to the Allies (May 7); USA
dropped atom bomb on Hiroshima & Nagasaki of Japan (Aug, 6 & Aug. 9); Actual surrender of
Japan (Sep. 2); World War II ended (Sep. 2); Foundation of UMO (Oct,24).

66
II.

Association of Places

Place

III.

Associated with

Place

Associated with

Corsica

Napoleon Bonaparte

Medina

Prophet Muhammad

Hiroshima

Dropping of first atom bomb

PearlHarbour

Japan's attack during World War II

Jerusalem

Jesus Christ

St. Helena

Napolean Bonaparte

Macedonia

Alexander, the Great

Trafalgar

Nelson

Mecca

Prophet Muhammad

Waterloo

Napoleon Bonaparte

Abbreviated or Alternative Names

Abbreviated/

Original Name

Alternative Name

Abbreviated/

Original Name

Alternative Name

Apostle of Free Trade

Richard Cobden

Li-Kwan

Pearl Buck

Bangabandhu

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman

Little Corporal

Napoleon

Geoffery Chaucer

Maid of Orleans

John of Arc

Man of Blood and Iron

Bismarck

Man of Destiny

Napoleon

G. B. S.

George Bernard Shaw

Mark Twain

Samuel Clemens

Gladstone

Scourge of God

Chengiz Khan

Great Commoner

Pitt, the Younger

Uncle Ho

Ho Chi Minh

Iron Duke, The

Duke of Wellington

Desert Fox

Gen. Rommel

King Maker

Earl of Warwick

Bard of Avon

Shakespeare

Lady of the Lamp

Florence Nightingle

Maiden Queen

Elizabeth I

Voltaire

Francois Marie Arouet de

Ike

D. Eisenhower

Wizard of the North

Sir Walter Scott

Fuehrer

Adolf Hitler

Father

of

English

Poetry

Grand

Old

Man

of

Britain

IV.

Important Battles

Name of the Battle

Year

Countries involved

Battle of Marathon

490 BC

Athenians and Persians. King Darius of Persia defeated.

Battle of Thermoplaye

480 BC

Spartans led by Leonidas and Persians led by Xerexes. Greeks defeated.

Battle of Salamis

480 BC

Athenian fleet and Persian fleet in Bay of Salamis; Persian fleet defeated.

Battle of Platae

479 BC

Greek and Persians forces; Persian forces defeated.

Battle of Mycale

479 BC

Greek and Persian fleets; Persian fleet defeated.

Spartan War I

459 BC

Sparta and Athens, lasted for 30 years.

431 BC-

Sparta and Athens; Spartans victorious.

(Peloponesian War)
Spartan War II

421 BC
Battle of Arabia

331 BC

Greek and Persian forces; Greeks victorious.

Battle of Magnesia

190 BC

Syrian and Roman forces; Syrian forces defeated (north- west Lydia).

67
Battle of Pharasaius

48 AD

Caesar defeated Pompey.

Battle of Hastings

1066

William, the Duke of Normandy defeated Harold, the King of England.

England came under the control of Normans.

Hundred-Year War

1338-

Fought between France and England.

1453

The cause of the war was the succession question to the throne of
France which was claimed by Edward III of England. The war was
resumed by Henry V and was brought to an end by the heroism of Joan
of Arc 'A country girl who overthrew the power of England'. Joan of
Arc was burnt alive at the stakes in 1431

War of the Roses

Anglo-Spanish

War

1455-

Civil War in England; The cause of the war was a struggle for the throne

1485

of England between the two royal houses of Lancaster and York.

1588

Spanish and English fleets fought in the English Channel; The English

(Spanish Armada War)

fleet under Lord Howard defeated of the Spanish Armada.

Battle of Gibraltar Way

1607

The Dutch defeated the Spanish and Portuguese.

Thirty-Year War

1618-

Started as religious-cum-political war between the Lutherans and

1648

Catholics in Germany and developed into an international war.

1642-

Between Cavaliers (King Charles I suppoters) and forces of Parliament

1649

led by Oliver Cromwell, King Charles I executed.

Battle of Blenheim

1704

England and Austria headed by Marlborough defeated fiance and Russia.

War

1740-

Queen of Austria, Maria Theresa (daughter of Charles VII) was

1748

challenged by King Frederick II of Prussia. England supported the queen

Civil War in England

of

Austrian

Succession

and Frederick II was helped by France. Ended with a Treaty which

recognised the Queen's right to the throne after the death of King
Frederick.
Seven-Year

War(Anglo-

1756-

Britain and France against Austria and Prussia; the British alliance won.

French War III)

1763

Battle of the Nile

1798

British and French fleets, Britain victorious.

Battle of Trafelgar

1805

British fleet defeated fleets of France and Spain, British fleets were

Battle of Auslerliz

1805

commanded by Admiral Nelson, who was killed during the battle.

Britain, Austria, Russia and Prussia on one side and France on the on the
other. Napoleon (France) defeated Austria and Russia.
Battle of Borodino

1812

Between France and Russia Napolean invaded Russia at Borodino, and

nearly defeated the Russians. However on reaching Moscow, his army
suffered heavy losses and was forced to retreat. Napolean's ill-fated
attack on Russia marked the beginning of the downfall of the French
Empire.

Battle of Leipzig

1813

Germany and combined forces of Austria, Prussia and Russia, defeated

Napolean.

Battle of Waterloo

1815

British forces ledby Duke of Wellington (SirArthur Wellesly) defeated

French forces led by Napolean- Napolean was captured and exiled to St.
Helena where he died in 1821.

First Opium War

1840

China and Britain; Chinese yielded opium. It was a trade war.

Crimean War

1854-

The combined forces of the British, French and Turks defeated Russia.

1856
American Civil War

1861-

Northern states of America under Abraham Uncon defeated the Southern

68

Sino-Japanese War

1865

states and established a Federal state and abolished the slavery.

1894-

Japan defeated China and occupied Formosa and Korea.

1895
Battle of Omdurman

1898

The British and Egyptian forces defeated the forces of Khalifa (Mehdists).

Boer War

1899-

The revolt of Transvaal Boers was suppressed by the British forces.

1901

Boers belonged to Dutch Protestant stock who opposed Britishers

because of abolition of slavery by Britain.

Russo-Japanese

War

1904-

Russia and Japan in the sea of Japan. Russia defeated; It led the wave of

(Battle of Port Arthur&

1905

the idea of Asian Resurgence.

1912

Turkey and Balkan countries (Montenegro, Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece),

Battle of Yalu)
Balkan War I

Turkey defeated.
Balkan War II

1913

Invasion of Serbia and Greece by Bulgaria.Bulgaria was defeated by

combined forces of Serbia, Greece, Rumania, Montengro who stripped
Turkey of most of its European territories.

World War I

1914-

Central Powers (Germany and its allies) against the Allied Powers

1918

(Britain and its allies); Central Power were defeated. Famous Battles : 1.
First battle of Marne (1914) France defeated Germany. 2. Battle of
Jutland (1916) Naval battle between England and Germany. England
defeated Germany. 3. Battle of Verdun (1916) -Fought between France
& Germany. 4. Second battle of Marne (1918)
France defeated Germany. (See details on page 156).

World War II

1939-

Axis Powers (Germany and its allies) against the Allied Powers (Britain

1945

and its allies); Axis Powers were defeated. Fanroiis Battle : Battle of El
Alamein (1942) The Allies victory during the World War II and retreat
of General Rommel's forces. (See details on page 163)

69

BASICS OF ECONOMY
A.

BASICS OF ECONOMY
The central problems of an economy revolve around one of the most important aspects of human life that
our resources are scarce to fulfill our unlimited wants. The scarcity of resources creates a dilemma for
economic managers who have to make a choice from among the set of alternatives. To make the
economic choices, economists and economic managers confront following questions:
What to Produce?
Resources are scarce as compared to unlimited wants.. Not all of the goods and services can be produced
with the given set of human, physical, technical resources and capital. Countries have to choose between
a long list of goods and services the particular goods and services that they want to produce given the
demand, social and economic needs and limited resources.
How Much To Produce?
Even if a country produces a particular set of goods, it cannot produce them in unlimited quantities. If all
the resources are devoted for producing only one good or service, no resources will be left to produce
other goods and services.
How to Produce?
Globalization has stimulated the competition and the need to seek cheap methods, location and resources
to minimize cost. Countries have to decide how best they can achieve the level of production with the
limited amount of resources they have.
When to Produce?
Predicting demand changes is important for survival. All the countries and corporations want to sell but
they also do not want to end up with excess supply and lesser returns. With increase in population,
countries have to increase their production of all goods and services to avoid inflation.
For Whom to Produce?
Not all the people can be accommodated in their desires due to scarcity of resources. The choice of
production in goods and services, level of production and method of production is made with the specific
needs of the market.

B.

Economic Systems
An economic system is a set of principles on which an economy can run and make decisions about the
central problems it faces in the form of scarcity of resources and unlimited wants. Thus it refers to the
framework that governs the tackling of economic problems of the society, the taking of decisions
concerning the utilization of the means of production at the societys disposal and the nature of
institutional arrangements in the economy. It is also referred to the way in which the available productive
resources in a state or nation are owned, managed or utilized for the satisfaction of human wants. There
are following economic systems that the countries adopt in running their economies:1. Capitalism

2. Socialism

3. Mixed Economy

70
I.

Capitalism
Capitalism, unlike Socialism, regards capital as an individual factor of production creditable of distinct
factor payment i.e. interest. It supports the capitalists to benefit from wealth accumulation without having
to put factor i.e. capital at similar risks that an entrepreneur faces. It shifts the break even line further
away from the entrepreneur and crowds out entrepreneurs who cannot afford to keep feeding capitalists.
In this regard, interest has a huge influence on allocation of resources. It influences the basic economic
decisions like what and for whom to produce. Capital is needed for technological advancements. It is
needed for production and consumption and for governments to expend on development. It is even
needed to influence policies by winning elections after expensive election campaigns. There would not
have been many complexities if markets were efficient and income and wealth distribution fair. But, the
world we live in has never and perhaps never will have perfect equality and perfect competition. Interest
serves capitalists and allows them to accumulate wealth.
Economic Management in Capitalism

What to Produce?
Countries produce the goods domestically, in which they have comparative advantage and trade the other
goods from other countries in which they do not have a comparative advantage.

How Much To Produce?

Therefore, countries have to trade-off one good for another between the set of goods that they can
produce. The opportunity cost of each good for each country determines the level and variety of output for
that country.

How to Produce?
Cost minimization gives a country comparative advantage in gaining access to other markets and
countries. Decrease in price increases demand and revenue (up to a limit). Cost minimization enables a
country to increase its production of all goods and services with the same existing amount of resources.

When to Produce?
Countries have to make decision about future production well in advance to meet the demands of increase
in population, changes in tastes and preferences and changes in income. Countries have to produce
domestically the goods in which they have comparative advantage and import the other goods to meet
demand and to avoid inflation.

For Whom to Produce?

Resources are allocated to produce goods that can be bought in the market by people having adequate
purchasing power. Purchasing power, current and future income prospects determine the size of the
target market and triggers the producers to meet expected demand. Decisions about production are
driven by self-benefit and profit maximization objective.
Fundamental Postulates of a Capitalistic Economy
Capitalism is a natural economic system unlike socialism. That is why; it has fared well throughout
history, practiced most widely and has outmoded Socialism. Most Socialist countries have adopted
features of Capitalism and the growth of China since 1980s after it made a compromise between
Capitalism and Socialism and adopted some of the important Capitalistic values further strengthen the
case to use Capitalism (though modified to suit the needs of a particular country) over outright Socialism.

71

Right of Private Property

In a capitalistic economy, people have the right to own assets and conduct business. Within legal limits,
they have the complete freedom to enter into any business activity be it socially or morally correct or not.

No Government Intervention
Government does not intervene or its intervention is very minimal. Businesses are allowed to produce
anything and charge any price they wish as long as they can find buyers who can afford their goods and
services. Therefore, a capitalist seeks maximum return for his capital and keeps all things secondary to it.

Freehand to Market Forces

Market forces of demand and supply are allowed to work freely. Government does not intervene in setting
the prices or level of output in a model capitalistic economy.

Dependence on Invisible hand

It is assumed that every person acting in his/her own benefit will keep the economy running in an efficient
way. Everyone is allowed to work in his/her benefit and is not obliged to think about society and its needs.
It is assumed that social objectives will be met with people working for their own benefits.

Freedom of Choice in Production

People have outright freedom in production. A capitalist having a higher incentive to produce luxury
bungalows and lower incentive to produce low cost apartments will produce luxury bungalows. All
decisions are governed by incentives and self benefit and no consideration is given to the needs of the
society. Invisible hand is supposed to bring socio-economic order.

Freedom of Choice in Consumption

People have outright freedom to consume whichever goods they like as long as they can afford them.
Consumers seek maximum utility and do not have obligation to share their wealth with the poor masses
apart from compulsory taxes. Materialism, self-benefit and apathy are the hallmarks of the capitalistic
society.
Merits of Capitalism

1.

The profit motive encourages people to develop the spirit of hard work which increases production.

2.

The existence of many industries helps in raising per capita income and standard of living of the people.

3.

The value of goods and services is a function of the interplay of demand and supply.

4.

The ideals of capitalism have enhanced product differentiation.

5.

Capitalist system has helped in boosting entrepreneurial development.

6.

The characteristic presence of self interest has also aided and promoted efficiency and effectiveness.

7.

It leads to specialization due to increase and large scale production of commodities.

Demerits of Capitalism

1.

It encourages exploitation of workers.

2.

The capitalist system encourages the lack of concern for certain sectors of the economy.

3.

The system encourages the creation of artificial scarcity by hoarding.

4.

The unfair distribution of productive resources might precipitate the problem of unemployment.

72
5. Capitalism encourages inequality as majority of the people in some capitalized economies are said to be
living in poverty.
6. It leads to unhealthy rivalry among investors.
7. It increases crime rate in an effort to acquire wealth at all cost.
II.

Socialism
It is an economic system that advocates state ownership, control and organization of the means of
production and distribution. The practice of socialism is more common in the third world countries. The
third world countries are characteristically less developed industrially and are inhabited by great majority
of mankind. It is also called centrally planned or controlled economic system.
Fundamental postulates of socialism

Collective property
In a socialist economy, there is no right to own private property. All the property collectively is in the
ownership of the socialist government in the country. This means that all the business enterprises are in
the collective ownership, management and control of the government.

Planned Economy
The government in its own wisdom solves the central problems of the economy. Decisions like what to
produce? how to produce? When to produce? for whom to produce? and how much to produce? are all
taken by the government. All the economic planning and policy making rests with the government.

Decisions in Collective Interest

All the decisions are made by the government in the collective interest of a socialist country. People are
directed to follow the instructions of the government and are not allowed to object to any decision or
policy of the socialist government.

Reduced Income Inequality

Government makes the decisions about the wages arbitrarily. The wages are forced to remain in parity in
all fields. Government tries to keep income equality through setting the wages and disallowing any
objection or bargaining.

Restriction on Market forces

Market forces of demand and supply are not consulted by the government in a socialist economy. Market
mechanism does not prevail and all the decisions are made by the government in its own wisdom.

Centralized Economy
All the decision-making authority rests with the government. No one else is given the authority to make
the economic decisions even for oneself. Everyone has to follow the commands of the government and
everyone is treated like an employee of the government.

Non-existence of Private sector

Private sector is non-existent in a socialist economy. No private economic activity is allowed. Every person
has to work for the government and earn wages that are set arbitrarily and are not determined on the
basis of quality or nature of the work.

73
Merits of Socialism
1. The centralization of economic planning aids the taking of every sector of the economy into consideration.
2. It ensures full employment for all able bodied men and women.
3. No-profit motive behind productive activities enhances the promotion of security within the economy.
4. The principle of collectivities enhances co-operation in the economy.
5. Majority of the people benefit from the excess that accrues to the societys treasury when it is spent on
projects that people will benefit from.
6. Goods are produced in large quantities for the general citizen.
7. The consumers have a wide choice of what to produce.
8. Private monopoly is prevented because the means of production are controlled by the government.
Demerits of Socialism
1. Non-profit motive has been faulted on the basis of its encouraging loss of craftsmanship and creativity.
2. It does not allow the interaction of the forces of demand and supply to determine the prices of goods and
services.
3. Socialism does not encourage division of labour and specialisation.
4. Consumers have no alternative choice than to accept whatever that is produced.
5. It creates room for laziness since government provides everything for the people.
6. It slows down economic development since the government alone provides means of livelihood.
7. Corruption has penetrated the system and has caused the objectives of equality to be defeated.
III.

Mixed Economies
Mixed economy is a compromise between capitalism and socialism. A mixed economy takes the valuable
features of both. Some mixed economies can be tilted more towards socialism and some can be tilted
more towards capitalism. However, most countries can be classified as mixed economies in the real world.
It is the type of economic system in which both the private and public ownership of means of production
exist together in a country. It combines the feature of both capitalistic and socialistic societies. It
embraces private sectors participation to a certain degree and governments participation to a certain
extent. The private sector and the state own and control varying degrees of productive resources.
Fundamental postulates of mixed economy

Coexistence of Public and Private Sector

In a mixed economy, public and private sector work in parallel to each other. Usually, the public sector is
responsible to provide transport, communication, defense, currency management, utilities like telephone,
water, gas, electricity etc. All the other industries are in the ownership of private sector.

Government Regulation and Prices

Unlike in Capitalism, Government intervenes in the market to regulate prices. Governments give subsidies
to encourage production of necessities and their cheap availability to the poor masses. On the other hand,
high tariff rates are imposed on luxuries with inelastic demand.

Government Regulation and Market Imperfection

Government intervenes in industries where cartels are formed. It disallows cartels and regulates oligopoly,
and monopoly. The government sometimes set a ceiling price for goods and services to put check on
monopolies and reduce the burden of inflation on poor people.

74

Government Intervention and Income distribution

Government intervenes to redistribute income through progressive taxes, setting ceiling prices for
necessities and setting minimum wages. The government also provides tax holidays, tax credits, tax
rebates and other concessions and incentives to promote a particular social activity, economic activity or
socioeconomic class.

Public Sector and Social Objectives

Usually, the Public Sector is responsible to provide transport, communication, defense, currency
management, utilities like telephone, water, gas, electricity etc. Government provides subsidies to public
enterprises so that these enterprises do not increase their prices to cover their losses. Government
sometimes bears losses to avoid public displeasure in the form of inflation.
Promotion of Private Sector
Even though the government intervenes in the hour of need, it still provides incentive to the private sector
and a level playing field to compete with the public sector. In industries where public sector and private
sector coexist, government lets the market forces work and does not crowd out the private sector.

Deregulation, Liberalization and Privatization

Governments in mixed economies encourage private sector to take on public sector enterprises that are
not running efficiently or can be better run by the private sector. It enables the government to act as a
regulator rather than a business entity.
Merits of Mixed Economy

1.

The combination of the features of both capitalism and socialism enables the mixed economy to make use
of the best features of both systems.

2.

The system encourages craftsmanship to a certain extent.

3.

It ensures the economic growth and development of a nation.

4.

It promotes job security and employment.

5.

Monopoly is prevented because of the joint participation in economic activities.

Demerits of Mixed Economy

C.

1.

The efficiency of the manner of price determination has been questioned in certain areas.

2.

The system has been described as encouraging the penetration of corruptive tendencies.

3.

Wealth is not equitably distributed as there is a wide gap between the rich and the poor.

4.

There is more emphasis on profit maximization at the expense of the welfare for the citizens.

5.

Efficiency scarcely occurs because of the involvement of the state.

Structure of an economy
The primary sector of the economy is the sector of an economy making direct use of natural resources.
This includes agriculture, forestry, fishing, mining, and extraction of oil and gas. This is contrasted with
the secondary sector, producing manufactured and other processed goods, and the tertiary sector,
producing services. The primary sector is usually most important in less developed countries, and typically
less important in industrial countries. The economy can be structured in a number of ways. The most
important is the manner in which different segments of the economy are divided into different sectors.
This can be done in the following manner:-

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i)

Primary sector which includes the products of mother earth. This is the raw material such as agriculture,
mining, fishing, forestry etc.

ii)

Secondary sector which uses the products of the primary sector and further processes them to produce a
desirable object. This includes manufacturing, food-processing etc.

iii) Tertiary sector which provides various services to maintain those products of the secondary sector. This
includes services such as transport, telecom, IT, BPO, KPO etc.
iv) The quaternary sector which describes a knowledge-based part of the economy which typically includes
services such as information generation and sharing, information technology, consultation, education,
research and development, financial planning, and other knowledge-based services. Generally this sector
is included in the tertiary sector of the economy.
v)

The quinary sector which is the branch of a country's economy where high-level decisions are made by
top-level executives in the government, industry, business etc. This is again included in the tertiary sector
of the economy generally.
One way to look at the structure of an economy is to compare the shares of its three main sectors
agriculture, industry, and servicesin the countrys total output and employment.

Agriculture (a term which encompasses farming) is the process of producing food, feed, fiber and other goods by
the systematic raising of plants and animals. Agricultural output is a component of the GDP of a nation. Industry is
the segment of economy concerned with production of goods (including fuels and fertilizers). Industrial output is a
component of the GDP of a nation. It includes mining and extraction sectors. A service is the non-material
equivalent of a good. Service provision is defined as an economic activity that does not result in ownership, and
this is what differentiates it from providing physical goods. It is claimed to be a process that creates benefits by
facilitating either a change in customers, a change in their physical possessions, or a change in their intangible
assets. Service output is a component of the GDP of a nation.
Initially, agriculture is a developing economys most important sector. But as income per capita rises,
agriculture loses its primacy, giving way first to a rise in the industrial sector, then to a rise in the service
sector.

These

two

consecutive

shifts

are

called

industrialization

and

post-industrialization

(or

deindustrialization). All growing economies are likely to go through these stages, which can be explained
by structural changes in consumer demand and in the relative labor productivity of the three main
economic sectors.
Industrialization
As peoples incomes increase, their demand for foodthe main product of agriculturereaches its natural
limit, and they begin to demand relatively more industrial goods. At the same time because of new farm
techniques and machinery, labor productivity increases faster in agriculture than in industry, making
agricultural products relatively less expensive and further diminishing their share in gross domestic
product (GDP). The same trend in relative labor productivity also diminishes the need for agricultural
workers, while employment opportunities in industry grow. As a result industrial output takes over a
larger share of GDP than agriculture and employment in industry becomes predominant.
% Contribution to GDP

% Contribution to Employment

Primary

17%

49%

Secondary

26%

24%

Teritory

57%

27%

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Post-industrialization
As incomes continue to rise, peoples needs become less material and they begin to demand more
servicesin health, education, entertainment, and many other areas. Meanwhile, labor productivity in
services does not grow as fast as it does in agriculture and industry because most service jobs cannot be
filled by machines. This makes services more expensive relative to agricultural and industrial goods,
further increasing the share of services in GDP. The lower mechanization of services also explains why
employment in the service sector continues to grow while employment in agriculture and industry declines
because of technological progress that increases labor productivity and eliminates jobs. Eventually the
service sector replaces the industrial sector as the leading sector of the economy
Most high-income countries today are post industrializingbecoming less reliant on industrywhile most
low-income countries are industrializingbecoming more reliant on industry. But even in countries that
are still industrializing, the service sector is growing relative to the rest of the economy. The service sector
produces intangible goods, some well knowngovernment, health, educationand some quite new
modern communications, information, and business services. Producing services tends to require relatively
less natural capital and more human capital than producing agricultural or industrial goods. As a result
demand has grown for more educated workers, prompting countries to invest more in educationan
overall benefit to their people. Another benefit of the growing service sector is that by using fewer natural
resources than agriculture or industry, it puts less pressure on the local, regional, and global environment.
Conserving natural capital and building up human capital may help global development become more
environmentally and socially sustainable. Growth of the service sector will not, however, be a miracle
solution to the problem of sustainability, because agricultural and industrial growth are also necessary to
meet the needs of the growing world population.
Structure of Indian Economy
I.

Agriculture- India ranks second worldwide in farm output. Agriculture and allied sectors like forestry,
logging and fishing accounted for 17% of the GDP in 2012, employed 49% of the total workforce, and
despite a steady decline of its share in the GDP, is still the largest economic sector and a significant piece
of the overall socio-economic development of India. Crop yield per unit area of all crops have grown since
1950, due to the special emphasis placed on agriculture in the five-year plans and steady improvements
in irrigation, technology, application of modern agricultural practices and provision of agricultural credit
and subsidies since the Green Revolution in India. However, international comparisons reveal the average
yield in India is generally 30% to 50% of the highest average yield in the world. Indian states Uttar
Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Gujarat and
Maharashtra are key agricultural contributing states of India.
Agriculture is thus an important part of Indian economy. In 2008, a New York Times article claimed, with
the right technology and policies, India could contribute to feeding not just itself but the world. However,
agricultural output of India lags far behind its potential. The low productivity in India is a result of several
factors. According to the World Bank, India's large agricultural subsidies are hampering productivityenhancing investment. While overregulation of agriculture has increased costs, price risks and uncertainty,
governmental intervention in labour, land, and credit markets are hurting the market. Infrastructure such
as rural roads, electricity, ports, food storage, retail markets and services are inadequate. Further, the
average size of land holdings is very small, with 70% of holdings being less than one hectare in size. The
partial failure of land reforms in many states, exacerbated by poorly maintained or non-existent land

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records, has resulted in sharecropping with cultivators lacking ownership rights, and consequently low
productivity of labour. Adoption of modern agricultural practices and use of technology is inadequate,
hampered by ignorance of such practices, high costs, illiteracy, slow progress in implementing land
reforms, inadequate or inefficient finance and marketing services for farm produce and impracticality in
the case of small land holdings. The allocation of water is inefficient, unsustainable and inequitable. The
irrigation infrastructure is deteriorating. Irrigation facilities are inadequate, as revealed by the fact that
only 39% of the total cultivable land was irrigated as of 2010, resulting in farmers still being dependent on
rainfall, specifically the monsoon season, which is often inconsistent and unevenly distributed across the
country.
II.

Industry - accounts for 26% of GDP and employs 24% of the total workforce. India is 11th in the world
in terms of nominal factory output according to data compiled through CIA World Factbook figures. The
Indian industrial sector underwent significant changes as a result of the economic liberalisation in India
economic reforms of 1991, which removed import restrictions, brought in foreign competition, led to the
privatisation of certain public sector industries, liberalised the FDI regime, improved infrastructure and led
to an expansion in the production of fast moving consumer goods. Post-liberalisation, the Indian private
sector was faced with increasing domestic as well as foreign competition, including the threat of cheaper
Chinese imports. It has since handled the change by squeezing costs, revamping management, and
relying on cheap labour and new technology. However, this has also reduced employment generation even
by smaller manufacturers who earlier relied on relatively labour-intensive processes.

III.

Services- India is 13th in services output. The services sector provides employment to 27% of the work
force and is growing quickly, with a growth rate of 7.5% in 19912000, up from 4.5% in 195180. It has
the largest share in the GDP, accounting for 57% in 2012, up from 15% in 1950. Information technology
and business process outsourcing are among the fastest growing sectors, having a cumulative growth rate
of revenue 33.6% between 1997 and 1998 and 200203 and contributing to 25% of the country's total
exports in 200708. The growth in the IT sector is attributed to increased specialization, and an
availability of a large pool of low cost, highly skilled, educated and fluent English-speaking workers, on the
supply side, matched on the demand side by increased demand from foreign consumers interested in
India's service exports, or those looking to outsource their operations.

D.

Measures of Economic Power

I.

National Income
What is National Income?
According to the National Income Committee (1949), A national income estimate measures the volume of
commodities and services turned out during a given period counted without duplication. Thus national
income measure the net value of goods and services produced in a country during a year and it also
includes net earned foreign income. In other words, a total of national income measures the flow of goods
and services in an economy.
National income is a flow not a stock. As contrasted with National Wealth which measures the stock of
commodities held by the nationals of a country at a point of, national income measures the productive
power of an economy in a given period to turn goods and services for final consumption. In India National
income estimates are related with financial year (1st April to 31st March).

78
In India, Central Statistical Organisation (CSO) measures output from the production side, broadly
dividing it into three sectors: agriculture, industry, and services. From consumption side, GDP is equal to
sum of private consumption, government consumption, investment, and net exports (exports minus
imports).
Concepts of National Income
a

Gross National Product (GNP) Gross National Product refers to the money value of total output or
production of final goods and services produced by the nationals of a country during a given period of
time, generally a year.
As we include all final goods and services, produced by national of a country during a year, in the
calculation of GNP, we include the money value of goods and services produced by nationals outside the
country in calculating GNP. Hence, income produced and received by nationals of a country within the
boundaries of foreign countries should be added in Gross Domestic Product GDP of the country. Similarly
income received by foreign nationals within the boundary of the country should be excluded from GDP.
In equation form: GNP = GDP + X M,
Where
X = Income earned and received by nationals within the boundaries of foreign countries.
M = Income received by foreign nationals within the country.
If X = M, then GNP = GDP.
Similarly, in a closed economy
X=M=0

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the total money value of all final goods and services produced within
the geographical boundaries of the country during a given period of time. As a conclusion it must be
understood, while domestic product emphasizes the total output which is raised within the geographical
boundaries of the country national product focuses attention not only on the domestic product but also on
goods and services produced outside the boundaries of a nation. Besides, any part of GDP which is
produced by nationals of a country should be included in GNP.
There are three different ways of measuring GDP

The income approach

the output approach

the expenditure approach

The income approach, as the name suggests measures people's incomes, the output approach measures
the value of the goods and services used to generate these incomes, and the expenditure approach
measures the expenditure on goods and services. In theory, each of these approaches should lead to the
same result, so if the output of the economy increases, incomes and expenditures should increase by the
same amount.

79
c

Net National Product (NNP) ---NNP is obtained by subtracting depreciation value (i.e., capital stock consumption) from GNP.
In equation from:
NNP = GNP Depreciation.
GNP, explained above, is based on market prices of produced goods which includes indirect taxes and
subsides. NNP can be calculated in two ways 1. at market prices of goods and services.
2. at factor cost
When NNP is obtained at factor cost, it is known as National Income National Income is
calculated by subtracting net indirect taxes (i.e., total indirect tax subsidy) from NNP at market prices.
The obtained value is known as NNP at factor cost or National income.
In equation form: NNP at factor cost or National Income
= NNP at Market price - (indirect Taxes subsidy)
= NNP MP Indirect Tax + subsidy.
Whats The Difference Between GDP At Market Prices And GDP At Factor Cost?
GDP at market prices is inclusive of net indirect taxes levied by government on producers. Since
producers pass these taxes onto consumers, value of these taxes is added on to price of output, and
therefore value of aggregate output goes up by the aggregate net indirect tax (taxes minus subsidies).
GDP at factor cost measures the value of output without the additional price imposed by taxes. Thus, GDP
at factor cost is equal to the value of all factor costs, including wages (cost of labour), interest (cost of
capital), rent, and profit (which is the cost of entrepreneurship). As a result, GDP at market prices is
invariably higher than GDP at factor cost.
What Does the Term PPP In Relation To GDP Refer To?
If we measure the GDP per capita of all countries in the same currency, say the US Dollar, we might
present a misleading picture of how well off people in different countries are. This is because exchange
rates do not correctly reflect the purchasing power of currencies within their own economies. For example,
although one US dollar is worth almost Rs. 50, a dollar in the US would not be able to by as much as Rs.
50 does in India. To correct for this and make international comparisons more meaningful, we use the
notion of purchasing power parity (PPP). In effect, what we are doing here is to make the conversation
based on a notional exchange rate (one that tells you how many rupees you would need to by the same
things as you could with a dollar in the US). In Indias case for example, if the GDP is expressed in US
dollars using the PPP principle, it increases almost five-fold from the level suggested using nominal
exchange rates.

II.

Inflation
What is inflation all about?
Inflation is the rate at which prices rise. Basically prices go up due to two factors: cost push and demand
pull. The former occurs due to an increase in production cost, which gets translated into higher price for
that item. The latter takes place when there is too much money with customers relative to the amount of
goods available in the market. In such a situation we have too much money chasing too few goods and
prices rise because people are willing to pay more for the same item. When the item being chased is in
short supply, we have demand pull inflation. As against inflation, we have deflation, a situation when

80
prices take a tumble. This is a theoretical concept and something that rarely occurs in developing
countries.
a

Causes of Inflation in India

1.

Increase in money supply:

Over the last few years the rate of increase in money supply has varied between 15 and 18 per cent,
whereas the national output has increased at an annual average rate of only 4 per cent. Hence the rate of
increase in output has not been sufficient to absorb the rising quantity of money in the economy. Inflation
is the obvious result.

2.

Deficit financing:
When the government is unable to raise adequate revenue for its expenditure, it resorts to deficit
financing. During the sixth and seventh Plans, massive doses of deficit financing had been resorted to. It
was Rs. 15,684 crores in the sixth Plan and Rs. 36,000 crores in the seventh Plan.

3.

Increase in government expenditure:

Government expenditure in India during the recent years has been rising very fast. What is more
disturbing, proportion of non-development expenditure increased rapidly, being about 40 per cent of total
government expenditure. Non-development expenditure does not create real goods; it only creates
purchasing power and hence leads to inflation. Not only the above mentioned factors on the Demand side
cause inflation, factors on the Supply side also add fuel to the flame of inflation.

4.

Inadequate agricultural and industrial growth:

Agricultural and industrial growth in our country has been much below what we had targeted for. Over the
four decades period, food grains output has increased and-.i.e. of 3.2 per cent per annum. But there are
years of crop failure due to droughts. In the years of scarcity of food grains not only the prices of food
articles increased, the general price level also rose. Failure of crops always encouraged big wholesale
dealers to indulge in hoarding which accentuated scarcity conditions and pushed up the price level.
Performance of the industrial sector, particularly in the period 1965 to 1985, has not been satisfactory.
Over the 15 years period from 1970 to 1985, industrial production increased at a modest rate of 4.7 per
cent per annum. Our industrial structure, developed on the basis of heavy industry-led growth, is not
suitable to meet the current demand for consumer goods.

5.

Rise in administered prices:

In our economy a large part of the market is regulated by government action. There are a number of
important commodities, both agricultural and industrial, for which the price level is administered by the
government.
The government keeps on raising prices from time to time in order to cover up losses in the public sector.
This policy leads to cost-push inflation. The upward revision of administered prices of coal, iron and steel,
electricity and fertilisers were made at regular intervals. Once the administered prices are raised, it is a
signal for other price to go up.

6.

Rising import prices:

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Inflation has been a global phenomenon. International inflation gets imported into the country through
major imports like fertilisers, edible oil, steel, cement, chemicals, and machinery. Increase in the import
price of petroleum has been most spectacular and its contribution to domestic price rise is very high.
7.

Rising taxes:
To raise additional financial resources, government is depending more and more on indirect taxes such as
excise duties and sales tax. These taxes invariably raise the price level.

Price Indices
What Is A Price Index? It s easy to measure changes in the prices of individual commodities, but how
does one work out what the overall price increase in a whole basket of commodities? This is what a price
index does. There are broadly two kinds of indices, a Wholesale Price Index (WPI) and a Consumer Price
Index (CPI). Since the former measures change in wholesale prices, it reflects producer inflation as it
affects the consumer.
But nowadays, this classification has been done away with and a new classification has been introduced.
Now, two CPI are calculated i.e. CPI(urban) and CPI(rural). These both have a different basket of goods
and a different weighing diagram depending upon the needs of the consumers in the urban and rural
areas. A combined CPI is also made, called the CPI(National) which is just a combination of above
mentioned indexes.
How Many Kinds of CPI Are There? In India, there are three kinds of CPI. These are the CPIs for
agricultural labour (AL), Industrial workers (IW) and urban non-manual employees (UNME). The rationale
behind these three groups is that the basket of goods consumed by each of them will differ significantly
from that consumed by the others. For example, the CPI for AL will typically attach a higher weight to
food groups, especially cereals, as it is as assumed that AL will spend a higher proportion of their wages
on food than on, say, commuting. Conversely, the weight attached to transport costs would typically be
higher in CPI-UNME than it would be in the CPI-AL. Also, certain items consumed by one class may simply
not be available to, or part of the consumption basket of, another class of consumers.
How Is A CPI Constructed? Preliminary to constructing a CPI for any class of consumers would be the
need to identify what items form a major part of the consumption basket of the class as whole. This can
only be achieved by means of a household survey. Next, each item would be assigned a weight in the
overall index in proportion to its share in total expenditure. The index reflects nothing but the weighted
average of each commoditys price. An appropriate base year is selected, in which the price of each
commodity, and hence the overall index, is equated to 100. This base in then used as a benchmark for
future prices. Thus, if potatoes cost, says Rs. 10 per kg in the base year and Rs. 20 in a subsequent year,
the potato index for the later year would be 200. What the weights do is to assign degrees of importance
to differential commodities. Thus, if house rent has a 25% weight in the CPI-UNME, and rents increases by
20% per cent, this will lead to a 5% per cent increase in the overall CPI-UNME, other things remaining the
same. On the other hand, if watches have a weight of only 1%, even if their prices were to double, this
would affect the overall index by only1%.
What If People Stop Consuming Some Item or Start Consuming A New One Which Was Not A
Part of The CPI Basket Thus Far?

82
It is indeed true that consumption patterns change over time. If the CPI for a particular class is to remain
relevant, therefore, it must constantly be updated. This means a fresh survey leading to a new set of
commodities and weights and hence an all-new base.
This apart, you could have situations where the commodity used in the basket has been replaced by a
somewhat superior version, the original one no longer being available. For instance, mechanical watches
may disappear altogether in favour of quartz watches. It would clearly be misleading to disregard this
change. This is taken into account by what is called splicing. The new prices are adjusted for the fact
that the item in question is superior to the original one.
Do We Need A CPI For All Consumers?
The CSO is now considering constructing a general CPI, not taking into account different consumer
groups. So far, macro economic analysis typically uses the WPI, which may not be an accurate indicator of
inflation faced by end-consumers, as wholesale and retail prices can be substantially different. A general
CPI would be more relevant in this regard.
What If People Stop Consuming Some Item or Start Consuming A New One Which Was Not A
Part of The CPI Basket Thus Far?
It is indeed true that consumption patterns change over time. If the CPI for a particular class is to remain
relevant, therefore, it must constantly be updated. This means a fresh survey leading to a new set of
commodities and weights and hence an all-new base.
This apart, you could have situations where the commodity used in the basket has been replaced by a
somewhat superior version, the original one no longer being available. For instance, mechanical watches
may disappear altogether in favour of quartz watches. It would clearly be misleading to disregard this
change. This is taken into account by what is called splicing. The new prices are adjusted for the fact
that the item in question is superior to the original one.
Do We Need A CPI For All Consumers?
The CSO is now considering constructing a general CPI, not taking into account different consumer
groups. So far, macro economic analysis typically uses the WPI, which may not be an accurate indicator of
inflation faced by end-consumers, as wholesale and retail prices can be substantially different. A general
CPI would be more relevant in this regard.
Whats the nature of inflation in India?
In India we have a combination of both cost push and demand pull. For instance, the high growth in onion
prices during the BJP regime was demand pull inflation, when the shortage of onions in the market took
the prices to new heights. Also, prices go up whenever there is a hike in petro prices. Inflation here is due
to cost push factors. This is because petroleum is a vital input in many items and as an essential fuel for
road transport, it adds to the transportation costs and so prices in general tend to rise.
The inflation rate in India was recorded at 6.10 percent in August of 2013. Inflation Rate in India is
reported by the Ministry of Commerce and Industry. From 1969 until 2013, India Inflation Rate averaged
7.7 Percent reaching an all time high of 34.7 Percent in September of 1974 and a record low of -11.3
Percent in May of 1976. In India, the wholesale price index (WPI) is the main measure of inflation. The
WPI measures the price of a representative basket of wholesale goods. In India, wholesale price index is
divided into three groups: Primary Articles (20.1 percent of total weight), Fuel and Power (14.9 percent)

83
and Manufactured Products (65 percent). Food Articles from the Primary Articles Group account for 14.3
percent of the total weight. The most important components of the Manufactured Products Group are
Chemicals and Chemical products (12 percent of the total weight); Basic Metals, Alloys and Metal Products
(10.8 percent); Machinery and Machine Tools (8.9 percent); Textiles (7.3 percent) and Transport,
Equipment and Parts (5.2 percent).
Why do we feel the pinch of rising prices despite low inflation?
While the inflation figures that are published every week refer to wholesale price index (WPI) representing
rate of increase in wholesale prices, what matters to us as individual buyers is the consumer price.
Though prices in the wholesale market have grown at a slow pace (at about 2-3 per cent), comparatively
consumer prices (measured in terms of consumer price index - CPI) have grown at a much faster pace
(about 8-9 per cent). Hence the pinch.
Why is there such a difference between wholesale prices and consumer prices?
This is due to several factors. A substantial part of the differential is accounted for by the retailers
margin, which is built into the consumers price. Besides, the way the two indices are calculated differs
both in terms of weightage assigned to products and the kind of items included in the basket.
Wholesale Price Index: The Wholesale Price Index (WPI) is the price of a representative basket of
wholesale goods. In India about 435 items were used for calculating the WPI in base year 1993-94 while
the advanced base year 2004-05 and which has now changed to 2011-2012; uses 676 items.[1] The
indicator tracks the price movement of each commodity individually. Based on this individual movement,
the WPI is determined through the averaging principle. The Indian WPI figure was released weekly on
every Thursday. But since 2009 it has been made monthly. It also influences stock and fixed price
markets. The Wholesale Price Index focuses on the price of goods traded between corporations, rather
than goods bought by consumers, which is measured by the Consumer Price Index. The purpose of the
WPI is to monitor price movements that reflect supply and demand in industry, manufacturing and
construction. This helps in analyzing both macroeconomic and microeconomic conditions.
III.

Economic Growth and Economic Development

Economic growth is a narrower concept than economic development. It is an increase in a country's real
level of national output which can be caused by an increase in the quality of resources (by education
etc.), increase in the quantity of resources & improvements in technology or in another way
an increase in the value of goods and services produced by every sector of the economy. Economic
Growth can be measured by an increase in a country's GDP (gross domestic product).
Economic development is a normative concept i.e. it applies in the context of people's sense of morality
(right and wrong, good and bad). The definition of economic development given by Michael Todaro is an
increase in living standards, improvement in self-esteem needs and freedom from oppression as well as a
greater choice. The most accurate method of measuring development is the Human Development Index
which takes into account the literacy rates & life expectancy which affect productivity and could lead to
Economic Growth. It also leads to the creation of more opportunities in the sectors of education,
healthcare, employment and the conservation of the environment. It implies an increase in the per capita
income of every citizen.

84
Economic Growth does not take into account the size of the informal economy. The informal economy is
also known as the black economy which is unrecorded economic activity. Development alleviates people
from low standards of living into proper employment with suitable shelter. Economic Growth does not take
into account the depletion of natural resources which might lead to pollution, congestion & disease.
Development however is concerned with sustainability which means meeting the needs of the present
without compromising future needs. These environmental effects are becoming more of a problem for
Governments now that the pressure has increased on them due to Global warming.
Economic growth is a necessary but not sufficient condition of economic development.
The Human Development Index (HDI) The Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite statistic of life
expectancy, education, and income indices used to rank countries into four tiers of human development. It is a
statistical tool used to measure a country's overall achievement in its social and economic dimensions. The social
and economic dimensions of a country are based on the health of people, their level of education attainment and
their standard of living.
Pakistani economist Mahbub ul Haq created HDI in 1990 as an alternative to purely economic assessments of
national progress, such as GDP growth and was further used to measure the country's development by the United
Nations Development Program (UNDP). It soon became the most widely accepted and cited measure of its kind
and Calculation of the index combines four major indicators: life expectancy for health, expected years of
schooling, mean of years of schooling for education and Gross National Income per capita for standard of living.
Every year UNDP ranks countries based on the HDI report released in their annual report. HDI is one of the best
tools to keep track of the level of development of a country, as it combines all major social and economic
indicators that are responsible for economic development. HDI values and rankings in the global Human
Development Report are calculated using the latest internationally comparable data from mandated international
data providers.
The HDI was created to emphasize that people and their capabilities should be the ultimate criteria for assessing
the development of a country, not economic growth alone. The HDI can also be used to question national policy
choices, asking how two countries with the same level of GNI per capita can end up with such different human
development outcomes. For example, the Bahamas GNI per capita is higher than New Zealands (by 17%) but life
expectancy at birth is about 5 years shorter, mean years of schooling is 4 years shorter and expected years of
schooling differ greatly between the two countries, resulting in New Zealand having a much higher HDI value than
the Bahamas. These striking contrasts can stimulate debate about government policy priorities.
However, the concept of human development is much broader than what can be captured in the HDI, or any other
of the composite indices in the Human Development Report (Inequality-adjusted HDI, Gender Inequality Index and
Multidimensional Poverty Index). The HDI, for example, does not reflect political participation or gender
inequalities. The HDI and the other composite indices can only offer a broad proxy on some of the key issues of
human development, gender disparity and human poverty.
Between 1980 and 2012 India's HDI rose by 1.7% annually from 0.345 to 0.554 today, which gives the
country a rank of 136 out of 187 countries with comparable data. The HDI of South Asia as a region
increased from 0.357 in 1980 to 0.558 today, placing India below the regional average. The HDI trends tell an
important story both at the national and regional level and highlight the very large gaps in well-being and life
chances that continue to divide our interconnected world.

85
IV.

Financial Inclusion : Financial inclusion is the delivery of financial services at affordable costs to vast
sections of disadvantaged and low income groups (for example "no frill accounts").
Why Financial Inclusion in India is Important ?
The policy makers have been focusing on financial inclusion of Indian rural and semi-rural areas primarily
for three most important pressing needs:

1.

Creating a platform for inculcating the habit to save money The lower income category has been living
under the constant shadow of financial duress mainly because of the absence of savings. The absence of
savings makes them a vulnerable lot. Presence of banking services and products aims to provide a critical
tool to inculcate the habit to save. Capital formation in the country is also expected to be boosted once
financial inclusion measures materialize, as people move away from traditional modes of parking their
savings in land, buildings, bullion, etc.

2.

Providing formal credit avenues So far the unbanked population has been vulnerably dependent of
informal channels of credit like family, friends and moneylenders. Availability of adequate and transparent
credit from formal banking channels shall allow the entrepreneurial spirit of the masses to increase
outputs and prosperity in the countryside. A classic example of what easy and affordable availability of
credit can do for the poor is the micro-finance sector.

3.

Plug gaps and leaks in public subsidies and welfare programmes A considerable sum of money that is
meant for the poorest of poor does not actually reach them. While this money meanders through large
system of government bureaucracy much of it is widely believed to leak and is unable to reach the
intended parties. Government is therefore, pushing for direct cash transfers to beneficiaries through their
bank accounts rather than subsidizing products and making cash payments. This laudable effort is
expected to reduce governments subsidy bill (as it shall save that part of the subsidy that is leaked) and
provide relief only to the real beneficiaries. All these efforts require an efficient and affordable banking
system that can reach out to all. Therefore, there has been a push for financial inclusion.
What are the steps taken by RBI to support financial inclusion?
RBI set up the Khan Commission in 2004 to look into financial inclusion and the recommendations of the
commission were incorporated into the mid-term review of the policy (200506) and urged banks to
review their existing practices to align them with the objective of financial inclusion. RBI also exhorted
the banks and stressed the need to make available a basic banking 'no frills' account either with 'NIL' or
very minimum balances as well as charges that would make such accounts accessible to vast sections of
the population. Further, RBI appointed the Nachiket Mor on Comprehensive Financial Services for Small
Businesses and Low Income Households in 2013, which gave far-reaching recommendations for ensuring
financial inclusion.
Of the many schemes and programmes pushed forward by the Government, the following need special
mention:-

1.

Initiation of no-frills account These accounts provide basic facilities of deposit and withdrawal to
accountholders makes banking affordable by cutting down on extra frills that are no use for the lower
section of the society. These accounts are expected to provide a low-cost mode to access bank accounts.
RBI also eased KYC (Know Your customer) norms for opening of such accounts.

86
2.

Banking service reaches homes through business correspondents The banking systems have
started to adopt the business correspondent mechanism to facilitate banking services in those areas
where banks are unable to open brick and mortar branches for cost considerations. Business
Correspondents provide affordability and easy accessibility to this unbanked population. Armed with
suitable technology, the business correspondents help in taking the banks to the doorsteps of rural
households.

3.

EBT Electronic Benefits Transfer To plug the leakages that are present in transfer of payments
through the various levels of bureaucracy, government has begun the procedure of transferring payment
directly to accounts of the beneficiaries. This human-less transfer of payment is expected to provide
better benefits and relief to the beneficiaries while reducing governments cost of transfer and monitoring.
Once the benefits starts to accrue to the masses, those who remain unbanked shall start looking to enter
the formal financial sector.

4.

Jan Suraksha programs such as PM Jeevan Jyoti bema yojana, PM Swathya Suraksha bima yojana nd
the Atal Pension Yojana.

5.

PMJDY - The government on its part has also initiated the Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana which
provides for a no-frills account for at least one person in each household, life and health insurance,
overdraft facility of Rs.5000 to credit worthy account holders and a Rupay debit card.

V.

Microfinance
Microfinance is the provision of financial services to low-income clients or solidarity lending groups
including consumers and the self-employed, who traditionally lack access to banking and related services.
Microfinance is not just about giving micro credit to the poor rather it is an economic development tool
whose objective is to assist poor to work their way out of poverty. It covers a wide range of services like
credit, savings, insurance, remittance and also non-financial services like training, counseling etc.
Salient features of Microfinance:

Borrowers are from the low income group

Loans are of small amount micro loans

Short duration loans

Loans are offered without collaterals

High frequency of repayment

Loans are generally taken for income generation purpose

Micro finance in India
In India microfinance operates through two channels:
1. SHG Bank Linkage Programme (SBLP)
2. Micro Finance Institutions (MFIs)
SHG Bank Linkage Programme
This is the bank-led microfinance channel, which was initiated by NABARD in 1992. Under the SHG model
the members, usually women in villages are encouraged to form groups of around 10-15. The members

87
contribute their savings in the group periodically and from these savings small loans are provided to the
members. In the later period these SHGs are provided with bank loans generally for income generation
purpose. The groups members meet periodically when the new savings come in, recovery of past loans
are made from the members and also new loans are disbursed. This model has been very much successful
in the past and with time it is becoming more popular. The SHGs are self-sustaining and once the group
becomes stable it starts working on its own with some support from NGOs and institutions like NABARD
and SIDBI.
Micro Finance Institutions
Those institutions which have microfinance as their main operation are known as micro finance
institutions. A number of organizations with varied size and legal forms offer microfinance service. These
institutions lend through the concept of Joint Liability Group (JLG). A JLG is an informal group comprising
of 5 to 10 individual members who come together for the purpose of availing bank loans either individually
or through the group mechanism against a mutual guarantee. The reason for existence of separate
institutions i.e. MFIs for offering microfinance are as follows:

High transaction cost generally micro credits fall below the break-even point of providing loans by
banks

Absence of collaterals the poor usually are not in a state to offer collaterals to secure the credit

Loans are generally taken for very short duration periods

Higher frequency of repayment of installments and higher rate of Default

Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs), Co-operative societies, Section-25 companies, Societies and
Trusts, all such institutions operating in microfinance sector constitute MFIs and together they account for
about 42 percent of the microfinance sector in terms of loan portfolio. The MFI channel is dominated by
NBFCs which cover more than 80 percent of the total loan portfolio through the MFI channel.
What are the various challenges in the Micro Finance Sector?

1.

Legal structure and regulation

Although the SHG-Bank linkage model is well managed in India by NABARD, currently there is no proper
regulatory body for the supervision of MFIs. The presence of institutions with a variety of legal forms
makes it difficult for the regulation of all such institutions by a single regulatory body in the current Indian
legal structure. Though NBFCs, which cover the major part of the outstanding loan portfolio by the
microfinance channel, are regulated by Reserve Bank of India, other MFIs like societies, trusts, Section-25
companies and cooperative societies fall outside the purview of RBIs regulation. The acceptance of the
Malegam Committee recommendations by the RBI is a big step forward in addressing the above concern
but again it will cover only a section of the MFIs i.e. NBFCs. The microfinance bill which was introduced in
the year 2007 is still pending. The most recent and the strongest step taken by the government, The
Micro Finance Institutions (Development and regulation) Bill, 2011 is a major step in the microfinance
sector. The proposed bill clarifies all doubts pertaining to regulation of the MFIs by appointing RBI as the
sole regulator for all MFIs.

2.

Financial illiteracy
One of the major hindrances in the growth of the microfinance sector is the financial illiteracy of the
people. This makes it difficult in creating awareness of microfinance and even more difficult to serve them

88
as microfinance clients. Though most of the microfinance institutions claim to have educational trainings
and programmes for the benefit of the people, according to some of the experts the first thing these SHG
and JLG members are taught is to do their own signature. The worst part is that many MFIs think that this
is what financial literacy means. We all know how dangerous it can be when one doesnt know how to read
but he/she knows how to accept or approve it (by signing it).
3.

Inability to generate sufficient funds

Inability of MFIs to raise sufficient fund remains one of the important concern in the microfinance sector.
Though NBFCs are able to raise funds through private equity investments because of the for-profit motive,
such MFIs are restricted from taking public deposits. Not-for-profit companies which constitute a major
chunk of the MFI sector have to primarily rely on donations and grants from Government and apex
institutions like NABARD and SIDBI. In absence of adequate funding from the equity market, the major
source of funds for MFIs are the bank loans, which is the reason for high Debt to Equity ratio of most
MFIs.
MFIs receive debt from banks against their equity and in order to increase their portfolio size they need to
increase their debts for which they further need to increase their equity. After the Andhra crisis, it is
reported that banks have stopped issuing fresh loans and even though currently few banks have resumed,
they want MFIs to increase their equity to get fresh loans. So the only mode for the MFIs to increase their
portfolio size is to increase their equity. The problem of inadequate funds is even bigger for small and
nascent MFIs as they find it very difficult to get bank loans because of their small portfolio size and so
they have to look for other costlier sources of fund.

4.

Dropouts and Migration of group members

Majority of the microfinance loans are disbursed on group lending concept and a past record of the group
plays an important role in getting new loans either through SHG-Bank linkage or through MFIs. The two
major problems with the group concept are dropouts (when one or more members leave the group) and
migration (when one or more members move to another group). Most MFIs lend on the basis of the past
record of the group i.e. SHG or JLG and also on the individuals repayment performance. In absence of a
decent past record, members are deprived of getting bigger loan amounts and additional services.

5.

Transparent Pricing
Though the concern about the transparent pricing in the microfinance sector has been an older one, it is
gaining significance with the growing size and the increasing competition in the sector. Non-transparent
pricing by MFIs confines the bargaining power of the borrowers and their ability to compare different loan
products, because they dont know the actual price. In absence of the proper understanding of the pricing,
clients end up borrowing more than their ability to payback which results in over-indebtedness of the
borrower.
MFIs, in order to make their products look less expensive and more attractive, are disguising their
actual/effective interest rates (better known as the Annualized Percentage Rates APR) by including other
charges like service charge, processing fee etc. Some MFIs even take interest free deposits for lending
microloans. There have been cases where the interest rates are linked with the loan amount, which means
a higher interest rate for smaller loans (because of higher transaction cost). This is resulting in highest
interest rate being charged to the poorest clients, which contradicts with the social aspect of microfinance.

89
Ambiguity in the pricing by MFIs is inviting regulatory bodies to implement strict measures like interest
rate caps. But simply putting an interest rate cap may encourage MFIs to look for clients with larger loan
requirements. This may deprive the clients with smaller loan requirements who are supposed to be the
actual beneficiary of microfinance.
6.

Cluster formation fight to grab established market

MFIs drive to grab an established market and reduce their costs is resulting in formation of clusters in
some areas leaving the others out of the microfinance outreach. By getting an established microfinance
market, MFIs reduce their initial cost in group formation of clients, educating them and creating
awareness about microfinance. This is one of the reasons for the dominance of the microfinance sector in
the southern states. Now the problem is that a similar trend is being followed in the northern states as
well. We have already seen what happened in A.P and it seems that most of the MFIs have not taken a
lesson from the Andhra crisis.
This cluster formation is restricting MFIs from reaching to rural areas where there is the actual need for
microfinance. People in urban and semi-urban areas are already having access to microfinance through
SHG-bank linkage or individual lending, but in rural areas people dont have access to banks and so SBLP
is not much active in such areas. Because of the initial cost involved in serving a new location, MFIs are
not willing to go to such remote locations. This is the reason most of the MFIs have their branches in
urban and semi-urban areas only resulting in a very low rural penetration of microfinance.
It is high time for the MFIs to understand that though microfinance is a resalable product, increasing the
outreach of the microfinance sector by including new clients and serving new locations is what which is
needed the most at the moment.

7.

Multiple Lending and Over-Indebtedness

Both of these are outcome of the competition among the MFIs. Microfinance is one such sector where the
Neo-liberal theory of free market operation fails, at least to some extent. Though competition is good for
many sectors but in this case it is going against both the parties. In order to eat away each others market
share, MFIs are ending up giving multiple loans to same borrowers which in some cases is leading to overindebtedness (a situation where the borrower has taken loans more than her/his repaying capacity) of the
borrower. MFIs are getting affected because borrowers are failing to make payments and hence their
recovery rates are falling, while over-indebtedness is making the borrower go to depression and in some
cases forcing them to commit suicide.
Some experts advocate that multiple lending is not but over-indebtedness is dangerous. This may be true
but multiple lending is eating away the opportunity of new borrowers, and in a country where it is believed
that the microfinance sector is able to cater to only 10-15 percent of its potential clients, even multiple
lending proves out to be a big concern.

90
INDIAN ECONOMY
A.

Overview
Indicator

Amount

GDP (Official Exchange Rate)-2012

$ 2.22 trillion (ranked 7th)

GDP (PPP)-2012

$ 8.54 trillion (ranked 3rd)

GDP per capita (PPP)-2015

$ 6509 (ranked 121)

GDP per capita (nominal)-2015

$ 1688 (ranked 131)

Growth rate-2015-16

7.4%

Population below poverty line-2011-12

21.9%

Exports-2015 est.

$ 47.7 billion

Imports-2015 est.

$ 610 billion

The economy of India is the seventh-largest in the world by nominal GDP and the third-largest by
purchasing power parity (PPP). The size of Asias third largest economy is now estimated at $2.22 trillion
(around Rs.100 trillion). The country is one of the G-20 major economies and a member of BRICS.

On a per-capita-income basis, India ranked 140 by nominal GDP and 122 by GDP (PPP) in 2015, according
to the IMF.

India's economy is predominantly services-based. Agriculture accounts for 17.39% of GDP and employs
49% of the population. Manufacturing and industry accounts for 25.75% of GDP and employs 22.40% of
the population. Services accounts for 43.37% of the GDP and employs 34.60% of the population.

India's government revenues are 18.52% of GDP while its government spending is 27.52% of GDP. Thus
India's government runs a deficit of 4.83% of GDP.

India is the 19th-largest exporter and the 10th-largest imported in the world.

Indias economy is poised for a high growth driven by large investment projects and foreign direct
investment, after slumping to its slowest pace of growth in a decade in the previous year.

B.

Basic features and problems of Indian Economy

I.

Features

Low per capita income.

Inequalities in income distribution.

Predominance of agriculture. (More than 2/3rd of Indias working population is engaged in agriculture. But
in USA only 2% of the working population is engaged in agriculture.)

Rapidly growing population.

Chronic unemployment (A person is considered employed if he / she works for 273 days of a year for
eight hours every day.)

II.

Low rate of capital formation.

Dualistic Nature of Economy (features of a modern economy, as well as traditional).

Mixed Economy (co-existence of public and private sectors)

Follows labour intensive techniques

Problems faced by Indian Economy

91
a

Agriculture
Agriculture is an important part of Indian economy. In 2008, a New York Times article claimed, with the
right technology and policies, India could contribute to feeding not just itself but the world. However,
agricultural output of India lags far behind its potential. The low productivity in India is a result of several
factors. According to the World Bank, India's large agricultural subsidies are hampering productivityenhancing investment. While overregulation of agriculture has increased costs, price risks and uncertainty,
governmental intervention in labour, land, and credit markets are hurting the market. Infrastructure such
as rural roads, electricity, ports, food storage, retail markets and services are inadequate. Further, the
average size of land holdings is very small, with 70% of holdings being less than one hectare in size. The
partial failure of land reforms in many states, exacerbated by poorly maintained or non-existent land
records, has resulted in sharecropping with cultivators lacking ownership rights, and consequently low
productivity of labour. Adoption of modern agricultural practices and use of technology is inadequate,
hampered by ignorance of such practices, high costs, illiteracy, slow progress in implementing land
reforms, inadequate or inefficient finance and marketing services for farm produce and impracticality in
the case of small land holdings. The allocation of water is inefficient, unsustainable and inequitable. The
irrigation infrastructure is deteriorating. Irrigation facilities are inadequate, as revealed by the fact that
only 39% of the total cultivable land was irrigated as of 2010, resulting in farmers still being dependent on
rainfall, specifically the monsoon season, which is often inconsistent and unevenly distributed across the
country.

Poverty
Poverty in India is widespread, with the nation estimated to have a third of the world's poor. In 2010, the
World Bank reported that 32.7% of the totals Indian people fall below the international poverty line of US$
1.25 per day (PPP) while 68.7% lives on less than US$ 2 per day. According to 2010 data from the United
Nations Development Programme, an estimated 29.8% of Indians live below the country's national
poverty line. A 2010 report by the Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (OPHI) states that 8
Indian states have more poor people than 26 poorest African nations combined which totals to more than
410 million poor in the poorest African countries. A 2013 UN report stated that a third of the worlds
poorest people live in India.
The latest UNICEF data shows that one in three malnourished children worldwide are found in India, whilst
42% of the nation's children under five years of age are underweight. The 2011 Global Hunger Index
(GHI) Report places India amongst the three countries where the GHI between 1996 and 2011 went up
from 22.9 to 23.7, while 78 out of the 81 developing countries studied, succeeded in improving hunger
conditions.

Economic disparities
A critical problem facing India's economy is the sharp and growing regional variations among India's
different states and territories in terms of poverty, availability of infrastructure and socio-economic
development. Six low-income states Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and Uttar
Pradesh are home to more than one-third of India's population.]Severe disparities exist among states in
terms of income, literacy rates, life expectancy and living conditions.
Inequalities in a country can be measured by an index called Ginni Coefficient. India has the Gini
Coefficient of 33.9, which reflect high inequalities.

92
The five-year plans, especially in the pre-liberalisation era, attempted to reduce regional disparities by
encouraging industrial development in the interior regions and distributing industries across states, but
the results have not been very encouraging since these measures in fact increased inefficiency and
hampered effective industrial growth. After liberalisation, the more advanced states have been better
placed to benefit from them, with well-developed infrastructure and an educated and skilled workforce,
which attract the manufacturing and service sectors. The governments of backward regions are trying to
reduce disparities by offering tax holidays and cheap land, and focusing more on sectors like tourism
which, although being geographically and historically determined, can become a source of growth and
develops faster than other sectors. In fact, the economists fail to realize that ultimately the problem of
equitable growth or inclusive growth is intricately related to the problems of good governance and
transparency.
Two comparison groups provide a powerful and disturbing insight into India's growth process. First, there
are many countries which have grown at rates very similar to India's but which have managed to register
marked declines in socio-economic inequalities. In stark contrast to this, India has witnessed an increase
in socio-economic inequality since 1990. Second, in comparison to its close neighbours, with whom India
has many geographical, climactic, cultural and social commonalities; India emerges as the worst
performer among the South Asian countries.
The growth process currently underway in India is inherently biased against the poor, the marginalized
and underprivileged. If economic growth is to lead to substantial improvements in the living standards
(measured by indicators of well being like life expectancy, literacy, infant mortality) of the vast majority of
the world's population, a radically different socio-economic paradigm must be put in place of the currently
dominant neoliberal one.
d

Illiteracy
India has made huge progress in terms of increasing primary education attendance rate and expanding
literacy to approximately three-fourths of the population. India's literacy rate had grown from 52.2% in
1991 to 74.04% in 2011. The right to education at elementary level has been made one of the
fundamental rights under the eighty-sixth Amendment of 2002, and legislation has been enacted to
further the objective of providing free education to all children. However, the literacy rate of 74% is still
lower than the worldwide average and the country suffers from a high dropout rate. Further, there exists
a severe disparity in literacy rates and educational opportunities between males and females, urban and
rural areas, and among different social groups.

Corruption
Corruption has been one of the pervasive problems affecting India. A 2005 study by Transparency
International (TI) found that more than half of those surveyed had firsthand experience of paying bribe or
peddling influence to get a job done in a public office in the previous year. A follow-on 2008 TI study
found this rate to be 40 percent. In 2011, Transparency International ranked India at 76th place amongst
175 countries in corruption perception index.
In 1996, red tape, bureaucracy and the Licence Raj were suggested as a cause for the institutionalized
corruption and inefficiency. More recent reports suggest the causes of corruption in India include
excessive regulations and approval requirements, mandated spending programs, monopoly of certain

93
goods and service providers by government controlled institutions, bureaucracy with discretionary powers,
and lack of transparent laws and processes.
The Right to Information Act (2005) which requires government officials to furnish information requested
by citizens or face punitive action, computerization of services, and various central and state government
acts that established vigilance commissions, have considerably reduced corruption and opened up avenues
to redress grievances. The current government has concluded that most spending fails to reach its
intended recipients. A large, cumbersome and tumor-like bureaucracy sponges up or siphons off spending
budgets. India's absence rates are one of the worst in the world; one study found that 25% of public
sector teachers and 40% of public sector medical workers could not be found at the workplace.
The Indian economy has an underground economy, with an alleged 2006 report by the Swiss Bankers
Association suggesting India topped the worldwide list for black money with almost $1,456 billion stashed
in Swiss banks. This amounts to 13 times the country's total external debt.

C.

Economic Planning

Germany was the first country in the world which started economic planning. But planning as a system
was adopted first by the erstwhile USSR in the year 1929.

With reference to the need for planning in India, a book entitled 'Planned Economy for India' was
published in 1934. The author of this book was Sir M. Vishweshwarya.

Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru, the architect of planning in India, set up the National Planning Committee in 1938
for ten years with himself as its Chairman with a view to raise the standard of living of people.

In 1944, a plan called 'Bombay Plan was presented by eight industrialists of Bombay. Thereafter, in the
same year, 'Gandhian Plan' by Mr. Mannaragan, in 1945 the 'People's Plan' by labour leader M.N. Rai and
in 1950 the 'Sarvodaya Plan' by Mr. Jai Prakash Narayan were presented.

Planning Commission, an extra-constitutional and non-statutory body was set up in 1950 by a resolution
of the Union Cabinet by the then Prime Minister Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru with himself as its Chairman, to
formulate an integrated Five Year Plan for economic and social development of the country and to act as
an advisory body to the Union Government, in his behalf. The function of

Planning

Commission

is

to

prepare plan for the most effective and balanced utilisation of the country's resources. The Prime Minister
of India is the ex-officio Chairman of the Planning Commission.

National Development Council, another extra-constitutional and extra-legal body, the NDC was set up in
1952, as an adjunct to the Planning Commission to associate the States in the formulation of the Plans.
The Planning Commission formulates the Five Year Plan and the NDC finally puts its seal of approval on it.
Five Year Plans
Planning in India derives its objectives and social promises from Directive Principles of State Policy
enshrined in the Constitution.
First Plan 1951-56: The first plan with a total outlay of Rs. 2378 crore was a rather haphazard venture,
as the Planning Commission had no reliable statistics to work upon. It laid emphasis on agriculture.The
plan turned out to be more than a success, mainly because it was supported by two good harvests in the
two years.

94
Second Plan 1956-61: The second plan was a big leap forward. It laid special stress on heavy industries.
But the great quantity of imports that the Plan envisaged in both public and private sectors, practically
denuded India's accumulated sterling balances by as much as Rs. 500 crore in two years and compelled
the country to seek extensive foreign aid. Agriculture and small scale industries remained sluggish,
without adding any momentum to development.
Third Plan 1961-66: The Third Plan rode on a wave of high expectations following overall growth of the
Indian economy in the first two plan periods. The Third Plan aimed at establishing a self-sustaining
economy. Internal resources having been strained to the utmost, the Plan had to rely on heavy foreign
aid. During the Third Plan, national income revised at 1960-61 prices rose by 20 per cent in the first four
years but registered decline of 5.6 per cent in the last year. Per capita real income in 1965-66 was about
same as it was in 1960-61.
Interim Planning: The economy so had far degenerated that the Fourth Plan could not be started on
time, that is to say, in 1966. Instead, as a stop gap arrangement planning was made annual. The Annual
plans continued from 1966-1969 -1966 -1967, 1967-68 and 1968-69.
Fourth Plan 1969-74: The Fourth Plan officially commenced on April 1969.

India had to reform and

restructure its expenditure agenda, following the attack on India in the year 1962 and for the second time
in the year 1965. India had hardly recuperated when it was struck by drought. India also had a stint of
recession. Due to recession, famine and drought, India did not pay much heed to long term goals.
Instead, it responded to the need of the hour. It started taking measures to overcome the crisis. Food
grains production increased to bring about self sufficiency in production. With this attempt, gradually a
gap was created between the people of the rural areas and those of the urban areas. The need for foreign
reserves was felt. This facilitated growth in exports. Import substitution drew considerable attention. All
these activities widened the industrial platform.
Following the 4th Five Year Plan an alteration in the socio economic structure of the society was observed.
Fifth Plan 1974-79: The Fifth Plan draft originally drawn up was part of a long term perspective plan
covering a period of 10 years from 1974-75 to 1985-86.The Janata Government reconstituted the
Planning Commission and announced a new strategy in planning. The strategy involved a change in
objective and pattern, the objective was laid down as Growth for Social Justice instead of Growth with
Social Justice, a distinction without a difference. The new pattern was the Rolling Plan which merely meant
that every year the performance of the Plan will be assessed and a new plan based on such assessment
will be made for the next year a continuous planning, in fact. The Rolling Plan started with an annual plan
for 1978-79 and as a continuation of the terminated Fifth Plan.
Sixth Plan (April 1, 1980 March 31, 1985): The sixth plan launched by the Janata Government was
disbanded by the Congress Government which assumed office in the year 1980 aimed at a direct attack on
the problem of poverty by creating conditions of an expanding economy. Its objectives were
1.

raising the rate of growth

2.

checking population growth

3.

rapid development of indigenous sources of energy and

4.

economic and technological self-reliance.

95
It had an outlay of Rs. 158.710 cores. Of this the public sector outlay was to the tune of Rs. 97,500 crores
while the share of private sector was Rs. 61,120 crores. Against the 5.2 per cent economic growth target
the actual achievement was 4.98 per cent. The food grain production was 148 million tonnes against 154
million tonnes.
Seventh Plan (April 1, 1985 to March 31, 1990): The Seventh Plan sought to emphasise on "Food,
Work and Productivity" and shelter and also providing health for all by 2000 A.D. The mid-term appraisal
report revealed that the Plan progressed sluggishly in the first three years. The overall growth rate
targeted at 5% averaged only 3.4%. The manufacturing sector made a good headway transcending the
projected annual growth rate of 8%. Agricultural growth was proved to be very poor due to
unprecedented drought during 1986-87.
Eighth Plan (April 1992 to March 31, 1997): The political instability and frequent changes of guards
at Centre prior to the installation of Mr. P. V. Narsimaha Rao as the Prime Minister delayed the Eighth Plan
for two years. The Eighth Plan was launched in backdrop of widespread changes which had altered the
face of international social and economic order. This plan was unique in the sense that it sought to
manage the transition from centrally planned economy to market oriented one without diluting our socioimbalance while ensuring economic growth and was performance oriented. The Eighth Plan aimed at
achieving a growth rate of 5.6% per annum in GDP over the five-year period. Human development was
the ultimate goal of the Eighth Plan. It was towards this ultimate goal that employment generation,
population control, literacy, education, health and provisions of adequate food and basic infrastructure
were listed as the priorities of the Eighth Plan.
Ninth Plan (1997-2002): Main features of this plan were greater emphasis on economic reform in
agriculture, employment generation, rural development and poverty alleviation, removal of trade
bottlenecks and liberalisation of cooperative sector. It had an outlay of Rs. 875,000 crores. A distinctive
feature of Ninth Plan was the inclusion of social objectives such as empowerment of women, population
control and environmental protection in the overall plan objectives.
Tenth Plan (2002-2007): The Tenth Five-Year Plan (2002-07) was approved by the National
Development Council on 21 December 2002. The Plan was further developed the NDC mandated
objectives, of doubling per capita income in ten years and achieving a growth rate of eight percent of GDP
per annum. Since economic growth is not the only objective, the Plan aimed at harnessing the benefits of
growth to achieve other social targets like
Decadal Population Growth to reduce from 21.3 per cent in 1991 -2001 to 16.2 per cent in 2001 -11;
Growth in gainful five years of schooling by 2007; Reducing gender gaps in literacy and wage rates by 50
per cent; Literacy Rate to increase from 65, Tree Cover from 19 percent in 1999-2000 to 25 percent in
2007; and cleaning of major polluted river stretches.
Eleventh Plan (2007 12): The main objectives of the Eleventh Five Year Plan were reduction of
poverty and increase in employment. Some other aspects which constituted the Eleventh Five Year Plan
were:

Creation of 70 million employment opportunities.

Development of minimum standards of educational attainment in elementary school.

Reduction in infant mortality rate and maternal mortality rate.

96

Ensuring electricity connection to all villages and Below Poverty Line (BPL) households.

Treat all urban waste water by 2012 to clean river waters.

Ensuring the provision of broadband connectivity to all villages by 2012.

Ensuring safe childhood for children without compulsion of work.

Provide clean drinking water for all by 2012.

Reduction of educated unemployment to below 5 per cent.

Performance of 11th plan

1.

The growth rate of the agriculture sector came upto 7.16 per cent.

2.

The services sector had a growth rate of 8.84 per cent.

3.

Effective implementation of several poverty alleviation schemes ensured attainment of better standards.

4.

The targeted growth rate for the Eleventh Five Year Plan was 8.1 per cent, but the actual growth that was
achieved was 7.9 per cent.
Twelfth Plan (2012-17): Targets

Overall growth of 8%

Agricultural growth of 4%

Industrial growth of 10%

$1 trillion investment in infrastructure

More investment in health and education

Better targeting of subsidy

Bring down poverty ratio by 10%

The Planning Commission is likely to scale down India's economic growth target to 6.5-7% for the 12th
plan period from 8% projected earlier, a revision necessitated by the persistent downturn in key sectors
such as infrastructure and manufacturing despite the government's efforts to spur investment. While the
commission had projected a GDP growth of 5.8% for 2012-13, the first fiscal of the 12th five-year plan
(2012-17), Indian economy grew by just 5% and it is likely to fall way short of the 7.3% pegged for the
current fiscal. In such a situation, there is little likelihood of achieving the earlier target for the five-year
period, the plan panel has concluded.The plan panel had initially projected annual GDP growth of 8.5%,
9% and 9.2% during the last three years of the 12th plan period. The plan panel has been reiterating that
the economic growth depends on the capacity of the economy to draw investments and ensure productive
use of this capital, an official said, adding that genuine investors in the country as well as abroad have
been shying away from investing in India for umpteen reasons.

D.

NITI Aayog
The National Institution for Transforming India Aayog or NITI Aayog is a Government of India policy thinktank established in 2014 to replace the Planning Commission.
The stated aim for NITI Aayog's creation is to foster involvement and participation in the economic policymaking process by the State Governments of India, a "bottom-up" approach to planning in contrast to the
Planning Commission's tradition of "top-down" decision-making. One of the important mandates of NITI
Aayog is to bring cooperative federalism.
NITI Aayog will provide opportunities that the previous Planning Commission structure lacked, to
represent the economic interests of the State Governments and Union Territories of India.
The Prime Minister will serve as the ex-officio Chairperson for NITI Aayog.

97
The NITI Aayog comprises the following:
1.

Prime Minister of India as the Chairperson

2.

Governing Council comprising the Chief Ministers of all the States and Union territories with Legislatures

3.

Regional Councils will be formed to address specific issues and contingencies impacting more than one

and lieutenant governors of other Union Territories.

state or a region. These will be formed for a specified tenure. The Regional Councils will be convened by
the Prime Minister and will be composed of the Chief Ministers of States and Lt. Governors of Union
Territories in the region. These will be chaired by the Chairperson of the NITI Aayog or his nominee
4.

Experts, specialists and practitioners with relevant domain knowledge as special invitees nominated by the
Prime Minister

5.

Full-time organizational framework (in addition to Prime Minister as the Chairperson) comprising

1.

Vice-Chairperson: Arvind Panagariya

2.

Members: Three (3) Full-time: economist Bibek Debroy, former DRDO chief V.K. Saraswat and Agriculture
Expert Professor Ramesh Chand

3.

Part-time members: Maximum of two from leading universities research organizations and other relevant
institutions in an ex-officio capacity. Part-time members will be on a rotational basis

4.

Ex Officio members: Maximum of four members of the Union Council of Ministers to be nominated by the
Prime Minister

5.

Chief Executive Officer: To be appointed by the Prime Minister for a fixed tenure, in the rank of Secretary

6.

Secretariat as deemed necessary

to the Government of India. Amitabh Kant has been appointed as the new Chief Executive Officer in 2015.

Key Differences between NITI Aayog and Planning Commission

Financial clout
NITI Aayog To be an advisory body, or a think-tank. The powers to allocate fund vested in the finance
ministry
Planning Commission Enjoyed the powers to allocate funds to ministries and state governments
Full-time members
NITI Aayog Three full-time members.
Planning Commission had eight full-time members
States' role
NITI Aayog Includes the Chief Ministers of all States and the Lieutenant Governors of all Union
territories in its Governing Council, devolving more power to the States of the Union.
Planning Commission States' role was limited to the National Development Council and annual
interaction during Plan meetings
Member secretary
NITI Aayog To be known as the CEO and to be appointed by the prime minister
Planning Commission Secretaries or member secretaries were appointed through the usual process
Part-time members
NITI Aayog To have a number of part-time members, depending on the need from time to time
Planning Commission Full Planning Commission had no provision for part-time members

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Constitution
Niti Aayog Governing Council has state chief ministers and lieutenant governors.
Planning Commission- The commission reported to National Development Council that had state chief
ministers and lieutenant governors.
Organization
Niti Aayog New posts of CEO, of secretary rank, and Vice-Chairperson. Will also have two full-time
members and part-time members as per need. Four cabinet ministers will serve as ex-officio members.
Planning Commission Had deputy chairperson, a member secretary and full-time members.
Participation
Niti Aayog- Consulting states while making policy and deciding on funds allocation. Final policy would be a
result of that.
Planning Commission- Policy was formed by the commission and states were then consulted about
allocation of funds.
Allocation
Niti Aayog- No power to allocate funds
Planning Commission- Had power to decide allocation of government funds for various programs at
national and state levels.
Nature
Niti Aayog- NITI is a think-tank and does not have the power to impose policies.
Planning Commission- Imposed policies on states and tied allocation of funds with projects it approved.
Growth through FYPs

Plan Period

Target

Actual

First (1951-56)

2.1%

3.6%

Second (1956-61)

4.5%

4.0%

Third (1961-66)

5.6%

2.4%

Fourth (1969-74)

5.7%

3.3%

Fifth (1974-79)

4.4%

5.0%

Sixth (1980-85)

5.2%

5.4%

Seventh (1985-90)

5.0%

5.7%

Eighth (1992-97)

5.6%

6.78%

Ninth (1997-2002)

6.5%

5.7%

Tenth (2002-2007)

8.1%

7.6%

Eleventh (2007-12)

9% (later revised to 8.1%)

7.9%

Twelfth (2012-17)

8.2% (later revised to 8%)

E.

Monetary policy
Monetary policy as an arm of public policy has set objectives and priorities. These objectives are derived
from the respective mandates of central banks. It ranges from a single objective of price stability,

99
considered to be the dominant objective of monetary policy, to multiple objectives that include growth and
financial stability as well. Central banks strive to achieve these objectives indirectly through instruments
under their direct control and on the basis of the empirical relationship these instruments have with the
final objectives. This requires articulation of a consistent monetary policy framework that enables
transmission of policy signals in such a way that monetary and financial conditions are influenced to the
desired extent to attain the objectives. Monetary policy framework, however, is a continuously evolving
process contingent upon the level of development of financial markets and institutions, and the degree of
global integration.
Thus monetary policy is the process by which monetary authority of a country, generally a central bank
controls the supply of money in the economy by exercising its control over interest rates in order to
maintain price stability and achieve high economic growth. In India, the central monetary authority is the
Reserve Bank of India (RBI).
The monetary policy framework and the associated operating procedure of monetary policy in India have
evolved over time. First, in the formative years during 1935-1950, the focus of monetary policy was to
regulate the supply of and demand for credit in the economy through the Bank Rate, reserve
requirements and OMO (Open Market Operations). Second, during the development phase during 19511970 , the need to support plan financing through accommodation of government deficit financing by the
RBI began to significantly influence the conduct of monetary policy. This led to introduction of several
quantitative control measures to contain the consequent inflationary pressures while ensuring credit to
preferred sectors. These measures included selective credit control, credit authorization scheme (CAS)
and social control measures to enhance the flow of credit to priority sectors. The Bank Rate was raised
more frequently during this period. Third, during 1971-90, the focus of monetary policy was on credit
planning. However, the dominance of fiscal policy over monetary policy accentuated and continued
through the 1980s. To raise resources for the government from banks, the statutory liquidity ratio (SLR)
was progressively increased from the statutory minimum of 25 per cent of banks net demand and time
liabilities (NDTL) in 1970 to 38.5 per cent by 1990. And to neutralize the inflationary impact of deficit
financing, the cash reserve ratio (CRR) was gradually raised from its statutory minimum of 3 per cent to
15 per cent of NDTL during the period. Fourth, the 1980s saw the adoption of monetary targeting
framework based on the recommendations of Chakravarty Committee (1985). Under this framework,
reserve money was used as operating target and broad money (M3) as an intermediate target. A number
of money market instruments such as inter-bank participation certificates (IBPCs), certificates of deposit
(CDs) and Commercial Paper (CP) were introduced based on the recommendations of Vaghul Committee
(1987). Fifth, structural reforms and financial liberalisation in the 1990s led to a shift in the financing
paradigm for the government and commercial sectors with increasingly market-determined interest rates
and exchange rate. By the second half of the 1990s, in its liquidity management operations, the RBI was
able to move away from direct instruments to indirect market-based instruments. The CRR and SLR were
brought down to 9.5 per cent and 25 per cent of NDTL of banks by 1997. Sixth, the monetary policy
operating procedure also underwent a change following the recommendation of Narasimham Committee II
(1998). The RBI introduced the Interim Liquidity Adjustment Facility (ILAF) in April 1999, under which
liquidity injection was done at the Bank Rate and liquidity absorption was through fixed reverse repo rate.
The ILAF gradually transited into a full-fledged liquidity adjustment facility (LAF) with periodic
modifications based on experience and development of financial markets and the payment system. The
LAF was operated through overnight fixed rate repo and reverse repo from November 2004. The LAF
helped to develop interest rate as an instrument of monetary transmission. In the process, two major

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weaknesses came to the fore. First was the lack of a single policy rate. The operating policy rate
alternated between repo and reverse repo rates depending upon the prevailing liquidity condition. In a
surplus liquidity condition, the operating policy rate was the reverse repo rate, while in a deficit liquidity
situation it was the repo rate. Second was the lack of a firm corridor. The effective overnight interest rates
dipped below the reverse repo rate in surplus conditions and rose above the repo rate in deficit conditions.
New Operating Procedure
Against this background, the new operating procedure retained the essential features of the LAF
framework with the following key modifications. First, the weighted average overnight call money rate was
explicitly recognized as the operating target of monetary policy. Second, the repo rate was made the only
one independently varying policy rate. Third, a new Marginal Standing Facility (MSF) was instituted under
which scheduled commercial banks (SCBs) could borrow overnight at their discretion up to one per cent of
their respective NDTL at 100 basis points above the repo rate. Fourth, the revised corridor was defined
with a fixed width of 200 basis points. The repo rate was placed in the middle of the corridor, with the
reverse repo rate 100 basis points below it and the MSF rate 100 basis points above it. The current
operating framework is illustrated as follows:The new operating procedure improves upon the earlier LAF framework by removing some of the major
drawbacks. It is also a move towards international best practices. First, explicit announcement of an
operating target makes it clear to the market participants about the desired policy impact. Second, a
single policy rate removes the confusion arising out of policy rate alternating between the repo and the
reverse repo rates. It also improves the accuracy of signalling monetary policy stance. Third, the
institution of MSF provides a safety valve against unanticipated liquidity shocks. It will help stabilise the
overnight interest rate around the repo rate, particularly during deficit liquidity situation. Fourth, a fixed
interest rate corridor set by MSF rate and reverse repo rate, by reducing uncertainty and avoiding
communication difficulties associated with a variable corridor, will help keep the overnight average call
money rate close to the repo rate.
Major Monetary Operations of RBI
Open Market Operations

An open market operation is an instrument of monetary policy which involves buying or selling of
government securities from or to the public and banks. This mechanism influences the reserve position of
the banks, yield on government securities and cost of bank credit. The RBI sells government securities to
contract the flow of credit and buys government securities to increase credit flow. Open market operation
makes bank rate policy effective and maintains stability in government securities market.
Cash Reserve Ratio

Cash Reserve Ratio is a certain percentage of bank deposits which banks are required to keep with RBI in
the form of reserves or balances .Higher the CRR with the RBI lower will be the liquidity in the system and
vice-versa.RBI is empowered to vary CRR between 15 percent and 3 percent. But as per the suggestion
by the Narshimam committee Report the CRR was reduced from 15% in the 1990 to 5 percent in 2002. As
of January 2013, the CRR is 4.00 percent.
Statutory Liquidity Ratio

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Every financial institution has to maintain a certain quantity of liquid assets with themselves at any point
of time of their total time and demand liabilities. These assets can be cash, precious metals, approved
securities like bonds etc. The ratio of the liquid assets to time and demand liabilities is termed as the
Statutory liquidity ratio. There was a reduction of SLR from 38.5% to 25% because of the suggestion by
Narshimam Committee. The current SLR is 21%.
Bank Rate

The bank rate, also known as the discount rate, is the rate of interest charged by the RBI for providing
funds or loans to the banking system. This banking system involves commercial and co-operative banks,
Industrial Development Bank of India, IFC, EXIM Bank, and other approved financial institutes. Funds are
provided either through lending directly or rediscounting or buying money market instruments like
commercial bills and treasury bills. Increase in Bank Rate increases the cost of borrowing by commercial
banks which results into the reduction in credit volume to the banks and hence declines the supply of
money. Increase in the bank rate is the symbol of tightening of RBI monetary policy.
Credit Ceiling

In this operation RBI issues prior information or direction that loans to the commercial banks will be given
up to a certain limit. In this case commercial bank will be tight in advancing loans to the public. They will
allocate loans to limited sectors. Few example of ceiling are agriculture sector advances, priority sector
lending.
Credit Authorization Scheme

Credit Authorization Scheme was introduced in November, 1965 when P C Bhattacharya was the chairman
of RBI. Under this instrument of credit regulation RBI as per the guideline authorizes the banks to advance
loans to desired sectors.
Moral Suasion

Moral Suasion is just as a request by the RBI to the commercial banks to take so and so action and
measures in so and so trend of the economy. RBI may request commercial banks not to give loans for
unproductive purpose which does not add to economic growth but increases inflation.
Repo Rate and Reverse Repo Rate

Repo rate is the rate at which RBI lends to commercial banks generally against government securities.
Reduction in Repo rate helps the commercial banks to get money at a cheaper rate and increase in Repo
rate discourages the commercial banks to get money as the rate increases and becomes expensive.
Reverse Repo rate is the rate at which RBI borrows money from the commercial banks. The increase in
the Repo rate will increase the cost of borrowing and lending of the banks which will discourage the public
to borrow money and will encourage them to deposit. As the rates are high the availability of credit and
demand decreases resulting to decrease in inflation. This increase in Repo Rate and Reverse Repo Rate is
a symbol of tightening of the policy.

F.

Economic Reforms
The reform process in India was initiated with the aim of accelerating the pace of economic growth and
eradication of poverty. The process of economic liberalization in India can be traced back to the late

102
1970s. However, the reform process began in earnest only in July 1991. It was only in 1991 that the
Government signaled a systemic shift to a more open economy with greater reliance upon market forces,
a larger role for the private sector including foreign investment, and a restructuring of the role of
Government. The economic reforms initiated in 1991 introduced far-reaching measures, which changed
the working and machinery of the economy. These changes were pertinent to the following:

I.

Dominance of the public sector in the industrial activity

Discretionary controls on industrial investment and capacity expansion

Trade and exchange controls

Limited access to foreign investment

Public ownership and regulation of the financial sector

Reforms in Industrial Policy
Industrial policy was restructured to a great extent and most of the central government industrial controls
were dismantled. Massive deregulation of the industrial sector was done in order to bring in the element of
competition and increase efficiency. Industrial licensing by the central government was almost abolished
except for a few hazardous and environmentally sensitive industries. The list of industries reserved solely
for the public sector -- which used to cover 18 industries, including iron and steel, heavy plant and
machinery, telecommunications and telecom equipment, minerals, oil, mining, air transport services and
electricity generation and distribution was drastically reduced to three: defense aircrafts and warships,
atomic energy generation, and railway transport. Further, restrictions that existed on the import of foreign
technology were withdrawn.

II.

Reforms in Trade Policy

It was realized that the import substituting inward looking development policy was no longer suitable in
the modern globalising world. Before the reforms, trade policy was characterized by high tariffs and
pervasive import restrictions. Imports of manufactured consumer goods were completely banned. For
capital goods, raw materials and intermediates, certain lists of goods were freely importable, but for most
items where domestic substitutes were being produced, imports were only possible with import licenses.
The criteria for issue of licenses were non-transparent, delays were endemic and corruption unavoidable.
The economic reforms sought to phase out import licensing and also to reduce import duties.
Import licensing was abolished relatively early for capital goods and intermediates which became freely
importable in 1993, simultaneously with the switch to a flexible exchange rate regime. Quantitative
restrictions on imports of manufactured consumer goods and agricultural products were finally removed
on April 1, 2001, almost exactly ten years after the reforms began, and that in part because of a ruling by
a World Trade Organization dispute panel on a complaint brought by the United States.

III.

Financial sector reforms

Financial sector reforms have long been regarded as an integral part of the overall policy reforms in India.
India has recognized that these reforms are imperative for increasing the efficiency of resource
mobilization and allocation in the real economy and for the overall macroeconomic stability. The reforms
have been driven by a thrust towards liberalization and several initiatives such as liberalization in the
interest rate and reserve requirements have been taken on this front. At the same time, the government
has emphasized on stronger regulation aimed at strengthening prudential norms, transparency and

103
supervision to mitigate the prospects of systemic risks. Today, the Indian financial system has been
incrementally deregulated and exposed to international financial markets along with the introduction of
new instruments and products.
The fruits of liberalisation reached their peak in 2007, when India recorded its highest GDP growth rate of
9%. With this, India became the second fastest growing major economy in the world, next only to China.
Indian government coalitions have been advised to continue liberalisation. India grows at slower pace
than China, which has been liberalising its economy since 1978. The McKinsey Quarterly states that
removing main obstacles "would free India's economy to grow as fast as China's, at 10% a year".
There has been significant debate, however, around liberalisation as an inclusive economic growth
strategy. Since 1992, income inequality has deepened in India with consumption among the poorest
staying stable while the wealthiest generate consumption growth. As India's Gross domestic product
(GDP) growth rate became lowest in 2012-13 over a decade, growing merely at 5%, more criticism of
India's economic reforms surfaced, as it apparently failed to address employment growth, nutritional
values in terms of food intake in calories, and also exports growth - and thereby leading to a worsening
level of current account deficit compared to the prior to the reform period. As recently as 2010, when the
economy was growing at 9 percent, India was slated to be the next China. Now, growth has dipped below
5 percent, and Indian policy makers are fiddling as the rupee burns and foreign investors flee. Stock
indexes are plummeting while bond yields skyrocket, dramatically increasing the cost of the credit needed
to grow the economy. Worst of all, virtually nobody has much faith in India's ability to bring down its
current account deficit the excess of money its sending out (to pay for oil, for example) versus taking
in (from export earnings).

G.

Finance Commission
The Finance Commission of India came into existence in 1951. It was established under Article 280 of
the Indian Constitution by the President of India. It was formed to define the financial relations between
the centre and the state. As per the Constitution, the commission is appointed every five years and
consists of a chairman and four other members. Since the institution of the first finance commission, stark
changes have occurred in the Indian economy causing changes in the macroeconomic scenario. This has
led to major changes in the Finance Commission's recommendations over the years.
The Finance Commission is constituted mainly to give its recommendations on distribution of tax revenues
between the Union and the States and amongst the States themselves. Two distinctive features of the
Commissions work involve redressing the vertical imbalances between the taxation powers and
expenditure responsibilities of the centre and the States respectively and equalization of all public services
across the States. It is the duty of the Commission to make recommendations to the President as to

the distribution between the Union and the States of the net proceeds of taxes which are to be, or may
be, divided between them and the allocation between the States of the respective shares of such
proceeds;

the principles which should govern the grants-in-aid of the revenues of the States out of the Consolidated
Fund of India;

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the measures needed to augment the Consolidated Fund of a State to supplement the resources of the
Panchayats in the State on the basis of the recommendations made by the Finance Commission of the
State;

the measures needed to augment the Consolidated Fund of a State to supplement the resources of the
Municipalities in the State on the basis of the recommendations made by the Finance Commission of the
State;

any other matter referred to the Commission by the President in the interests of sound finance.
The Commission determines its procedure and have such powers in the performance of their functions as
Parliament may by law confer on them.

So far, 14 Finance Commissions have been appointed which are as follows:

Finance Commission

Year of Establishment

Chairman

Operational Duration

First

1951

K. C. Neogy

195257

Second

1956

K. Santhanam

195762

Third

1960

A.K. Chanda

196266

Fourth

1964

P.V. Rajamannarr

196669

Fifth

1968

Mahaveer Tyagi

196974

Sixth

1972

K. Brahmananda Reddy

197479

Seventh

1977

J.M. Shelat

197984

Eighth

1983

Y. B. Chavan

198489

Ninth

1987

N.K.P. Salve

198995

Tenth

1992

Late shri K.C. Pant

19952000

Eleventh

1998

A.M.Khusro

20002005

Twelfth

2003

C.Rangarajan

20052010

Thirteenth

2007

Dr. Vijay L. Kelkar

20102015

Fourteenth

2012

Yaga Venugopal Reddy

20152020

Proposals to 14th finance commission

As the states are subjected to more and more interstate migrant workers and illegal migrants from the
neighbouring countries, the finance commission shall give appropriate weight-age in distribution of the
total taxes to the states based on these criteria. The states which are giving more employment to
interstate workers are ahead in demographic transition. Demographic transition of a state is a real index &
status of all round human and economical development.

The states with coast line shall be given appropriate share from the royalty / taxes collected by the central
government from the minerals produced (including oil & natural gas) from the area of territorial waters
and exclusive economic zone similar to land based minerals production. Articles 1 & 3 of the constitution
define India as union of two entities only that are either sates or union territories. There is no third entity
such as territorial waters or exclusive economic zone. These are parts of states / union territories under
Indian union.

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H.

Population Census 2011

The 15th Indian National census was conducted in two phases, house listing and population enumeration.
House listing phase began on 1 April 2010 and involved collection of information about all buildings.
Information for National Population Register was also collected in the first phase, which will be used to
issue a 12-digit unique identification number to all registered Indians by Unique Identification Authority
of India. The second population enumeration phase was conducted between 9 to 28 February 2011.
Census has been conducted in India since 1872 and 2011 marks the first time biometric information was
collected. According to the provisional reports released on 31 March 2011, the Indian population
increased to 1.21 billion with a decadel growth of 17.64%. Adult literacy rate increased to 74.04% with a
decadal growth of 9.21%. Spread across 35 states and union territories, the Census covered 640
districts, 5767 tehsils, 7742 towns and more than 6 lac villages. 2.7 million officials visited households in
7,935 towns and 6,40,867 villages, classifying the population according to gender, religion, education
and occupation. The cost of the exercise was approximately

2,200 crore (US$438.9 million) this

comes to less than $ 0.5 per person, well below the estimated world average of $4.6 per person.
Conducted every 10 years, this census faced big challenges considering India's vast area and diversity of
cultures and opposition from the manpower involved.
a.

Snippets of Census 2011

Census 2011 covered 35 States/Union Territories, 640 districts, 5,924 sub-districts, 7,935 Towns and
6,40,867 Villages.

In Census 2001, the corresponding figures were 593 Districts, 5,463 sub-Districts, 5,161 Towns and
6,38,588 Villages.

There is an increase of 47Districts, 461 Sub Districts, 2774 Towns (242 Statutory and 2532 Census
Towns) and 2279 Villages in Census 2011 as compared to Census 2001.

As per the Provisional Population Totals of Census 2011, the total population of India was 1210.2 million.

Of this, the rural population stands at 833.1 million and the urban population 377.1 million.

In absolute numbers, the rural population has increased by 90.47 million and the urban population by
91.00 million in the last decade.

Uttar Pradesh has the largest rural population of 155.11 million (18.62% of the countrys rural population)
whereas Maharashtra has the highest urban population of 50.83 million (13.48% of countrys urban
population) in the country.

The growth rate of population for India in the last decade was 17.64%.

The growth rate of population in rural and urban areas was 12.18% and 31.80% respectively.

Bihar (23.90%) exhibited the highest decadal growth rate in rural population.

In percentage terms, the rural population formed 68.84% of the total population with the urban
population constituting 31.16% (increase of 3.35%).

Himachal Pradesh (89.96%) has the largest proportion of rural population, while Delhi (97.50%) has the
highest proportion of urban population.

The EAG States have a lower percentage of urban population (21.13%) in comparison to non EAG States
(39.66%).

The Sex Ratio in the country which was 933 in 2001 has risen by 7 points to 940 in 2011.

The increase in rural areas has been 1 point from 946 to 947. The same in urban areas has been 26 points
from 900 to 926.

106

Kerala has the highest sex ratio in total (1084), rural (1077) and urban (1091). In rural, Chandigarh
(691) and in urban, Daman & Diu (550) show the lowest sex ratio in the country respectively.

Eight states namely Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh,
Maharashtra, Karnataka and 1 UT Lakshadweep show fall in the sex ratio in rural area and 2 UTs Daman &
Diu and Dadra & Nagar Haveli in urban areas.

Out of the child population of 158.8 million in the age group of 0-6 in the country the rural child
population stands at 117.6 million and urban at 41.2 million in 2011.

The Child population has declined by 5.0 million in the country decline of 8.9 million in rural areas and
increase of 3.9 million in urban areas.

The Country has observed a decline in the percentage of child population in the age group 0-6 years by
about 3 percentage points over the decade - rural areas show a decline of about 3 % and urban a decline
of 2%. The growth rate of Child population has been -3.08% in the last decade (Rural- (-)7.04%; Urban(+)10.32%).

Census 2011 marks a considerable fall in child sex ratio in the age group of 0-6 years and has reached an
all time low of 914 since 1961.

The fall has been 13 points (927-914) for the country during 2001-2011.

In rural areas, the fall is significant - 15 points (934-919) and in urban areas it has been 4 points (906902) over the decade 2001-2011.

Delhi (809) has recorded the lowest and Andaman & Nicobar Islands (975) the highest child sex ratio in
rural areas.

Haryana (829) has recorded the lowest and Nagaland (979) the highest child sex ratio in urban areas.

As per the Provisional Population Totals of Census 2011, the number of literates in India was 778.5
million.

Of this, 493.0 million literates were in rural areas and 285.4 million literates in urban areas.

Out of an increase of 217.8 million literates over the decade 2001-2011, rural areas accounted for 131.1
million and urban areas 86.6 million.

The highest number of rural literates has been recorded in Uttar Pradesh (88.4 million). Maharashtra
(40.8 million) has recorded the highest number of literates in urban areas.

The Literacy Rate of India as per the Provisional Population Totals of Census 2011 is 74.04.

In rural areas the Literacy Rate is 68.91 and in urban areas it is 84.98.

The decadal change works out to 9.21 points - 10.17 points in rural areas and 5.06 points in urban areas
respectively.

The male Literacy Rate which is 82.14 (Rural- 78.57; Urban-89.67) is higher than the female Literacy
Rate of 65.46 (Rural- 58.75; Urban-79.92).

The increase in female literacy rate is significantly higher in all areas i.e. total (11.79 points), rural (12.62
points) and urban (7.06 points) in comparison to corresponding male literacy rates - total (6.88 points),
rural (7.87) and urban (3.40 points) over the decade.

It is significant to note that the gap in literacy rate among males and females has reduced to 16.68 in the
country.

The gap is 19.82 points in rural areas and 9.75 points in urban areas. Kerala (92.92) ranks first in rural
areas whereas Mizoram (98.1) ranks first in urban areas.

As far as Male literacy rate is concerned, Kerala (95.29) ranks first in rural areas whereas Mizoram
(98.67) ranks first in urban areas.

Rajasthan (46.25) has recorded lowest female literacy rate in rural areas, whereas, Jammu & Kashmir
(70.19) has the lowest female literacy rate in urban areas.

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Lowest male literacy rate in rural areas has been recorded in Arunachal Pradesh (68.79) and in urban
areas in Uttar Pradesh (81.75).

b.

Provisional data from the census was released on 31 March 2011.

Population

Literacy

c.

Total

1,210,193,422

Males

623,724,248

Females

586,469,174

Total

74.04%

Males

82.14%

Females

65.46%

Density of population

per km2

382

Sex ratio

per 1000 males

940 females

Child Sex ratio (06 age group)

per 1000 males

914 females

Literacy: Any one above age 7 who can read and write in any language with an ability to understand was
considered a literate. In censuses before 1991, children below the age 5 were treated as illiterates. The
literacy rate taking the entire population into account is termed as "crude literacy rate", and taking the
population from age 7 and above into account is termed as "effective literacy rate". Effective literacy rate
increased to a total of 74.04% with 82.14% of the males and 65.46% of the females being literate.
Census year

Total (%)

Male (%)

Female (%)

1901

5.35

9.83

0.60

1911

5.92

10.56

1.05

1921

7.16

12.21

1.81

1931

9.5

15.59

2.93

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d.

1941

16.1

24.9

7.3

1951

16.67

24.95

9.45

1961

24.02

34.44

12.95

1971

29.45

39.45

18.69

1981

36.23

46.89

24.82

1991

42.84

52.74

32.17

2001

64.83

75.26

53.67

2011

74.04

82.14

65.46

Employment and Livelihood

For growth to be inclusive it must create adequate livelihood opportunities and add to decent employment
commensurate with the expectations of a growing labour force. As noted above, Indias young age
structure offers a potential demographic dividend for growth, but this potential will be realized only if the
extent and quality of education and skill development among new entrants to the workforce is greatly
enhanced. One of the most remarkable things brought out by the 66th round National Sample Survey
Organization (NSSO) survey on Employment (2009-10) is that the number of young people in education,
and therefore, out of the workforce, has increased dramatically causing a drop in the labour participation
rate.2 The total number of young working-age (15-24) people who continued in educational institutions
doubled from about 30 million in 2004-05 to over 60 million in 2009-10.

The survey also shows that between 2004-05 and 2009-10, the overall labour force expanded by only
11.7 million. This was considerably lower than comparable periods earlier, and can be attributed to the
much larger retention of youth in education, and also because of lower labour force participation among
working-age women. Over the same period, 18 million job opportunities were created on current daily
status basis. Thus, in absolute terms, unemployment came down by 6.3 million; and the unemployment
rate which had increased from 6.06 per cent in 1993-94 to 7.31 per cent in 1999-2000 and further to 8.28
per cent in 2004-05, came down to 6.60 in 2009-10.

The lower growth in the labour force is not expected to continue in future and we can assume that much
larger numbers of educated youth will be joining the labour force in increasing numbers during the Twelfth
Plan and in the years beyond. The clear implication of this is that the pace of job/livelihood creation must
be greatly accelerated. Part of this must come from a significant boost to the manufacturing sector of the
economy, such that it grows at a rate that is faster than most other parts of the economy. However, this
may not be enough, in part because not all categories of manufacturing are labour intensive. Although
GDP from manufacturing increased at 9.5 per cent per annum between 2004-05 and 2009-10 along with
some increase in employment in the organised manufacturing sector, the survey suggests that overall
employment in manufacturing actually declined during this period. The implied shake-out of labour from
the un-organised manufacturing sector needs to be examined in detail and appropriate steps taken so that
the obvious potential of the MSME sector as a source of jobs/livelihoods is realised fully.

The 66th round NSSO Survey of Employment shows that the vast majority of new jobs created between
2004-05 and 2009-10 was in casual employment, mainly in construction. While such jobs are often more
attractive for rural labour than casual work in agriculture, there is a potential for an accelerated pace of
creation of more durable rural non-farm jobs/livelihood opportunities. Such job opportunities could come
from faster expansion in agro-processing, supply chains and the increased demand for technical personnel
for inputs into various aspects of farming that is undergoing steady modernization, and also the
maintenance of equipment and other elements of rural infrastructure. The service sector too has to
continue to be a place for creation of decent jobs/livelihood opportunities, in both rural and urban areas.

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I.

Banking in India
In the modern sense originated in the last decades of the 18th century. The first banks were Bank of
Hindustan (1770-1829) and The General Bank of India, established 1786 and since defunct.
The largest bank, and the oldest still in existence, is the State Bank of India, which originated in the Bank
of Calcutta in June 1806, which almost immediately became the Bank of Bengal. This was one of the three
presidency banks, the other two being the Bank of Bombay and the Bank of Madras, all three of which
were established under charters from the British East India Company. The three banks merged in 1921 to
form the Imperial Bank of India, which, upon India's independence, became the State Bank of India in
1955. For many years the presidency banks acted as quasi-central banks, as did their successors, until
the Reserve Bank of India was established in 1935.
In 1969 the Indian government nationalised all the major banks that it did not already own and these
have remained under government ownership. They are run under a structure know as 'profit-making
public sector undertaking' (PSU) and are allowed to compete and operate as commercial banks. The
Indian banking sector is made up of four types of banks, as well as the PSUs and the state banks, they
have been joined since 1990s by new private commercial banks and a number of foreign banks.
Banking in India was generally fairly mature in terms of supply, product range and reach-even though
reach in rural India and to the poor still remains a challenge. The government has developed initiatives to
address this through the State bank of India expanding its branch network and through the National Bank
for Agriculture and Rural Development with things like microfinance.

Structure of the organized banking sector in India

RESERVE BANK OF INDIA
Central bank and supreme monetary authority

Scheduled banks
Co-operatives

Commercial banks
Foreign
banks
(40)

Regional
rural
banks
(196)

Public sector
banks (27)

Private sector banks (30)

Old
(22)

State bank of India

and associate banks
(8)

State
cooperatives
(16)

Urban
cooperatives
(52)

New
(8)

Other nationalized
banks (19)

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INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT

A.

INTERNATIONAL TRADE

I.

Balance of Payments
Balance of payments is a statistical statement that systematically summarizes for a specific time period,
the economic transactions of an economy with the rest of the world. It is the method countries use to
monitor all international monetary transactions at a specific period of time. Usually, the BOP is calculated
every quarter and every calendar year. All trades conducted by both the private and public sectors are
accounted for in the BOP in order to determine how much money is going in and out of a country. If a
country has received money, this is known as a credit, and if a country has paid or given money, the
transaction is counted as a debit. Theoretically, the BOP should be zero, meaning that assets (credits) and
liabilities (debits) should balance, but in practice this is rarely the case. Thus, the BOP can tell the
observer if a country has a deficit or a surplus and from which part of the economy the discrepancies are
stemming.

a.

Components of BOP: The BOP is divided into three main categories: the current account, the capital
account and the financial account. Within these three categories are sub-divisions, each of which accounts
for a different type of international monetary transaction.
The Current Account: The current account is used to mark the inflow and outflow of goods and services
into a country. Earnings on investments, both public and private, are also put into the current account.
Within the current account are credits and debits on the trade of merchandise, which includes goods such
as raw materials and manufactured goods that are bought, sold or given away (possibly in the form of
aid). Services refer to receipts from tourism, transportation (like the levy that must be paid in Egypt when
a ship passes through the Suez Canal), engineering, business service fees (from lawyers or management
consulting, for example) and royalties from patents and copyrights. When combined, goods and services
together make up a country's balance of trade (BOT). The BOT is typically the biggest bulk of a country's
balance of payments as it makes up total imports and exports. If a country has a balance of trade deficit,
it imports more than it exports, and if it has a balance of trade surplus, it exports more than it imports.
Receipts from income-generating assets such as stocks (in the form of dividends) are also recorded in the
current account. The last component of the current account is unilateral transfers. These are credits that
are mostly worker's remittances, which are salaries sent back into the home country of a national working
abroad, as well as foreign aid that is directly received.
The Capital Account: The capital account is where all international capital transfers are recorded. This
refers to the acquisition or disposal of non-financial assets (for example, a physical asset such as land)
and non-produced assets, which are needed for production but have not been produced, like a mine used
for the extraction of diamonds.
The capital account is broken down into the monetary flows branching from debt forgiveness, the transfer
of goods, and financial assets by migrants leaving or entering a country, the transfer of ownership on
fixed assets (assets such as equipment used in the production process to generate income), the transfer

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of funds received to the sale or acquisition of fixed assets, gift and inheritance taxes, death levies and,
finally, uninsured damage to fixed assets.
The Financial Account: In the financial account, international monetary flows related to investment in
business, real estate, bonds and stocks are documented. Also included are government-owned assets
such as foreign reserves, gold, special drawing rights (SDRs) held with the International Monetary Fund
(IMF), private assets held abroad and direct foreign investment. Assets owned by foreigners, private and
official, are also recorded in the financial account.
b.

The Balancing Act: The current account should be balanced against the combined-capital and financial
accounts; however, as mentioned above, this rarely happens. We should also note that, with fluctuating
exchange rates, the change in the value of money can add to BOP discrepancies. When there is a deficit in
the current account, which is a balance of trade deficit, the difference can be borrowed or funded by the
capital account. If a country has a fixed asset abroad, this borrowed amount is marked as a capital
account outflow. However, the sale of that fixed asset would be considered a current account inflow
(earnings from investments). The current account deficit would thus be funded. When a country has a
current account deficit that is financed by the capital account, the country is actually foregoing capital
assets for more goods and services. If a country is borrowing money to fund its current account deficit,
this would appear as an inflow of foreign capital in the BOP.

c.

Liberalizing the Accounts: The rise of global financial transactions and trade in the late-20th century
spurred BOP and macroeconomic liberalization in many developing nations. With the advent of the
emerging market economic boom - in which capital flows into these markets tripled from USD$50 million
to $150 million from the late 1980s until the Asian crisis - developing countries were urged to lift
restrictions on capital and financial-account transactions in order to take advantage of these capital
inflows. Many of these countries had restrictive macroeconomic policies, by which regulations prevented
foreign ownership of financial and non-financial assets. The regulations also limited the transfer of funds
abroad.
With capital and financial account liberalization, capital markets began to grow, not only allowing a more
transparent and sophisticated market for investors, but also giving rise to foreign direct investment (FDI).
For example, investments in the form of a new power station would bring a country greater exposure to
new technologies and efficiency, eventually increasing the nation's overall GDP by allowing for greater
volumes of production. Liberalization can also facilitate less risk by allowing greater diversification in
various markets.

d.

Balance Of Trade (BOT) VS Balance Of Payment (BOP)

Balance of trade is the difference between a country's imports and its exports. Balance of trade is the
largest component of a country's balance of payments (the sum total of all economic transactions between
one country and its trading partners around the world). Debit items include imports, foreign aid, domestic
spending abroad and domestic investments abroad. Credit items include exports, foreign spending in the
domestic economy and foreign investments in the domestic economy. If the exports of a country exceed
its imports, the country is said to have a favorable balance of trade, or a trade surplus. Conversely, if the
imports exceed exports, an unfavorable balance of trade, or a trade deficit, exists.

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While a favorable balance of trade is a necessary means of financing a countrys purchase of foreign goods
and maintaining its export trade; a continuing surplus may, in fact, represent underutilized resources that
could otherwise be contributing toward a countrys wealth, were they to be directed toward the purchase
or production of goods or services. Furthermore, a surplus accumulated by a country (or group of
countries) may have the potential of producing sudden and uneven changes in the economies of those
countries in which the surplus is eventually spent.
Generally, the developing countries (unless they have a monopoly on a vital commodity) have particular
difficulty maintaining surpluses since the terms of trade during periods of recession work against them;
that is, they have to pay relatively higher prices for the finished goods they import but receive relatively
lower prices for their exports of raw materials or unfinished goods.
e.

Indias BOP position:

A heavy dependence on imported energy, gold and technology means India has historically run a current
account deficit, which it has funded by attracting foreign money into stocks, bonds and corporate
investment. But as global investors turn away from emerging markets in anticipation of the US Federal
Reserve starting to wind back its stimulus, Indias weak external position makes it more vulnerable to
outflows and a balance of payments deficit.
India has around $370 billion of foreign exchange reserves. That is only enough to cover seven months of
import bills, by far the lowest of the BRICS, the five major emerging market economies.
A sharp improvement was seen in the outcome during 2013- 14 with the CAD being contained at US$
32.4 billion as against US$ 88.2 billion and US$ 78.2 billion respectively in 2012-13 and 2011-12. The
stress in Indias BOP, which was observed during 2011-12 as a fall out of the euro zone crisis and inelastic
domestic demand for certain key imports, continued through 2012-13 and the first quarter of 2013-14.
Capital flows to India, however, remained high and were sufficient to finance the elevated CAD in 201213, leading to a small accretion to reserves of US$ 3.8 billion. A large part of the widening in the levels of
the CAD in 2012-13 could be attributed to a rise in trade deficit arising from a weaker level of exports and
a relatively stable level of imports. The rise in imports owed to Indias dependence on crude petroleum oil
imports and elevated levels of gold imports since the onset of the global financial crisis. The levels of nonpetroleum oil lubricant (PoL) and non-gold and silver imports declined in 2012-13 and 2013-14.
Capital flows moderated sharply from US$ 65.3 billion in 2011-12 and US$ 92.0 billion in 2012-13 to US$
47.9 billion in 2013-14. This moderation in levels essentially reflects a sharp slowdown in portfolio
investment and net outflow in short-term credit and other capital. However, there were large variations
within quarters in the last fiscal, which is explained partly by domestic and partly by external factors. In
the latter half of May 2013, the communication by US Fed about rolling back its programme of asset
purchases was construed by markets as a sign of imminent action and funds began to be withdrawn from
debt markets worldwide, leading to a sharp depreciation in the currencies of EMEs. Those countries with
large CADs saw larger volumes of outflows and their currencies depreciated sharply. As India had a large
trade deficit in the first quarter, these negative market perceptions led to sharper outflows in the foreign
institutional investors (FIIs) investment debt segment leading to 13.0 per cent depreciation of the rupee
between May 2013 and August 2013.

113
The government swiftly moved to correct the situation through restrictions in non-essential imports like
gold, customs duty hike in gold and silver to a peak of 10 per cent, and measures to augment capital
flows through quasi-sovereign bonds and liberalization of external commercial borrowings. The RBI also
put in place a special swap window for foreign currency non-resident deposit (banks) and banks overseas
borrowings through which US$ 34 billion was mobilized. Thus, excluding one-off receipts, moderation in
net capital inflows was that much greater in 2013-14. The one-off flows arrested the negative market
sentiments on the rupee and in tandem with improvements in the BoP position, led to a sharp correction
in the exchange rate and a net accretion to reserves of US$ 15.5 billion for 2013-14.
II.

Exchange Rate:
The exchange rate is a key financial variable that affects decisions made by foreign exchange investors,
exporters, importers, bankers, businesses, financial institutions, policymakers and tourists in the
developed as well as developing world. Exchange rate fluctuations affect the value of international
investment portfolios, competitiveness of exports and imports, value of international reserves, currency
value of debt payments, and the cost to tourists in terms of the value of their currency. Movements in
exchange rates thus have important implications for the economys business cycle, trade and capital flows
and are therefore crucial for understanding financial developments and changes in economic policy.
The exchange rate is the value of one currency in terms of another. For example, if a dollar is worth Rs.
65.60 today, the rupee dollar exchange rate is said to be 65.6 to one.

a.

Exchange Rate: The vulnerability of the rupee as well as the currencies of other emerging market and
developing economies came to the fore in May 2013 as a result of the announcement by US Fed about
tapering of its asset purchases. While capital flows on a net basis continued to be broadly adequate at that
time, the rupee depreciated sharply on the vulnerability concerns affecting expectations on the rupee
emanating from the confluence of factors of elevated CAD and large withdrawal from the FII debt
segment. However, the rupee became resilient when the US Fed taper actually happened subsequently.
6.29 In 2013-14, the rupee started to depreciate on a month-on month basis starting May 2013. This
process of depreciation was more pronounced in June 2013 and August 2013 when there were large
depreciation in excess of 5 per cent on a month-on-month basis. The average exchange rate of the rupee
reached a peak in September 2013 at Rs.63.75 per US dollar. Thereafter, on the strength of the measures
taken by the government to reduce the CAD and the RBI and government to boost capital flows, the rupee
rebounded to reach an average level of Rs.61.62 per US dollar in the month of October 2013.
Today, currencies arent weighed against each other and valued according to the amount of gold or silver
contained in them, though done long ago to price different currencies. Now, a subtler method values
currencies. Nations which attract more foreign exchange than they lose, see their currencies appreciate;
those that lose more forex than they earn, see their currencies drop in value. The valuation is done by the
marketplace through the relentless buying and selling of different currencies. Today, the volume of
foreign exchange worldwide tops $1 trillion a day. Nations that run persistent trade surpluses or have
huge capital inflows by way of foreign direct investment or stock market investment see their currencies
appreciate since these inflows raise the stock of foreign currencies against the local one.
On the other hand, trade deficits and capital flight trigger depreciation. In currency markets, the relative
strengths of economies, policies and expectations determine exchange rates.

114
b.

Exchange Rate Classifications:

Following are different types of exchange rate regimes and how they work.

1.

Single Currency Peg

The country pegs to a major currency-usually the US dollar or the French franc-with infrequent
adjustment of the parity.

2.

Composite Currency Peg: The country pegs to a basket of currencies of major trading partners to make
the pegged currency more stable than if a single currency peg were used. The weights assigned to the
currencies in the basket may reflect the geographical distribution of trade, services, or capital flows. They
may also be standardised, as in the SDR and the European Currency Unit.

3.

Limited Flexibility vis-a-vis a Single Currency: The value of the currency is maintained within
margins of the peg (this system applies to certain Middle East countries).

4.

Limited Flexibility through Cooperative Arrangements: This applied to countries in the exchange
rate mechanism of the European Monetary System (EMS) and was a cross between a peg of individual
EMS currencies to each other and a float of all these currencies jointly vis-a-vis non-EMS currencies.

5.

Greater Flexibility through Adjustment to an Indicator: The currency is adjusted more or less
automatically to changes in selected indicators. A common indicator is the real effective exchange rate,
which reflects inflation-adjusted changes in the currency vis-a-vis major trading partners.

6.

Greater Flexibility through a Managed Float: The Central bank sets the rate but varies it frequently.
Indicators for adjusting the rate include, for example, the balance of payments position, reserves, and
parallel market developments. Adjustments are not automatic.

7.

Full Flexibility through an Independent Float: Rates are determined by market forces. Some
industrial countries have floats-except for the EU countries-but the number of developing countries in this
category has been increasing in recent years.

C.

Exchange Rate Systems

Broadly, there are two important exchange rate systems, namely the fixed exchange rate system and
flexible exchange rate system.

1.

Fixed Exchange Rates:

Countries following the fixed exchange rate (also known as stable exchange rate and pegged exchange
rate) system agree to keep their currencies. at a fixed, pegged rate and to change their value only at
fairly infrequent intervals, when the economic situation forces them to do so. Under the gold standard, the
values of currencies were fixed in terms of gold. Until the breakdown of the Bretton Woods System in the
early 1970, each member country of the IMF defined the value of its currency in terms of gold or the US
dollar and agreed to maintain (to peg) the market value of its currency within:!: I per cent of the defined
(par) value. Following, the breakdown of the Bretton Woods System, some countries took to managed
floating of their currencies while a number of countries still embraced the fixed exchange rate system.

115
The important arguments supporting the stable exchange rate system are:
I.

Exchange rate stability is necessary for orderly development and growth of foreign If exchange rate
stability is not assured, exporters will be uncertain about the amount they will receive and importers will
be uncertain about the amount they will have to pay. Such uncertainties and the associated risks
adversely affect foreign trade. A great advantage of the fixed exchange rate system is that it eliminates
the possibilities of such uncertainties and risks.

II.

Especially the developing countries, which have a persistent balance of payment deficits, should
necessarily adopt the stable exchange rate system.

III.

Exchange rate stability is necessary to attract foreign capital investment as foreigners will not be
interested to invest in a country with an unstable currency. Thus, exchange rate stability is necessary to
augment resources and foster economic growth.

IV.

Unstable exchange rates may encourage the flight of capital. Exchange rate stability is necessary to
prevent its outflow.

V.
VI.

A stable exchange rate system eliminates speculation in the foreign exchange market.
A stable exchange rate system is a necessary condition for the successful functioning of regional
groupings and arrangements among nations.

2.

Flexible Exchange Rates

Under the flexible exchange rate system, exchange rates are freely determined in open market primarily
by private dealings, and they, like other market prices, vary from day-to-day. Under the flexible exchange
rate system, the first impact of any tendency toward a surplus or deficit in the balance of payments is on
the exchange rate. Surplus in the balance of payments will create an excess demand for the currency and
the exchange rate will tend to rise. On the other hand, deficit in the balance of payments will give rise to
an excess supply of the countrys currency and the exchange rate will, hence, tend to fall.
Automatic variations in the exchange rates, in accordance with the variation in the balance of payment
position, tend to automatically restore the balance of payments equilibrium. A surplus in the balance of
payments increases the exchange rate. This makes foreign goods cheaper in terms of the domestic
currency and domestic goods more expensive in terms of the foreign currency, This, in turn, encourages,
imports and discourages exports, resulting in the restoration of the balance of payments equilibrium.
On the other hand, If there is a payments deficit, the exchange rate falls and this makes domestic good
cheaper in terms of the foreign currency and foreign goods more expensive in terms of the domestic
currency. This encourages exports discourages imports and thus helps to establish the balance of
payments equilibrium.
The important arguments for/against the flexible exchange rate system are:

Flexible exchange rates present a situation of instability, creating uncertainty and confusion. However it
can argued that a flexible exchange rate need not be an unstable exchange rate. If it is, it is primarily
because there is underlying instability in the economic conditions governing international trade. And a
rigid exchange rate may, while itself remaining nominally stable, perpetuate and accentuate other
elements of instability in the economy. The mere fact that a rigid official exchange rate does not change
while a flexible rate does is no evidence that the former means greater stability in any more fundamental
sense.

116
b

The system of flexible exchange rates, with its associated uncertainties, makes it impossible for exporters
and importers to be certain about the price they will have to pay or receive for foreign exchange. This will
have a dampening effect on foreign trade. However this can be countered by pointing out that under
flexible exchange rates, traders can almost always protect themselves against changes in the rate by
hedging in the future market. Such markets in foreign currency readily develop when exchange rates are
flexible. However , it is certainly true that no market exists today that can protect against all the risks
connected with a system of flexible exchanges, and it is doubtful if such a market can be established in
the future, if a system of flexible exchanges were introduced. A system of flexible exchanges might,
therefore, have a considerably dampening effect on the volume of foreign trade.

Under flexible exchange rates, there will be widespread speculation, which will have a destabilising effect.
Against this, it is argued that normally, speculation has a stabilising influence on exchange rates-if
speculation is supposed to be destablising, it implies that speculators lose money on their activity.

The system of flexible exchange rates gives an inflationary bias to an economy. When the currency
depreciates due to payments deficit, imports become costlier and this stirs up an inflationary spiral. The
supporters of the flexible exchange rates, however, counter this criticism by stating that when imports
become costlier, the demand for them falls, compelling foreign suppliers to reduce prices. Though it is
theoretically possible, it may not be realized. The general feeling is that flexible exchange rates may have
an inflationary impact on the economy.
Which system, then, should a country adopt? The answer will depend on circumstances. It will depend on
the characteristics of the economy, and it will change with time as the economy changes.
In India, we have a Managed Floating Exchange Rate System. This means that the Indian
government intervenes only if the exchange rate seems to go out of hand by increasing or
reducing the money supply as the situation demands.

Rupee Appreciation & Rupee Depreciation

When rupee is said to be appreciating it means that our currency is gaining strength and its value is
increasing with respect to dollar. However, when rupee depreciates it means our currency is getting weaker
& its value is falling with respect to dollar. You can understand it with the following example:
Suppose, currently, the exchange rate is Rs. 45 = $1,
10 months later, either of the following two cases can happen
Case 1: The exchange rate is say Rs. 40 = $1. This means rupee has appreciated or gotten stronger by approx
11% and you would be paying less to for a dollar
Case 2: The exchange rate is at Rs. 50 = $1. This means rupee has depreciated or gotten weaker by approx 11%
and you end up paying more for a dollar.
Why does the rupee appreciate or depreciate?

117
Rupees appreciation or depreciation against the dollar depends on the change in demand and supply for both the
currencies. If the demand for rupee is comparatively high, rupee appreciates; if low, it depreciates. The important
question here is what factors drive the demand for a currency? They are:
Interest Rate: A demand for a currency is hugely dependent on the interest rate differential between two
countries. A country like India where int. rate is around 7-8% experiences greater capital inflow as investors get
better return than what they might get in US. (with Interest rates of 2-3%). This results into rupee appreciation.
Inflation Rate: The demand for a countrys goods & services by the foreign buyers would be more if the inflation
rate is lower in that country compared to other countries. Higher demand for goods & services would mean higher
demand for that currency resulting in the appreciation of that currency. For instance if Indias inflation rate is
lower than that of Zimbabwe then the demand for our goods, services and currency would be higher than that for
Zimbabwes.
Export-Import: If a country is exporting more than its imports from other countries, then this would mean higher
demand for that currency, causing appreciation of that currency against others.
Trading in currencies in the Forex market: The exchange rate fluctuates minute by minute because of
speculative trading in the Forex market.
Though trading in Forex market causes fluctuations in the exchange rate, over a period the change is backed by
the fundamental factors like the growth potential in the economy, interest rate differential and the inflation rate
existing in different countries.
In a manage floating exchange rate system like India the government purchases rupee in exchange for the foreign
currency to increase money supply in the economy which leads to depreciation of the home currency. Conversely,
it purchases foreign currency in exchange for rupee to reduce the money supply in the economy leading to
appreciation of the home currency.
Impact of Rupee appreciation/depreciation
Impact on economy: Exchange rate fluctuation has a significant impact on the overall economy of a country.
Rupee appreciation against US dollar is an indication of the strengthening of Indian economy with respect to US
economy.
Impact on foreign investors: If a foreign investor invests in Indian stock market and even if its value doesnt
change in 1 year, hell earn profit if rupee appreciates and make a loss if it depreciates. You can understand this
with an example:
Suppose an FII Invests Re. 1 Cr. in the Indian stock market and at an exchange rate of $1 = Rs. 50. So, the
amount invested is $200,000.
Suppose, after 1 year, even if the value of investment doesnt appreciate the foreign investor can earn a profit if
the exchange rate has changed to $1 = Rs. 40 (Rupee appreciation)
If the investor sells his investment and converts the currency, he would get $ 250,000. So, he would earn $
50,000 as a profit thanks to a change in the exchange rate i.e. rupee appreciation

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So, a continuously appreciating rupee would lead to greater investment by the FIIs.
Impact on industry/companies: Appreciation of the rupee makes imports cheaper and exports
expensive. So, it can spell good news for companies who rely on import of goods like heavy machinery,
technology, micro chips etc. According to reports by Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India
(ASSOCHAM) sectors like Petro & Petro Products, Drugs & Pharma and Engineering Goods which have
import inputs of as much as 77%, 19% and 21% respectively would stand to gain the most if rupee
appreciates. They would have to pay less for the imported raw materials which would increase their profit
margins.
Industries Benefitted

Rupee
Appreciates

Exports Expensive
Imports Cheaper

Rupee
Depreciates

Exports Cheaper
Imports Expensive

Industry with High imported

inputs-Engineering, Drugs &
Pharma,
Petro
&
petro
products, Gems & Jewellery

IT, Textiles & Textile products,

Automobile, Hotels & Tourism
etc.

Similarly, a depreciating rupee makes exports cheaper and imports expensive. So, it is welcome news for
sectors like IT, Textiles, Hotel & Tourism etc. which generates revenue mainly from exporting their products or
services. Rupee depreciation makes Indian goods & services cheaper for the foreign buyers thus leading to
increase in demand and higher revenue generation. The foreign tourist would find it cheaper to come to India thus
increasing the business of hotel, tours & travel companies.

II.

Foreign exchange control in India

The exchange control regulations have been liberalized over the years to facilitate the remittance of funds
both into and out of India. The changes have been introduced on a continuous basis in line with the
government policy of economic liberalization. Still, in few cases, specific approvals are required from the
regulatory authorities for foreign exchange transactions/remittances.
The exchange control regulations in India are governed by the Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA).
The apex exchange control authority in India is the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) which regulates the law
and is responsible for all key approvals. The Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA) is a 1999
Indian law "to consolidate and amend the law relating to foreign exchange with the objective of facilitating
external trade and payments and for promoting the orderly development and maintenance of foreign
exchange market in India". It was passed in the winter session of Parliament in 1999, replacing the
Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA). This act seeks to make offenses related to foreign exchange civil
offenses. It extends to the whole of India., replacing FERA, which had become incompatible with the proliberalisation policies of the Government of India. It enabled a new foreign exchange management regime
consistent with the emerging framework of the World Trade Organisation (WTO). It is another matter that

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the enactment of FEMA also brought with it the Prevention of Money Laundering Act of 2002, which came
into effect from 1 July 2005. FEMA regulates all aspects of foreign exchange and has direct implications on
external trade and payments. FEMA is an important legislation which impacts foreign nationals who are
working in India and also Indians who have gone outside India. FEMA is not only applicable to all parts of
India but is also applicable to all branches, offices and agencies outside India which are owned or
controlled by a person resident in India.
III.

Convertibility of Rupee
Free convertibility of a currency means that the currency can be exchanged for any other convertible
currency, without any restriction, at the market determined exchange rates. Convertibility of the rupee,
thus means that the rupee can be freely converted into dollar, pound sterling', yen, Deutsche mark, etc.
and vice versa at the rates of exchange determined by the demand and supply forces. After the collapse
of the Bretton Woods System in 1971, the rupee was pegged to pound sterling for four years after which it
was linked to a basket of 14 and later 5 major currencies. In 1981, a rise in dollar due to high interest
rates in the US led to rupee appreciation which adversely affected India's exports due to fall in the export
profitability. It prompted the Reserve Bank of India to experiment with a managed float, pegging the
rupee to dollar and pound sterling alternatively depending on which was going down, to guard against the
appreciation of the rupee that would adversely affect the exports. A considerable exchange rate
adjustment (devaluation) was made in July 1991. As a part of the economic policy reforms, partial
convertibility of the rupee on the current account was announced by the Finance Minister in his Budget
speech for 1992-93 and the rupee became partially convertible since March 1992. The move towards
convertibility of the rupee was in line with the worldwide trend towards currency convertibility.
According to the IMF, 70 countries accepted current account convertibility by 1990 while another 10
joined them in 1991. Many other countries including the East European countries and Russia have been
contemplating the convertibility move. According the Liberalised Exchange Rate Management System
(LERMS) introduced in March 1992, 60 per cent of all receipts under current transactions (merchandise
exports and invisible receipts) could be converted at the free market exchange rate quoted by the
authorised dealers. The rate applicable for the remaining 40 per cent was the official rate fixed by the
Reserve Bank. This 40 per cent of the total foreign exchange receipts under the current account was
exclusively meant to cover government needs and to import essential commodities. In addition, foreign
exchange at official rate was to be made available to meet 40 per, cent of the value of the advance
licenses and special import licenses. In short, it was a dual exchange rate system.
One major reason for introducing partial convertibility was to make foreign exchange available at a low
price for essential imports so that the prices of the essentials would not be pushed up by the high market
price of the foreign exchange. It was risky to introduce full convertibility when the current account showed
large deficit. While introducing the partial convertibility, the government announced its intentions to
introduce full convertibility on the current account in three to five years. However, full convertibility on
trade account was introduced by the Budget for 1993-94. The fact that the free market rate was ruling
fairly stable at a reasonable level might have encouraged the government to introduce full convertibility.
Rupee was showing remarkable stability in the months which followed the Introduction of the
full convertibility.

a.

Capital Account Convertibility

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The convertibility on the capital account is usually introduced only after certain period of time after the
introduction of the current account convertibility capital account convertibility is usually introduced only
after experimenting with the current account convertibility for a reasonable time, stabilisation
programmes have been successfully carried out and favourable conditions have been ensured. The
introduction of capital account convertibility for certain types of capital flows-helps attract resources from
abroad. It also enables residents to hold internationally diversified investment portfolios, thereby having
more risk bearing capacity. However, capital account convertibility cannot be introduced until certain
conditions are satisfied. "In the absence of confidence in the macroeconomic stability and the
competitiveness of domestic enterprises, establishment of capital account convertibility entails the risks of
capital flight and greater volatility in exchange rate, external reserves or, interest rate. It is because of
this, many countries have maintained various restrictions on various types of capital flows until their
economies are well developed." It may be noted that under completely free capital account convertibility
an Indian can sell his property here and take the money out of the country. Due, to such factors, even
when capital account convertibility is introduced, several restrictions may have to be attached.
b.

Merits of Convertibility
The convertibility or the floating of the Rupee has certain avowed merits.
(i) It gives an indication of the real value of the rupee.
(ii) It encourages exports by increasing the profitability of the exports
(iii) Profitability increases as the free market rate is higher than the official exchange rate.
(iv)It encourages those exports with no or less import intensity. As the proportion of the imported inputs
in the exportables increases, the profitability cause of the higher free market exchange rate gets
correspondingly reduced. This could encourage import substitution in export production.
(v) The high cost of foreign exchange could encourage import substitution in other areas also It provides
incentives for remittances by NRIs.
(vi)The convertibility and the liberalisation of gold imports have been expected to make illegal remittances
and gold smuggling less attractive thereby increasing the remittances through proper channels.
(vii) It is described as a self balancing mechanism because the total imports and other current account
payments will be confined to the total current account receipts unless there are imports financed by
foreign currency loans.

c.

Problems
The convertibility would cause some problems unless certain conditions are satisfied.
(i) Convertibility could cause an increase in prices because of the increase in the import prices.
(ii) Under full convertibility, if the tree market exchange rate is very high, the cost of essential imports will
correspondingly increase.
(iii) If the current account balance is not kept under control, the free market rate would rise very high.

d.

Pre-requisites
For the successful functioning of the convertible system, certain essential conditions will have to be
satisfied. These include:
(i) Maintenance of domestic economic stability
(ii) Adequate foreign exchange reserves
iii) Restrictions on inessential imports as long as the foreign exchange position is not very comfortable
(iv) Comfortable current account position
(v) An appropriate industrial policy and a conducive investment climate

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(vi) An outward oriented development strategy and sufficient incentives for export growth.
Is the Indian economy ready to switch over to full convertibility on capital account?
Convertibility of the domestic currency is one of the prerequisite for complete globalisation of any economy. Along
with de-controls, freer movement of goods and services, removal of tariff and non-tariff restrictions and easier
mobility of the workforce, convertibility is one of the important cornerstones of the process of globalisation and
economic reforms. Currently the Indian rupee is fully convertible on current account but only partially
convertible on capital account.
Current account convertibility is already there and the stringent controls of pre-nineties over the foreign exchange
have also been relaxed to a great extent. The stringent Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA) was replaced by a
relaxed Act called Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA), making the movement of foreign exchange easier.
Resident Indians and companies now have access to foreign exchange for various purposes, including education
and travel. They can also receive and make payments in foreign currencies on trade account.
Full convertibility implies that the existing restrictions on the capital account would also be withdrawn. Corollary of
this step would be that the domestic assets, including the real estate and stocks, could be sold to the foreigners
and the payments in foreign currency could be received in the country without prior regulatory clearances.
Some steps have already been taken to facilitate the full capital account convertibility in the country. Foreign
exchange has been allowed to flow into Indian stock markets through registered institutional investors. In
addition, many categories of the resident Indians have been allowed to open foreign currency accounts abroad.
Indian companies have also been making overseas acquisitions for which they have been given access to foreign
currency resources.
It would, however, be wrong to presume that full convertibility on the capital account would result in lifting of all
the restrictions. Even the developed countries like the USA block foreign investment in some of the sectors.
Despite the government decision in this regard, it has not been easy for the non-resident Indians to acquire
property and real estate in the country. The government of India, though has allowed Direct Foreign Investment
(FDI) in most of the fields, yet certain caps have been put by the government on the FDI in some of the sectors.
Most of these restrictions may continue even after the capital account convertibility is introduced. Benefits would
be in terms of more flow of foreign capital into the economy, resulting in higher investment and the resultant
growth rate. Further, the financial and capital markets would bring more profits to the domestic investors.
There are certain prerequisites for introduction of capital account full convertibility. The economy must be nearer
to the global standards in the matter of fiscal deficit, inflation rate, interest rates, foreign exchange reserves, etc.
It is said that the economy can be said to be ripe for capital account convertibility only if interest rates are low and
de-regulated and the inflation rate in the three consecutive years had been around three per cent.
In addition, fiscal deficit should be low at around 3 per cent and foreign exchange reserves should be reasonably
high. Further, the economy has to be in good shape, as full convertibility would result in bringing in the
instabilities and fluctuations of the outside world into the economy, as it gets more connected to the outside world.
Further, imperfections in the economy, like the urban-rural dichotomy and difference in the growth rates in various
sectors like agriculture and industries, as well as services, must be removed.

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Considering the above prerequisites it appears that the Indian economy is not yet prepared for switching over to
the capital account convertibility. The only requisites which have been met are reasonably high level of foreign
exchange reserves, mostly deregulated interest rates and relatively good condition of the economy as a whole. In
most of the other areas there is lot more to be done. Interest rates as well as the inflation rate are higher than the
required levels. Further, the imperfections of the economy are glaring as the services and industrial sectors are
booming, but the agricultural sector which employs over 65 per cent of the total work force, is growing at a much
lower rate of 2 to 3 per cent per annum.
IV
a.

FDI and FII

FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) refers to an investment made by a company or entity based in one
country, into a company or entity based in another country. The investing company may make its
overseas investment in a number of ways - either by setting up a subsidiary or associate company in the
foreign country, by acquiring shares of an overseas company, or through a merger or joint venture. An
example of FDI would be an American company taking a majority stake in a company in India. The term
FIIs (Foreign Institutional Investors) refer to outside companies investing in the financial markets of
India. International institutional investors must register with the Securities and Exchange Board of India
to participate in the market. One of the major market regulations pertaining to FIIs involves placing limits
on FII ownership in Indian companies.
FII Vs FDI: International standards and Indian definition
According to IMF and OECD definitions, the acquisition of at least ten percent of the ordinary shares or
voting power in a public or private enterprise by non-resident investors makes it eligible to be categorized
as foreign direct investment (FDI). In India, a particular FII is allowed to invest upto 10% of the paid up
capital of a company, which implies that any investment above 10% will be construed as FDI, though
officially such a definition does not exist. However, it may be noted that there is no minimum amount of
capital to be brought in by the foreign direct investor to get the same categorised as FDI.
Given this backdrop, in the Union Budget 2013-14, announced on 28 February 2013, the Finance Minister
announced his intention to go by the internationally accepted definition for FIIs and FDIs, as stated below:
"In order to remove the ambiguity that prevails on what is Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and what is
Foreign Institutional Investment (FII), it is proposed to follow the international practice and lay down a
broad principle that, where an investor has a stake of 10 percent or less in a company, it will be treated
as FII and, where an investor has a stake of more than 10 percent, it will be treated as FDI. A committee
will be constituted to examine the application of the principle and to work out the details expeditiously."
Meanwhile, to rationalize/harmonize various foreign portfolio investment windows and to simplify
procedures, SEBI had formed a Committee on Rationalization of Investment Routes and Monitoring of
Foreign Portfolio Investments under the chairmanship of K. M. Chandrasekhar, former Cabinet Secretary.
The Committee submitted its report on June 12, 2013. In accordance with the budget announcement, a
committee has been constituted under the chairmanship of Secy (DEA), to examine and work out the
details of the application of the principle followed internationally for defining FDI and FII. Their report is
awaited. The SEBI report is reportedly feeding into this Committee.

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b.

Differences between FDI and FII

Broadly speaking, FDI entities are considered promoter group shareholders in companies, and FIIs public
shareholders, because of the way these are governed and registered under the existing guidelines.

Both FDI and FII is related to investment in a foreign country. FDI or Foreign Direct Investment is an
investment that a parent company makes in a foreign country. On the contrary, FII or Foreign
Institutional Investor is an investment made by an investor in the markets of a foreign nation.

In FII, the companies only need to get registered in the stock exchange to make investments. But FDI is
quite different from it as they invest in a foreign nation.

The Foreign Institutional Investor is also known as hot money as the investors have the liberty to sell it
and take it back. But in Foreign Direct Investment, this is not possible. In simple words, FII can enter the
stock market easily and also withdraw from it easily. But FDI cannot enter and exit that easily. This
difference is what makes nations to choose FDIs more than then FIIs.

FDI is more preferred to the FII as they are considered to be the most beneficial kind of foreign
investment for the whole economy.

Foreign Direct Investment only targets a specific enterprise. It aims to increase the enterprises capacity or
productivity or change its management control. In an FDI, the capital inflow is translated into additional
production. The FII investment flows only into the secondary market. It helps in increasing capital
availability in general rather than enhancing the capital of a specific enterprise.

The Foreign Direct Investment is considered to be more stable than Foreign Institutional Investor. FDI not
only brings in capital but also helps in good governance practises and better management skills and even
technology transfer. Though the Foreign Institutional Investor helps in promoting good governance and
improving accounting, it does not come out with any other benefits of the FDI.

While the FDI flows into the primary market, the FII flows into secondary market. While FIIs are shortterm investments, the FDIs are long term.

FDIs are allowed to conduct private transactions while FIIs are not.

FDIs attract up to 40% tax and are bound by lock-in periods in their investments as promoters. On the
other hand, FIIs attract 30% tax.

c.

What is the procedure for receiving Foreign Direct Investment in an Indian company?
An Indian company may receive Foreign Direct Investment under the two routes as given under:

i.

Automatic Route
FDI is allowed under the automatic route without prior approval either of the Government or the Reserve
Bank of India in all activities/sectors as specified in the consolidated FDI Policy, issued by the Government
of India from time to time.

ii.

Government Route
FDI in activities not covered under the automatic route requires prior approval of the Government which
are considered by the Foreign Investment Promotion Board (FIPB), Department of Economic Affairs,
Ministry of Finance.
The Indian company having received FDI either under the Automatic route or the Government route is
required to comply with provisions of the FDI policy including reporting the FDI to the Reserve Bank.

d.

What are the instruments for receiving Foreign Direct Investment in an Indian company?
Foreign investment is reckoned as FDI only if the investment is made in equity shares , fully and
mandatorily convertible preference shares and fully and mandatorily convertible debentures with the
pricing being decided upfront as a figure or based on the formula that is decided upfront. Any foreign
investment into an instrument issued by an Indian company which:

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gives an option to the investor to convert or not to convert it into equity or

does not involve upfront pricing of the instrument as a date would be reckoned as ECB and would have to
comply with the ECB guidelines.
Note: The FDI policy provides that the price/ conversion formula of convertible capital instruments should
be determined upfront at the time of issue of the instruments. The price at the time of conversion should
not in any case be lower than the fair value worked out, at the time of issuance of such instruments, in
accordance with the extant FEMA regulations.

e.

Which are the sectors where FDI is not allowed in India, both under the Automatic Route as
well as under the Government Route?
FDI is prohibited under the Government Route as well as the Automatic Route in the following sectors:
i) Atomic Energy
ii) Lottery Business
iii) Gambling and Betting
iv) Business of Chit Fund
v) Nidhi Company
vi) Agricultural (excluding Floriculture, Horticulture, Development of seeds, Animal Husbandry, Pisciculture
and cultivation of vegetables, mushrooms, etc. under controlled conditions and services related to agro
and allied sectors) and Plantations activities (other than Tea Plantations).
vii) Housing and Real Estate business (except development of townships, construction of residential/commercial premises, roads or bridges)
viii) Trading in Transferable Development Rights (TDRs).
ix) Manufacture of cigars, cheroots, cigarillos and cigarettes, of tobacco or of tobacco substitutes.

f.

Regulation of FIIs
The regulations for foreign investment in India have been framed by the Reserve Bank of India in terms of
Sections 6 and 47 of the Foreign Exchange Management Act, as amended from time to time. In line with
the said regulations, since 2003, the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) has been registering
FIIs and monitoring investments made by them through the portfolio investment route under the SEBI
(FII) regulations 1995. SEBI acts as the nodal point in the registration of FIIs.
Who can get registered as FII?
Following foreign entities / funds are eligible to get registered as FII:
1.

Pension Funds

2.

Mutual Funds

3.

Investment Trusts

4.

Banks

5.

Insurance Companies / Reinsurance Company

6.

Foreign Central Banks

7.

Foreign Governmental Agencies

8.

Sovereign Wealth Funds

9.

International/ Multilateral organization/ agency

10. University Funds (Serving public interests)

11. Endowments (Serving public interests)
12. Foundations (Serving public interests)
13. Charitable Trusts / Charitable Societies (Serving public interests)

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Thus it may be seen that sovereign wealth funds (SWFs) are also regulated under FII regulations
only, and no separate regulation exists for SWFs. Further, following entities proposing to invest on behalf
of broad based funds, are also eligible to be registered as FIIs:
1.

Asset Management Companies

2.

Investment Manager/Advisor

3.

Institutional Portfolio Managers

4.

Trustee of a Trust

5.

Bank
Foreign individuals can register as sub-accounts of FII to make investments in Indian securities.
What FIIs can do?
A Foreign Institutional Investor may invest only in the following:-

i.

securities in the primary and secondary markets including shares, debentures and warrants of companies
unlisted, listed or to be listed on a recognised stock exchange in India; and

ii.

units of schemes floated by domestic mutual funds including Unit Trust of India, whether listed on a
recognised stock exchange or not

iii.

units of scheme floated by a collective investment scheme

iv.

dated Government Securities

v.

derivatives traded on a recognised stock exchange

vi.

commercial paper

vii.

Security receipts

viii.

Indian Depository Receipt

FIIs are allowed to trade in all exchange traded derivative contracts subject to the position limits as
prescribed by SEBI from time to time. Clearing Corporation monitors the open positions of the FII/ subaccounts of the FII for each underlying security and index, against the position limits, at the end of each
trading day.

g.

How do they invest?

A SEBI registered FII (as per Schedules 2 of Foreign Exchange Management (Transfer or Issue of Security
by a Person Resident Outside India) Regulations 2000) can invest/trade through a registered broker in the
capital of Indian Companies on recognized Indian Stock Exchanges. FIIs can purchase shares / convertible
debentures either through private placement or through offer for sale.
An FII can also invest in India on behalf of a sub-account (means any person outside India on whose
behalf investments are proposed to be made in India by a FII) which is registered as a sub-account under
Section 2 (k) of the SEBI (FII) Regulations, 1995.
Also, an FII can issue off-shore derivative instruments (ODIs) to persons who are regulated by an
appropriate foreign regulatory authority and after compliance with Know Your Client (KYC) norms.
Every FII/sub-account is required to appoint a domestic Indian custodian to hold in custody its Indian
securities. Custodian of Securities is a registered and regulated entity by SEBI. The FII/sub-account is also
required to ensure that the domestic custodian it has appointed monitors the investments made by it in
India, reports its transactions in securities to SEBI on a daily basis and preserve records of transactions
for a specified period. The FII/sub-account is also required to suitably enable the custodian to furnish
reports pertaining to its activities, to SEBI, as and when required by SEBI.

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Authorized dealer banks (i.e. the bank which is authorized by RBI to deal in foreign currency) can offer
forward cover (i.e, to minimize the impact of currency fluctuations, banks offer them the option to sell /
purchase foreign currency on a fixed future date at a rate specified today) to FIIs to the extent of total
inward remittances of liquidated investments.

FOREIGN TRADE OF INDIA

A.

Exports
Exports measure the amount of goods or services that domestic producers provide to foreign consumers
by. It is a good that is sent to another country for sale. In the past, export of commercial quantities of
goods normally required involvement of the customs authorities in both the country of export and the
country of import. More recently, with the advent of small trades over the internet such as through
Amazon and e-Bay, exports have largely bypassed the involvement of Customs in many countries due to
the low individual values of these trades. Nonetheless, these small exports are still subject to legal
restrictions applied by the country of export.

Exports in India is reported by the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, India.

Indias main exports are engineering goods, gems and jewelry, chemicals, agricultural products and
textiles. India is also one of Asias largest refined product exporters with petroleum accounting for around
18 percent of total exports.

Indias main export partners are United Arab Emirates and United States. Others include: China,
Singapore, Hong Kong and Netherlands.

Country

Exports

1.

China

2,048.9

2.

United States

1,545.7

3.

Germany

1,410.4

4.

Japan

798.6

5.

France

557.3

6.

Netherlands

554.7

7.

Korea, Republic of

547.9

8.

Russia

525.4

9.

Italy

501.0

10.

United Kingdom

476.3

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B.

Imports
An import is any good or service brought into one country from another country in a legitimate fashion,
typically for use in trade. Import goods or services are provided to domestic consumers by foreign
producers. An import in the receiving country is an export to the sending country. Import of goods
normally requires involvement of the Customs authorities in both the country of import and the country of
export and is often subject to import quotas, tariffs and trade agreements.

Imports in India is reported by the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, India.

India Imports averaged $609 Billion India is heavily dependent on coal and foreign oil imports for its
energy needs. Other imported products include: machinery, gems, fertilizers and chemicals.

Indias main import partners are China, United Arab Emirates, Switzerland, Saudi Arabia, United States,
Iraq and Kuwait.

C.

EXIM Policy
Exim Policy or Foreign Trade Policy is a set of guidelines and instructions established by the DGFT
(Directorate General of Foreign Trade) in matters related to the import and export of goods in India. The
Foreign Trade Policy of India is guided by the Export Import in known as in short EXIM Policy of the Indian
Government and is regulated by the Foreign Trade Development and Regulation Act, 1992.
DGFT (Directorate General of Foreign Trade) is t he main governing body in matters related to Exim
Policy. After five years foreign trade policy needs amendments in general, aims at developing export
potential, improving export performance, encouraging foreign trade and creating favorable balance of
payments position. The Export Import Policy (EXIM Policy) or Foreign Trade Policy is updated every year
on the 31st of March and the modifications, improvements and new schemes becomes effective from
April month of each year.

Main objectives of the EXIM policy of India:

o

To accelerate the economy from low level of economic activities to high level of economic
activities by making it a globally oriented vibrant economy and to derive maximum benefits from
expanding global market opportunities.

To stimulate sustained economic growth by providing access to essential raw materials,

intermediates, components,' consumables and capital goods required for augmenting production.

To enhance the techno local strength and efficiency of Indian agriculture, industry and services,
thereby, improving their competitiveness.

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o

To generate new employment.

Opportunities and encourage the attainment of internationally accepted standards of quality.

To provide quality consumer products at reasonable prices.

Foreign Trade Act has replaced the earlier law known as the imports and Exports (Control) Act 1947.

In the year 1962, the Government of India appointed a special

Exim Policy Committee to review the government previous export import policies. The committee was
later on approved by the Government of India. Mr. V. P. Singh, the then Commerce Minister and
announced the Exim Policy on the 12th of April, 1985. Initially the EXIM Policy was introduced for the
period of three years with main objective to boost the export business in India. In order to liberalize
imports and boost exports, the Government of India for the first time introduced the Indian Exim Policy on
April I, 1992. In order to bring stability and continuity, the Export Import Policy was made for the duration
of 5 years. With time the Exim Policy 1992-1997 became old, and a New Export Import Policy was needed
for the smooth functioning of the Indian export import trade. Hence, the Government of India introduced
a new Exim Policy for the year 1997-2002. This policy further simplified the procedures and reduced the
interface between exporters and the Director General of Foreign Trade (DGFT) by reducing the number of
documents required for export by half. Import was further liberalized and better efforts were made to
promote Indian exports in international trade. The Exim Policy: 1997 2002 also accorded a status of
exporter to the business firm exporting services with effect from 1.4.1999. Such business firms are known
as Service Providers.

D.

Foreign Trade Policy 2014-20

The salient features of the Foreign trade 2014-20 are as follows:Increase exports to $900 billion by 2019-20, from $466 billion in 2013-14
Raise India's share in world exports from 2% to 3.5%.
Merchandise Export from India Scheme (MEIS) and Service Exports from India Scheme (SEIS) launched.
Higher level of rewards under MEIS for export items with High domestic content and value addition.
Chapter-3 incentives extended to units located in SEZs.
Export obligation under EPCG scheme reduced to 75% to Promote domestic capital goods manufacturing.
FTP to be aligned to Make in India, Digital India and Skills India initiatives.
Duty credit scripss made freely transferable and usable For payment of custom duty, excise duty and
service tax.
Export promotion mission to take on board state Governments
Unlike annual reviews, FTP will be reviewed after two-and-Half years.
Higher level of support for export of defense, farm Produce and eco-friendly products.

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BUSINESS GK
A.

CEOS AND BUSINESS LEADERS OF VARIOUS COMPANIES:

Company

Executive

Title

Since

Accenture
ACE Limited
Aditya Birla Group
Adobe Systems
Agenus
American International
Group
Alcatel-Lucent
Alcoa
Altria Group
Amazon.com

Pierre Nanterme
Evan G. Greenberg
Kumar Birla
Shantanu Narayen
Garo H. Armen
Bob Benmosche

CEO
CEO and President
Chairman
President and CEO
Founder, Chairman, CEO
CEO

2011
2004
1995
2007
1994
2009

Michel Combes
Klaus Kleinfeld
Michael Szymanczyk
Jeff Bezos

2013
2008
2008
1994

AMD
American Express
Amgen
AMR Corporation
Analog Devices
Anheuser-Busch
Anil Dhirubhai Ambani
Group
AOL Inc.
Apple Inc.
Arcelor Mittal
Archer Daniels Midland

Lisa Su
Kenneth Chenault
Kevin W. Sharer
Thomas W. Horton
Jerald G Fishman
Dave Peacock
Anil Ambani

CEO
Chairman and CEO
Chairman and CEO
Founder, President, CEO, and
Chairman
CEO and President
Chairman and CEO
President and CEO
CEO
CEO and President
CEO
Chairman

2009
2011
2006
2006

AT&T
BAE Systems Plc
Banco Bilbao Vizcaya
Argentaria
Bank of America
Barclays
Berkshire Hathaway
Best Buy
Bharti Enterprises

Randall L. Stephenson
Ian King
Francisco Gonzlez

CEO and Chairman

CEO
Chairman and CEO
President and CEO, chairman of the
board
Chairman, CEO and President
CEO
Chairman and CEO

2009
2012
1970
2012
1985

Blackstone Group
BHP Billiton
BMW
Boeing
Boston Consulting Group
BP
Burger King
Campbell Soup Company
Canonical Ltd.
Capital One Financial
Cargill
Caterpillar Inc.
Cavium Networks
CBS Corporation
Chesapeake Energy
Chrysler
Cisco Systems
Citigroup
Coca-Cola
Cognizant Technology
Solutions
Comcast Corporation
Computer Sciences
Corporation
Compuware Corporation

Stephen A. Schwarzman
Andrew Mackenzie
Norbert Reithofer
Dennis Muilenburg
Rich Lesser
Bob Dudley
John Chidsey
Denise Morrison
Jane Silber
Richard Fairbank
Gregory R. Page
Douglas R. Oberhelman
Syed B. Ali
Leslie Moonves
Aubrey McClendon
Sergio Marchionne
Chuck Robbins
Vikram Pandit
Muhtar Kent
Francisco D'Souza

President and CEO

Chairman
Chairman and CEO
CEO
Founder, Chairman and Managing
Director
Chairman, CEO and Co-Founder
CEO
Chairman of the Board of Management
Chairman, President and CEO
President and CEO
CEO
Executive Chairman and CEO
President and CEO
Chairman and CEO
President and CEO
Chairman and CEO

1988
2007
2010

Tim Armstrong
Tim Cook
Lakshmi Niwas Mittal
Patricia Woertz

Brian Moynihan
Antony Jenkins
Warren Buffett
Herbert Joly
Sunil Bharti Mittal

Brian L. Roberts
John Michael Lawrie
Peter Karmanos, Jr.

2014
2001
2000
2011
1996
2008
1983

2007
2008
2000

1985
2013
2006
2015
2013
2010
2011

Chairman, CEO and Co-founder

CEO[15]
Chairman and CEO

2007
2008

CEO

2012

130
ConAgra
Continental Airlines
Cameron
Crown Worldwide Group
CVS Caremark
Cypress Semiconductor
Daimler AG
Dell Inc
Delta Air Lines
Deutsche Bank
Deutsche Post World Net
Devon Energy
Dine Equity
Dish Network
Corporation
DLF Universal
Domino's Pizza
DuPont
Dubai Holdings
Dunkin' Donuts
Eastman Kodak
EADS
eBay
Electronic Arts
Environment Agency
Ericsson
Escada
Eurasia Group
Exxon Mobil
Facebook
FedEx
Free Software
Foundation
Fiat S.p.A.
Fidelity Investments
Ford Motor Company
Fox Learning Systems
Foxconn Electronics Inc
Fisher Investments
FUBU
Formula One
Management
Gas Powered Games
General Dynamics
General Electric
General Motors
GfK AG
GlaxoSmithKline
Goldman Sachs
Google
GMA Network
Haas Outdoors
Halliburton
Harley Davidson
Harvard Pilgrim Health
Care
HCL Technologies
Henderson Land
Development Co. Ltd.
Hindalco
Home Depot
Honeywell
HP Hood LLC
HSBC
IBM
IKEA
Inchcape plc
Infosys Technologies

Gary Rodkin
Jeff Smisek
Sheldon Erikson
James E. Thompson
Thomas Ryan
TJ Rodgers
Dieter Zetsche
Michael Dell
Richard Anderson
Josef Ackermann
Frank Appel
J. Larry Nichols
Julia Stewart
Charlie Ergen
Kushal Pal Singh
David Brandon
Ellen J. Kullman
Mohammed Al Gergawi
Jon L. Luther
Antonio M. Perez
Tom Enders
Devin Wenig
Andrew Wilson
Barbara Young
Hans Vestberg
Dr. Bruno Slzer
Ian Bremmer
Rex Tillerson
Mark Zuckerberg
Frederick W. Smith
Richard Stallman

Chairman and CEO

Chairman and CEO

1980
2007

President and CEO

CEO

2010
2008

CEO

2010

Founder and CEO

1986

Sergio Marchionne
Abigail Johnson
Alan Mulally
Debra Fox
Terry Gou
Kenneth L. Fisher
Daymond John
Bernie Ecclestone
Chris Taylor
Phebe Novakovic
Jeffrey R. Immelt
Mary T Barra
Klaus L. Wbbenhorst
Andrew Witty
Lloyd Blankfein
Larry Page
Felipe Gozon
Toxey Haas
David J. Lesar
James Ziemer
Charlie Baker
Vineet Nayar
Lee Shau Kee
Kumar Mangalam Birla
Frank Blake
David M. Cote
John A. Kaneb
Stuart Gulliver
Virginia M. Rometty
Mikael Ohlsson
Andr Lacroix
Vishal Sikka

131
Limited
zIntel
ITC Limited
J.Crew
Jefferies & Company
JP Morgan Chase
Juniper Networks
Kaplan, Inc.
Kingdom Holding
Company
Koch Industries Inc.
Las Vegas Sands
Lehman Brothers
L.L. Bean
Larsen & Toubro Limited
Lockheed Martin
LPK
Macy's, Inc.
Manchester United
Marks and Spencer
McDonald's
McKinsey
Mercedes-Benz
Merrill Lynch
Mesa Air Group
MetLife
MGA Entertainment
Microsoft
Mile High Comics
Morgan Stanley
Motorola
Mozilla
MySQL AB
MySpace
Nation Media Group
National Amusements
NBC Universal, Inc.
Newlog
News Corporation
New York Times
Company
NIIT
Nike
Nissan
Nokia
Nortel
Novartis
Nintendo
Office Depot
Oxford Sustainable
Group
Oracle Corporation
Orascom Telecom
Holding
Outback Steakhouse
iGATE Patni
PepsiCo
Pfizer
Pizza Hut
Playboy Enterprises
Polo Ralph Lauren
Popular, Inc.
Procter & Gamble
Prudential Financial, Inc.
Qantas Airways Limited
Qwest Communications
International
Reliance Industries Ltd.

Brian Krzanich
Y C Deveshwar
Millard Drexler
Richard B. Handler
James Dimon
Kevin Johnson
Andrew Rosen
Al-Waleed bin Talal
Charles G. Koch
Sheldon Adelson
Richard S. (Dick) Fuld, Jr.
Christopher McCormick
A M Naik
Marillyn Hewson
Jerry Kathman
Terry J. Lundgren
David Gill
Stuart Rose
Jack Greenberg
Ian Davis
Dieter Zetsche
John Thain
Jonathan Ornstein
Steven A Kandrian
Isaac Larian
Satya Nadella
Chuck Rozanski
James P. Gorman
Greg Brown
Mitchell Baker
Marten Mickos
Chris DeWolfe
Wilfred Kiboro
Sumner Redstone
Jeff Zucker
Yochanan Vollach
Keith Rupert Murdoch
Janet L. Robinson

CEO
CEO and Chairman of the Board
CEO
Chairman, CEO, and President
CEO and Chairman
CEO

2013
1996
2003
2001
2004
2008

CEO

1993

Vijay K. Thadani
Mark Parker
Carlos Ghosn
Rajeev Suri
Mike S. Zafirovski
Daniel Vasella
Satoru Iwata
Steve Odland
Hadley Barrett

2010

Larry Ellison
Naguib Sawiris
Chris T. Sullivan
Phaneesh Murthy
Indra Nooyi
Henry McKinnell
David C. Novak
Christie Hefner
Ralph Lauren
Richard Carrin
Robert A. McDonald
John Strangfeld
Alan Joyce
Richard Notebaert
Mukesh Ambani

Chairman, President and CEO

2009

132
Renault
Rite Aid Corporation
Rocawear
Royal Ahold N.V.
Royal Bank of Canada
Royal Bank of Scotland
Royal Dutch Shell
Ryanair
S. C. Johnson & Son
SAAB Automobile AB
SandRidge Energy
Samsung
SAP AG
SAS Institute
Sbarro
Scottrade
Seagate Technology
Siemens A.G.
Simon Property Group
SingTel
Sirius Satellite Radio
Sleep Country Canada
SoftBank
Southwest Airlines
Sonic Corporation
Sony Corporation
Sony Computer
Entertainment
Starbucks Coffee
Company
Statoil
Sun Hung Kai Properties
Ltd.
Sun Microsystems
SunTrust Banks Inc.
Supervalu Inc.
Sulekha
Swedbank
Syntel Inc.
Target Corporation
Tata Consultancy
Services
Tata Steel
Telefnica
Telmex
Telstra
Temasek Holdings
Tesco
Thomson Reuters
Tim Hortons
Time Warner
Tod's
TJX Companies, Inc.
Tracinda Corporation
The Siegel Group
Nevada, Inc
The Travelers Companies
Trump Organization
Toyota
Toys for Bob
Toys "R" Us
Tradeking
Turner Broadcasting
System, Inc.
Twitter
UAL Corporation
UBS AG
U.S. Century Bank

Carlos Ghosn
Mary Sammons
Jay-Z
John Rishton
Gordon Nixon
Ross MsEwan
Ben Van Beurden
Michael O'Leary
Herbert Fisk Johnson III
Jan-ke Jonsson
Tom L. Ward
Kun-Hee Lee
Bill McDermott
James Goodnight
James J. Greco
Rodger O. Riney
Steve Luczo
Peter Lscher
David Simon
Chua Sock Koong
Mel Karmazin
Steven Gunn
Masayoshi Son
Gary C. Kelly
J. Clifford Hudson
Kazuo Hirai
Andrew House

Chairman and CEO

2006

CEO

2010

CEO and President

2012

President and CEO

2007

Chairman and CEO

President and CEO
President and CEO

2012
2011

Chairman, President, and CEO

2008

CEO and Chairman

2000

Managing Director

1970

Howard Schultz
Helge Lund
Walter Kwok
Jonathan I. Schwartz
James M. Wells, III
Jeff Noddle
Satya Prabhakar
Jan Lidn
Bharat Desai
Gregg Steinhafel
N Chandrasekaran
B Muthuraman
Csar Alierta
Carlos Slim Hel
David Thodey
Ho Ching
Philip Clarke
Tom Glocer
Paul D. House
Jeffrey L. Bewkes
Diego Della Valle
Carol Meyrowitz
Kerkor "Kirk" Kerkorian
Stephen Siegel
Jay S. Fishman
Donald Trump
Hiroshi Okuda
Paul Reiche III
Gerald L. Storch
Donato A. Montanaro
Philip I. Kent
Jack Dorsey
Glenn F. Tilton
Sergio Ermotti
Octavio Hernndez

133
US Airways
United Parcel Service
UGI Corp.
United States Steel Corp.
United Technologies
Valero Energy
Corporation
Verizon Communications
Viacom
Viking Range
Vodafone
Volkswagen
Vulcan Inc.
The Walt Disney
Company
Walgreen Company
Wal-Mart
Warner Bros.
Washington Mutual
The Washington Post
Company
Wells Fargo
Whole Foods Market
Wikia, Inc.
Williams-Sonoma
Windstream Corporation
Winn-Dixie
Wipro Technologies
Limited
World Wrestling
Entertainment

Doug Parker
D. Scott Davis
Lon R. Greenberg
John P. Surma
Louis R. Chnevert
William R. Klesse

Yahoo!
YG Entertainment
Yum! Brands, Inc.
Yves Saint Laurent

B.

Lowell McAdam
Philippe P. Dauman
Fred Carl, Jr.
Vittorio Colao
Martin Winterkorn
Paul Allen
Robert Iger

Chairman and CEO

2011

Chairman and CEO

Gregory Wasson
Mike Duke
Barry Meyer
Kerry Killinger
Donald Graham
John Stumpf
John Mackey
Craig Palmer
Laura J. Alber
Jeffery Gardner
Peter Lynch
T K Kurien

Chairman, President, and CEO

Director, President, and CEO

2010

Vincent K. McMahon

Founder, Chairman and CEO

Marissa Mayer
Yang Hyun Suk
David C. Novak
Paul Deneve

CEO

1980
Chairman
2009
CEO
2012

President

2012

COMPANIES & LOGOS

Due to the design, the color, the shape, and eventually additional elements of the logotype, each one can
easily be differentiated from other logotypes. For example, a box of Kellogg's cereals will be easily
recognized in a supermarket's shelf from a certain distance, due to its unique typography and distinctive
red coloring. The same will be true when one is at the airport looking for the booth of the Hertz Rent-ACar company.
Some well-known logos include Apple Inc.'s apple with a bite taken out, which started out as a rainbow of
color, and has been reduced to a single color without any loss of recognition. Coca-Cola's script is known
worldwide, but is best associated with the color red; its main competitor, Pepsi has taken the color blue,
although they have abandoned their script logo. IBM, also known as "Big Blue" has simplified their logo
over the years, and their name. What started as International Business Machines is now just "IBM" and
the color blue has been a signature in their unifying campaign as they have moved to become an IT
services company.
There are some other logos that must be mentioned when evaluating what the mark means to the
consumer. Automotive brands can be summed up simply with their corporate logofrom the Chevrolet
"Bow Tie" mark to the roundel marks of Volkswagen, Mercedes-Benz and BMW, to the interlocking "RR" of
Rolls-Royceeach has stood for a brand and clearly differentiated the product line.
Other logos that are recognized globally: the Nike "Swoosh" and the Adidas "Three stripes" are two wellknown brands that are defined by their corporate logo. When Phil Knight started Nike, he was hoping to
find a mark as recognizable as the Adidas stripes, which also provided reinforcement to the shoe. He hired
a young student (Carolyn Davidson) to design his logo, paying her $35 for what has become one of the
best known marks in the world (she was later compensated again by the company).
Another logo of global renown is that of Playboy Enterprises. Playboy magazine claims it once received a
letter at its Chicago, Illinois offices with its distinctive "bunny" logo as the only identifying mark, appearing
where the mailing address normally appears.

134
Corporate identities are often developed by large firms who specialize in this type of work. However, Paul
Rand is considered the father of corporate identity and his work has been seminal in launching this field.
Some examples of his work were the UPS package with a string (replaced in March 2003 with the
"shield"), IBM and NeXT Computer.
An interesting case is the refinement of the FedEx logo, where the brand consultants convinced the
company to shorten their corporate name and logo from "Federal Express" to the popular abbreviation
"Fed Ex". Besides creating a shorter brand name, they reduced the amount of color used on vehicles
(planes, trucks) and saved hundreds of thousands of dollars in paint costs. Also, the right-pointing arrow
in the new logo hints at motion.
I.

The Logos of major Companies

The top companies in the world possess some of the most recognizable and distinctive logos around.
These companies have built some of the foundations around which we live our lives: retail, automotive,
financial services, telecommunications and energy, the staples of our daily lives. Gathered here are the
logos of the top 100 largest companies and corporations in the world (using Fortune Magazines annual
500 ranking as a guideline). From the plain and simple logos like Berkshire Hathaway, Panasonic, and
Sony, to the more colorful and playful logos of Arcelor Mittal and Suez, they represent billions of dollars in
annual revenues. You will notice the dominant use of reds, blues and oranges throughout their designs,
aimed at reinforcing trust, excitement and energy in the minds of consumers

Walmart

ExxonMobil

Royal Dutch Shell

BP

Toyota
Chevron

ING Group

Total

135

General Motors

ConocoPhillips

Daimler

General Electric

Sinopec
Ford

Citigroup

Volkswagen

Dexia Group

HSBC Holdings

BNP Paribas

Allianz

136

State Grid
Credit Agricole

China National Petroleum

ENI

Duetsche Bank

Bank of America

AT&T

Berkshire

UBS

JP Morgan Chase

Carrefour

AIG

137

Samsung
Siemens

Honda

Pemex

HP

Societe Generale

HBOS
McKesson

Gazprom
IBM

Hitachi

Valero Energy

138

Nissan

Tesco

E.On

Verizon

Deutsche Post

Metro Group

Satander
Nestle

Statoil Hydro

Goldman Sachs

Cardinal Health

Morgan Stanley

139

Petrobras

Deutsche Telekom

Peugeot
Home Depot

Eletricite de France
Peugeot

Aviva

Fiat

Panasonic

BASF

Credit Suisse

Sony

140

Telefonica

UniCredit

Procter & Gamble

BMW

CVS Caremark

US Postal Service

Hyundai

France Telecom

Vodafone

SK Group

Kroger

Nokia

141

ThyssenKrupp

Lukoil

Toshiba

Repsol YPF

Boeing

Prudential

Prudential

Petronas

Suez
AmerisourceBergen

Suez

Munich Re Group

142

Costco

Robert Bosch

Target

Assicurazioni Generali

Royal Bank of Scotland

UnitedHealth Group

Nippon Telegraph & Telephone

II.

Company Logos and their Meanings:

You might think the arrow does nothing here. But it says that amazon.com has everything from a to z and
it also represents the smile brought to the customer's face.

143

The three stripes on the Adidas Logo represent a mountain, pointing out towards the challenges than are
seen ahead and goals that can be achieved.

Body Wisdom- This is a logo design for a high end spa. The closely placed owl eyes convey wisdom
while the hands effectively give across a relaxing message.

ED logo: Gianni Bortolotti- This ingenious logo has been designed by Josiah Jost. ED stands for Elettro
Domestici which means Home Appliances in English. Jost added a whole new dimension to logo designing
through this logo. He has used the negative space to demonstrate the letter E and D making the logo
look like an electric plug. Just focus on the white part of the logos to see the E in ED!

The apple in this logo is taken from the Bible story of Adam and Eve, where the apple represents the fruit
of Tree of Knowledge, with a pun on byte/bite.

The star in the three corners on their logo represents the Mercedes-Benz dominance on land, sea and air.

144

Being an Online Food Delivery service, its logo shows a fork formed into an @ symbol!

The 'arrow' between the E and the x in this logo was introduced to underscore speed and precision, which
are part of the positioning of the company.

The old logo of Baskin Robbins had the number 31 with an arc above it. The new logo took this idea to the
next level. The pink parts of the BR still form the number 31, a reference to the 31 flavours.

Carrefour is one of the biggest European retailers, and its also French for crossroads. The logo symbolizes
this word via two opposite arrows. They also added the first letter of the name, because if you look closely
youll see the letter C in the negative space between the two arrows.

At first, this logo might not make much sense. But if you look closely, youll see the number 1 in the
negative space between the F and the red stripes. This logo communicates a feeling of speed.

145

The NBC (National Broadcasting Company) is one of the biggest American television networks. The
peacock in the logo has 6 different tail feathers, referring to the six divisions at the time that this logo was
created. The peacocks head is flipped to the right to suggest it was looking forward, not back.

Sony Vaio is a well known brand of laptops - the name Vaio logo also had a hidden meaning! The first two
letters represent the basic analogue signal. The last two letters look like a 1 and 0, representing the digital
signal.

Toblerone is a chocolate-company from Bern, Switzerland. Bern is sometimes called The City of Bears.
They have incorporated this idea in the Toblerone logo, because if you look closely, youll see the
silhouette of a bear.

Unilever is one of the biggest producers of food, beverages, cleaning agents and personal care products.
They produce a huge number of diverse products and they wanted to reflect this in their logo. Each part of
the logo has a meaning. For example: the heart represents love, care and health - feeling good, a bird is a
symbol of freedom.

146

The SUN Microsystems logo is a wonderful example of symmetry and order -the letters u and n while
arranged adjacent to each other look a lot like the letter S in a perpendicular direction.

This was a logo created for a puzzle game called Cluenatic. This game involves unravelling four clues. The
logo has the letters C, L, U and E arranged as a maze. and from a distance, the logo looks like a key

Eighty-20 is a small consulting company which does sophisticated financial modeling, as well as some
solid database work. All their work is highly quantitative and relies on some serious computational power,
and the logo is meant to convey it.
People first guess that 20% of the squares are darkened, but that turns out to be false after counting
them. The trick is to view the dark squares as 1's and the light squares as 0's. Then the top line reads
1010000 and the bottom line reads 0010100, which represent 80 and 20 in binary.
On 23rd August 2012, Microsoft unveiled a new Logo. Year 1987 was the last time when Microsoft had
modified its logo and this one has come after nearly 25 years which is a significant time for any
organization. Its believed that the change in the logo comes in the anticipation of one of the biggest
launches for Microsoft in recent times - The Launch of Windows 8 in October 2012. The primary aim of this
logo is to provide a common theme across the new launches which the company is planning. The new logo
is shown below:

Segoe is the font using which the word "Microsoft" is written in the logo. The four colored square boxes
represent the portfolio of products which are supported by Microsoft.

147
C.

Companies and their Punchlines:

Punchlines of various companies:

Companies

Punchline

BPL

Believe in the best

Aiwa

Pure passion

Philips

Let's make things better

Nokia

Connecting people

Blue Star

Breathe easy

Xerox

The document company

Sybase

Information anywhere

IBM

Solutions for a small planet

Oracle

Software powers the internet

Alcatel

Architect of an internet world

Wipro

Applying thought

TCS

Beyond the obvious

Infosys Technologies

Powered by Intellect, driven by values

NOW

Experience convergence

Novell

The power to change

Acer

We hear you

Acer

Empowering people

Sify

Making the Internet work for you

Cisco

Empowering the Internet generation

HP

Invent

Sun Microsystems

We make the Net work

Sun Microsystems

Take it to the nth

Sun Microsystems

Throughout computing

Polaris Software

The power of precision

Apple

The power to be your best

Apple

Think different

Hyundai Sonata

Redisover luxury

Opel

The flight of German engineering

Baleno Altura

Sleek silent spirited

Mercedes Benz

The future of the automobile

Hyundai Accent

Affordable luxury

Tata

Improving the quality of life

Fiat

Driven by passion

Maruti Esteem

Move ahead in luxury

Honda City

Gem of an engine, Jewel of a car

Honda City

Makes perfect sense

Mitsubishi Lancer

Own the road

BMW

The ultimate driving machine

Santro

India's favourite family car

Hero Honda

Desh ki dhadkan

Maruti Versa

Two luxury cars in one

Ford Mondeo

Refined aggression

Fiat Palio

Technology. To the max

148
Companies

Punchline

Opel Astra

The science of comfort

Fiat Siena

Get noticed

Wagon R

Feeling at home

Mahindra Scorpio

Nothing else will do

TVS Victor

More smiles per hour

Accent Viva

Rev your imagination

Honda Accord

End of discussion

Bajaj pulsar

Fear the black

Tata Safari

Make your own road

Tata Indigo

Spoil yourself

Sansui

Born in Japan. Entertaining the world

Epson

Exceed your vision

General Electric

Imagination at work

Voltas

The global cooling expert

Videocon

The Indian multinational

Crompton Greaves

Everyday solutions

Panasonic

Ideas for life

LG

Life's good (tag-line)

LG

Inventive thinking

Electrolux

Nourishing lives. Nourishing hopes

Mitsubishi Electric

Change for the better

MTNL

Lifeline of Delhi and Mumbai

Canon

Delighting you always

Onida

Nothing but the truth

Olympus

Your vision. Our future

Daikin

Complete silence

Akai

Truly Japanese. Truly Advanced

Microsoft

Your potential. Our passion

HP

Invent

Sun Microsystems

We are the dot in the s.com

Polaris

Power of precision

Cisco System

This is the power of the network. now'

HP

Everything is possible (catchphrase)

Accenture

High performance. Delivered

IBM

On demand business

Acer

Empowering people

AT&T

Your world. Delivered

Dell Computers

Consider the possibilities (tag-line)

Lenovo

First you pay for it then it pays you back with interest

Microsoft

Are you people ready?

IBM

What makes you special?

Tata Indicom

Do more. Live more

Emirates

Keep discovering

Austrian Airlines

The most friendly airlines

Cathay Pacific

The heart of Asia

Lufthansa

There is no better way to fly

149
Companies

Punchline

Jet Airways

The joy of flying

Air Sahara

Emotionally yours

Thai Airways

Smooth as silk

Sri Lankan Airlines

You are our world

Qatar Airlines

Taking you more personally

Air Mauritius

Non-stop caring

Malaysia Airlines

Going beyond expectations

China Airlines

We blossom everyday

Austrian Airlines

Fly with friends

Spice jet

Flying for everyone

BMI BMI

Those who know fly

British Airways

The world is waiting

Air India

Fly Well (tag-line)

Gulf Air

Colour your sky

KLM

The reliable airline

Turkish Airlines

Your magical gateway to the world

Indian Airlines Ltd.

New horizons. Enduring values

Qantas Airlines

Spirit of Australia (tag-line)

Skoda Octavia

The most well built luxury car

Chevy SRV

Be a sport

Ford Fusion

Anything Karega

Honda Unicorn

Be a wing rider

Bajaj Eliminator

Designed to lead

Skoda Auto

Obsessed with quality since 1885

Centra

Fill it-once a month

Toyota Innova

All you desire

Hyundai Accent

Sheer pleasure

Land Cruiser Prado

Absolute power. Period

Mercedes-Benz

Brace Yourself

Cedia

Totally responsive. Totally alive

Sonata Embera

Undoubtedly distinguished

Alto

Let's go

Maruti 800

Change your life

Chevrolet

For a special journey called life

State Bank of India

With you - All the way

Punjab National Bank

___, the name you can bank upon

ICICI Prudential Life Insurance

We cover you. At every step of life

LIC

We know India better (tag-line)

Royal Sundaram

Beyond expectations

New India Insurance Company Ltd

Assurance of the leaders

Union Bank of India

Good people to bank with

HDFC Standard Life

Respect yourself

SBI Life Insurance

With us you are sure

HSBC

The world's local bank

The Vysya Bank Ltd

Experience relationship banking

Canara Bank

Lifelong Banking

150

II.

Companies

Punchline

Aviva Life Insurance Co.

Kal par control

Iffco-Tokio General Insurance

The life you deserve

SBI

For your better tomorrow

Oriental Bank of Commerce

Where every individual is committed

IL & FS

More than a fund. A friend

Ernst & Young

Quality in everything we do

DSP Merrill Lynch

Bullish on Life

Syndicate Bank

Reliable Responsive

Induslnd Bank

We care ... Dil Se

Allahabad Bank

A tradition of trust

Allianz Bajaj Life Insurance

Haske Jeeyo Yaar (tag-line)

Bank of Baroda

India's International Bank

Vijaya Bank

A friend you can bank upon

Franklin Templeton Investments

Gain from our perspective

ICICI Lombard General Insurance

We keep you going

UCO Bank

Honours your trust

The Federal Bank Ltd

Your perfect banking partner

Dena Bank

Trusted family bank

Lord Krishna Bank

Banking as you like it

National Insurance

Insuring your happiness

Tata Mutual Fund

With expertise comes trust

Allianz Bajaj Life Insurance

The power on your side

Corporation Bank

One bank, many solutions

LIC

Trust-thy name is LIC

Kotak Life Insurance

Bulls you win. Bear you win

SBI Mutual Fund

Soch hamari. Fayda aapka

IDFC IDFC

Think infrastructure. Think

BNP Paribas

The banking for a changing world

Tata AIG

A new look at life

Bombay Stock Exchange Ltd

The edge is efficiency

State Bank of India

Surprisingly (catch-phrase)

ICICI Prudential Life

We cover you at every step in life

Sector-wise Punch lines:

a.

Electronics Companies

Punchliness
At the heart of the image
Born in Japan, Entertaining the World
Exceed your vision
The document company
Everyday solutions
Make.believe
Inspire the next
Lifes good
Delighting you always
Leading innovation

Company
Nikon
Sansui
Epson
Xerox
Crompton Greaves
Sony
Hitachi
LG
Canon
Toshiba

151
Connecting people
The global cooling expert
The Indian multinational
Ideas for Life
Lifeline of Delhi & Mumbai
Nothing but the truth
Dil ko Jeb Me Rakha Hai
b.

Nokia
Voltas
Videocon
Panasonic
MTNL
Onida
Samsung Mobile

IT Companies:

Punchlines

c.

Company

Your potential, Our passion

Microsoft

Powered by intellect, driven by values

Infosys

Making the internet work for you

Sify

On demand business

IBM

First you pay for it then it pays you back with

interest
Applying thought

Lenovo

We hear you

Acer

Invent

HP

Consider the possibilities

Dell Computer

Wipro

Airlines

Punchlines

d.

Company

A great way to fly

Singapore Airlines

The joy of flying

Jet Airways

Flying for everyone

Spice jet

Fly Well (tag-line)

Air India

A heart of Asia

Cathay Pacific

There is no better way to fly

Lufthansa

The world is waiting

British Airways

Kingfisher

Fly the good times

Fly Emirates

Emirates

From Abu Dhabi to the world

Etihad

Automobiles:

Punchlines

Company

New thinking, New Possibilities

Hyundai

Even more car per car

Indica V2

Driven by the passion

Moving forward

Fiat
Toyota

The ultimate driving machine

BMW

Definitely male
Nothing else will do

Bajaj Pulsar
Mahindra Scorpio

For a special journey called life

Chevrolet

The future of the automobile

Mercedes Benz

Catch the i

Hyundai i10

Men are back

Count on us

Maruti SX4
Maruti Suzuki

Let's go

Alto

Making everyday exciting

Ford Motors

All you desire

Toyota Innova

The most well built luxury car

Skoda Octavia

152
e.

Financial Institutions:

Punchlines

f.

Company

With you -All the way

We cover you. At every step of life

State Bank of India

ICICI Prudential Life Insurance:

Good people to bank with

Union Bank of India

Experience relationship banking

The Vysya Bank Ltd.

Kal par control

Aviva Life Insurance

For your better tomorrow (ad-line)

SBI

A friend you can bank upon

Soch hamari, Fayda aapka (ad-line)

Vijaya Bank
SBI Mutual Fund

A new look at life

Tata AIG

The name you can bank upon

Punjab National Bank

We know India better

The world's local bank

LIC
HSBC

Lifelong Banking

Canara Bank

The life you deserve

A tradition of trust

Iffco-Tokio General Insurance

Allahabad bank

India's International Bank

Bank of Baroda

Your perfect banking partner

The bank for a changing world

The Federal Bank Ltd.

BNP Paribas

The edge is efficiency

Bombay Stock Exchange Ltd.

Good people to grow with

Indian Overseas Bank

Media:

Punchliness

g.

Company

Let truth prevail

The Times of India

Be the first to know

CNN

Its all about money honey

Experience, Truth first
First in Business Worldwide

IndiaInfoline.com
NDTV
CNBC TV 18

The power of knowledge

The Economic times

Speak out

Outlook

Aapka fayda
The voice of the Indian consumer

Zee Business Channel

CNBC Awaz

Tobacco Companies

Punchlines

D.

Company

Quality That's Forever

Gold Flake

Made for each other

Wills

Live life kingsize

Four Square

COMPANIES & THEIR COUNTRY OF ORIGIN:

Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Company
BMW
Sony
The Walt Disney Company
Daimler (Mercedes-Benz)
Apple
Google
Microsoft
Volkswagen
Canon

Home Country
Germany
Japan
United States
Germany
United States
United States
United States
Germany
Japan

of America
of America
of America
of America

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10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77

LEGO Group
Adidas Group
Nestl
Colgate-Palmolive
Panasonic
Nike
Intel
Micheln
Johnson & Johnson
IBM
Ferrero
Samsung Electronics
Honda Motor
LOral
Nokia
Philips Electronics
Kellogg
Goodyear
Amazon.com
Danone
3M
Hewlett-Packard
Nintendo
LVMH Group (Louis Vuitton Mot Hennessy)
Bridgestone
IKEA
Giorgio Armani Group
Toyota
The Coca-Cola Company
FedEx
Marriott International
Pirelli
Barilla
Fujifilm
Deutsche Lufthansa
Siemens
Bayer
UPS
Boeing
Procter & Gamble
Dell
Singapore Airlines
Toshiba
Xerox
Unilever
Cisco Systems
LG Corporation
HJ Heinz
Kraft Foods
Swatch Group
Hilton Worldwide
Heineken
Nissan Motor
Qantas Airways
Electrolux
Abbott Laboratories
General Electric
DuPont
Sharp
Eastman Kodak
Airbus
Oracle
Roche
ACER
Sara Lee
Yahoo!
H&M
SAS (Scandinavian Airlines)

Denmark
Germany
Switzerland
United States of America
Japan
United States of America
United States of America
France
United States of America
United States of America
Italy
South Korea
Japan
France
Finland
the Netherlands
United States of America
United States of America
United States of America
France
United States of America
United States of America
Japan
France
Japan
Sweden
Italy
Japan
United States of America
United States of America
United States of America
Italy
Italy
Japan
Germany
Germany
Germany
United States of America
United States of America
United States of America
United States of America
Singapore
Japan
United States of America
the Netherlands/the United Kingdom
United States of America
South Korea
United States of America
United States of America
Switzerland
United States of America
the Netherlands
Japan
Australia
Sweden
United States of America
United States of America
United States of America
Japan
United States of America
France
United States of America
Switzerland
Taiwan
United States of America
United States of America
Sweden
Sweden

154
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100

E.

Marks & Spencer Group

Hitachi
eBay
Avon Products
Zara
Starbucks Coffee Company
PepsiCo
Fujitsu
GlaxoSmithKline
Pfizer
Suzuki Motor
Carlsberg Group
Eli Lilly
General Mills
Air France-KLM
Carrefour
Virgin Group
Lenovo Group
Hyundai
Diageo
Petrobras
Vodafone
Lockheed Martin

the United Kingdom

Japan
United States of America
United States of America
Spain
United States of America
United States of America
Japan
the United Kingdom
United States of America
Japan
Denmark
United States of America
United States of America
France
France
the United Kingdom
China
South Korea
the United Kingdom
Brazil
the United Kingdom
United States of America

COMPANIES & THEIR RESPECTIVE AREA OF OPERATION:

Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39

Company

Industry

Johnson & Johnson

General Mills
Google
Kraft Foods
Hershey
Apple
Kellogg
Home Depot
Clorox
Amazon.com
Microsoft
Walt Disney
Procter & Gamble
CVS Caremark
Coca-Cola
Fedex
Colgate-Palmolive
Hewlett-Packard
UPS
IBM
Target
Sony
Canon
Walgreen
Lowes
Honda Motor
Pepsico
Costco
Nintendo
Intel
General Electric
Marriott International
Ford Motor
Best Buy
Samsung Group
Dell
Unilever
McDonalds
Nestle

Pharma / Household Products

Food
Technology
Food
Food
Technology
Food
Retail
Household Products
Retail
Technology
Entertainment
Household Products
Pharma
Beverage
Business Services
Household Products
Technology
Business Services
Technology
Retail
Technology
Technology
Retail
Retail
Automotive
Beverage
Retail
Technology
Technology
Technology
Travel
Automotive
Retail
Technology
Technology
Food
Food
Food

155
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100

JC Penney
Nike
Southwest Airlines
Netflix
Mars
Revlon
Research In Motion
Verizon Communications
Starbucks
L'Oreal
Pfizer
State Farm Mutual Auto Insurance
Mercedes Benz
Nissan Motor
Hilton Hotels
Anheuser-Busch InBev
Facebook
Dunkin Brands
Macys
Toyota Motor
Wal-Mart
BMW
Burger King Holdings
Volkswagen Group
AT&T
Toys-R-Us
Estee Lauder
JetBlue
Adidas AG
Aflac
Merck
General Motors
Visa USA
Allstate
Geico (Berkshire Hathway)
MetLife
Fidelity Investments
Gap
Sprint Nextel
American Express
Mazda Motor
Chanel
LVMH Moet Hennessy Louis Vuitton
Charles Schwab
Heineken
Delta Air Lines
Chrysler
United/Continental Airlines
Mastercard Intl
Comcast
Royal Dutch Shell
Chevron
JP Morgan Chase
ConocoPhillips
Bank Of America
Citigroup
Exxon Mobil
Capital One Financial
Goldman Sachs
BP
Fannie Mae

Retail
Clothing
Travel
Technology
Food
Beauty
Technology
Comms
Beverage
Beauty
Pharma
Insurance
Automotive
Automotive
Travel
Beverage
Technology
Food
Retail
Automotive
Retail
Automotive
Food
Automotive
Comms
Retail
Beauty
Travel
Clothing
Insurance
Pharma
Automotive
Financial Services
Insurance
Insurance
Insurance
Financial Services
Clothing
Comms
Financial Services
Automotive
Luxury
Luxury
Financial Services
Beverage
Travel
Automotive
Travel
Financial Services
Comms
Energy
Energy
Financial Services
Energy
Financial Services
Financial Services
Energy
Financial Services
Financial Services
Energy
Financial Services

156
F.

COMPANIES & BRANDS

I.

Top Indian Brands

Rank

Brand

Category

Brand Value 2015 $M

Brand Value 2014 $M

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50

HDFC
AIRTEL
SBI
ICICI
ASIAN PAINTS
BAJAJ
HERO
AXIS
KOTAK
MARUTI SUZUKI
IDEA
CASTROL
INDUSIND
MCDOWELLS
NESTLE
INDIAN OIL
KINGFISHER
MAHINDRA
ACTIVE WHEEL
BRITANNIA
TANISHQ
PNB
RELIANCE
HORLICKS
DABUR
COLGATE
SURF EXCEL
BROOKE BOND
SUNFEAST
MAGGI
LIFEBUOY
BOI
FAIR AND LOVELY
LUX
BERGER
CANARA
MRF
SAFFOLA
IDBI
HDFC LIFE
TATA MOTORS
ICICI PRUDENTIAL
BAGPIPER
LAKME
HINDUSTAN PETROLEUM
UBI
QWALITY WALLS
RIN
BHARAT PETROLEUM
ROYAL ENFIELD

Banks
Telecom Providers
Banks
Banks
Paints
Automobiles
Automobiles
Banks
Banks
Automobiles
Telecom Providers
Lubricants
Banks
Alcohol
Food and Dairy
Motor Fuels
Alcohol
Automobiles
Home Care
Food and Dairy
Jewelry
Banks
Telecom Providers
Food and Dairy
Personal Care
Personal Care
Home Care
Soft Drinks
Food and Dairy
Food and Dairy
Personal Care
Banks
Personal Care
Personal Care
Paints
Banks
Tires
Food and Dairy
Banks
Insurance
Automobiles
Insurance
Alcohol
Personal Care
Motor Fuels
Banks
Food and Dairy
Home Care
Motor Fuels
Automobiles

12,577
11,039
9,374
5,122
3,867
3,345
2,907
2,494
2,394
2,318
1,981
1,773
1,542
1,516
1,498
1,436
1,374
1,304
1,301
1,263
1,240
1,230
1,224
1,217
1,177
1,070
1,041
904
816
770
759
712
704
654
648
645
630
598
532
531
520
518
517
502
489
469
468
418
409
403

9,425
8,217
6,828
3,536
2,812
3,034
2,164
NEW ENTRY
1,721
1,510
1,882
1,264
1,059
1,395
1,228
1,498
1,345
1,196
982
879
880
764
1,636
1,018
907
742
778
641
754
1,127
511
570
520
491
451
NEW ENTRY
NEW ENTRY
450
416
367
569
372
552
297
539
273
328
302
393
NEW ENTRY

II.

Brands of Major FMCG Companies:

ITC
Cigarettes
Hotels
Packaged Foods, Confectionery
Branded Apparel
Personal Care
Greeting Card
Safety matches
Stationery

:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:

Wills, Classic, Gold Flake, NAVY Cut,

Welcome Group Hotel
Aashirvaad, Sunfeast, Mint-O, Candyman, Bingo
Wills Lifestyle, John Players, Miss Players
Essenza Di Wills, Fiama Di Wills
Expressions
Mangal Deep, Delite
Classmate, Paperkraft, Saathi

157
Proctor & Gamble
Feminine Care
Health Care

Baby Care

: Whisper
: Vicks Action 500+, Vicks Vapo Rub, Vicks Cough Drops, and Vicks
Inhaler.
: Tide, Ariel
: Head & Shoulders Pantene. Olay, Max Factor, Cover Girl. Joy.
Essences and Clairol Nice "n' Easy, Rejoice
: Pampers

Hindustan Lever
Soaps
Beverages
Detergents
Creams and Beauty products

:
:
:
:

Fabric Care
Hair Care

Shampoos
Dishwashers
Toothpaste and Brushes
Deosprays
Ice Cream
Squashes and Jams

Lifebuoy, Lux, Breeze, Liril, Rexona. Hamam, Moti

Lipton tea, Brooke Bond tea, Bru Coffee
Surf, Rin, Wheel
Pond's talcs and creams, Vaseline lotions, Fair & Lovely creams,
Lakme beauty products
: Clinic Plus, Clinic All Clear, Sunsilk Dove
: Vim dishwash, Ala bleach, Domex disinfectant
: Pepsodent, Close Up
: Rexona, Axe
: Kwality Walls
: Kissan

Dabur
Foods
Healthcare
Health Supplements
Digestives
Natural Cures
Hair Care Oil
Hair Care Shampoo
Oral Care

:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:

Skin Care

Real juice, Real Active, Real Twist, Capsico, Honey

Dabur Lal Tail, Dabur Baby Olive Oil, Dabur Janma Ghunti
Dabur Chyawanprash, Dabur Glucose D
Hajmola, Anardana, Hajmola Candy, Pudin Hara, Dabur Hingoli
Shilajit Gold, Isabgol, Itch Care, Dabur Balm,
Amla Hair Oil, Vatika Hair Oil, Dabur Olive Oil, Jasmine Hair Oil
Vatika Henna Conditioning Shampo, Vatika Anti-Dandruff Shampoo
Dabur Red Toothpaste, Dabur Lal Dant Manjan Dabur Binaca
Toothbrush, Miswak, Promise
: Vatika Fairness Face Pack

Marico
Hair Care
Food

: Parachute, Hair & Care, Mediker, Revive

: Saffola

Nestle
Beverages
Food
Pepsi Co
Beverages
Snacks
Coca-Cola
Beverages
Britannia
Biscuits
III.

: Nescafe classic, Nescafe sunrise. Nestle milo

: Maggi, Kit kat, Munch, Milkybar, Bar-one, Eclairs, Polo, Polo
Powermint
: Pepsi, 7UP, Mirinda and Mountain Dew, Aquafina, Tropicana and
Slice.
Lehar Soda, Dukes lemonade and Mangola
: Lays Potato Chips; Cheetos snacks, Uncle Chips and namkeen
snacks under the
Kurkure and Lehar brands.
: Coca-Cola, Thumbs Up, Fanta , Limca, Sprite, Maaza, Kinley,
Georgia, Minute Maid
: VitaMariegold, Tiger, Nutrichoice Junior, Good Day, 50-50, Treat,
Pure Magic and Good Morning.

Auto Brands
Cars
Maruti
Honda
Fiat
Ford
Mitsubishi
Hyundai
Tata

Maruti 800, Zen, Omni. Baleno, Esteem, WagonR, Gypsy, Alto, Swift
City, Chic, Accord
Siena, Uno. Palio, Punto
Ikon, Escort. Mondeo
Lancer, Pajero
Sonata, Accent, Santro, Xing, i10, 120
Indica, Sierra, Safari, Sumo. Indigo Tata Nano

158
Toyota
M&M
Skoda
Chevrolet
Two wheelers
Honda
Hero Motocorp
Bajaj
Yamaha
TVS
Kinetic
Royal Enfield
Bajaj
Honda
Kinetic

Qualis, Corolla, Carmy, CoronaLand Cruiser, Innova

Scorpio, Armada, Balero
Octavia, Fabia. Laura
Optra, Spark, Beat
Activa, Aviator, CB1000R, CBF Stunner, CBR1000RR, CBR150R, CB
Shine
Ignitor, Maestro, Impulse, CD Dawn, CD Deluxe, Pleasure, Splendor,
Glamour, Achiever
Caliber, Eliminator, Boxer, Pulsar, Discover
CruxR, YBx, Enticer, Libero
Victor. Fiero, Max 100, Apache, Star Sport, Star City
Challenger, Boss, Aquila
Bullet. Machismo. Electra. Lightning
Chetak. Super. Legend. Sunny, Scooty.
Activa, Dio, Eterno
Marvel, Nova

G.

INDIA'S TOP CELEBRITY BRAND AMBASSADORS

I.

Top Celebrities
Shahrukh Khan
The King Khan of Bollywood earns around 150 crore a year from endorsements. His list of endorsements
include Pepsi, Bagpiper, Santro, Omega, Nokia, Emami ( 5 crore every year), Hyundai, , Airtel, Videocon,
Emami, , Pepsodent, Dish TV , Videocon, Sun Feast, Tag Heur, Mayur Suitings, Pulse Polio and AIDS
control programmes. With 34 brand endorsements worth 238 crore, ShahRukh Khan also charges 1015 crore per film. He owns Red Chillies Entertainment production house and IPL Cricket Team, Kolkata
Knight Riders of worth 500 crore!! He earns 3-4 crores per day from endorsement deals.
Aishwarya Rai Bachan
Rai has replaced the former Miss Universe Susmita Sen as the brand ambassador for Kalyan Jewellers.
Rai, who was replaced by Katrina Kaif as the brand ambassador for Nakshatra Diamonds on the grounds
of fresh look, is still considered to be the most elite and glamourous actress. Been on the cover of Vogue
three times, she appeared in a Pepsi commercial with actor, Aamir Khan. Some other, major, name
brands she had modeling contracts with include; Longines watches, Coca-Cola, Lakme Cosmetics, Casio
pager, Philips, Palmolive, Lux, and Fuji films. Aishwarya is said to earn around 1 billion through these
endorsements.
MS Dhoni
Brand Dhoni has reached a new high altogether after the World Cup. Dhoni is currently the face of around
25 brands and charges over 6 crore per endorsement, according to industry estimates. Captain cool
endorses 22 brands. Among the major brands endorsed by him are Sony BRAVIA, PepsiCo, Reebok, Save
Tigers campaign, Aircel, Godrej, Big Bazaar, Aircel, Les, Amrapali Builders, Max, McDowells soda and
Hershe. He had signed two record dealsa 26-crore deal with Vijay Mallya's United Breweries for three
years and a renewal of contract with Maxx Mobile for 29 crore, for seven years.
Katrina Kaif
Katrina Kaif is the top female brand ambassador in India, representing 12 brands which include
Nakshatra, Spice Telecom, Pantene, Godrej Renew, Slice Aamsutra, Veet and the latest Titan watch. She
is the fifth person with the maximum number of brands endorsed in the country. The actress, who
replaced Aishwarya Rai as the ambassador for Nakshatra Diamonds, charges
4-4.5 crore for
endorsements. Like Kareena Kapoor, Kaif is also said to charge 1-1.25 crore per day
Sachin Tendulkar
Master Blasters major endorsements are Toshiba, Adidas, ITC, Audemars Piguet, Canon, RBS, Reynolds,
Boost, Aviva and Jaypee Cements. Tendulkar has also signed a 9-crore contract with Pune-based Real
Estate Company, Amit Enterprises, and a 12-13 crore deal with apparel maker S Kumars. He earns
around 60 crore through commercial endorsements. Sachin Tendulkar ads are still very popular, which
portray him as a gutsy cricketer. The number of current Sachin Tendulkar endorsements cross the mark of
10.
Amitabh Bachan
The senior Bachan is now-a-days the brand ambassador for Gujarat tourism. He has been brand
ambassador of products across industry and categories including Pepsi, Mirinda, ICICI Bank, Parker Pens,
Reid & Taylor, Maruti Versa, Cadburys, Nerolac, Hajmola, Navratna tail, Emani Boroplus, Eveready,

159
Dabur, Sahara city Home, Ddamas, Binnani. He is said to earn around
endorsements.

2-2.5 crore per day through

Akshay Kumar
His name has been attached to a lot of brands like Thumbs Up, Bagpiper, Levis Jeans, Micromax, LG etc.
He is officially announced as the brand ambassador of Canada by the Canada Tourism Commission in
Delhi. Akshay is the first Indian celebrity to be the brand ambassador of Canada Tourism. He His
endorsement fee is around 8-10 crores per year.
II.

Other Brand Endorsements:

Company/Brand
Airtel, Sony Viao, Globus, Anne French, Emami, Vivel, Head and Shoulders, Boro
Plus, Citizen watches, LG, Sangini jewellery
LG Mobiles, Fanta, Vatika Hair Oil, Fa deodorants, Cadbury Perk, Garnier
Panasonic, Provogue, Pepsi, Nissan

Brand
Ambassadors
Kareena Kapoor

Genelia DSouza
Ranbir Kapoor

Donear Suitings, Reebok, Pepsi, Royal stag and SBI card

Yuvraj Singh

Airtel DTH, Royal Stag, Lays, LG

Saif Ali Khan

Coca Cola, Levi Strauss

Imran Khan

Yamaha, LG Mobiles, Clinic All Clear

John Abraham

Dixie Scott Innerwear, Wheel Detergent, Sangini jewellery, Mountain Dew

Salman Khan

Parle, Titan, Tata Sky, Coca Cola, Samsung Mobile

Aamir Khan

Provogue, Parle Hide and Seek, Reliance Com

Hrithik Roshan

Clinic All Clear, Vaseline, Levis, VIP Luggage, Mahindra 2-wheelers

Shahid Kapoor

Idea Cellular, Videocon DTH, Motorola, BIG 92.7, Lux

Mirinda, Big Bazaar, Lux, Tata Sky, Fairever, Clinic All Clear

Abhishek Bachchan
Asin

Nokia, Sunsilk, Lux, Levis, Asmi

Priyanka Chopra

Mayur Suitings, Boost, Samsung, Britannia, Colgate, Adidas

Virender Sehwag

Nestle, BSNL, Sony Cameras, Fiama DWills

Deepika Padukone

Nokia, Airtel

Sharman Joshi

LOreal, Spice Mobiles, Electrolux, Coca Cola, Mont Blanc

Sonam Kapoor

Clinic All Clear, Emami, Sugar Free, Reebok, Aristocrat Luggage

Knorr Soup, Alpenliebe, Olay, Whirlpool
Kurkure, Roohafza, Ashoka Pickles
Pizza hut, Streax

Bipasha Basu
Kajol
Juhi Chawla
Mallaika Arora Khan

Van Heusen, Tata Motors, Maricos Parachute,

Nargis Fakhri

Hindustan Unilever, United Spirits, Titan, Maruti Suzuki(A-Star)

Farhan Akhtar

Flying Machine, Toyota, Celkon Mobiles

Virat Kohli

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H.

COMPANY PROFILES:
Indian Firms among World's Most Innovative Companies

I.

Larsen & Toubro

Industry: Construction Services
Chief Executive Officer: Anilkumar Naik
Larsen & Toubro (L&T) with a market capital of $16.09 Billion (as of April 2012) got placed in Forbes list
of Worlds Most Innovative Companies at the ninth position. L&T is a technology, engineering,
construction and manufacturing company, which was founded in 1938. The company presently employs
around 45,117 employees, and it operates mainly in three segments; Engineering & Construction
Segment, Electrical & Electronics segment and Machinery & Industrial Products segment.
Engineering, Construction & Contracts Division (ECCD) of the company undertakes engineering, design
and construction of infrastructure, buildings, factories, water supply, and metallurgical & material handling
projects covering civil, mechanical, electrical and instrumentation engineering disciplines; and the division
is organized into two independent companies: Heavy Engineering Independent Company and Ship Building
Independent Company. Larsen & Toubros Electrical & Electronics division also has two separate
independent bodies such as Electrical & Automation Independent Company and Medical Equipment &
Systems business.

II.

Hindustan Unilever
Industry: Household/ Personal Care
Chief Executive Officer: Sanjiv Mehta
Hindustan Unilever is an India-based consumer goods company that has made its mark in the domestic
market. The Company that placed at the twelfth position in Forbes list operates in seven business
segments.The companys Soaps and detergents segment includes soaps, detergent bars, detergent
powders and scourers.The companys Personal products segment includes products in the categories of
oral care, skin care (excluding soaps), hair care, talcum powder and color cosmetics.The company has a
Beverages segment that includes tea and coffee. It also has a Packaged foods segment including staples
(atta, salt and bread) and culinary products (tomato-based products, fruit-based products and soups), Ice
creams and frozen desserts.
Hindustan Unilevers other business segments include Exports, Chemicals, Water business etc. As of March
31, 2012, the Company had over 35 brands spanning 20 distinct categories. The famous products in its
portfolio include household brands like Lux, Lifebuoy, Surf Excel, Rin, Wheel, Fair & Lovely, Pond's,
Vaseline, Lakme, Dove, Clinic Plus, Sunsilk, Pepsodent, Closeup, Axe, Brooke Bond, Bru, Knorr, Kissan,
Kwality Wall's and the water-purifier brand, Pureit.

III.

Infosys
Industry: Computer Services
Chief Executive Officer: Vishal Sikka

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The leading IT Company of the country, Infosys got placed in Forbes list OF Worlds Most Innovative
Companies at the nineteenth position with a market capital of $32.63 billion (as of April 2012). Infosys,
formerly

Infosys

Technologies,

is

global

technology

services

company

employing

130,820

employees. The Indian IT company, infosys provides business consulting, technology, engineering and
outsourcing services to help clients in over 30 countries. Its suite of business solutions includes business
and technology consulting, custom application development, infrastructure management services,
maintenance and production support, package enabled consulting and implementation including enterprise
solutions, product engineering and lifecycle solutions, systems integration, validation solutions and cloudbased solutions and services.
IV.

Tata Consultancy Services

Industry: Computer Services
Chief Executive Officer: N. Chandrasekaran
Founded in 1968, this multi-national company headquartered in Mumbai is engaged in providing
information technology services, business solutions and outsourcing and it employs 198,614 people.TCS
services portfolio consists of application development and maintenance, business intelligence (BI),
enterprise solutions, assurance, engineering and industrial services, IT infrastructure services, business
process outsourcing, consulting and asset leveraged solutions.The company also provides its services for
several other industries, such as life sciences and healthcare, hi-tech, energy, resources and utilities,
media and entertainment and travel, transportation and hospitality.Tata Consultancy Services is a
subsidiary of the Tata Group and is listed in the Bombay Stock Exchange and the National Stock Exchange
of India. It is one of the most valued firms in India and one of the five largest India-based IT services
firms.

V.

Sun Pharmaceutical Industries

Industry: Pharmaceuticals
Chief Executive Officer: S Kalyanasundaram
Sun Pharma is an international specialty pharmaceutical company. Sun Pharmaceuticals manufactures and
markets pharmaceutical formulations as branded generics, as well as generics in India, the United States
and several other markets across the world. The Company's whole business is divided into four segments:
Indian Branded Generics, U.S. Generics, International Branded Generics (ROW) and Active Pharmaceutical
Ingredients (API). Its brands are prescribed in chronic therapy areas such as cardiology, psychiatry,
neurology,

gastroenterology,

diabetology

and

respiratory.The

company

makes

specialty

Active

Pharmaceutical Ingredients (APIs), including peptides, steroids, hormones and anticancers. APIs and
Dosage forms are made at 20 plants across India, Israel, the United States, Canada, Hungary, Brazil,
Mexico and Bangladesh. Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients products include Acamprosate Calcium,
Alendronate Sodium, Amifostine trihydrate, Budensonide and Carvedilol. In September 2010, it made an
acquisition of Taro Pharmaceutical Industries.

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Top 10 Indian Telecom Companies:
The Indian telecom sector is the third largest telecommunication network in the world and ranks second in
Asia. It has been one of the fastest growing sectors in Indian economy earning its position of being a
major contributor in Indias economic growth.
I.

Bharti Airtel
Ownership: Privately-held by Sunil Bharti Mittal
Date of Establishment: 7th July 1995
Airtel is the largest telecom service provider in India and operates in 20 countries across south Asia, Africa
and the Channel Islands and provides 2G, 3G and 4G services. Ranking third mobile telecommunications
company in the world, it has nearly 261 million subscribers out of which 200 million are in India. The
biggest mobile telephony provider, it is known as being the first mobile phone company in the world to
outsource all its business operations except marketing. It is the first telecom service provider to achieve a
Cisco Gold certification. Among the countries where Airtel marks its presence, some are, Bangladesh, Sri
Lanka, Chad, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Nigeria, Zambia etc. Airtel collaborated with RIM and
launched its Blackberry services in October 2004.

II.

Reliance Communications
Ownership: Privately-held by Reliance Group
Date of Establishment: 2004
Reliance Communications is a subsidiary of Reliance Anil Dhirubhai Ambani Group and provides telecom
services across the country. Headquartered in Navi Mumbai, it ranks 16th on the global platform in terms
of mobile operations and provides 2G and 3G services in the country. RCOM also provides National Long
Distance and International Long Distance operations. Its customer base touches 150 million. It ranks
among the top 5 telecom companies worldwide in terms of number of customers and its clientele is not
limited to the individual customers but expands to corporate as well. It has services spanning all across
the country and Reliance can be credited for bringing the telecom revolution in the country with its
unbeatable pricing during times when mobile phones was a luxury for the business class people. It is the
only operator which provides spped up to 28 Mbit/sec with its 3G MIMO technology.

III.

Vodafone
Ownership: Privately-held by Vodafone group
Date of Establishment: 1994
Vodafone India, previously known as Vodafone Essar and Hutchinson Essar is one of the well renowned
telecom service providers in India headquartered in Mumbai. In 2011, Vodafone Group agreed to buy the
share of its partner Essar from the Indian mobile phone business. Vodafone paid $5.46 billion to take 33%
stake in the Indian subsidiary. It left Vodafone with 74% of the Indian business, while the other 26% is
owned by Indian investors. The company is valued to be $18.8 billion. The transaction took its final shape
in 2007. Vodafone offers both prepaid and postpaid GSM cellular phone coverage throughout India with
good presence in the metropolitan cities. It launched 3G services in the country in the January-March
quarter of 2011.

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IV.

Idea Cellular
Ownership: Privately-held by Aditya Birla group and others.
Date of Establishment: 1995
Idea Cellular is an Indian telecom service provider headquartered in Mumbai. Previously ran by Tata
Cellular, it was bought by Birla-AT&T in 2000. This merger of Birla-Tata-AT&T was popularly known as
Batata and was rebranded as IDEA. However, in the subsequent years, AT&T and Tata sold their stake in
Idea and it became an entity of Aditya Birla group. The three companies held an equal stake in the
company before AT&T decided to sell its stake. Both Tata and Birla bought AT&Ts stake with 16.45
percent each. Tata was still holding Idea when the company filed for a license to operate in Mumbai. For
this reason, Idea could enter late in Mumbai after the intervention of the Department of Telecom. Tata left
Idea but only for a major sum of money cmounting to

44 billion. Currently, Birlas hold 49.05 percent

shares in Idea and the remaining is held by Axiata Group and Providence equity.
V.

BSNL
Ownership: Publically-held by Government of India
Date of Establishment: Incorporated on 15th September 2000
BSNL or Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited is a publically held telecom service provider in India. With its
headquarters in New Delhi, it is the largest provider of fixed-line services and subsequently provides
broadband services across the nation. Before the liberalization of Indian economy BSNL held the monopoly
across the country except for Delhi and Mumbai which were covered by MTNL. It is Indias oldest
communication service provider and enjoys a customer base of 95 million throughout India. Among the
services that BSNL provides, some are, Universal Telecom Serives, Cellular Mobile Telephone Services,
WLL-CDMA Telephone services, Internet, Intelligent Network, 3G, IPTV, FTTH, Helpdesk, VVoIP, WiMax.
BSNL has 24 telecom circles, 2 metro districts, 6 project circles, 4 maintenance regions, 5 telecom
factories, 3 training institutions and 4 specialized telecom units.

VI.

TATA Teleservices
Ownership: Privately-held by the TATA Group
Date of Establishment: January 2005
Tata Teleservices limited is a subsidiary of renowned Tata group and is headquartered in Mumbai. It
provides broadband and telecommunications services across the country and operates under the name of
Tata Docomo in various telecom circles across India. The Japanese telecom giant NTT Docomo bought 26
percent stake in Tata Teleservices in November 2008 paying a sum of nearly

13,070 Crores. Previously

in February 2008, Tata Teleservices limited announced its plan to launch a youth oriented CDMA service in
association with Virgin Group. Currently, Tata Teleservices functions under the following brand names:
Tata docomo, Virgin Mobile and T24 Mobile. It enjoys a subscriber base of more than 5 billion in Delhi
alone and is provides tariff plans in both Post-paid and Pre-paid category. Its retail business has 3000
outlets across the country. It also became the first private sector telecom operator to launch 3G service in
the country.

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VII.

Aircel
Ownership: Privately-held by Maxis Communications and Sindya Securities & Investments.
Date of Establishment: 1999
Aircel is an Indian telecom service provider jointely held by the Maxis Communications and Sindya
Securities & Investments Private Limited. The Malaysian-based Maxis Communications hold a majority
stake of 74 percent in the company. The current share-holders of Sindya Securities & Investments are the
Reddy family that is famed for its Apollo Hospitals Group of India. Headquartered in Chennai, it is one of
the leading telecom service providers in Tamil Nadu, North East, Assam and Chennai. With a subscriber
base of nearly 51.83 million, it is ranked seventh among the Indian mobile service providers (GSM &
CDMA) and fifth among the GSM mobile service providers. The company has also obtained permission
from the Department of Telecom (DoT) for providing International Long Distance and National Long
Distance telephony services.

VIII.

Uninor
Ownership: Privately-held by Unitech Group and Telenor Group
Date of Establishment: 3rd December 2009
Uninor is an Indian telecom service provider that is jointly held by two companies: a Norway-based
telecommunication company Telenor and an Indian real-estate company Unitech. Telenor holds a major
stake of 67.25 percent in the company. Uninor is headquartered in Gurgaon (NCR Delhi) and provides its
services in all of Indias 22 telecom circles. It offers voice and a data service based on the GSM technology
and is commercially available in the 13 circles across India. Its major target is the youth and is a pioneer
in charging as per day time and geographic location. During its launch, Uninor was available in 8 circles
and 6 other circles were added in the initial six months. It follows a lean operational model and its
network infrastructure is outsourced to its business partners.

IX.

Videocon
Ownership: Privately held by Videocon Group
Date of Establishment: 7th April 2010
Videocon Telecommunications Limited is a Videocon group company owned by Venugopal Dhoot. It is
headquartered in Gurgaon (NCR Delhi). Launched in April 2010, Videocon Telecommunications Limited
provides GSM services in almost all parts of India including Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Haryana, Mumbai,
Gujarat, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Himachal Pradesh among others under the brand
name of Videocon. The Videocon group, an Indian Multinational company, is a global business
conglomerate that has its roots spread in diverse markets and generates revenues worth $4 billion
annually. The group has several manufacturing facilities and R&D departments spread all across the globe
including American, Europe and Australia. Videocon has one of the strongest distribution networks in the
country and enjoys a well-established reputation in the global market. The group is also involved in the
manufacturing of mobile handsets under the same brand name.

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X.

MTNL
Ownership: Publically-held by Government of India
Date of Establishment: 1st April 1986
Brief Description: MTNL or Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited is a publically-held telecom service
provider which operates only in metro cities; Mumbai and Delhi and the island nation of Mauritius (Africa).
Before the liberalization of the Indian economy, MTNL held a monopoly in the cities of Delhi and Mumbai
which it lost after the market was opened for other service providers. The Indian government currently
holds a 56.25 percent stake in the company that has a motto Transparency Makes Us Different.
World's Top 10 Software Companies
These software companies are ranked by Michel van Kooten of Software Top 100 as per their annual
software revenues.

I.

Microsoft
Software Revenue: $54,270 mn
Software Revenue Growth: 10.6 percent
Microsoft, the multi-national company that develops a wide range of software products, has topped the list
of Global Software Top 100 with the software revenue exceeding $50,000 million. The share of the
software revenue of the company is 80.5 percent in the total revenue of the company is $67,383
million.The most profitable products of this software king are the Microsoft Windows operating system and
the Microsoft Office suite of productivity software. Founded in 1975 by Bill Gates and Paul Allen, Microsoft
rose to dominate the home computer (personal computer) operating system market with firstly MS-DOS
in the mid 1980s, followed by the Windows line of operating systems. Windows continues to be the
flagship product of the company with its most recent version Windows 8; though released in August 2012,
it will be delivered in October. The software company, headquartered in Redmond, Washington, the
company now has three business divisions: the Microsoft Platform Products and Service Division, the
Microsoft Business Division and the Microsoft Entertainment and Devices Division.

II.

IBM
Software Revenue: $22,485 mn
Software Revenue Growth: 5.1 percent
IBM, the multi-national computer, technology and IT-consultancy company, has a software revenue of
$22,485 million (as of 2011), which is around 22.5 percent of the total revenue of the company ($99,870
million). Headquartered in Armonk, New York, the company was founded by Herman Hollerith in 1896;
the name IBM was given to it only later. The company produces both software and hardware products and
offers services in areas ranging from mainframe computers to nanotechnology. As of now, IBM is the
largest IT services company and the second largest software company in the world. The company received
the most United States patents in the year 2009 for up to seventeen consecutive years. The major
products of the company are Websphere, DB2, Lotus, Tivoli and Cognos.

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III.

Oracle
Software Revenue: $20,958 mn
Software Revenue Growth: 12.8 percent
The multi-national computer technology corporation, Oracle, has appeared on the Global Software Top
100 list at the third position with a software revenue exceeding $20,000 million. It is 69.4 percent of the
total revenue of the company ($30, 180) as of 2011. Oracle develops enterprise software products and
particularly database management systems. Headquartered in Redwood City, California, United States,
the company employs more than 73,201 people worldwide as of 2009 statistics, Larry Ellison being its
Chief Executive Officer. The corporation has enlarged its share of the software market through organic
growth and through numerous high-profile acquisitions, which includes People Soft and BEA Systems. The
company is hailed as the third largest software company in the United States and in the world; and it is
also the second largest enterprise software company in the world.

IV.

SAP
Software Revenue: $12,558 mn
Software Revenue Growth: 10.5 percent
SAP AG is a multi-national software development and consulting corporation and it grabs the fourth
position on the list of worlds top 100 software companies with software revenue of $12,558 million which
is much lesser to Oracle that stands just one position ahead of it on the list. This software company has
75.4 percent software revenue share among the total of $16,654 million. The corporation provides
enterprise software applications to businesses of all sizes. Founded in 1972 in Mannheim by the former
IBM engineers, Dietmar Hopp, Hans-Werner Hector, Hasso Plattner, Claus E Tschira and Claus
Wellenreuther, the software firm is best known for its flagship product SAP Enterprise Resource Planning
(ERP). This company is headquartered in Walldorf Germany. And it is the largest European software
company in the world and the largest enterprise software company in the world, leaving behind Oracle.

V.

Ericsson
Software Revenue: $7,274 mn
Software Revenue Growth: -4.2 percent
Though Ericsson has the fifth position in the list of worlds top 100 software companies ranked by their
software revenue, it has shown a decrease in the software revenue of 4.2 percent than the previous years
statistics. The company now claims a software revenue of $7,274 million which 24 percent of the total
revenue generated by the company ($30,307 million). The company was founded in 1876 by Lars and
Magnus Ericsson as a telegraph equipment repair shop. Presently, Ericsson is a Swidish provider of
telecommunication

and

data

communication

systems,

including

mobile

networks.

Ericsson

is

headquartered in Kista, Stockholm Municipality and it has offices and operations in more than 175
countries. The Sweden office of the company employs more than 75,000 employees, making it one of the
largest companies in the country. The company has the status of the worldwide market leader of telco
networks and it is the fifth largest software company in the world.

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VI.

Hewlett Packard
Software Revenue: $6,669 mn
Software Revenue Growth: 7.9 percent
Hewlett Packard, popularly known and marketed as hp is a consumer electronics corporation that has
come in the sixth position on the list of Global Software Top 100, which is ranked by the software revenue
of the companies. The company has $6,669 million software revenue making only 5.3 percent of the total
revenue of the company, which is $126,562 million. Hewlett Packard is headquartered in Palo Alto,
California, United States. The major product lines of the company include personal computer devices,
enterprise servers, related storage devices, as well as a diverse range of printers and other similar
imaging products. Hewlett Packard is considered as the largest technology company in the world and it
had posted $91.7 billion in annual revenue in the year2006, greater than the $91.4 billion generated by
the rival company, IBM. Hewlett Packard is the largest worldwide seller of personal computers, dominating
the rival DELL as the market research firms Gartner and IDC has reported in January 2010. The company
also acclaims the position of sixth largest software company in the world.

VII.

Symantec
Software Revenue: $5,636 mn
Software Revenue Growth: 1.3 percent
The computer technology corporation Symantec shows only a meager percent of software revenue growth
this time with $5,636 million placing itself in the seventh position on the list of worlds top 100 software
companies. Meanwhile the total revenue of the company is $6,013 million, in which 93.7 percent is the
revenue generated by software products and services. Symantec is a multi-national company that
develops security software. The technology firm is best known for its flagship product, Norton Security
Software. Symantec is the largest security software company in the world and also the fifth largest
software company in the United States.

VIII.

Nintendo
Software Revenue: $5,456 mn
Software Revenue Growth: -19.8 percent
Nintendo comes at the eighth position on the list of top software companies in the world. The software
company, Nintendo has shown a reduction of 19.8 percent in their software revenue reaching at $5,456
million. The current software revenue makes 39.6 percent of its total revenue of $13,766 million. The
primary business sector of the company is gaming software production, and the next major sector of the
company is non-PC Games and Game Engines. The company employs more than 3,768 people in their
offices.

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IX.

Activision Blizzard
Software Revenue: $4,447 mn
Software Revenue Growth: 3.9 percent
The technology firm, Activision Blizzard develops and publishes video games. And the software revenue,
which is its only revenue generating sector, of the company is $4,447 million. This firm is the American
Holding company for Activision and Blizzard Entertainment, majority of which is owned by the French
corporation Vivendi SA. The well known games developed and published by the company are Guitar hero,
Call of Duty and World of Warcraft. The merger happened in 2008 made Activision Blizzard one of the
largest growing software companies of the Software Top 100. This firm was the second largest video game
company in the world as of 2009.

X.

EMC
Software Revenue: $4,356 mn
Software Revenue Growth: 10 percent
The software revenue $4,356 million made EMC at the No. 10 position on the list of the top 100 software
companies in the world. It is around 25.6 percent of the total revenue of the company that is $17,015
million. The primary business sector of the company is developing of Infrastructure software. Storage
Management Software is another major sector from which the company derives its revenue. The company
employs around 37,700 people in its offices.
Top 5 Retailers around the World
According to Deloittes report, Global Powers of Retailing, nearly 60 percent of the worlds top 250
retailers are operating in more than one country; and among those 147 retailers, 115 has their presence
in more than one sub-region.

I.

Wal-Mart
Country of Origin: U.S.
Countries of Operation: 16
Wal-Mart is the unbeaten retail leader in the world and it tops the list compiled by Deloitte. Walmart
Stores, branded as Wal-Mart since 2008, is a U.S. based multi-national retailer corporation that runs
chains of large discount department stores and warehouse stores. It is also the third largest public
corporation in the world, according to the Fortune Global 500 list in the year 2012. Founded in 1962 by
Sam Walton, the company employs around 2.2 million people as of 2012. The company still remains a
family-owned business and it is controlled by Walton family owning 48 percent of the company stake. It is
also listed among the most valuable companies of the world. Headquartered in Bentonville, Arkansas,
Wal-Mart also owns and operates the Sams Club retail warehouse in North America. It has around 8,500
stores across 16 countries, operating under different names. It operates in the United States under the
same name, in Mexico as Walmex, in the United Kingdom as Asda, in Japan as Seiyu and in India as Best
Price.

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II.

Carrefour
Country of Origin: France
Countries of Operation: 36
Carrefour SA, the French international hypermarket chain, which is headquartered in Boulogne Billancourt,
France, is at the second position on the Deloittes list of top ten retailers across the globe. The company
claims to be one of the largest hypermarket chains in the world with more than 1,395 hypermarkets by
the end of 2009. It is also the second largest retail group in the world in terms of revenue and third
largest in terms of profit. Founded in 1958, Carrefour SA has operations mainly in Europe, Argentina,
Brazil, China, Colombia, Dominican Republic, United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia. The company also
has retail shops in North Africa and other parts of Asia, with most stores being of smaller size than
hypermarket or even supermarket. In French the term Carrefour means "crossroads." The companys
previous head office was in Levallois-Perret, France.

III.

Metro AG
Country of Origin: Germany
Countries of Operation: 33
The German retail giant, Metro AG (often referred to as Metro Group), was the top ranking company
among the five German retail companies in the Deloittes list of top ten retail companies in the world. This
German company could grab the third position on the list. The company is a German-based global
diversified retailer and wholesale/cash and carry group. The company has the largest market share in its
home market and it is one among the most globalised retail and wholesale corporations in the world. The
company, which was founded in 1964 by Otto Beisheim, employs 283,280 people and it has operations in
various countries across Europe, Asia and Africa. As of the fiscal year 2009, the company could generate
annual revenue of $91 billion. Metro AG provides services like supermarkets, hypermarkets, consumer
electronics and home appliances retail, and department stores.

IV.

Tesco
Country of Origin: United Kingdom
Countries of Operation: 14
The British multi-national grocery and merchandise retailer, Tesco comes at the fourth position on the list
of top ten retailers of the world. Headquartered in Cheshunt, United Kingdom, the company has stores in
14 countries across Asia, Europe and North America. It is the grocery market leader in the U.K., Malaysia,
the Republic of Ireland and Thailand. The company was founded as a group of market stalls in 1919 by
Jack Cohen. Later Cohen purchased a shipment of tea from T E Stockwell and the first Tesco store got
opened in 1929 in Burnt Oak, Middlesex. Then the business got expanded rapidly, and by 1939 he could
open more than 100 Tesco stores across the country. Since then the company has diversified itself into
areas such as the retailing of books, clothing, electronics, furniture, petrol, software etc; and providing
financial services, telecom services and internet services and more.

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V.

Lidl
Country of Origin: Germany
Countries of Operation: 25
Lidl, the German discount supermarket chain that operates over 10,000 stores across Europe, was placed
at the fifth position on the list of top ten retailers in the world. Formerly known as Schwarz Unternehmens
Treuhand KG, the company belongs to the holding company, Schwarz Gruppe. The company got founded
in 1930s by a member of the Schwarz Family. The first of its stores operating under the present name
was started in 1973 and now it has established itself in over 20 countries in Europe. Josef Schwarz
became a partner of a fruit wholesaler and he developed the company into a general food wholesaler. In
the year 1977, the Schwarz Gruppe started to focus on discount markets, larger supermarkets and cash
and carry wholesale markets, inspired by the Aldi concept. Schwarz removed those products that didnt
sell well, and cut the costs by keeping its retail outlets as small as possible. Today it has more than 580
stores throughout U.K.
Ten Best-Selling Products of All Time:

I.

Rubik's Cube
Category: Toy
Units sold/sales: 350 million units
Parent Company: Seven Towns
The Magic Cube is the top best-selling product in the world as of the list. Rubiks Cube is almost a must
have toy in every households having kids, though it is toy that puzzles even adults. It is a three
dimensional mechanical puzzle that got invented in 1974 by the Hungarian sculptor and professor of
architecture Erno Rubik. The puzzle was licensed by Rubik to be sold by Ideal Toy in 1980. The puzzle won
the German Game of the Year special award for Best Puzzle of that year. As of January 2009, 350 million
Magic Cubes had been sold worldwide making it the world's top-selling puzzle game. In the classic
version of the Rubik's Cube, each of the six faces is covered by nine stickers, each of one of six solid
colours (traditionally white, red, blue, orange, green, and yellow) and a specific mechanism enables each
face to turn independently, thus mixing up the colours. For the puzzle to be solved, each face must be
made having all the 9 stickers in one colour. Similar puzzles were produced later with various numbers of
stickers, not all of them by Rubik.

II.

IPhone
Category: Smartphone
Units sold/sales: 250 million units
Parent Company: Apple
The much hailed smartphone from Apple, iPhone is no wonder at the top in the market leaving the
contemporary brands far behind. The iPhone, designed and marketed by Apple, runs iOS mobile operating
system, originally named as iPhone OS. The Late CEO of Apple, Steve Jobs unveiled the first iPhone in
January 2007 and it got released on June 29, 2007. The sixth generation in the iPhone series is the latest
one. The iPhone can work as a camera phone, a portable media player, a video camera and an internet

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client with email and web browsing capabilities; it can also send texts and receive visual as well as voice
mails and has both Wi-Fi and cellular data connectivity. The users can have a multi-touch screen in iPhone
which includes a virtual keyboard rather than a physical one. It can access to App Store which has more
than 500,000 apps as of 2012.
III.

Harry Potter
Category: Book series
Units sold/sales: 450 million units
Parent Company: Scholastic (US publisher)
Harry porter snatching the third rank in the list is a series of fantasy novels written by the British writer J
K Rowling. The books tell the stories of the adventures of a wizard, Harry Potter and his friends Ronald
Weasley and Hermione Granger, who are the students at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry.
Since the release of the first novel in the series, Harry Potter and the Philosophers Stone in June 1997,
the books have gained massive popularity among people of all ages and it also had critical acclaim and
commercial success worldwide. The series got some share of criticism too, especially for having concern
for the dark tone. As of June 2011, the book series has sold about 450 million copies, which made it the
best-selling books series in the history and they were the fastest-selling books also. So far this series has
been translated into 67 languages. The series has also made movies that could trigger similar success in
the box-office.

IV.

Michael Jackson's Thriller

Category: Album
Units sold/sales: 110 million units
Parent Company: Epic Records
The American pop star, Michael Jacksons Thriller is the sixth studio album is the fourth on the list. It was
released in 1982 as a follow-up of Jacksons commercially successful 1979 album Off the Wall by Epic
Records. Thriller too explored the similar genres used in Off the Wall including pop, R&B, rock, post-disco
and adult contemporary music. Recording sessions of the album took place at Westearn Recording Studios
in Los Angeles, California, with a production budget of $750,000. Jackson himself wrote four among the
nine tracks on the album. Seven singles were released from the album, all of which reached the top 10 on
theBillboard Hot 100. "Baby Be Mine" and "The Lady in My Life" were the only tracks that were not
released as singles. In just few years of its release, thriller became the best-selling albums of all time and
still continues to be one with sales estimated between 65 and 110 million copies worldwide till date. The
album won eight Grammy Awards at the 1984 Grammys.

V.

Mario Franchise
Category: Video game franchise
Units sold/sales: 262 million units
Parent Company: Nintendo

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The Mario Franchise, which could grab the fifth position in the list of evergreen best-selling products, is a
media franchise consisting of video games published and produced by Nintendo starring the fictional super
hero, Mario. The franchise is active in other media including television series and films. The master brain
behind Mario was originally Shigeru Miyamoto which was introduced with the video game, Donkey Kong in
July 1981. Then the games were developed by a variety of developers including Nintendo, Hudson Soft
and AlphaDream. The major series of the franchise is the Super Mario platform series that follows Marios
adventures in the fictional world of the Mushroom Kingdom and these games chiefly rely on Marios
jumping ability to allow him to progress through various levels of the game. The franchise was featured in
more than 200 games of various genres, being the best-selling video game franchise of all time.
VI.

Ipad
Category: Tablet
Units sold/sales: 67 million units
Parent Company: Apple
The much accepted product from Apple, iPad is a line of tablet computers, which was designed and
marketed primarily as a platform for audio-vishual media including books, periodicals, movies, music,
games, apps and web content. The size and weight of the tablet fall between those of the contemporary
smartphones and laptop computers. This tablet uses the operating system iOS, the same one used on
Apples iPod Touch and iPhone and it can run its own applications and the iPhone applications. iPad has a
multi-touch display like the iPod Touch and iPhone, which makes it different from most of the previous
tablet computers that generally used a pressure-triggered stylus. Apple is selling iPad with Wi-Fi and
cellular models, in which the Wi-Fi connection is used to access local area network and the internet and
the cellular model is used to connect to mobile data networks with 3G or 4G.

VII.

Star Wars
Category: Movies
Units sold/sales: $4.54 billion in ticket sales
Parent Company: 20th Century Fox
The seventh on the list, Star Wars is an American space opera franchise that consists of film series
created by George Lucas. The film series has been adopted by various other media genres such as books,
television series, computer and video games and comic books. These supplements to the film trilogies
have resulted in significant development of the series and these media kept the franchise active in the
interim between the film trilogies. This movie series portrays a universe which is in a galaxy that existing
far away from our universe. Its Jedi is the representation of good and Sith is that of the evil and their
popular weapon of choice is the lightsaber. The first film in the series was released in 1977 under the title
Star Wars by 20th Century Fox, followed by two sequals, released at three-year intervals and all the three
were box-office hits generating a total revenue of $4.49 billion. The success of these films led the
company to re-release them in the theatres.

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VIII.

Toyota Corolla
Category: Vehicle
Units sold/sales: 39 million cars
Parent Company: Toyota
Toyota Corolla, which achieved the eighth position on the list is one among the line of compact cars
manufactured by the Japanese auto-maker Toyota. It rapidly became popular throughout the world ever
since the nameplate was first introduced in 1966. Beating the Volkwagen Beetle, it became the bestselling nameplate in the world in 1997 and as of 2012, more than 39 million Corollas have been sold. The
company has also considered several design revisions as the car was breaking the sales records.The car
gets the name Corolla as it is the tradition of Toyota to name their primary models using the name
Crown; and the term Corolla means crown in Latin.The early models of Corolla were mostly rear-wheel
drive and the later ones were front-wheel drive. The company has produced some models that were fourwheel drive. One of the major competitor of Toyota Corolla almost from the very beginning has been
Nissan Sunny that was also introduced the same year.

IX.

Lipitor
Category: Pharmaceutical
Units sold/sales: $125 billion revenue
Parent Company: Pfizer
Lipitor, which came ninth on the list of 10 Best-selling Products of All Time compiled by 247wallst.com, is
a trade name of a calcium salt (Atorvastatin) marketed by Pfizer. This drug, which is a member of the
drug class known as statins, is used for lowering the level of LDLthe so called bad cholesterolin the
blood. The drug also stabilizes plaque and prevents strokes through anti-inflammatory and other
mechanisms. It was first synthesized by Bruce Roth of Parke-Davis Warner-Lambert Company (now
Pfizer) in 1985. It is the best-selling drug in the pharmaceutical history and its sales generated revenue of
$125 billion when it got approved for marketing by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in 1996.
Though it was not the first in its class, its ability to reduce cholesterol and significant advertising quickly
propelled it to the top of its class of drugs and it could top the list of best-selling branded pharmaceuticals
in the world for nearly a decade.

X.

PlayStation
Category: Video game console
Units sold/sales: 300-plus million units
Parent Company: Sony
PlayStation that was ranked at the tenth position on the list is a series of video game consoles created
and developed by Sony Computer Entertainment. The brand, which was first introduced in 1994 in Japan,
has dominated the fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth generations of video gaming.

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Top Indian Entrepreneurs:
Azim Premji
Chairman of Wipro Technologies; Richest Indian for the past several years; Honored with Padma Bhushan
in 2005. Azim Premji is Chairman of Wipro Technologies, one of the largest software companies in India.
He is an icon among Indian businessmen and his success story is a source of inspiration to a number of
budding entrepreneurs.
Dhirubhai Ambani
Dhiru Bhai Ambani built India's largest private sector company. Created an equity cult in the Indian capital
market. Reliance is the first Indian company to feature in Forbes 500 list. Dhirubhai Ambani was the most
enterprising Indian entrepreneur. His life journey is reminiscent of the rags to riches story. He is
remembered as the one who rewrote Indian corporate history and built a truly global corporate group.
JRD Tata
He had the honor of being India's first pilot; was Chairman of Tata & Sons for 50 years; launched Air India
International as India's first international airline; received Bharat Ratna in 1992. JRD Tata was one of the
most enterprising Indian entrepreneurs. He was a pioneer aviator and built one of the largest industrial
houses of India.
M.S. Oberoi
Founder of the Oberoi Group of Hotels; Honored with Padma Bhushan in 2001, M.S. Oberoi can be aptly
termed as the father of the Indian hotel industry. Rai Bahadur Mohan Singh Oberoi was among the first to
recognize the potential of the tourism industry, its ability to contribute to India's economic growth and
generate direct and indirect employment. He worked tirelessly to put Indian hotel industry on global
tourism map.
Dr. Monkombu S. Swaminathan
He is an outstanding world statesman and visionary in the agricultural and natural resources arena.
Trained as a plant breeder and cytogeneticist in India, the United Kingdom, and the United States, he is
acclaimed as the "Father of the Green Revolution in Asia." In India they say, "Gandhi gave us freedom,
Swaminathan gave us food." He is the recipient of all three of India's civilian honors: high, higher, and
highest. Dr. Swaminathan's achievements have led to dramatic increases in crop yields.
Narayana Murthy
One of the founders of Infosys Technologies Limited; Chosen as the World Entrepreneur of the Year 2003 by Ernst and Young, Narayana Murthy is the Non-Executive Chairman and Chief Mentor of Infosys
Technologies Limited. He is a living legend and an epitome of the fact that honesty, transparency, and
moral integrity are not at variance with business acumen. He set new standards in corporate governance
and morality when he stepped down as the Executive Chairman of Infosys at the age of 60.
Rahul Bajaj
Rahul Bajaj is the Chairman of the Bajaj Group, which ranks among the top 10 business houses in India.
The Bajaj Group has diversified interests ranging from automobiles, home appliances, lighting, iron and
steel, insurance, travel and finance. Rahul Bajaj is one of India's most distinguished business leaders and
internationally respected for his business acumen and entrepreneurial spirit.

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Sunil Mittal
Chairman and Managing Director of Bharti Group, India's largest GSM-based mobile phone service
provider; IT Man of the Year Award 2002 from Dataquest and CEO Of the Year, 2002 Award from World
HRD Congress. Sunil Mittal can be called as originator of cellular phone revolution in India. He is the
founder, Chairman and Managing Director of Bharti Group and runs India's largest GSM-based mobile
phone service.
Verghese Kurien
Known as the "father of the white revolution" in India; Winner of Ramon Magsaysay Award; Awarded with
Padma Shri (1965), Padma Bhushan (1966), and Padma Vibhushan (1999). Dr. Verghese Kurien is better
known as the "father of the white revolution" in India. He is also called as the Milkman of India. Dr.
Varghese Kurien was the architect behind the success of the largest dairy development program in the
world, christened as Operation Flood. He was the chairman of the Gujarat Co-operative Milk Marketing
Federation Ltd. (GCMMF) and his name was synonymous with the Amul brand.

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WORLD GEOGRAPHY
A.

The Earth and the Universe

I.

Exploring the Universe: The sky is studded with stars the larger ones have been estimated to be many
millions of times the size of the earth. These stars are not scattered regularly in space; they occur in
clusters, better described as galaxies or nebulas. Each galaxy may contain as many as 100 million stars. It
is believed that the earth's own galaxy (the Milky Way) alone contains as many as 100,000 million stars.

II.

Earth : From years of accumulated knowledge, experience and observations in different parts of the
world, we know that the earth is round. Its spherical shape is an established fact, proved, and accepted by
all. It has an equatorial circumference of 24,897 miles and its polar circumference is less by 83 miles. Its
equatorial diameter is 7,926 miles and its polar diameter is shorter by 26 miles. This simply shows that
the earth is not a perfect sphere. It is a little flattened at both ends like an orange. It can, in fact, be
called a geoid.

a.

The Earths Movement: The earth moves in space in two distinct ways: it rotates on its own axis from
west to east once in every 24 hours, causing day and night; it also revolves round the sun in an orbit once in
every 3651/4 days, causing the seasons and the year.

b.

Day and Night: When the earth rotates on its own axis, only one portion of the earth's surface comes
into the rays of the sun and experiences daylight! The other portion which is away from the suns rays will
be in darkness. As the earth rotates from west to east, every part of the earth's surface will be brought
under the sun at some time or other. The sun is, in fact, stationary and it is the earth which rotates.

c.

The Earths Revolution: When the earth revolves round the sun, it spins on an elliptical orbit at a speed
of 18.5 miles per second or 66,600 m.p.h. One complete revolution takes 365 days or a year. As it is not
possible to show a quarter of a day in the calendar, a normal year is taken to be 365 days, and an extra
day is added every four years as a Leap Year.

d.

Varying Lengths of Day and Night: The axis of the earth is inclined to the plane of the ecliptic (the
plane in which the earth orbits round the sun) at an angle of661/2, giving rise to different seasons and
varying lengths of day and night. If the axis were perpendicular to this plane, all parts of the globe would
have equal days and nights at all limes of the year, but we know this is not so. In the northern
hemisphere in winter (December) as we go northwards, the hours of darkness steadily increase. At the
Arctic Circle (661/2 N.). The sun never rises' and there is darkness for the whole day in mid-winter on 22
December. Beyond the Arctic Circle the number of days with complete darkness reach the North Pole (900
N.) when half the year will have darkness. In the summer (June) conditions are exactly reversed.

In

summer the region north of the Arctic Circle is popularly referred to as land of the Mid night Sun. At the
North Pole, there will be six months of continuous daylight.
In the southern hemishphere, the same process takes place, except that the conditions are reversed.
When it is summer in the northern hemisphere, the southern continents will experience winter. Midsummer at the North Pole will be mid-winter at the South Pole.

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The revolution of the earth and its effect on seasons and the variations of lengths of day and night.
e.

Altitude of the Midday Sun: In the course of a year, the earths revolution round the sun with its axis
inclined at 661/2 0 to the plane of the ecliptic changes the apparent altitude of the midday sun. The sun is
vertically overhead at the equator on two days each year. These are usually 21 March and 21 September
changes because a year is not exactly 365 days. These two days are termed equinoxes meaning equal
nights because on these two days all parts of the world have equal days and nights. After the March
equinox the sun appears to move north and is vertically overhead at the Tropic of Cancer (2311/2N.)
on about 21 June. This is known as the June or summer solstice, when the northern hemisphere will
have its longest day and shortest night. By about 22 December, the sun will be overhead at the Tropic
of Capricorn (231/2S.). This is the winter solstice when the southern hemisphere will have its longest
day and shortest night. The Tropics thus mark the limits of the overhead sun, for beyond these, the
sun is never overhead at any time of the year.

f.

Latitude: Latitude is the angular distance of a point on the earth's surface, measured in degrees from
the centre of the earth. It is parallel to a line, the equator, which lies midway between the poles.
These lines are therefore called parallels of latitude, and on a globe are actually circles, becoming
smaller polewards. The equator represents 0 and the North and South Poles are 90N.and 90S. The
most important lines of latitude are the equator, the Tropic of Cancer (231N.), the Tropic of Capricorn
(231S.), the Arctic Circle (661N.) and the Antarctic Circle (661S.). As the earth is slightly flattened
at the poles, the linear distance of a degree of latitude at the pole is a little longer than that, at the
equator.
Longitude: Longitude is an angular distance, measured in degrees along the equator east or west of
the Prime (or First) meridian. On the globe longitude is shown as a series of semi-circles that run from
pole to pole passing through the equator. Such lines are alsi called meridians. It was finally decided in
1884, by international agreement, to choose as the zero meridians the one which passes through the
Royal Astronomical Observatory Greenwich, near London. This is the Prime Meridian (00) from which
all other meridians radiate eastwards and westwards up to 1800. As the parallels of latitude become
shorter polewards, so the meridians of longitude, which converge at the poles, enclose a narrower
space. There is so much difference in the length of degrees of longitude outside the tropics, that they
are not used for calculating distances as in the case of latitude. But they have one fiery important
function; they determine local time in relation to G.M.T. or Greenwich Mean Time, which is sometimes
referred to as World Time.

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B.

The Earths Surface

It is possible to know how the earth was formed about 4,500 million years ago , from the evidence of
volcanic eruptions, earthquake waves, deep- mine operations and crustal borings the following facts
are quite clear. The earth is made up of several concentric layers. The outer layer is the earth's crust
the lithosphere-which comprises two distinct parts. The upper part consists of granitic rocks and forms
the continents. Its main mineral constituents are silica and alumina so it is collectively referred to as
the sial. It has an average density of 2.7. The lower part is a continuous zone of denser basaltic rocks
forming the ocean floors, comprising mainly silica, iron and magnesium. It is therefore called sima and
has an average density of 3.0. The sial and the sima together form the earth's crust which varies in
thickness from only 3-4 miles beneath the oceans to as much as 30 miles under some parts of the
continents. Since the sial is lighter than the sima, the continents can be said to be floating on a sea
of denser sima.

A section showing the structure and composition of the earth.

Immediately beneath the crust or lithosphere is the mantle (or mesosphere) about 1,800 miles thick,
composed mainly of very dense rock rich in olivine. The innermost layer is the core (or barysphere)
2,160 miles in radius, and is made up mainly of iron (Fe) with some nickel and is called nife. The
temperature here is estimated to be as high as 3, 5000 F and the core is subject to extremely high
pressure. Under such conditions, the core could be expected to be in a liquid state.

C.

The Classification of Rocks

The earth's crust is made up of various types of rocks, differing from one another in texture, structure,
colour, permeability, mode of occurrence and degree of resistance to denudation. All rocks may be
classified into three major groups - igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic, according to their origin
and appearance.

I.

Igneous Rocks: Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling and solidification of molten rock (magma)
from beneath the earths crust. They do not occur in strata (layers) nor do they contain fossils. They
contain a greater proportion e.g. of iron, aluminium or magnesium, and are thus denser and darker in
colour.

II.

Sedimentary Rocks: formed from sediment accumulated over long periods, usually under water. They
are distinguished from the other rock types in their characteristic layer formation and are terms
stratified rocks. The strata may vary in thickness from a few inches to many feet. The rocks may be
coarse or fine-grained, soft or hard. The materials that form sedimentary rocks may be brought by

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streams, glaciers, winds or even animals. They are non-crystalline and often contain fossils of animals,
plants and other micro-organisms. Sedimentary rocks are thus the most varied in their formation of all
rocks. Sedimentary rocks may be classified under three major categories in accordance with their
origin and composition.
a.

Mechanically formed sedimentary rocks: These rocks have been formed from the accumulation of
materials derived from other rocks which have been cemented together. Sandstones are probably the
most familiar sedimentary rocks.

b.

Organically formed sedimentary rocks: These rocks are formed from the remains of living
organisms such as corals or shellfish, whose fleshy parts have been decomposed, leaving behind the
hard shells. The most common rocks formed in this way are of the calcareous type. They include
limestones and chalk.

III.

Metamorphic Rocks: All rocks whether igneous or sedimentary may become metamorphic or changed
rocks under great heat and pressure. Their original character and appearance may be greatly altered
by such forces, particularly during intense earth movements. Clay may be metamorphosed into slate,
limestone into marble, sandstone into quartzit. Granite into gneiss, shale into schist and coal into
graphite.

D.

Mountains
Mountains make up a large proportion of the earths surface. Based on their mode of formation, four
main types of mountains can be distinguished.

I.

Fold Mountains: These mountains are by far the most widespread. They are caused by largescaleearth movements, when stresses are set up in the earths crust . Such stresses may be due to the
increased load of the overlying rocks, flow movements in the mantle, magmatic intrusions into the
crust, or the expansion or contraction of some part of the earth. When such stresses are initiated , the
rocks are subjected to compressive forces that produce wrinkling or folding along the lines of
weakness.Folding effectively shortens the earths crust, creating from the original level surface a
serried of waves. The upfolded waves are called anticlines and the troughs or downfolds are
sycnclines.

The horizontal strata of the earths crust before folding

II.

Block Mountains: when the earths crust bends folding occurs, but when it cracks, faulting takes
place. Faulting may be caused by tension or compression, forces which lengthen or shorten the earths
crust, causing a section of it to subside or to rise above the surrounding level. faulting causes horsts
or block mountains and their counterparts graben or rift valleys.
Earth movements generate tensional forces that tend to pull the crust apart and faults are developed.
If the block enclosed by the faults remains as it is or rises, and the land on either side subsides, the

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upstanding block becomes the horst or block mountain. E.g. the Hunsruck Mountains, the Vosges and
Black Forest of the Rhineland. Tension may also cause the central portion to be let down between two
adjacent fault blocks forming a graben or rift valleys. The east African rift east valet system.
III.

Volcanic mountains: These are, in fact, volcanoes which are built up from material ejected from
fissures in the earths crust. The materials include molten lava, volcanic bombs, cinders, ashes, dust
and liquid mud. They fall around the vent in successive layers, building up a characteristic volcanic
cone e.g. Mt. Fuji (Japan) Mt. Agung (Bali) and Mt. Catopaxi (Evuador).

IV.

Residual mountains: These are mountains evolved by denudation Where the general level of the land
has been lowered by the agents of denudation some very resistant areas may remain and these form
residual mountains, e.g. Mt. Manodnock in U.S.A.

E.

Plateau:
Plateaux are elevated uplands with extensive level surfaces, and usually descend steeply to the
surrounding lowland. They are sometimes referred to as tabelands.

I.

Tectonic plateaux: formed by earth movements which cause uplift, and are normally of a
considerable size, and fairly uniform altitude. They include continental blocks like the Deccan Plateau
in India.

When plateaux are enclosed by fold mountains, they are known as intermont plateaux.

Examples are the Tibetan Plateau

II.

Volcanic plateaux: Molten lava may issue from the earth's crust and spread over its surface to form
successive sheets of basaltic lava.

These soldify to form a lava plateau. Some of the better known

volcanic plateaux are the Antrim Plateau of Northern Ireland and the north-western part of the Deccan
Plateau.

F.

Plains:
A plain is an area of lowland, either level or undulating. It seldom rises more than a few hundred feet
above sea level. There may bellow hills which will give a typical rolling topography. The plains usually
form the best land of a country and are often intensive cultivated. Population and settlements are
normally concentrated here, and when plains are traversed by rivers, as most of them are, their
economic importance may be even greater e.g. the Indo Gangetic plain, the Mississippi plain and the
Yang- tze plain. Russian Steppes,American Prairies, Argentinian Pampas. Plains may be grouped into
three major types based on their mode of formation.

I.

Structural plains: These are the structurally depressed areas of the World that make up some of the
most extensive natural lowlands on the earths surface. They are formed by horizontally bedded rocks,
relatively undisturbed by the crustal movements if the earth. Russian Platform, the Great Plains of
U.S.A.

II.

Depositional plains: These are plains formed by the deposition of materials brought by various
agents of transportation. They are comparatively level but rise gently towards adjacent highlands.
Their fertility and economic development depend greatly on the types of sediments that are laid down.

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III.

Erosional plains: These plains are carved by the agents of erosion. Rain, rivers, ice and wind help to
smooth out the irregularities of the earth's surface, and in terms of millions of years, even high
.mountains can be reduced to low undulating plains. Such plains of denudation are described as
peneplains a word meaning 'almost-plains'.
Rivers, in their course from source to sea, deepen their valleys and widen their banks. The projecting
spurs are cut back so that the level ground bordering the river is constantly widened.

G.

Vulcanism
Vulcanic activities have a profound influence on the earth's landforms. Solid, liquid or gaseous
materials may find their way to the surface from some deep-seated reservoir beneath. Molten magma
is mobile rock that forces its way into the planes of weakness of the crust to escape quietly or
explosively to the surface. Magma while thrusting its way up to the surface may cool and solidify
within the crust as plutonic rocks resulting in intrusive landforms. Magmas that reach the surface and
solidify form extrusive landforms. Rocks formed by either plutonic or volcanic activity are called
igneous rocks.

I.

Landforms of Igneous Intrusions: the commonest intrusive landforms are sills and dykes. When an
intrusion of molten magma is made horizontally along the bedding planes of sedimentary rocks, the
resultant intrusion is called a sill. Great Whin Sill of N.E. England. Similar intrusions when injected
vertically as narrow walls of igneous rocks within the sedimentary layers are termed as dykes.
Examples of dykes are the Cleveland Dyke of Yorkshire, England and hundreds of others in the Isles of
Mull and Arran in Scotland. Igneous intrusions on a larger scale are the various types of ' liths':
laccoliths, lopoliths, phacoliths and batholiths. A laccolith is a large blister or igneous mound with a
dome-shaped upper surface and a level base fed by a pipe-like conduit from below. e.g. the laccoliths
of the Henry Mountains, in Utah U.S.A.
A lopolith is another variety of igneous intrusion with a saucer shape. A shallow basin is formed in the
midst of the country rocks.
A phacolith is a lens-shaped mass of igneous rocks occupying the crest of an anticline or the bottom of
a syncline and being fed by a conduit from beneath.
A batholith is a huge mass of igneous rocks, usually granite, which after removal of the overlying rocks
forms a massive and resistant upland region such as the Wicklow Mountains of Ireland,

II.

The Origin of Volcanoes: Geologists and vulcanologists have ascertained that volcanic activity is
closely connected with crustal disturbances, particularly where there are zones of weakness due to
deep faulting or mountain folding. As temperature increases with increasing depth below the earth's
crust, at an average rate of about 10F. for every 65 feet of descent, the interior of the earth can be
expected to be in a semi-molten state, comprising solid, liquid and gaseous materials, collectively
termed magma.
The magma is heavily charged with gases such as carbon dioxide, sulphurated hydrogen, and small
proportions of nitrogen, chlorine and other volatile substances.

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a.

Acid lavas: These lavas are highly viscous with a high melting point. They are light-coloured, of low
density, and have a high percentage of silica. They flow slowly and seldom travel far before solidifying.
The resultant cone is therefore steep-sided.

b.

Types of Volcanoes: There are three types of volcanoes: active, dormant and extinct. Volcanoes are
said to be active when they frequently erupt or at least when they have erupted within recent time.
Those that have been known to erupt and show signs of possible eruption in the future are described
as dormant. Volcanoes that have not erupted at all in historic times but retain the features of
volcanoes are termed extinct. All volcanoes pass through active, dormant and extinct stages but we
can never be thoroughly sure when they are extinct.

c.

Extrusive Landforms made by volcanos: These are the features that are formed when the magma
comes out of the crustal surface. Volcanic cones are most typical of the extrusive features. The highly
fluid lavas build up lava domes or shield volcanoes with gently rising slopes and broad, flattened tops.
The less fluid lavas that explode more violently form ash and cinder cones with large central craters
and steep slopes. They are typical of small volcanoes, occurring in groups and seldom exceeding 1,000
feet in height, such as Mt. Nuovo, near Naples and Mt. Paricutin in Mexico. A volcanic region may be
strewn with solid materials that were hurled from the vent of the volcano. The very fine particles are
the volcanic dust which may be shot so high into the sky that it travels round the world several times
before it eventually comes to rest. The dust or ash falls as 'black snow' and can bury houses and
people. The coarser fragmental rocks are collectively called pyroclasts and include cinders or lapilli,
scoria, pumice and volcanic bombs. During an eruption material from the top of the cone is blown off
or collapses into the vent widening the orifice into a large crater. Some volcanoes may have greatly
enlarged depressions called calderas.' which may be several miles across. Water may collect in the
crater or the caldera forming crater or caldora lakes, e.g. Lake Toba in Sumatra.

d.

The Distribution of Volcanoes in the World: There are well over 500 active volcanoes and thousands
of dormant and extinct ones. They occur along coastal mountain ranges, as off-shore islands and in
the midst of oceans, but there are few in the interiors of continents. The greatest concentration is
probably that in the Circum-Pacific region, popularly termed the 'Pacific Ring of Fire', which has been
estimated to include two-thirds of the world's volcanoes . The chain of volcanoes extends for almost
2,000 miles from the Aleutian Islands into Kamchatka, Japan, the Philippines, and Indonesia (Java and
Sumatra in particular), southwards into the right up to Alaska.
The Atlantic coasts have comparatively few active volcanoes but many dormant or extinct volcanoes,
e.g. Madeira, Ascension, St. Helena, Cape Verde Islands and Canary Islands, but those of Iceland and
the Azores are active. Volcanoes of the Mediterranean region are mainly associated with the Alpine
folds, e.g. Vesuvius, Etna, Stromboli, Vulcano. In Africa some volcanoes are found along the East,
African Rift Valley, e.g. Mt. Kilimanjaro and Mt. Kenya, both probably extinct.

H.

Earthquakes: Minor earth remors caused by gentle waves of vibration within the earth's crust occur
every few minutes. Major earthquakes, usually caused by movement along

faults, can be very

disastrous particularly in densely populated areas. Earthquakes themselves may cause only restricted
m damage in the regions of occurrence, but their after-effects can be very catastrophic.e.g. tsunamis,
Fires break out Roads, railways and bridges are buckled and twisted; landslides are widespread

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The Distribution of Earthquakes : The world's distribution of earthquakes coincides very closely with
that of volcanoes. Regions of greatest seismicity are Circum-Pacific areas, with the epicentres and the
most frequent occurrences along the 'Pacific Ring of Fire'. It is said that as many as 70 per cent of
earthquakes occur in the Circum-Pacific belt. Another 20 per cent of earth-quakes take place in the
Mediterranean-Himalayan belt including Asia Minor, the Himalayas and parts of north-west China.
Elsewhere, the earth's crust is relatively stable and is less prone to earthquakes, though nowhere can
be said to be immune to earth tremors.

I.

Weathering, Mass Movement and Groundwater

The earth's crust is constantly undergoing geological changes caused by internal forces, which create
new relief features. Orogenesis build new mountain ranges, uplift or depression of particular areas is
caused by folding or faulting, and volcanic disturbances also modify the landscape. Meanwhile external
forces are working vigorously to wear away the surface, and the interaction of these constructive and
destructive forces gives rise to the great diversity of present-day landforms. The process of wearing
away the earth causes a general lowering and levelling out of the surface. It is known as denudation
and is carried out in four phases.
i. Weathering: the gradual disintegration of rocks by atmospheric or weather forces;
ii. Erosion: the active wearing away of the earth's surface by moving agents like running water,wind,
ice and waves;
iii. Transportation: the removal of the eroded debris to new positions;
iv. Deposition: the dumping of the debris in certain parts of the earth, where it may accumulate to
form new rocks.

I.

Weathering
The work of weathering in breaking up the rocks is of two kinds, namely chemical, and physical or
mechanical weathering.

a.

Chemical Weathering: is the basic process by which denudation proceeds. It is the extremely slow
and gradual decomposition of rocks due to exposure to air and water. Air and water contain chemical
elements, which though they may be in small quantities, are sufficient to set up chemical reactions in
the surface layers of exposed rocks. Such reactions may weaken or entirely dissolve certain
constituents of the rock, thus loosening the other crystals and weakening the whole surface. When the
surface of a rock is weathered some of the material which is loosened is removed by erosive agents
such as wind or running water thus exposing a fresh surface to weathering.

b.

Physical or Mechanical weathering: Mechanical weathering is the physical disintegration of a rock by

the actual prising apart of separate particles. Mechanical weathering takes place in several ways.

II.

a.

Repeated temperature changes

b.

Repeated wetting and drying

c.

Frost actions

d.

Biotic factors

Groundwater: When rain falls on the earth it is distributed in various ways. Some is immediately
evaporated and thus returns to the atmosphere as water vapour. Some is absorbed by plants and only

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gradually returned to the atmosphere by transpiration from the leaves of plants. Much of it flows
directly off slopes to join streams and rivers, eventually reaching the seas and occeans. This is known
as run-off .A considerable proportion of the water received from rain or snow, however, percolates
downwards into the soil and rocks, filling up joints and pore-spaces and forming what is known as
groundwater.
The amount of water available to form groundwater depends to some extent on climate In dry climates
much precipitation may be quickly evaporated into the dry atmosphere and little moisture may
percolate into the ground. In very humid conditions, where the surface of the ground may already be
moist, much water may be moved as run-off. In moderately humid areas water both runs off and sinks
into the ground.

J.

Landforms made by Running Water

Denudation takes place because agents of erosion as rivers, ice, wind and waves wear away the rocks
and transport the eroded debris to lower land or right down to the sea. But erosion cannot take place
unless the rocks are first weakened or shattered by exposure to the elements. Rain, frost and wind
weather the rocks so that they can be eroded more easily.
The source of a river may be a spring, a lake or a marsh, but it is generally in an upland region, where
precipitation is heaviest and where there is a slope down which the run-off can flow. The uplands
therefore form the catchment areas of rivers. The crest of the mountains is the divide or watershed
from which streams flow down the slopes on both sides to begin their journey to the oceans. The initial
stream that exists as a consequence of the slope is called the consequent stream. As the consequent
stream wears down the surface by deepening its channel downwards, it is joined by several tributaries
either obliquely or at right angles depending on the alignment and the degree of resistance of the
rocks.

I.

River Erosion and Transportation: In rivers, erosion and transportation go on simultaneously,

comprising the following inter-acting processes.

a.

Corrasion or abrasion : This is the mechanical grinding of the river's traction load against the banks
and bed of the river. The rock fragments are hurled against the sides of the river and also roll along
the bottom of the river. Corrasion takes place, in two distinct ways.
Lateral corrosion: This is the sideways erosion which widens the V-shaped valley.
Vertical corrosion: This is the downward action which deepens the river channel.

b.

Corrosion or solution. This is the chemical or solvent action of water on soluble or partly-soluble
rocks with which the river comes into contact. For example calcium carbonate in limestones is easily
dissolved and removed in solution.

c.

Hydraulic action: This is the mechanical loosening and sweeping away of materials by the river water
itself Some of the water splashes against the river banks and surges into cracks and crevices. This
helps to disintegrate the rocks. The water also undermines the softer rocks with which it comes into
contact. It picks up the loose fragments from its banks and bed and transports them away.

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d.

Attrition: This is the wear and tear of the transported materials themselves when they roll and collide
into one another. The coarser boulders are broken down into smaller stones; the angular edges are
smoothed and rounded to form pebbles. The finer materials are carried further down-stream to be
deposited.

III.

The Course of a River

The course of a river may be divided into three distinct parts. 1.The upper or mountain course. 2. The
middle or valley course. 3. The lower or plain course

a.

The upper or mountain course : This begins at the source of the river near the watershed, which is
probably the crest of a mountain range. The river is very swift as it descends the steep slopes, and the
predominant action of the river is vertical corrasion. The valley developed is thus deep, narrow and
distinctively V-shaped. Down-cutting takes place so rapidly that lateral corrasion cannot keep pace. In
some cases where the rocks are very resistant, the valley is so narrow and the sides are so steep that
gorges are formed. . In arid regions, where there is little rainfall to widen the valley sides, and the
river cuts deep into the valley-floor, precipitous valleys called canyons are formed.
Some of the more outstanding features
Rapids, cataracts and waterfalls: Due to the unequal resistance of hard and soft rocks traversed by
a river, the outcrop of a band of hard rock may cause a river to 'jump' or 'fall' downstream. Rapids are
formed Similar falls of greater dimensions are also referred to as cataracts, of When rivers plunge
down in a sudden fall of some height, they are called waterfalls . Their great force usually wears out a
plunge-pool beneath.

b.

The Middle or Valley Course: In the middle course, lateral corrasion tends to replace vertical corrasion.
Active erosion of the banks widens the V-shaped valley. The volume of water increases with the
confluence of many tributaries and this increases the river's load. The work of the river is predominantly
transportation with some deposition Rain-wash, soil creep, landslides and gullying gradually widen the
valley, cutting back the sides. The river's task of valley-cutting, bed-smoothing and debris-removal are
being carried out in a more tranquil manner than in the mountain course though the velocity does not
decrease. The more outstanding features associated with the valley course are these: Meanders,
Interlocking spurs, etc.

c.

The Lower or Plain Course : The river moving downstream across a broad, level plain is heavy with
debris brought down from the upper course. Vertical corrasion has almost ceased though lateral
corrasion still goes on to erode its banks further. The work of the river is mainly deposition, building
up its bed and forming extensive flood plains. The volume of water is greatly swelled by the additional
tributaries that join the main stream. Coarse materials are dropped and the finer silt is carried down
towards the mouth of the river. Features formed in this stage are : Flood Plains, Ox-Bow Lakes,
Deltas, etc.

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K.

Landforms of glaciations
From the central dome of the ice cap the ice creeps out in all directions to escape as glaciers. The
peaks of the loftier mountains project above the surface as nunataks. When the ice sheets reach right
down to the sea they often extend outwards into the polar waters and float as ice shelves.
The following are landforms assosciated with glaciers.

I.

Landforms of Highland Glaciation : Glaciation generally gives rise to crosional features in the
highlands and depositional features on the lowlands, though these processes are not mutually
exclusive because a glacier plays a combined role of erosion, transportation and deposition throughout
its course. A glacier erodes its valley by two processes plucking and abrasion. By plucking the glacier
freezes the joints and beds of the underlying rocks, tears out individual blocks and drags them away.
By abrasion, the glacier scratches, scrapes, polishes and scours the valley floor with the debris frozen
into it.
The characteristic features of a glaciated highland are as follows.

a.

Corrie, cirque or cwm. The downslope movement of a glacier from its snow-covered valley-head, and
the intensive shattering of the upland slopes, tend to produce a depression where the firn or neve
accumulates. The process of plucking operates on the back-wall, steepening it and the movement of
the ice abrades the floor, deepening the depression into i a steep, horse-shoe-shaped basin called a
cirque.]

b.

Aretes and pyramidal peaks : When two corries cut back on opposite sides of a mountain, knife-edged
ridges are formed called artes. Where three or more cirques cut back together, their ultimate recession
will form an angular horn or pyramidal peak.

c.

Bergschrund : At the head of a glacier, where it begins to leave the snowfield of a corrie, a deep vertical
crack opens up called a bergschrund or rimaye (in French). This happens in summer when, although the
ice continues to move out of the corrie, there is no new snow to replace it.

d.

U-shaped glacial trough : The glacier on its downward journey, fed by ice from several corries like
tributaries that join a river, begins to wear away the sides and floor of the valley down which it moves. It
scratches and grinds the bedrock, removing any rock debris and surface soil. It tends to straighten any
protruding spurs on its course. The interlocking spurs are thus blunted to form truncated spurs and the
floor of the valley is deepened. A valley which has been glaciated takes a characteristic U-shape, with a
wide, flat floor and very steep sides.

II.

Landforms of Glaciated Lowlands: Landforms of glaciated lowlands are mainly depositional in

nature, brought about by both valley glaciers and continental ice sheets. The former leaves behind the
eroded materials in only restricted areas. Most of the glaciated lowlands have depositional features,
but where rock masses project above the level surface, they result in striking features of erosio such
as the roche moutonnee and crag and tail

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a.

Roche Mountonnee : This is a resistant residual rock

hummock. The surface is striated by ice

movement. Its upstream side is smoothed by abrasion and its downstream side is roughened by
plucking and is much steeper.
b.

Crag and Tail : The crag is a mass of hard rock with a precipitous slope on the upstream side,
which protects the softer leeward slope from being completely worn down by the on-coming ice. It
therefore has a gentle tail, strewn with the eroded rock debris.

L.

ARID
Almost all the deserts are confined within the 150 to 300 parallels of latitude north and south of the
equator. They lie in the trade wind belt on the western parts of the continents where Trade Winds are
off-shore. They are bathed by cold currents which produce a 'desiccating effect' so that moisture is not
easily condensed into precipitation. In the continental interiors of the mid-latitudes, the deserts such
as the Gobi and Turkestan are characterised by extremes of temperatures.

I.
a.

The Five distinct kinds of desert landscape are as follows

Hamada or rocky desert: This consists of large stretches of bare rocks, swept clear of sand and dust
by the wind. The exposed rocks are thoroughly smoothed and polished. The region is bare and sterile.
The best known rocky deserts are those of the Sahara Desert.

b.

Reg or stony desert: This is composed of extensive sheets of angular pebbles and gravels which the
winds are not able to blow off. Such stony deserts are much more accessible than the sandy deserts.

c.

Erg or sandy desert : This is a sea of sand which typifies the popular idea of desert scenery.
Windsdeposit vast stretches of undulating sand-dunes in the heart of the deserts. The intricate patterns of
ripples on the dune surfaces indicate the direction of the winds.

d.

Badlands : where the hills are badly eroded by occasional rain-storms into gullies and ravines. The extent
of water action on hill slopes and rock surfaces was so great that the entire region is abandoned by the
inhabitants.

II.

The Mechanism of Arid Erosion : Insufficient rainfall (often less than 5 inches) coming at most irregular
periods, coupled with very high temperatures and a rapid rate of evaporation, are the chief causes of
aridity. Sub-aerial denudation through the processes of weathering, wind action and the work of water
have combined to produce a desert landscape that is varied and distinctive.

a.

Weathering: This is the most potent factor of reducing rocks to sand in arid regions. Even though the
amount of rain that falls in the desert is small some manage to penetrate into the rocks and sets up
chemical reactions in the various minerals. Intense heating during the day and rapid cooling at night by
radiation, set up stresses in the already weakend rocks so that they eventually crack.

b.

Action of winds in deserts: The wind though not the most effective agent of erosion, transportation am
deposition, is more efficient in arid than in humid regions. Since there is little vegetation or moisture to
bind the loose surface materials, the effects of wind erosion are almost unrestrained.

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III.

Landforms of Wind Erosion in Deserts

a.

Mushroom Rocks: The sand blasting effect of winds against any projecting rock masses wears back the
softer layers so that an irregular edge is formed on the alternate bands of hard and soft rocks. Grooves
and hollows are cut in the rock surfaces, carving them into fantastic and grotesque-looking pillars called
rock pedestals . Such rock pillars will be further eroded near their bases where the friction is greatest.
This process of undercutting produces rocks of mushroom shape called mushroom rocks.

b.

Zeugen : These are tabular masses which have a layer of soft rocks lying beneath a surface layer of more
resistant rocks. Mechanical weathering initiates their formation by opening up joints of the surface rocks.
Wind abrasion further 'eats' into the underlying softer layer so that deep furrows are developed. The hard
rocks then stand above the furrows as ridges or zeugen , and many even overhang.

c.

Yardangs : Quite similar to the 'ridge and furrow' landscape of zeugen are the steep-sided yardangs.
Instead of lying in horizontal strata upon one another, the hard and soft rocks of yardangs are vertical
bands and are aligned in the direction of the prevailing winds. Wind abrasion excavates the bands of
softer rocks into long, narrow corridors, separating the steep-sided over-hanging ridges of hard rocks,
called yardangs.

IV.

Landforms of Wind Deposition in Deserts: The following are some of the major features of wind
deposition.

a.

Dunes: Dunes are, in fact, hills of sand formed by the accumulation of sand and shaped by the movement
of winds. They may be active or live dunes, constantly on the move, or inactive fixed dunes, rooted with
vegetation. Dunes are most well represented in the erg desert where a sea of sand is being continuously
moved, reshaped and re-deposited into a variety of features. the following are two types of common
dunes, barchans and seifs, will be described in more detail.

b.

Barchan : These are crescentic or moon-shaped dunes which occur individually or in groups. They are
live dunes which advance steadily before winds that come from a particular prevailing direction. Barchans
are initiated probably by a chance accumulation of sand at an obstacle, such as a patch of grass or a heap
of rocks. They occur transversely to the wind, so that their horns thin out and become lower in the
direction of the wind due to the reduced

frictional

retardation

of the

winds around the edges. The

windward side is convex and gently-sloping while the leeward side, being sheltered, is concave and steep

M.

Limestone and Chalk landform

Limestone and chalk are sedimentary rocks of organic origin derived from the accumulation of corals and
shells in the sea. In its pure state, limestone is made up of calcite or calcium carbonate, but where
magnesium is also present it is termed dolomite. Chalk is a very pure form of limestone, white, and rather
soft. Limestone is soluble in rain-water, which, with carbon dioxide from the air, forms a weak acid. A
region with a large stretch of limestone therefore possesses a very distinct type of topography. It is then
termed a karst region.
Characteristic Features of a Karst Region : There is a general absence of surface drainage as most of
the surface water has gone underground. Streams rising on other rocks only flow over limestone for a
short distance and then disappear underground. For the greater part of their course, they cut their way
along the joints and fissures of the rock wearing out a system of underground channels.

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Limestones are well jointed and it is through these joints and cracks that rain-water finds its way into the
underlying rock. Progressive widening by solution enlarges these cracks into trenches and a most
intriguing feature called limestone pavement is developed. The enlarged joints are called grikes and the
isolated, rectangular blocks are termed clints.
On the surface of the limestone are numerous swallow holes, which are small depressions carved out by
solution where rain-water sinks into the limestone at a point of weakness. They are also known as sink
holes. Gaping Ghyll in Yorkshire.
Where a number of swallow holes coalesce a larger hollow is formed and is called a doline . Several dolina
may merge as a result of subsidence to form a larger depression called an uvala.
Where subterranean streams descend through swallow holes to underground passages, the region may be
honeycombed with caves and caverns, some containing ponds and lakes. The most spectacular
underground features that adorn the limestone caves are stalactites, stalagmites and pillars. Stalactites

N.

Coastal Landforms
The coastline, under the constant action of the waves, tides and currents, is undergoing changes from day
to day. On calm days, when winds are slight, waves do little damage to the shoreline and may instead
help to build up beaches and other depositional features. It is in storms that the ravages of the waves
reach their greatest magnitude.
The most powerful agents of marine erosion waves. Their origin is due to the sweeping of winds over the
water surface, which sets a series of undulating swells surging forward.

I.

Coastal Features of Erosion

a.

Capes and bays: On exposed coasts, the continual action of waves on rocks of varying resistance causes
the coastline to be eroded irregularly. This is particularly pronounced where hard rocks, e.g. granites and
limestones, occur in alternate bands with softer rocks e.g. sand and clay. The softer rocks are worn back
into inlets, coves or bays and the harder ones persist as headlands, promontories or capes e.g. Penang
Island, made of granite, has many bays and headlands.

b.

Cliffs and wave-cut platforms: Generally any very steep rock face adjoining the coast forms a cliff. The
rate of recession will depend on its geological structure that is the stratification and jointing of the rocks
and their resistance to wave attack.
At the base of the cliff the sea cuts a notch, which gradually undermines the cliff so that it collapses As a
cliff recedes landwards under the pounding of waves, an eroded base is left behind, called a wave ait
platform. The platform, the upper part of which is exposed at low tide, slopes gently seawards and its
surface is strewn with rock debris from the receding cliff.

c.

Cave, arch, stack and stump: Prolonged wave attack on the base of a cliff excavates holes in regions of
local weakness called caves e.g. at Flamborough Head, England. When two caves approach one another
from either side of a headland and unite, they form an arch, e.g. the Neddie Eye near Wick, Scotland.
Further erosion by waves will ultimately lead to the total collapse of the arch. The seaward portion of the
headland will remain as a pillar of rock known as a stack. In the course of time, these 'stubborn' stacks
will gradually be removed. The vertical rock pillars are eroded, leaving behind only the stumps which are
only just visible above the sea level,

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II.

Coastal Features of Deposition

a.

Beaches: Sands and gravels loosened from the land are moved by waves to be deposited along the shore
as beaches. The eroded material is transported along the shore in several distinct ways. The longshore
drift which comes obliquely to the coast carries the material along the shore in the direction of the
dominant wind (Fig. 81). At the same time, the backwash removes part of the material seawards along
the bed of the sea, and deposits it on the off-shore terrace and even beyond.
The coarser materials (cobbles and boulders) are dropped by the waves at the top of the beach. The finer
materials (pebbles and sand grains) which are carried down the beach by the backwash are dropped
closer to the sea.

b.

Spits and bars: The debris eroded by waves is continually moved by longshore drift and where there is
an indentation in the coast, such as the mouth of a river or a bay, material may continue to be deposited
across the inlet. As more materials are added, they will pile up into a ridge or embankment of shingle
forming a tongue or spit, with one end attached to the land and the other end projecting into the sea.
When the ridge of shingle is formed across the mouth of a river or the entrance to a bay, it is called a bar.

Development of spit

O.

OCEANOGRAPHY
The oceans, comprising more than 70 per cent or 140 million square miles of the earth's surface, have
tremendous potential waiting to be developed. Besides being a source of foodfish, mammals, reptiles,
salt and other marine foodstuffsthe tides can be harnessed to provide power

I.

The Relief of the Ocean

The ocean basins are in many ways similar to the land surface. There are submarine ridges, plateaux,
canyons, plains and trenches.
a.

The continental shelf: This is, the seaward extension of the continent from the shoreline to the
continental edge marked, approximately, by the 100 fathom (600 feet) isobaths. In some places where
the coasts are extremely mountainous, such as the Rocky Mountain and Andean coasts, the continental
shelf may be entirely absent. The angle of the slope is also variable, and is normally least where the
continental shelf is widest.
Many regard the continental shelf as part of the continent submerged due to a rise in sea level. Some
smaller continental shelves could have been caused by wave erosion where the land is being eroded by
the sea. Conversely such shelves might have been formed by the deposition of land-derived or riverborne materials on the off-shore terrace

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Their shallowness enables sunlight to penetrate through the water, which encourages the growth of
minute plants and other microscopic organisms. They are thus rich in plankton on which millions of
surface and bottom-feeding fishes thrive. The continental shelves are therefore the richest fishing grounds
in the world, e.g. the Grand Banks off Newfoundland, the North Sea and the Sunda Shelf.
b.

The continental slope: At the edge of the continental shelf, there is an abrupt change of gradient to
about 1 in 20, forming the continental slope.

c.

The deep-sea plain: This is the undulating plain lying two to three miles below sea level, and covering
two-thirds of the ocean floor, generally termed the abyssal plain. It was once thought to be featureless,
but modern sounding devices reveal that the abyssal plain is far from being level. It has extensive
submarine plateaux, ridges, trenches, basins, and oceanic islands that rise above sea level in the midst of
oceans, e.g. the Azores, Ascension Island.

d.

The ocean deeps: These are the long, narrow trenches that plunge as great ocean deeps to a depth of
5,000 fathoms or 30,000 feet, most of the deepest trenches are not located in the midst of oceans. They
are more often found close to the continents, particularly in the Pacific Ocean, where several deep
trenches have been sounded. The greatest known ocean deep is the Marian Trench near Guam Island,
which is more than 36,000 feet deep.

II.

Salinity of the Ocean

All sea water contains large amounts of dissolved mineral matter of which sodium chloride or common salt
alone constitutes more than 77 per cent. The other more important compounds include magnesium,
calcium and potassium, while the rest are distinguishable only in traces of very minute quantities the
degree of concentration of the salt solution in oceans does vary appreciably in different areas. This is
expressed as salinity, the degree of saltness of water, either as a percentage or more often in parts per
thousand. Variations are shown in salinity distribution maps by isohalines, lines joining places having an
equal degree of salinity the average salinity of the oceans is 35.2 %, about 35 parts of salt in 1,000 parts
of water. In the Baltic Sea, where there is much dilution by fresh water and melting ice, the salinity is
much lower, only about- 7 % In the Red Sea where there is much surface evaporation and fewer rivers to
bring in fresh water, the average salinity increases to 39 %. In enclosed seas, which are areas of inland
drainage, such as the Caspian Sea, the salinity is very high, 180 %, and in the Dead Sea of Palestine, a
salinity of 250 % has been recorded. The highest salinity is perhaps, that of Lake Van, in Asia Minor, with
330 %.

III.

The Temperature of Ocean Water

Since water warms up and cools down much more slowly than the land, the annual range of temperature
in any part of the ocean is very much smaller. It is less than 10F. for most of the open seas. Generally,
the mean annual temperature o: the surface ocean water decreases from about 70F in equatorial areas
to 55F. at latitudes 45N. and S., and drops almost to freezing-point at the poles.
The highest water temperatures are found in-enclosed seas in the tropics, e.g. the Red Sea which records
a temperature of 85 to 100F. The Arctic and Antarctic waters are so cold that their surface is
permanently frozen as pack-ice down to a depth of several feet.

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The temperature of the oceans also varies vertically with increasing depth. It decreases rapidly for the
first 200 fathoms, at the rate of 1F. for every 10 fathoms, and then more slowly until a depth of 500
fathoms is reached. Beyond this, the drop is scarcely noticeable, less than 1F. for every 100 fathoms. In
the ocean deeps below 2,000 fathoms 7 (12,000 feet), the water is uniformly cold, just a little above
freezing-point. It is interesting to note that even in the deepest ocean trenches, more than 6 miles below
the surface, the water never freezes. It is estimated that over 80 per cent of all ocean waters have a
temperature between 35 and 40F.

P.

CLIMATOLOGY
The atmosphere is made up of gases and vapour, and receives incoming solar energy from the sun giving
rise to what we call climate. We actually live at the bottom of this indefinite layer of atmosphere where
the air is densest. Higher up, the air thins out and it is still a matter of conjecture where the atmosphere
ends. The lowest layer, in which the weather is confined, is known as the troposphere. It extends from the
earth's surface for a height of 6 miles, and within it temperature normally falls with increasing altitude.
The climatic elements such as temperature, precipitation, clouds, pressure and humidity within the
troposphere account for the great variations in local climate and weather that play such a great part in our
daily lives. the lower part of the atmosphere contains a consistent proportion of certain gases: 78 per cent
of nitrogen, 21 per cent of oxygen, 0.03 per cent of carbon dioxide and minute traces of argon, helium
and other rare gases. It is also because of the variable water content of the atmosphere that we have
such great contrasts in weather and climate over different parts of the world.
Above the troposphere lies the stratosphere or the upper layer of the atmosphere. It extends upwards for
another 50 miles or even more. It is not only very cold, but cloudless, with extremely thin air and without
dust, smoke or water vapour but there are marked seasonal temperature changes. Beyond the
stratosphere is the ionosphere which goes several hundred miles up. It has electrically conducting layers
which make short-wave radio transmission possible over long distances.

I.

Insolation: The only source of energy for the earth's atmosphere comes from the sun which has a
surface temperature of more than 10,800F. This energy travels through space for a distance of 93 million
miles and reaches us as solar energy or radiant energy in the process called insolation. This radiation from
the sun is made up of three parts, the visible 'white' light that we see when the sun shines and the less
visible ultra-violet and infra-red rays.

II.

Factors affecting climate:

Temperature
The Importance of Temperature
1. Temperature influences the actual amount of water vapour present in the air and thus decides the
moisture-carrying capacity of the air.
2. It decides the rate of evaporation and condensation, and therefore governs the degree of stability of
the atmosphere.

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III.

Factors Influencing Temperature

a.

Latitude

b.

Altitude

c.

Continentally

d.

Ocean currents and winds

e.

Slope, shelter and aspect

IV.

Precipitation
Types of Precipitation: If air is sufficiently cooled below dew-point, liny drops of water vapour will
condense around dust particles. When they float about as masses of minute water droplets or ice crystals
at a considerable height above sea level, they form clouds cirrus, cumulus or stratus. When condensation
occurs at ground level without necessarily resulting in rain, haze, mist or fog are formed. In higher
latitudes or altitudes, where condensation of water vapour may take place in the atmosphere at
temperatures below freezing-point, snow falls, either as feathery flakes or individual ice crystals. If the
moist air ascends rapidly to the cooler layers of the atmosphere, the water droplets freeze into ice pellets
and fall to the earth as hail or hailstones. Very often, the ice-pellets exist as frozen rain-drops, melting
and re-freezing on their way down; this forms sleet. It is only when the droplets in clouds coalesce into
larger drops between 0.2 mm. and 6 mm., that rainfalls.

V.

Rainfall
Types of Rainfall: There are three major types of rainfall

a.

Convectional rainfall: This type of rainfall is most common in regions that are intensely heated, either
during the day, as in the tropics, or in the summer as in temperate interiors. When the earth's surface is
heated by conduction, moisture-laden vapour rises because heated air always expands, and becomes
lighter. Air rises in a convection current after prolonged period of intense heating . ascending, its water
vapour condenses into cumu-lonimbus clouds with a great vertical extent. This probably reaches its
maximum in the afternoon when the convectional system is well developed. Hot, rising air has great
capacity for holding moisture, which is abundant in regions of high relative humidity As the air rises it

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cools and when saturation point is reached torrential downpours occur, often accompanied by thunder and
lightning.
b.

Orographic or relief rain: orographic rain is formed wherever moist air is forced to ascend a mountain
barrier. It is best developed on the windward slopes of mountains where the prevailing moisture-laden
winds come from the sea. The air is compelled to rise , and is thereby cooled by expansion in the higher
altitudes and the subsequent decrease in atmospheric pressure Further ascent cools the air until the air is
completely saturated (relative humidity is 100 per cent). Condensation takes place forming clouds and
eventually rain.
On descending the leeward slope, a decrease in altitude increases both the pressure and the temperature,
the air is compressed and warmed. Consequently, the relative humidity will drop. There is evaporation and
little or no precipitation. The area in the lee of the hills is termed the rain shadow area.

c.

Cyclonic or frontal rain : This type of rainfall is independent of relief or convection. It is purely
associated with cyclonic activity whether in the temperate regions (depressions) or tropical regions
(cyclones). Basically it is due to the convergence (meeting) of two different air masses with different
temperatures and other physical properties. As cold air is denser, it tends to remain close to the ground.
The warm air is lighter and tends to rise over the cold air . In ascent, pressure decreases, the air expands
and cools, condensation takes place and light showers called cyclonic or frontal rain occur. The heavier
and colder air masses eventually pushes up the warmer and lighter air and the sky is clear again.

VI.

Pressure and Planetary Winds

a.

World pressure belts : Along the equator and within 5 degrees north and south, is the Equatorial Low
Pressure Belt, where there is intense heating, with expanding air and ascending convection currents. This
equatorial belt is often termed the Doldrums, because sailors in the olden days often found themselves
becalmed here. It is a zone of wind convergence.
About 30N. and S. occur the Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belts where the air is comparatively dry and the
winds are calm and light. It is a region of descending air currents or wind divergence and anticyclones. It
is frequently referred to as the Horse Latitudes.
Around the latitudes 60N. and S. are two Tem-perate Low Pressure Belts which are also zones of
convergence with cyclonic activity. The sub-polar low pressure areas are best developed over the oceans,
where temperature differences between summer and winter are negligible.
At the North and South Poles 90N. and S. where temperatures are permanently low, are the Polar High
Pressure Belts. Unlike the water masses of the high latitudes in the southern hemisphere, high pressures
of the corresponding latitudes in the northern hemisphere are a little complicated by the presence of much
land. Some pressure differences between summer and winter can be expected.

b.

The Planetary winds: This is known as Ferrels Law of Deflection. The Coriolis Force is absent along the
equator but increases progressively towards the poles.
For this reason, winds blowing out from the Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belt in the northern hemisphere
towards the Equatorial Low become North-East Trade Winds and those in the southern hemisphere
become the South-East Trade winds. These trade winds are the most regular of all the planetary winds.
They blow with great force and in a constant direction. Since they blow from the cooler sub-tropical
latitudes to the warmer tropics, they have great capacity for holding moisture: In their passage across the
open oceans, they gather more moisture and bring heavy rainfall to the east coasts of continents within

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the tropics. As they are off-shore on the west coast, these regions suffer from great aridity and form the
Trade Wind Hot Deserts of the world, e.g. the Sahara
From the Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belts, winds blow towards the Temperate Low Pressure Belts as the
variable Westerlies. Under the effect of the Coriolis Force, they become the South-Westerlies in the
northern hemisphere and the North-Westerlies in the southern hemisphere. They are more variable in the
northern hemisphere, but they play a valuable role in carrying warm equatorial waters and winds to
western coasts of temperate lands. This warming effect and other local pressure differences have re suited
in a very variable climate in the temperate zones, dominated by the movements of cyclones and
anticyclones. In the southern hemisphere where there is a large expanse of ocean, from 40S. to 60S.
Westerlies blow with much greater force and regularity throughout the year. They bring much
precipitation to the western coasts of continents. seafarers to refer to the Westerlies as the Roaring
Forties, Furious Fifties and Shrieking or Stormy Sixties, according to the varying degree of storminess in
the latitudes in which they blow.
Polar Easterlies which blow out from the Polar High Pressure Belts towards the Temperate Low Pressure
Belts. These are extremely cold winds as they come from the tundra and ice-cap regions. They are more
regular in the south than in the north.

The distribution of world pressure belts and plantary winds.

c.

Cyclonic Activity
Cyclones : These are better known as depressions and are confined to temperate latitudes. The lowest
pressure is in the centre and the isobars, as shown in climatic charts, are close together. Depressions vary
from 150 to 2,000 miles in extent. They remain quite stationary or move several hundred miles in a day.
The approach of a cyclone is characterised by a fall in barometric reading, dull sky, oppressive air and
strong winds. Rain or snow falls and the weather is generally bad. Winds blow inwards into regions of low
pressure in the centre, circulating in anticlockwise direction in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in
the southern hemisphere Precipitation resulting from cyclonic activities is due to the convergence of warm

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tropical air and cold polar air. Fronts are developed and condensation takes place, forming either rain,
snow or sleet.
Anticyclones :These are the opposite of cyclones, with high pressure in the centre and the isobars far
apart. The pressure gradient is gentle and winds are light. Anticyclones normally herald fine weather.
Skies are clear, the air is calm and temperatures are high in summer but cold in winter. In winter intense
cooling of the lower atmosphere may result in thick fogs. Anticyclonic conditions may last for days or
weeks and then fade out quietly. Winds in anti-cyclones blow outwards and are also subject to deflection,
but they blow clockwise in the northern hemisphere and anticlockwise in the southern hemi-sphere.
VII.

CLOUDS
The classification of clouds is based on a combination of form, height and appearance. Four major cloud
types and their variations can be recognised.

a.

High Clouds: mainly cirrus (Ci) of feather) form at 20-40,000 feet above ground.
i.

Cirrus (Ci) This looks fibrous and appears like wisps in the blue sky; it is often called 'mares'
tails'. It indicates fair weather, and often gives a brilliant sunset.

ii.

Cirrocumulus (Cc) This appears as white globular masses, forming ripples in a 'mackerel sky'.

iii.

Cirrostratus (Cs) This resembles a thin white sheet or veil; the sky looks milky and the sun or
moon shines through it with a characteristic 'halo'

b.

Medium Clouds: mainly alto (Alt) or middle height clouds at 720,000 feet.
i.

Altocumulus (Alt-Cu) These are woolly, bumpy clouds arranged in layers and appearing like
waves in the blue sky. They normally indicate fine weather.

ii.

Altostratus (Alt-St) These are denser, greyish clouds with a 'watery' look. They have a fibrous
or striated structure through which the sun's rays shine faintly.

c.

Low Clouds mainly stratus or sheet clouds below 7,000 feet.

i.

Stratocumulus (St-Cu) This is a rough, bumpy cloud with the waves more pronounced than in
altocumulus. There is great contrast between the bright and shaded parts.

ii.

Stratus (St) This is a very low cloud, uniformly grey and thick, which appears like a low ceiling
or highland fog. It brings dull weather with light drizzle. It reduces the visibility of aircraft and is
thus a danger, viii.

Nimbostratus (Ni-St) This is a dark, dull cloud, clearly layered, and is also

known as a 'rain cloud'. It brings continuous rain, snow or sleet. (d)

Clouds with great vertical

extent: mainly cumulus or heap clouds with no definite height (2-30,000 feet).
iii.

Cumulus (Cu) This is a vertical cloud with a rounded top and horizontal base, typical of humid
tropical regions, associated with up-rising convectional currents. Its great white globular masses
may look grey against the sun but it is a 'fair weather cloud'.

iv.

Cumulonimbus (Cu-Ni) This is, in fact, an overgrown cumulus cloud, extending for a
tremendous vertical height from a base of 2,000 feet to over 30,000 feet. Its black and white
globular masses take a fantastic range of shapes. Its cauliflower top often spreads out like an
anvil. This is frequently seen in tropical afternoons. It is also referred to as a 'thunder-cloud' and
brings convectional ram, accompanied by lightning and thunder.

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INDIAN GEOGRAPHY
A.

Introduction
India is the largest country in the Indian subcontinent, deriving its name from the river Indus which flows
through the north western part of the country.

I.

Location
Indian mainland extends in the tropical and subtropical zones from latitude 804 north and from longitude
6807 east to 97025 east. The southernmost point in Indian territory, the Indira Point(formerly called
Pygmalion Point), is situated at 6045 north in the Nicobar Islands. The country thus lies wholly in the
northern and eastern hemispheres. The northernmost point of India lies in the state of Jammu and
Kashmir and it is known as Indira Col.

II.

Area and Boundaries

India stretches 3,214 km at its maximum from north to south and 2,933 km at its maximum from east to
west. The total length of the mainland coastline is nearly 6,100 km and the land frontier measures about
15,200 km. The total length of the coastline, including that if the islands, is about 7500 km, with an area
of about 32, 87,782 sq.km, India is the seventh largest country in the world, accounting for about 2.4
percent of total world area.

B.

Physiography
Diverse in its physiography, India can be divided into three units: the mountains in the north, the plains of
northern India and the coast, and the plateau region of the south. The coastal plains are sometimes also
considered a separate unit.

I.

Himalayas
The Himalayas are one of the youngest fold mountain ranges in the world and comprise mainly
sedimentary rocks. They, along with the associated ranges in the northwest and northeast, form the
northern boundary of India, extending from Jammu and Kashmir in the west to Assam, Manipur and
Mizoram in the east. The total length of this chain is about 5000 km, of which about 2500 km stretches in
the form of an arc along the Indian border. The breadth of the Himalayan mountains varies from 150 to
400 km and the average height of the whole region is taken as about 2000 metres. The elevation of the
Himalayan chain more or less decreases eastward.
Himalayas are believed to have been formed during the Tertiary Era the formation of the Himalayas as a
result of inter-continental collision.the Indian Plate or the Gondwanaland moved northwards

and its

forward edge penetrated below the southern edge of the Tibetan plate. The obstruction caused by the
Tibetan Plate to the northward movement of the Indian Plate led to the folding of the layer plate and the
Himalayas came into existence.
The Himalayas comprise a number of almost parallel ranges:

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a.

The greater of the Inner Himalayas (Himadri) : This is the northernmost range of the Himalayan
system and it is also the 1 highest. About 25 km broad, it is the source region of many rivers and glaciers
and its mountains reach an average height of 6000 metres.

b.

The lesser Himalayas (Himachal): This range extends to the south of the Central Himalayas. It is also
known as the Middle Himalayas. This range is border than the former range but its height is lower.
Average height of mountains here is about 800 metres

c.

The Sub-Himalayas (Siwaliks) : This is the third and the lowest range of the system, lying further
south of the former two ranges. This range is also known as the Outer Himalayas. The Main Boundary
Thrust separates this range from the Lesser or the Middle Himalayas.

II.

The Plains of India

a.

The Northern Plain: The northern plain is also known as the Ganga-Brahmaputra plain and the IndoGangetic Plain. The rivers of the Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra systems have contributed to the
formation of this plain. The westernmost part of this plain is called the Indus or the Punjab plain, It covers
the areas of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan and the slope of this plain is towards west and southwest.
The Indus plain of Pakistan is the westward extension of this plain. The central part of the northern plain
is generally called the Ganga Plain and the general slope of this part is towards east. This unit accounts for
the largest area of this plain in India. The easternmost part of the great plain is called the Brahmaputra
Plain. Slope of this part is towards west and south and this plain converges with the Ganga Plain in
Bangladesh.

b.

The Coastal Plains: The coastal plain stretching along the Bay of Bengal coast is called the Eastern
Coastal Plain while the one stretching along the Arabian Sea coast is called the Western Coastal Plain. The
eastern coastal plain, also known as Coromandel Coastal Plain, is divided into the Utkal Plain, Andhra plain
and Tamil Nadu plain. This plain is occupied by the delta regions of rivers Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna
and Kaveri. It is broad fertile coastal lowland.
The western coastal plain extends from Gujarat in north to Kerala in south. Unlike the eastern coastal
plain, this plain is rather narrow except for in Gujarat where it is the widest. The northern part of the plain
is occupied by the Gujarat plain. South of Gujarat up to Goa stretches the Konkan coastal plain. The
southern part is Occupied by the Malabar coastal plain and Kerala coastal plain.

III.

Peninsular Plateau: peninsular India is the name given to the area spreading to the south of the IndoGangetic plain and flanked by sea on three sides. This plateau is shaped like a triangle with its base in the
north. The Eastern Ghats and the Western Ghats constitute its eastern and western boundaries,
respectively. The River Narmada, which flows through a rift valley, divides the region into two parts: the
Malwa Plateau in the north and the Deccan Plateau in the south. The Aravallis and the Chhota Nagpur
Plateau lie to the west and east, respectively, of Malwa Plateau. The general slope of land of this part is
towards north and the rivers rising in this part flow northwards and join rivers of Ganga system. The rock
systems of the peninsular plateau region extend towards northeast up to the Meghalaya Plateau. The
Chhota Nagpur Plateau and the Meghalaya Plateau are separated by a trough that has been filled with
alluvium by rivers of the Ganga and Brahmaputra systems.

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IV.

Islands of India: The territorial limits of India include 247 islands, of which 204 lie in the Bay of Bengal
and 43 lie in the Gulf of Mannar and the Raabian Sea. The Andamans and Nicobars (the two groups
separated by the Ten Degree channel) from the two major groups in the Bay of Bengal. The Andamans
are divided into three groups: North, middle and South Andamans. These islands are believed to be
extensions of mountain systems extending along the Indo-Myanmar border region.
Live corals and coral reefs are found around a number of islands, especially in the Nicobar group. Besides,
there are at least two volcanic islands also. The two volcanic islands, the Barren and Narcondam are
situated in the northern part of this island group.

C.

Climate
The climate is far from uniform. At one extreme are the highly humid areas in the northeast (Assam and
Meghalaya), where the total amount of rainfall exceeds 1000 cm.At the other extreme are the areas like
the Thar Desert and the cold desert in the Laddakh where precipitation amounts to less than 25 cm (less
than 10 cm in laddakh) in most years. The basic reason why India is called a tropical country is the fact
that the tropical monsoon has the greatest influence upon the weather and climate conditions in India.

I.

The Monsoon and its Mechanism: monsoon is the system of winds characterized by a seasonal reversal
of wind direction. This reversal of wind direction implies winds blowing from sea to land in summer season
and from land to sea during winters. The monsoon is primarily a tropical phenomenon. According to the
traditional theory, monsoon is a result of differential heating of land and sea. In the summer season the
temperature over Indian landmass is higher than over the neighbouring sea and it causes a pressure
gradient from south to north. This leads to the establishment of southwest monsoon blowing from over
Indian Ocean towards Indian landmass. During winter the landmass is colder than the sea and the
pressure gradient is therefore from land to sea. This causes winds to blow from over Indian landmass
towards Indian Ocean in the south. These winds blowing over India from a northeasterly direction are
called the northeast monsoon.
The southwest monsoon blowing from sea to land carries moisture and thus causes rainfall over India
during this season while the northeast monsoon blowing from land to sea is dry and does not cause
rainfall. Only a part of it blowing over the Bay of Bengal picks up moisture and causes winter rains in
Tamil Nadu. The modern theory explains monsoon as a result of the seasonal shift of pressure belts under
the influence of the shift of the vertical rays of the sun. This is called the dynamic theory of monsoon.
According to this theory, the Inter-tropical Convergence (the area where the trade winds of the northern
and the southern hemispheres converge) shifts towards the Tropic of Cancer in the months of May and
June and this implies formation of a low pressure through over northern part of India. This trough of low
pressure often called the monsoon trough pulls the air from Indian Ocean towards north India. These
winds blowing northwards from the equator constitute the southwest monsoon. The southwest monsoon
according to this theory represents the trade winds blowing in the southern hemisphere which due to the
northward shift of the ITC cross to north of the equator. On crossing equator these winds are deflected to
their right (Coriollis effect) and they blow tram southwest to northeast. These seasonal winds are also
called the equatorial westerlies.

II.

The Seasons: In India, the cycle of monsoon divides the year into four seasons- the hot dry season, the
hot wet season, the cool dry season and the cool wet season.

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a.

Hot Dry Season: Hot dry season lasts from March to June. With the northward shift of the vertical rays of
the sun over the Tropic of Cancer beginning mid-March, the hot and dry weather sets in. As temperature
rise over most of northern and central India, a vast trough of low pressure is created. The highest
temperatures in the south are experienced in April and in the northern plains in May and June. This part of
the year is marked by a dry spell and the northwestern parts of the country experience hot, dry winds
blowing

b.

Hot Wet Season: The hot dry season is followed by hot wet season lasting from June to September. In
May, the ITC (Inter Tropical Convergence) moves north to over the Tropic of Cancer and creates low
pressure over Northern part of the country leads to the onset of the southwest monsoon. The normal
dates of onset of the monsoon are May 20 in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, June 3 in the Konkan,
June 15 in Kolkata, and June 29 in Delhi. As mentioned earlier, the movement of the sub-tropical jet
stream, which affects the onset of the monsoon.

c.

The Cool Dry Season: From mid-September to mid- December is the cool, dry season. This is the time
when the southwest monsoon retreats. It first retreats from the north and temperatures start falling in
October. As the Vertical rays of the sun start shifting towards the Tropic of Capricorn, the low-pressure
area also starts moving south and winds finally start blowing from land to sea. This is called the northeast
monsoon.

d.

The Cool Wet Season: The dry spell of the cool or cold season is broken in the latter part of December
and in January with the arrival of the westerly depressions (temperate cyclones) which cause rain or
snowfall in the northern parts of India. This is known as the cool, wet season. The northeast monsoon
causes rainfall in this season in Tamil Nadu as the winds passing over the Bay of Bengal pick up some
moisture.

D.

Soils
With Accompanying variations of climate and relief is bound to have a large variety of soils. The soils of
India can be classified on the basis of several criteria. The most acceptable classification is provided by the
Indian Council of Agricultural Research. Indian soils are divided into eight groups.

I.

Alluvial Soil: Alluvial soil is the most important among soils found in India. This soil covers about 24
percent of Indias land surface. These soils are composed of sediments deposited by rivers and the waves.
They occupy the great plains from Punjab to Assam and also occur in the valleys of the Narmada and
Tapti in Madhya Pradesh (MP) and Gujarat, the Mahanadi in Chhattisgarh and Odisha, the Godavari in
Andhra Pradesh and the Kaveri in Tamil Nadu. Geologically, the alluvium of the Great Plains is divided into
Khadar and bangar, the former being new alluvium and the latter the old alluvium. This soil does not have
recognizable horizons and in some portions it is covered by unproductive loess deposits. Alluvial soil is
usually deficient in nitrogen and humus content and this necessitates repeated additions of manure and
fertilizers to it. This soil is suitable for cultivation of all types of crops depending upon climatic suitability.

II.

Black Soil: Second major group of soils found in India. Ideal for the cultivation of cotton crop due to its
high moisture retention capacity, it is frequently referred to as black cotton soil and covers large tracts of
the Deccan plateau. It covers large areas in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Telangana

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and some parts of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. The black colour is due to the presence of compounds
of iron and aluminium. The soil is sticky when wet and develops wide cracks when dry.
III.

Red Soil: Third major soil group and covers the peninsular region reaching up to the Rajmahal Hills in
the east, Jhansi in the north and Kutch Hills in the west. It covers large areas in Maharashtra, Gujarat,
Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Telangana and some parts of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. The black
colour is due to the presence of compounds of iron and alluminium. The soil is sticky when wet and
develops wide cracks when dry.

IV.

Laterites and Lateritic Soil:

These soils form the fourth group of Indian soils. Formed through the

process of laterisation, they contain iron oxides which impart a red colour to the soil. The soil occurs in the
higher reaches of the Sahyadris, Eastern Ghats, Rajmahal Hills and other higher areas in the peninsular
region. It can also be found on the lower lands in parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka, West Bengal and
Assam. Generally poor in humus, nitrogen and soluble salts due to heavy leaching, it is suitable for rice
and ragi cultivation if manure is applied regularly.

E.

Natural Vegetation
The natural vegetation of an area is a function of the climate of that region. Temperature and moisture
availability are the chief elements determining the character of vegetation found in various parts of the
world, a land of variety of natural vegetation.

I.

Evergreen forests: Found in areas receiving over 200 cm rainfall, they cover the Western Ghats and
hilly areas in northeastern India, mainly in the sub-Himalayan belt. Trees typical of these forests are hard
woods such as teak, rosewood, ebony and ironwood. Bamboo is also commonly found. The vegetation
here remains active all the year round and there is no particular leaf shedding season. The forest
therefore looks always green. The trees in these forests are very tall and they support a lot of epiphytes.

II.

Deciduous Forests: Found in areas receiving a rainfall of 150 to 200 cm, deciduous forests cover the
larger part of the peninsular region. Trees like teak, sal, sandalwood and rosewood grow well. Due to
seasonality of precipitation, the trees here shed their leaves in dry season. These forests are less dense
than the evergreen ones and the height of the trees is also lesser.

III.

Dry Forests:

Areas with precipitation of 75 to 100 cm have dry forests. Areas under this type of

vegetation are the semi-desert region of Rajasthan and the Southern parts of Punjab and Haryana Thorny
trees.
IV.

Hill Forests: Also called montane forests, these cover the higher reaches off hills in southern India and
the Himalayas. Since altitude is an important control of climate, the character of vegetation in upland
areas changes with elevation. The foothills zone of the Siwaliks is covered by tropical moist deciduous
forests of sal and bamboo etc. Between 1000 and 2000 metres above the sea level are found the wet hill
forests of oak and chestnut and some pine forests. This zone is followed by the zone of coniferous forests
between 1600 and 3300 metres. The dominant trees in these forests are pine, deodar, silver fir and
spruce. Above the coniferous forests extend the alpine forests of silver fir and spruce. Above the
coniferous forests extend the alpine forests of silver bir, birch, etc above an altitude of 3600 metres. They
are followed the alpine grasslands and scrub.

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V.

Tidal Forests: The estuaries of large rivers like the Ganga and Mahanadi support the littoral type of
vegetation. (Littoral refers to the shallow water zone of the sea, mainly the continental shelf.)Most trees in
these forests are those that can grow in marshy conditions. Sundri tree is an example of trees growing in
such environments. These forests are also known as mangrove forests. Achra ratnagiri (Maharashtra),
Coondapur (Karnataka), Pichavaram (Tamil nadu) and Vembanad (Kerala) also have mangroves.

F.

Agriculture
About 70 percent of the total population of the country is dependent on agriculture for a living. Agriculture
provides a number of industries with raw materials and is thus important also for the industrial
development of the country.
As is true for all primary activities, agriculture is greatly affected by natural environmental factors, the
most important of these being the relief, climate and nature of soils. Various combinations of these
environmental factors make different areas suitable for different types of crops and plants.

II.

Important Crops:

a.

Rice: Growing best in areas of warm, humid climate, rice requires temperatures between 200 and 350 C
and well-distributed rainfall of about 100 cm or irrigation facilities. The soil should be fertile. Delta and
valley soils are most suitable. Soils with higher clay content are preferred for its cultivation due to their
better moisture retention capacity. The major rice- producing states are West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh,
Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Bihar and Tamil Nadu; Punjab and Haryana produce a surplus of rice.

b.

Wheat: Ranking after rice in terms of both area and production, wheat is grown widely as it can adopt to
a variety of environmental conditions. In India it is grown mainly in the northern plains during the cool
season and the ideal temperature for its cultivation is about 150 to 200 C. Wheat requires a moderate
amount of rainfall of 25 to 75 cm and can be grown even in dry areas with the help of irrigation . Welldrained loam and clavey soils are ideal. The major wheat-producing states are Uttar Pradesh, Punjab,
Haryana Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.

c.

Maize: Introduced in India in the 17th Century, maize can also be grown over a wide variety of areas.
Ideal Temperature for this crop is about 350C. It requires about 75 cm of rainfall and thrives best on
fertile alluvial and red soils having good drainage. It can be grown on mountain soils too. Alternate spells
of rains and sunny weather are ideal for maize. The highest concentration of this crop is found in Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Punjab and Madhya Pradesh.

d.

Sugarcane: This is a long maturing crop, planted usually between February and April. Harvesting begins
in October-November. Well-manured medium and heavy soils where irrigation facilities are available are
ideal for its cultivation. The monsoon climate is suitable. Sugarcane requires continuously warm
temperature of about 25C and frost is fatal to the crop It requires a rainfall of 100 to 150 cm or assured
irrigation facilities. It is a soil-exhausting crop and thus needs regular application of manure or fertilizers.
The most important producers of sugarcane are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu , Karnataka and
Andhra Pradesh.

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e.

Cotton: obtained from the fruit bolls of the plant. The greatest concentration of the crop occurs in areas
with precipitation between 50 and 80 cm and temperatures between 200 and 350C. Cotton can be grown
in drier areas too with the help of irrigation. The deep and medium black soil of the Deccan and Malwa
plateaus is considered ideal, though it can be grown on alluvial and red soil as well. Clear sky during the
picking season is Ideal. The largest producers of cotton are Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Punjab, Haryana, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.

f.

Jute: Jute fibre is obtained from the bast (inner hark) of the plant. Jute needs a warm, humid climate
with temperature of 250 to 350 C and rainfall of 100 to 200 cm. It is an exhaustive crop like sugarcane and
lowers soil fertility rapidly. Therefore rich delta and alluvial soils that receive fresh silt regularly are most
suitable. The chief jute-producing states are West Bengal, Assam, Bihar, Odisha and Tripura.

g.

Tea: Tea is a plantation crop and it is one of the chief items of India's export trade. It is grown minty on
hill slopes where heavy precipitation occurs - more than 150 cm of rainfall - and average temperatures
are between 24 and 35C. Standing water is harmful for this plant. The largest producers of tea in India
are Assam and West Bengal followed by the Nilgiri Hills (Tamil Nadu) region in the south.

G.

Mineral Resources:
India is fairly rich in minerals and has sufficiently large reserves of iron ore, coal, manganese, bauxite and
mica. However, barring few exceptions, the deposits of non-ferrous metals are limited. More than 90 per
cent of the mineral deposits of the country are located in the Chhota Nagpur Plateau region. Two distinct
belts of mineral deposits can be identified in India. The first lying in Jharkhand, West Bengal and Odisha,
yields most of the iron ore, coal and Iimestone and a fairly large proportion of the manganese and
bauxite. The second extends across Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh and
contains large deposits of mica, coal, iron, limestone, manganese and other minerals.
Classification and Distribution of Minerals: The distribution of various minerals in a region is a result
of geological history of an area. Therefore, various minerals occur in different regions. A brief description
of the distribution of major minerals follows.

I.

Iron ore: Iron ore is one of the basic mineral resources. Iron obtained from this ore is the basis of
modem industrial civilisation. Though iron occurs in the form of a large number of compounds not all of
them are considered viable ores. The four most Important ores of iron are the magnetite,
haematite,limonite and siderite. Iron ore is one of the most widely distributed minerals in India. The
important mining areas are Singhbhum in Jharkhand and Keonjhar, talcher and Mayurbhanj in Odisha.
Other important producers of iron are besides Jharkhand and Odisha are Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Goa, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.

II.

Bauxite: It is the ore of aluminium. The ore is first processed to obtain alumina and alumina is further
processed to produce aluminium metal. Major areas of mining of this ore are Ranchi and Palamau in
Jharkhand,Balaghat and Jabalpur in Madhya Pradesh. Bilaspur in Chattisgarh and Belgaum and Thane in
Maharashua, Orissa,Karnataka. Tamil Nadu and Karnataka are also important producers of bauxite.

III.

Coal and lignite: Anthracite, bituminous, lignite and

peat are the major types of coal, in descending

order of carbon content. Like iron ore coal is also found in several parts in India. The important coalfields

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are Jharia, Bokaro, giridih and Karanpura in Jharkhand, Raniganj in West Bengal, Chanda and Pench
valley in Madhya Pradesh and Singareni in Andhra Pradesh. Parts of Maharashtra and Odisha also have
coal deposits.
IV.

Petroleum and Natural Gas: Oil and natural gas are fuel minerals and they occur in the sedimentary
basins, generally the areas of marine sediments. The oldest oil fields of India are in Lakhimpur and
Dibrugarh areas of Assam. Digboi has the oldest oil well in the country. Important oil fields are Digboi.
Naharkatiya. Moran. Sibsagar and Rudrasagar in Assam region. Cambay, Kalol and Ankleshwar in Gujarat
and the Bombay High region offshore Ratnagiri district in Maharashtra. Krishna and Kaveri Basins and
Godavari Basin also have potential oil reserves. Natural gas occurs either with oil deposits or
independently in gas fields. Assam and Gujarat regions have important gas deposits. Large reserves of
natural gas have been discovered in Rajasthan also. Godavari and Krishna basins also have gas reserves.

V.

Copper: India is rather poor in copper deposits. Important arms are Agnigundala in Andhra Pradesh.
Singhbhum, Mosabani and Rakha in Jharkhand. Malanjkhand m Madhya Pradesh. Khetri and Dariba in
Rajasthan and Chitradurgain Karnataka.

VI.

Lead and Zinc: These two minerals generally occur together. Zinc ore occurs in Zawar and Bhanjawi
areas of Rajasthan and in Gujarat. Lead ore is found in Agnigundala (Andhra Pradesh) and Sargipalle
(Odisha) also.

VII.

Mica: It is a non-metallic mineral and India is the largest producer and exporter of mica. Better deposits
of mica occur in Hazaribagh district of Jharkhand, and Gaya district of Bihar, Nellore district of Andhra
Pradesh and in Rajasthan. Koderma mines in Jharkhand are one of the important producing areas. India
had almost a monopoly in mica exports

H.

Industries:
The country has developed a strong industrial base also. Industrial goods are an important item of
countrys export trade today. The large variety of agricultural and mineral raw materials has provided the
base for the development of a number of industries in India. A brief outline of the important industries in
India. A brief outline of the important industries is provided her.

I.

Cotton Textiles: This is the most important industry in India in terms of employment and production of
export goods. This industry is also one of the most widely distributed industries in India. The industry is
generally market-oriented. Although Maharashtra and Gujarat are the chief states, other important states
in this field are Tamil nadu, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
Tamil Nadu ahs the largest number of cotton textile mills.

II.

Jute Goods: India manufactures the largest quantity of jute goods in the world. This industry is located
mainly in West Bengal, followed by Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. Due to
increased competition from substitutes the demand for jute goods in international market has declined
and the industry is facing hard times.

III.

Silk Textiles: India produces raw silk of different grades in different parts and industry has developed in
all raw silk producing areas. Karnataka leads in silk textiles, followed by Assam, West Bengal , Bihar,
Madhya Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir.

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IV.

Woolen Textiles: The distribution of the woolen industry has been affected more by the market factor
than by the raw material factor. The most important producers are Punjab, Maharashtra and Uttar
Pradesh followed by Gujarat, Karnataka and Jammu and Kashmir.

V.

Iron and Steel: This industry is basic to industrial development. It is located near the sources of raw
material at

Jamshedpur,

Burnpur,

Bhadrawati,

Bokaro,

Rourkela,

Durgapur,

Bhilai,

Salem and

Vishakhapatnam. Except for the Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) plant at Jamshedpur, all of them
are in the public sector. The Bhilai and Bokaro plants were established with Soviet collaboration, the
Durgapur plant with British collaboration, the Rourkela plant with German collaboration and the
Vishakhapatnam plant with Russian collaboration. The Vishakhapatnam steel plant is a shore-based plant
to take advantage of cheap transport.
VI.

Aluminium: The location of this industry smelting of aluminium) is closely related to the availability of
raw material or means of transport and cheap electricity. Smelting units in Belgaum, Hirakud, Alwaye ,
Alipuram, Renukoot , Mettur, Jaykaynagar, koraput, Korba and Ratnagiri.

VII.

Copper Smelting:

The Maubhandar unit of an Indian Copper Corporation Ltd. Was the first copper

smelting unit in India. The second unit is in Khetri, Rajasthan, one of the largest of its type in Asia.
Hindustan Copper Limited has implemented the Malanjkhand Copper Project in Balaghat district in Madhya
Pradesh and Taloja Copper project at Taloja in Maharashtra.
VIII.

Automobiles: Cars are manufactured at Mumbai (Fiat), Kolkata (Ambassador), Gurgaon (maruti)

and

Noida (Hyundai and Honda). Buses and trucks are manufactured at Chennai and Mumbai; jeeps and four
and three-wheeler tempos and small trucks are manufactured at Mumbai. Pune and Gurgaon .Twowheelers (scooters and motor-cycles) are manufactured at pune, Mumbai, Faridabad, Cheenai, Mysore,
Ludhiana and Tirupati.

I.

Transport and Communications

I.

Railways: Indian Railways is the largest in the world under a single management. Trains are the most
important means of transport. They account for nearly three-fourth of the passenger traffic and about 60
percent of the freight traffic in India.
For easy operations and management, the Railways has been divided into 17 zones including the Kolkata
Metro and the 16 zones.
The Indian railways traditionally operated on four different gauges, namely broad gauge (1.676 metres),
metre gauge (one metre), narrow gauge (0.672 metres) and light gauge (0610 metre). The broad gauge
accounts for about 74 percent of the total route length. The metre gauge accounts for about 21 percent of
the route length. The conversion of the entire metre gauge route length into broad gauge.

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Railways Zones

Headquarters

Northern Railway

New Delhi

North- Western Railway

Jaipur

North- Central Railways

Allahabad

North-Eastern Railway

Gorakhpur

North- East Frontier Railway

Maligaon (Guwahati)

Eastern Railway

Kolkata

East Coast Railway

Bhubaneshwar

East- Central Railway

Hazipur

West- Central Railway

Jabalpur

Central Railway

Mumbai Central

Western railway

Mumbai (Churchgate)

Southern railway

Chennai

South- Central Railway

Secunderabad

South Eastern Railway

Kolkata

South - Western Railway

Hubli

South-East Central Railway

Bilaspur

Most of the rolling stock requirements of the Indian railways are met through domestic production.
Locomotives are built at Chittaranjan Locomotive Works (CLW), Chittaranjan; Diesel locomotives Works
(DLW0, Varanasi:

and BHEL, Bhopal, a public sector undertaking that has developed capacity to

manufacture electric locomotives. Another plant, diesel component Works (DCW), has been set up at
Patiala in Punjab for manufacturing and repairs of components of diesel locomotives. Bulk of the
passenger coaches are built at Integral Coach Factory (ICF) at Perambur near Chennai and Rail Coach
Factory (RCF) at Kapurthala.
II.

Roads: Indias road network is one of the largest in the world, the total length of the roads being about
46.9 lakh kilometers. Maharashtra, with a total surfaced road length of about 1, 70,000 km is the leading
state in this respect followed by Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.
The National highways connect state capitals and they are constructed by the Central Government. The
total length of these roads in the country is more than 96,000 kilometres. The government has taken up a
programme of 4/6 lanning of about 17,700 kilometres of National highways under the National highways
Development Programme (NHDP). This programme include the Golden Quadrilateral comprising the
National Highways connecting the four largest metropolitan ciities of Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata.
The Programme of development of National highways also includes the creation of the North-South
corridor connecting Srinagar to Kanyakumari and east- West Corridor connecting Silchar to Porbander.
Among the National Highways listed. NH 7 connecting Varanasi to Kanyakumari (2369 km) is the longest,
followed by NH 6 (1645 km), NH 5 (1533 km), NH 14 (1526 km), NH 2 (1490 km) and NH 8 (1428 km)

III.

Shipping: Shipping plays an important role in transport sector. About 95 percent of the countrys trade
volume is moved by water transport.

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There are 13 major and about 200 non-major ports in India. Majors ports are thedirect responsibility of
the Central Government and minor ports are managed and administered by various state governments.
The major ports on the east are Kolakta (including Haldia Dock), Paradip, Vishakhapatnam, Chennai,
Ennore (a corporate port) and Tuticorin. The major ports on the west coast are Kandla, Mumbai, Nhava
Sheva (Jawaharlal Nehru Port), new Mangalore, Marmagao and Kochi. A new- major port has been
developed at port Blair in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
IV.

Inland Water Transport: Inland Water Transport India has about 14.500 kilometres of navigable
waterways comprising rivers, canals, backwaters and creeks. etc. Presently, however, only 3.700
kilometres of major rivers are navigable by mechanised craft and only about 2000 kilometre of this are
actually being used. Out of about 43,000 km of navigable canals, only 900 km of canal length is suitable
for navigation by mechanised crafts and only about 330 kilometre of it is actually being utilised.
The most important inland waterways include the Ganga- Bhagirathi Hooghly Rivers, the Brahmaputra,
the Barak River, the rivers in Goa, the backwaters in Kerala and the deltaic parts of the Godavari-Krishna
rivers.The Government has identified 10 waterways for consideration to declare them as National
Waterways. The Ganga between Allahabad and Haldia (1620 km), the Sadiya - Dhubri stretch of the
Brahamaputra (891 km) and the Kollam-Kuttapurim stretch of West Coast Canal (168 km) along with
Champakara Canal (14 km) and Udyogmandal
National Waterways.

Canal (22 km) in Kerala have already been declared

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ECOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT

A.

AIR, WATER, SOIL AND NOISE POLLUTION

Pollutions are classified such as air, water, soil, marine, noise, thermal and nuclear pollution. Of all the
pollution type, air, water and noise pollution are the most common forms and subjects of study.

I.

Air Pollution
Air pollution is among the most hazardous and common environmental pollutions. It is prevalent in most
industrial town and metropolitans across the world such as Delhi, Mumbai, Kanpur, London, and New
York. Some of the most tragic and hazardous air pollution incidents are as follows:
Meuse Valley of Belgium (1930).
Killing smog in Donora, Pennsylvania (1948).
Smog in London, killing 4,000-5,000 people (1952).
Anthrax spores leak, former USSR (1979).
Bhopal gas tragedy (1984).
Air pollution is defined as the concentration of such elements in the atmosphere which are harmful to
man, animals, plants and buildings. For example, Carbon Monoxide (CO), Ground level Ozone(O 3 ), Lead
(Pb), Nitrogen Dioxide (NO 2 ).

II.

Consequences of Air Pollutants

a.

Ozone

b.

Carbon Monoxide

c.

Nitrogen dioxide

d.

Particular Matter

e.

Sulphur Dioxide

f.

Lead

g.

Toxic Air Pollutants

h.

Stratospheric Ozone Depleters

i.

Green House Gases

b.

Results of Air Pollution

My pollution is the most serious type of pollution of all as tiumans and other animals need air to breathe.

a.

Changes of climate

b.

Ozone depletion

c.

Acid rain

c.

Control of Air pollution

a.

There is a need to plant trees and shrubs in all the available spaces, particularly, adjoining the industrial
regions. Trees help in removing dirt and harmful gases from the air.

209
b.

Industries should use tall chimneys so that smoke can be dispersed high in the air.

c.

Vehicles must use non-leaded petrol.

d.

Vehicles must use low-sulphur diesel.

II.

Water Pollution
Water is one of the most essential preconditions for the existence of life on earth. In fact, life originated in
water. Three types of pollutants cause water pollution - physical, chemical and biological pollutants.

a.

Sources of Water Pollution

Natural and man-made sources contribute to water pollution. Human activities such as industrial effluents,
domestic sewage, detergents, pesticides, fertilisers and oil spills cause water pollution.

b.

a.

Sewage and community waste:

b.

Industrial wastes:

c.

Agriculture discharges

d.

Groundwater:

e.

Oil pollution:

Effects of Water Pollution

The health of all the living beings that depend on water gets affected due to water pollution. Some of the
effects of water pollution are as follows.
a.

Chemical pollutants: Chemicals such as mercury, cadmium, lead, sulphates, nitrates and
persistent
pesticides have adverse effect on water and causes water pollution.

b.

Colour and odour: Different types of dyes, chemical compounds of iron and chromium make the
water coloured and adds odour to it. Such water is not for human consumption and industrial
purposes.

c.

Turbidity: Dust, silt, mud and other related colloidal particles cause turbidity. The penetration of
light to the deeper layers is obstructed due to turbidity. It adversely affects the process of
photosynthesis. It also leads to clogging of gills in fishes. It also makes the water unfit to be
consumed or be used in industries.

d.

Pathogenic diseases: Many water-borne diseases all over the world such as gastroenteritis,
cholera and jaundice are the results of water pollution.

c.

Proper Treatment of Sewage and Industrial Effluents

People should be taught that raw sewage should not be discharged into rivers or oceans. Before
discharging sewage and industrial effluents into water bodies, they should be properly treated. The
sewage treatment can be done by three stages and are as follows:
a.

Primary treatment: In this stage, larger objects and solids particles are separated and removed and
they are changed into sludge, which is a valuable fertiliser.

b.

Secondary treatment: In this stage, bacterial action decomposes organic compounds into harmless
substances such as CO 2 , sulphates and water in the presence of aeration.

c.

Tertiary treatment: In this stage, phosphates and nitrates are removed to obtain pure water. This is
a very expensive stage and is used only for recycling of water.

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IV.

Soil Pollution
Soil is a thin layer covering the land. It consists of minerals, organic materials, air and water. All these are
very essential for the survival of organic life on the earth. Soil is such a resource which does not have a
substitute. We can define soil pollution as degradation of soil through addition of unwanted material or
removal of essential material and it leads to reduced productivity. Substances that cause reduction in the
productivity of soils are termed as soil pollutants.

a.

Sources of Soil Pollution and Degradation

Soil pollution can be of two types which depend upon whether the material has been added or removed
from the soil.
a.

Negative pollution: Negative pollution takes place when there is reduction in quality or quantity of
the top layer of soil. Overuse and erosion are the major reasons of negative pollution.

b.

Positive pollution: Positive pollution takes place when there is deterioration of soil due to
concentration of pollutants from air, sewage, industrial effluents, agricultural chemicals, etc.

b.

The activities that cause soil pollution:

a.

Erosion

b.

Pesticides

i.

Chlorinated hydrocarbons: Some of the chlorinated hydrocarbons are DDT, BHC, aldrin, endriri, etc.
They are persistent and possess the quality of biomagnification.

ii.

Organo-pesticides:

The

two

major

types

of

organo-pesticides

are

organophosphates

and

carbonates. These are persistent; however, they are poisonous.

iii.

Weedicides and Herbicides: These are selective weed killers. 2, 4-D and 2, 4, 5-T (2, 4
dichlorophenoxy acetic acid and 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxy acetic acid) are their important examples.
These chemicals were used during the Vietnam War and are still being used in many places of the
world; these do not allow normal plants to grow.

c.

Control of soil pollution

1. Wastes should be recycled
2. More areas must be brought under forests
3. Controlled grazing should be controlled
4. Soil binding grass should be grown
5. Cow dung, human excreta and garbage should be used for biogas generation.

V.

Noise Pollution
Any kind of unpleasant and undesirable sound can be termed as noise. However, music has pleasant
effect on ears and mind. But a sound may appear musical to one and noisy to others, depending on their
tastes.

211
a.

Sources of Noise Pollution

Both the nature and human beings contribute towards noise pollution. Thunder of clouds is an example of
noise pollution created by nature.
Following are some examples that cause noise pollution:
1. Factories
2. Arms
3. Vehicles and automobiles
4. Domestic tools
5. Entertainment devices
6. Agricultural machines
7. Blasting, stone crushing and construction work

b.

Effects of Noise Pollution

(a) Effect on hearing ability: Loud noise damages tympanic membrane of the ear drum. Continuous
exposure to noise pollution can make people deaf. The bones of the ears can be displaced due to the
vibrations caused by a sudden loud sound.
(b) Effects on general health:
1. Stress and anxiety
2. Headache
3. Dilation of pupil
4. Emotional imbalance
5. Weakening of heart
6. Nervous breakdown
7. Fluctuation in blood pressure
(c) Other effects: Noise pollution not only impacts in the above mentioned ways, but it also interrupts our
conversation, disturbs concentration and upsets our mood.

c.

Control of Noise Pollution

(a) Noise pollution can be checked in the following ways:
1. Reduction of noise at source
2. Check on noise transmission
3. Protection of receiver
(b) We can adopt the following measures to check noise pollution:
1. There should be control on the use of loud speakers.
2. There should be proper lubrication of the machines to avoid friction which produces noise.
3. Industries must be relocated away from human settlements.
4. People living near noisy areas should use ear muffs and cotton plugs.

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B.

CLIMATE CHANGE AND RELATED ISSUES

It may be thought incongruous to describe climate change as a current environmental controversy. It is
after all nothing new. What though is new is the speed of change and the risk it poses that ecosystems
will be unable to adapt at the same rate. The fears of some members of the UN Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change that southern Africa could face a 100 year drought, and that it is the climate refugee
rather than the political refugee who will characterise the twenty-first century, convey the scale of the
risk. Even if there is overall adaptation, localised impacts could still be severe.

I.

SPECULATIVE IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE

The impact of climate change to date is, however, anything but speculative. Figures released by Munich
Re, one of the world's largest reinsurance companies, indicated that natural disasters across the globe are
now three times more frequent compared to some 25 years ago when the company started to monitor
them. The cost of human deaths happening every year is high, but the economic cost is even higher.
Floods during the year were responsible for 85 per cent of economic losses of some $1 billion, nine times
more in real terms than 25 years earlier. As one direct consequence, large tracts of low-lying land across
the globe are rapidly becoming uninsurable with highly adverse consequences for countries, notably those
in the Caribbean, parts of Asia and the Pacific, dependent on inward investment for tourism and other
forms of economic development.

II.

THE PHENOMENON OF GLOBAL WARMING

Climate change is a comprehensive term for the changes arising from the phenomenon of global warming
generated by build-up of what are known as 'greenhouse gases' (GHG) in the atmosphere. The best
known of those 'greenhouse gases' is carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), and the first area of controversy, which is
essentially scientific, is the actual rate of change and the extent to which it is man-made; the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change currently estimates that warming is occurring at a speed of
between 1.4C and 6.4C every century, rates which may sound modest but which at the higher end of
the scale could raise sea levels by up to 1 m in the same period. Some scientists believe, however, in the
light of the accelerated melting of the Antarctic ice sheet, that the sea level rise could be as much as 1.4
m. The rate of ice loss from the estimated 60 million tons a year between 1996 and 2006. This rate of loss
again doubled between 2006 and 2014.
Similarly, there is now almost unanimous acceptance that global warming is being accelerated by GHG
emissions from the burning of for all fuels, particularly coal and oil, with natural gas as a lesser but still
major contributor.
Although most GHG emissions are produced by domestic households, industry, commerce and agriculture,
road transport is responsible for 21 per cent and that proportion is increasing. Improvements in the
domestic and industrial sectors are steadily being outweighed by the increasing levels of use of cars and
lorries. Even the substantial gains of 50 per cent or more in fuel efficiency over the last 20 years have
been outweighed by longer journeys and the preference for more powerful models. The net result has
been that CO 2 emissions from road vehicles have increased by 70-80 per cent throughout the European
Union (EU) alone in the last 20 years. The exalosion in air transport is adding to the problem significantly.

213
III.

CARBON TRADING AND OFFSETTING

Carbon trading is the current preferable approach for reducing GHGs emissions. In carbon trading, the
overall this quota is required to offset the excess by trading the emissions in form of carbon credit or
allowances. A carbon credit is a type of a tradable GHG emission reduction unit issued to projects under
the Kyoto Protocol. One carbon credit is equivalent to one tonne of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) mitigated.
Investment in activities reducing carbon emissions is called offsetting.
For example, say that there is an IT company managing a data centre in an area. The company wants to
protect environment and reduce its carbon footprint. Unfortunately there is no possibility of using
renewable energy as the power company is not providing it in the area. So, until the company is able to
operate entirely with renewables energy or reduce its footprint in other ways, it can use the offsets to
fund projects that reduce GHG emissions, indirectly reducing its total carbon footprint.
Carbon offset schemes allow individuals and companies to invest in environmental projects around the
world in order to balance out their own carbon footprints. These offsets projects are generally based in
developing countries and most commonly are designed to reduce future carbon emissions.

IV.

IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE

A shared vision for a climate-resilient and low-emission future can be built upon a long-term global goal
for emission reductions. It should factor in people's aspirations for development, and yet provide a
yardstick for concrete and measurable action. Scientific information from the IPCC suggests that to avoid
the most catastrophic impacts of climate change, GHG emissions need to be reduced to 50-80 per cent
below 1990 levels by 2050. Some of the impacts of climate change highlighted by the IPCC include the
following:

By 2020, in some parts of Africa, yields from rain-fed agriculture (the dominant method) could reduce
by up to 50 per cent.

Approximately 20-30 per cent of plant and animal species are likely to be at increased risk of
extinction, if increase in global average temperature exceeds 1.5-2.5C.

More than 20 million people were displaced by sudden climate-related disasters in 2008 alone. The
natural disasters in the first half of 2015 killed more than 16,000 people; with 'Nepal earthquakes'
and 'heat wave catastrophes' in India and Pakistan, the death count is estimated to be around
12,000. An estimated 200 million people could be displaced as a result of climate impacts by 2050.

Impacts of climate change disproportionately affect the poor, those who do not have the means to
deal with them. Thus, a strong adaptation and mitigation framework is required, and substantial
resources in terms of finance, technology and capacity building will be needed to implement it.

V.

GREENHOUSE GASES, RADIATIVE FORCING AND GLOBAL WARMING

Greenhouse gases are gases that absorb and emit radiation within the thermal infrared limits in the
earth's atmosphere. This process is a major factor that contributes to the creation of the greenhouse
effect. GHGs greatly affect the temperature of the Earth; without them, the Earth's surface would be
about 33C (59F) colder than at present. The natural GHGs in the Earth's atmosphere are water vapour,
soot, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulphur hexafluoride and ozone. Some amounts of GHGs are
absorbed by the natural systems such as oceans and plant biomass, which are also referred to as sinks of
GHGs. However, when plants are cut down and allowed to decay or are burnt, the GHGs absorbed by
them from the atmosphere are released back into the atmosphere. The build-up of GHGs in the

214
atmosphere is therefore the net emission from sources and removal by sinks. Since the time of Industrial
revolution in the mid-eighteenth century, large-scale burning of fossil fuels, land use change and forestry
activities have considerably enhanced the concentration of greenhouses gases in the atmosphere; for
example, the concentration of carbon dioxide had gone up from 275-285 ppm in the pre-industrial era (AD
1000-1750) to 398 ppm in 2015. Additionally, synthetic GHGs like CFCs, HCFCs and SF6 are also
accumulating in the atmosphere.
VI.

NATIONAL MISSION FOR A GREEN \ INDIA

Making use of products from forest as fuel wood and in making household fixtures and furniture also helps
in increasing the mitigation function performed by forests. Forestry become:, more important as
investment in this sector impacts the reduction in Emission Intensity (El) in two waysfirst by increasing
the forest carbon sink and second by increasing the GDP. Forestry sector impacts the numerator as well
as the denominator of the El in a positive way. India is on its way of concluding a National Mission for a
Green India. It is one of the eight missions under its National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC).
Forests and tree vegetation are very vital for the mitigation of climate change by absorbing CO 2 from
atmosphere and transforming it into biomass involving microbes, herbs, shrubs, climbers and trees.
Carbon is accumulated over the ground in the form of biomass and below ground in the form of biomass
and soil. The mission puts 'greening' in the context of climate change adaptation and mitigation, meant to
enhance ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration and storage, hydrological services and
biodiversity along with provisioning services such as fuel, fodder, small timber and NNTPs. The Mission
wishes to address climate change by: (a) increasing carbon sinks in sustainable managed forests and
other ecosystems; (b) increasing the resilience and efficiency of vulnerable species/ecosystems to adapt
to the altering climate and (c) helping adaptation of forest-dependent local communities in the face of
climatic variability. This Mission will offer an overarching structure for forestry activities in order to
address climate change. Forestry sector influences environmental amelioration and is inclusive for
development. It facilitates climate mitigation through the process of sequestration. It enhances water
retention and percolation and curtails surface runoff resulting in better water and food security. It helps in
the conservation of biodiversity and provides livelihood to forest-dependent communities.

215

INDIAN POLITY
A.

THE CONSTITUTION
The Constitution is a fundamental law of a country which reflects the fundamental principles on which the
government of that country is based. It lays down the framework and principal functions of various organs
of the government, as well as the modalities of interaction between the government and its citizens. With
the exception of Israel, New Zealand and the United Kingdom, almost all democratic countries possess a
written constitution. India also possesses an elaborate written constitution which was enacted by a
Constituent Assembly specifically set up for the purpose. In addition, the historical background also
influenced the nature of the Indian Constitution.

I.

Constitutional Developments- A Brief History

The Britishers came to India as traders in 1600. They formed the East India Company and secured a
Charter from Queen Elizabeth (who was herself a shareholder of the Company) authorising the Company
to organise and send trading expeditions to the East Indies.
After obtaining the Charter, the Company set up factories or trading centres at several places after
obtaining land and other concessions from local rulers. For the governance of the Company, it was given
powers to make laws, constitutions, orders and ordinances.
After 1858, the British Government enacted several acts for the governance of India, but most of these
failed to satisfy the aspirations of the Indians and they continued to agitate for greater share in the
administration. Some of the important enactments made by the British Government include the Indian
Councils Acts of 1861,1892 and 1909; and Government of India Act, 1919.
In 1935, the Indian National Congress made a demand that the people should have the right to frame
their own constitution without outside interference.
This demand did not find favour with the British Government who continued to oppose it till the outbreak
of the Second World War. Compelled by practical constraints, the British for the first time in 1940
accepted that the Indians should themselves frame a new constitution for autonomous India.
Some success in this regard was achieved under the Cabinet Mission Plan of 1946 which suggested the
setting up of a Constituent Assembly to draw the future constitution of the country.
In the meantime in July 1947, the British Parliament passed the Indian Independence Act, 1947, which
provided for the transfer of power from the British Government to the Indian hands on 15 August 1947.
The Indian Independence Act envisaged the establishment of two dominions of India and Pakistan. The
legislatures of these dominions were empowered to pass any law.

II.

Framing of the Constitution

The Constitution of India was framed by a Constituent] Assembly set up under the Cabinet Mission Plan of
1946. The Assembly held its first meeting on December 9,1946, and elected Dr Sachhidanand Sinha, the
oldest member of the Assembly as the Provisional President.
The Constituent Assembly appointed 22 Committees to formulate the constitution. Of these 10
Committees were concerned with procedural matters and 12 Committees were concerned with the
substantive matters. On the basis of the reports of these committees, a draft of the Constitution was
prepared by a seven-member Drafting Committee under the Chairmanship of Dr B R Ambedkar. The draft
Constitution was published in January, 1948, and people were given.

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After the draft was discussed by the people, the press, the provincial assemblies and the Constituent
Assembly in the light of the suggestions received, the same was finally adopted on November 26, 1949,
and was signed by the President of the Assembly.
III.

DRAFTING COMMITTEE OF CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY

Chairman Members
1. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
2. N. Gopalaswamy Ayyangar
3. Alladi Krishnaswami Ayyar
4. K.M. Munshi
5. Mohammed Saaduliah
6. B.L. Mittar replaced by N. Madhava Rao following his resignation on health grounds.
7. Dr. D.P. Khaitan (died in 1948 and was replaced by T.T. Krishnamachari)
The Constitution of India was not an original document. The framers of the Constitution freely borrowed
the good features of other constitutions. However, while adopting those features, they made necessary
modifications for its suitability to the Indian conditions and avoided their defects. The Constitutions which
exercised profound influence on the Indian Constitution were that of UK, USA, Ireland, Canada etc.

IV.

FEATURES BORROWED FROM DIFFERENT CONSTITUTIONS

Parliamentary System
Rule of Law

U.K.

Law-making Procedure
Single Citizenship
Bi-cameralism
Preamble
Independence of Judiciary
Judicial Review

U.SA

Fundamental Rights
Removal of Judges of Supreme Court
President as Executive Head
Vice-President as ex-officio Chairman of Upper House
Federal System with a strong centre
Division of Powers and vesting of residuary Powers with the

Canada

Centre
Appointment of the State Governors by the Centre
Advisory Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court

Irish Free State (Now the Republic of

Ireland)
Weimar Constitution of Germany
Australia

Directive Principles of State Policy

Election of President
Nomination of members to Upper House
Emergency Provisions
Concurrent List
Provision regarding trade, commerce and inter-course.

Union of South Constitution

Amendment of the

Africa (1910)

Election of members of Rajya Sabha

France

Republican System

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Ideals of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity
USSR (now Russia)
Government of India Act,1935

Fundamental Duties
Ideals of Justice included in the Preamble
Federal Scheme
Office of the Governor Powers of Federal Judiciary

In fact almost two-thirds of the Constitution owes its origin to the Government of India Act, 1935

B.

Features of the Indian Constitution

1.

The Bulkiest Constitution of the World:

2.

Combination of Rigidity and Flexibility

3.

Parliamentary System of Government

4.

Federal System with a Unitary Bias

5.

Fundamental Rights

6.

Fundamental Duties

7.

Directive Principles of State Policy

8.

Secular State

9.

Independent judiciary

10. People as Source of Authority

11. Universal Adult Franchise
12. Emergency Powers
13. Single Citizenship
14. Bicameral Legislature
15. Special Provision for Minorities
16. Panchayati Raj
17. Rule of Law
18. Strikes Balance between Constitutional Supremacy and Parliamentary Sovereignty
19. A Single Integrated Judiciary
20. Provision of Independent Bodies
21. Basic Structure

C.

Preamble
The Constitution of India is preceded by a preamble which (i) indicates the source from which it derives
authority; and (ii) states the objective which the constitution seeks to achieve. It reads:
We, the people of India having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a sovereign, socialist, secular*
democratic republic and to secure to all its citizens.
JUSTICE social, economic and political;
LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;
EQUALITY of status and of opportunity and to promote among them all;
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the nation*
In our Constituent Assembly this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949 we do hereby adopt, enact and give
to ourselves this Constitution.
The word sovereign means that India is both internally as well as externally free and is not dependent
upon any outside authority. The term 'socialist' in the Preamble (inserted by the 42nd Amendment) refers
to some form of ownership of means of production and distribution by the state. However, the Indian

218
brand of socialism is quite different and holds faith in a mixed economy. Secularism implies that the state
is only concerned with relations between various citizens and is not concerned with relations of man with
God. Further, it means that the state has no religion of its own. The term Democratic implies that the
government draws its authority from the people. The rulers are elected by the people and are accountable
to them. The word republic 1 implies that the head of the state in India shall be an elected person and
shall hold office for a fixed term. The President I of India is the chief executive head of India.
The Preamble has great value and has been described as the 'key to the Constitution'. It has helped courts
resolve various ambiguous points of the Constitution and interpret it in the true spirit in which it was
enacted by the framers.

D.

CITIZENSHIP

I.

Who is a Citizen?
The Constitution of India provides for single citizenship. All persons residing in different parts of the
country enjoy Indian citizenship (Article 5). There is no separate citizenship of states. According to the
Constitution, the following three categories of persons are entitled to citizenship:
1. person domiciled in India
2. refugees who migrated to India from Pakistan
3. Indians living in other countries.
Domiciled persons include those with permanent homes in India, persons born in India, persons either of
whose parents was born in Indian territory, and persons ordinarily residing in India for at least five years
before the commencement of the Constitution, provided they had not voluntarily acquired the citizenship
of some foreign country.

II.

Acquisition and Termination of Citizenship

A person can acquire citizenship of India in five ways.

1.

Citizenship by Birth: A person born in Indi a on or after January 1950 is treated as citizen of India by
birth.

2.

Citizenship by Descent: A person who was residing outside India on or after 26 January 1950 is treated
as a citizen of India by descent if his father was citizen of India at the time of his birth.

3.

Citizenship by Registration: The following categories of persons can be registered as citizens of India
on application by the prescribed authority: (a) persons of Indian origin who are ordinarily resident in India
for five years before filing of application for registration; (b) persons of Indian origin who are ordinarily
resident in any country or place outside India; (c) women who are married to citizens of India; (d) minor
children of persons who are citizens of India; and (e) persons of full age and capacity who are citizens of
Commonwealth countries or the Republic of Ireland.

4.

Citizenship by Naturalisation: A person can acquire citizenship of India through naturalisation if he (a)
belongs to a country where the citizens of India are allowed to become subjects or citizens of that country
by naturalisation; (b) renounces the citizenship of his country and intimates the renunciation to the
government of India; (c) has been residing in India or serving the government for 12 months before the
date of making application for naturalisation; (d) possesses a good character; (e) possesses workable
knowledge of an Indian language; (f) intends to reside in India or to serve under the Government of India
after naturalisation. However, the Government of India can waive any or all of the above conditions in
case of a person who has rendered distinguished service in the cause of philosophy, science, art,
literature, world peace and the like.

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5.

By Incorporation of Territory: If any new territory is added to India, the Government of India can
specify the persons of the territory who shall be citizens of India by reasons of their connection with that
territory. Citizenship can be terminated in three ways:

III.

Termination of Citizenship

a.

A citizen may voluntarily renounce his citizenship by making necessary declaration to this effect in the
prescribed form. Usually citizenship is renounced by a citizen who wants to become the national to
another country.

b.

the citizenship can be terminated if a person voluntarily acquires the citizenship of any other country by
naturalisation, registration or otherwise.

c.

The Central Government can deprive a naturalised citizen of his citizenship, if it is satisfied that the citizenship was acquired by fraud, false representation or concealment of material facts; or if the person
shows disloyalty towards the Indian Constitution or indulges in trade with enemy countries during war; or
if the person has been sentenced to imprisonment for a period of two years or more within five years of
his registration of naturalisation; or if he has been continuously residing out of India for more than seven
years.

E.

FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
Introduction:
The Constitution guarantees elaborate Fundamental Rights to Indian citizens. These are contained in Part
III of the Constitution. These rights are vital for the development of the individual and promote his dignity
and welfare. The rights are justiciable and can be enforced through courts. As these rights are guaranteed
by the Constitution, the government can change them only through constitutional amendment. However,
the government is authorised to impose reasonable restrictions on the rights. But whether these
restrictions are reasonable or not is to be decided by the courts.

I.

Classification of Fundamental Rights:

Originally, the Constitution classified the Fundamental Rights into seven categories, but with the
elimination of right to property from the list of Fundamental Rights by the 44th Amendment in 1978, there
are now six categories of rights. These are:

a.

Right to Equality (Articles 14-18):

Every citizen is assured equality before law and equal protection of law within the territory of India (Article
14). It also implies absence of special privileges by reasons of birth, creed or the like in favour of any
individual. The state cannot make any discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of
birth (Article 15). In matters of public employment also, all citizens are assured equality of opportunity
and no person can be denied employment on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of
birth, residence or any of them (Article 16). To ensure genuine equality, untouchability has been abolished
and its practice in any form has been made an offence punishable in accordance with law (Article 17).
Article 18 abolishes all titles, except military and academic. However, the right to equality is not absolute
and the state is free to make special provisions for women and children and take special steps for the
advancement of the socially and educationally backward classes of citizens.

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b.

Right to Freedom (Articles 19-22):

The Constitution guarantees the citizens six fundamental freedoms under Article 19 of the Constitution.
These include freedom of speech and expression; freedom of peaceful assembly without arms; freedom to
form association; freedom of movement throughout the territory of India; freedom to reside and settle in
any part of India; and freedom to practise any profession and carry on any occupation, trade or business.
The original Constitution also guaranteed the Indian citizens freedom to acquire, hold and dispose of their
property. However, this freedom was dropped by the Forty-fourth Amendment.
However, this right is not absolute and reasonable restrictions can be imposed on the exercise of this right
in the interest or on the grounds of security of the state; friendly relations with foreign countries; public
order, decency and morality; contempt of court; defamation; incitement to offence against sovereign
integrity of India.
The Constitution guards the citizens right to freedom by providing that no person shall be convicted of an
offence except for the violation of law in force at the time of the commission of the act charged as an
offence (Article 20). It further provides that no person shall be punished for the same offence more than
once and no person shall be compelled to be a witness against himself. The Constitution guarantees
protection of life and personal liberty except according to procedure established by law (Article 21). Article
21A guarantees free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to fourteen years. Citizens
are assured protection against arrest and detention. A citizen arrested under any law has to be informed
of the grounds for his arrest, and has the right to consult and to be defended by a legal practitioner of his
choice. Each detained person has to be produced before the nearest magistrate within a period of 24
hours of such an arrest and cannot be kept in police custody beyond that period without the authority of
the magistrate. However, under exceptional circumstances the state can curb the right to freedom and
detain a person under the Preventive Detention Act on the grounds of suspicion of comitting anti-national
activities.

c.

Right against Exploitation (Articles 23-24):

This right seeks to protect the weaker sections against exploitation by unscrupulous persons or even the
state. It prohibits traffic in human beings and begar (making a person work without wages or adequate
compensation) (Article 23) and imposes restrictions on the employment of children below the age of 14 in
factories, mines and other hazardous jobs (Article 24)

d.

Right to Freedom of Religion (Articles 25-28):

Every citizen is free to profess, practise and propagate any religion (Article 25). The state can neither
patronise any particular religion nor ask any citizen to pay taxes for the promotion of any religion (Article
27). No religious instructions can be imparted in educational institutions maintained by the state or
receiving aid from it (Article 28). The right to freedom of religion is not absolute and can be restricted on
the grounds of public order, morality and health.

e.

Cultural and Educational Rights (Articles 29-30):

The Constitution permits the minorities to conserve their language, script and culture, and establish and
administer educational institutions for this purpose (Article 29). The state does not discriminate about
providing aid to educational institutions on ground of religion or language. No citizen can be denied
admission to any educational institution maintained or aided by the state on grounds only of religion, race,
caste or language (Article 30).

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f.

MS. Right to Constitutional Remedies (Articles 32-35):

This right was described by Dr B R Ambedkar as 'the heart and soul of the Constitution'. This right gives
every citizen the right to approach the Supreme Court for the enforcement of his/her Fundamental Rights
(Article 32). The Supreme Court can issue writs in the nature of habeas corpus, mandamus prohibition,
quo waranto and certiorari. The Parliament can also empower any other court to exercise the right to
enforce Fundamental Rights within its jurisdiction. Even the state High Courts can issue various writs for
the enforcement of the Fundamental Rights. Thus, both the Supreme Court and the High Court's enjoy
concurrent jurisdiction and an affected person can approach either for the enforcement of Fundamental
Rights.

F.

FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES
The Constitution outlines the Fundamental Duties of the Indian citizens, which were incorporated in the
Constitution by the 42nd Amendment Act in 1976. These duties have been specified in Article 51A and
include the following:
1.

to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and the National

Anthem;
2.

to cherish and follow the noble ideals which in spired our national struggle for freedom;

3.

to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;

4.

to defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so;

5.

to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood among all the people of India tran-

scending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to the
dignity of women;
6.

to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;

7.

to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life, and to

have compassion for living creatures;

8.

to develop a scientific temper; humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform;

9.

to safeguard public property and to abjure violence; and

10. to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity so that the nation
constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and achievement.
11. A new fundamental duty was added to the constitution by the 86th Amendment Act, which added
right to education with a view to provide individual rights a sense of social responsibility.

G.

THE DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY

Introduction:
The Directive Principles of State Policy, which embody the ambitions and aspirations of the framers of the
Constitution, are contained in Part IV of the Constitution. In addition, several other Articles of the
Constitution viz. Art. 350 A, Art. 351 and Art. 335 also deal with Directive Principles. The Directive
Principles aim at providing the social and economic base of a genuine democracy. These principles are not
enforceable through courts and are merely directives which the government has to keep in mind while
framing policy.

I.

Difference between Directive Principles and Fundamental Rights:

The Directive Principles of State Policy differ from Fundamental Rights in the following respects:
1.

Directive Principles are positive instructions to the government to work for the attainment of set

objectives. Fundamental Rights are injunctions to the government to refrain from doing certain things.

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2.

Directive Principles are not enforceable through courts. Courts cannot take any action against the

government if it ignores or violates them. Fundamental Rights are enforceable through courts.
3.

Directive Principles are inferior to Fundamental Rights because in case of conflict between the two, the

latter must get precedence.

II.

Important Directive Principles:

Broadly speaking, there are three types of Directive Principles:

a.

Economic or Socialist:
These principles aim at providing social and economic justice and ushering in a welfare state. They require
the state, under Article 39,
(a) to provide adequate means of livelihood to all citizens;
(b) to prevent concentration of wealth and means of production and ensure equitable distribution of
wealth and material resources;
(c) to secure equal pay for equal work to men as well as women;
(d) to ensure a decent standard of living and leisure for all workers;
(e) to provide necessary opportunities and facilities to children and youth to prevent their exploitation;
and
(f) to make efforts to secure the right to work, education and public assistance in case of unemployment,
sickness, old age, etc. (Article 40)

b.

Gandhian Principles:
These principles are the embodiment of the Gandhian programme for reconstruction.
These include
(a) the establishment of village panchayats powerful enough to function as units of self-governance; (Article 41)
(b) the promotion of educational and economic interests of weaker sections of society; (Article 46)
(c) the promotion of cottage industries; (Article 43)
(d) the prohibition of intoxicating drugs and drinks; and (Article 47)
(e) prevention of the slaughter of cows, calves and other milch cattle, etc. (Article 48)

c.

Liberal Principles:
These principles are based on liberal thinking and emphasise the need for
1.

a uniform civil code for the country; (Article 44)

2.

free and compulsory education for all children up to the age of 14 years; (Article 45)

3.

separation of the judiciary and executive; (Article 47)

4.

provision of free legal aid to economically backward classes, to ensure that opportunities for securing
justice are not denied to any citizen by reason of economic to other disabilities; (Article 39A)

5.

organisation of agriculture and animal husbandry along scientific lines; (Article 48)

6.

securing the participation of workers in the man agement of industries; (Article 43 A)

7.

protection and improvement of environment; safe guarding the forests and wildlife of the country;
(Article 48A) and

8.

protecting monuments and places of artistic or historical importance (Article 49).

In the foreign sphere, these principles lay emphasis on the promotion of international peace and security;
maintenance of just and honourable relations between nations; fostering of respect for international law

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and treaty obligations; and encouraging the settlement of international dispurts through arbitration, etc.
(see Article 51))

H.

THE PRESIDENT
The President is the executive head of the state. The Constitution vests all the executive powers of the
Union Government in him. He exercises these powers either directly himself or through officers
subordinate to him.

I.

Qualifications:
A candidate for the office of the President
(a) must be a citizen of India
(b) should have completed 35 years of age
(c) must possess qualifications required for member ship of the Lok Sabha
(d) must not hold any office of profit under the Govern ment of India, state government or local authority.
However, the following offices are not considered as offices of profit (a) President and Vice-President (b)
the governor of a state; (c) minister of union or state.
The name of a candidate for the post of President must be proposed by 50 electors and seconded by
atleast 50 electors. He has also to deposit a security of Rs 15,000 for contesting elections.

II.

Election
The President is indirectly elected through an electoral college consisting of the elected members of both
the houses of the Parliament and elected members of all the state legislative assemblies. The Constitution
provides that as far as practicable there shall be uniformity in the scale of representation among the
states as a whole and the Union. This is sought to be achieved by providing that every elected member of
the legislative assembly of a state shall have as many votes as there are multiples of 1000 in the quotient
obtained by dividing the population of the state by the total number of elected members of the assembly.

III.

Disputes Regarding Presidential Election

All disputes in connection with the election of the President are inquired into and decided by the Supreme
Court, and its decision is final. It is noteworthy that the election of the President or the Vice-President
cannot be challenged on the ground of existence of any vacancy on whatever reason in the electoral
college electing him.

IV.

Impeachment
The President can be removed from office before expiry of his term through impeachment. Impeachment
proceedings can be initiated by either house of Parliament on the grounds of violation of the Constitution.
After impeachment charges have been framed by one house, the charges are investigated by the other
house. If the other house, after due investigation, passes a resolution by a two-third majority that the
charges have been sustained, the President stands impeached.

V.

Vacancy
In case the office falls vacant due to the death, resignation or removal of the incumbent, the VicePresident acts as President. In case the Vice-President is also not available to discharge the duties of the
office of the President, the Chief Justice of India acts as President. Thus Chief Justice M. Hidayatullah
acted as President of India from 20 July 1969 to 24 August 1969 because V.V. Giri, the then acting

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President, tendered his resignation to contest presidential election. In the absence of the Chief Justice, the
seniormost judge of the Supreme Court acts as President. A person who acts as President is entitled to all
the powers and privileges of the President. Fresh elections for the office of the President must be held
within six months of the occurrence of vacancy.
VI.

Powers of the President

The powers of the President may be studied under the following heads:

a.

Executive Powers
The President is the executive head of the state (Article 53) and all executive actions of the Union
Government are taken in his name (Article 77). All important officials of the Union Government are
appointed by the President. Some important officials appointed by the President include the Prime
Minister, the members of the council of ministers, the Chief Justice and judges of the Supreme Court and
High Courts, Chairman and members of the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC), Comptroller and
Auditor General of India, Attorney General of India, governors of states, members of the finance
commission, ambassadors and so forth.

b.

Legislative Powers
As an integral part of the Parliament under Article 79, the President enjoys important legislative powers.
He can summon and prorogue the sessions of the two houses and can dissolve the Lok Sabha (Article 85).
He can address both the houses separately or jointly (Article 86). He addresses the first session of the
Parliament after the general election (Article 87). He nominates 12 members to the Rajya Sabha from
persons who have distinguished themselves in fine arts, literature, social service and so on. He nominates
two members from the Anglo-Indian community to the Lok Sabha if this community has not received
adequate representation. All the bills passed by Parliament must receive his assent before they become
law. The President can ask the Parliament to reconsider a bill (Article 111). If on reconsideration, the
Parliament repasses the bill, the President has to give his signature (Article 111). Thus, he enjoys only
suspensive veto power and it can be applied only to the non-money bills. However, with regard to
constitutional amendments the President has no veto power and it is obligatory for him to give assent to
such bills. The President can enact laws through ordinances when the Parliament is in recess. In this
regard Article 123 of the Constitution provides that if at any time, except when both the Houses of
Parliament are in session, the President is satisfied that circumstances exist which render it necessary for
him to take immediate action, he may promulgate such Ordinances as the circumstances appear to him to
require. It may be observed that the President can promulgate ordinances only on matters listed in the
union list and the concurrent list. He can also issue ordinances on residuary subjects as well as the state
list if the state is under President's rule. These ordinances possess the force of a law but must be
approved by the Parliament within six weeks of its reassembly. It may be noted that the Ordinances differ
from the Acts of Parliament in three respects viz., they cannot be used for the amendment of the
Constitution; they have a temporary character; and they must be replaced by a law of the Parliament.

c.

Financial Powers
All money bills can originate in the Lok Sabha only on the recommendations of the President. The
Contingency Fund of India has been placed at the disposal of the President. He can advance money out of
this fund to meet unforeseen expenses and recover the same after due authorization by the Parliament.
The President appoints a finance commission (Article 280) ever five years to recommend distribution of
taxes between the union and state governments.

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d.

Judicial Powers
The President appoints the Chief Justice and judges of the Supreme Court and state High Courts (Articles
124, 217). He can grant pardon, reprieve, respite or remission of punishment, or commute the sentence
of any person punished under the union law (Article 72). The President enjoys legal immunity and is not
accountable to any court of law for anything done in the exercise of his official duties.

e.

Emergency Powers
The Constitution vests extraordinary powers in the President to deal with three types of emergencies: (a)
emergency due to war or external aggression or armed rebellion (Article 352). (b) emergency arising out
of failure of constitutional machinery in the state (Article 356); and (c) emergency arising from threat to
the financial stability or credit of the country (Article 360). During emergencies, the President comes to
wield such extensive powers that critics of the Constitution describe them as a threat to the democratic
system of government.

f.

Military Powers
As the Supreme Commander of the defence forces of India, the President appoints the chiefs of the Army,
Navy and Air Force. He also enjoys the power to declare war and conclude peace.

g.

Diplomatic Powers
The President represents the country in international forums. He sends ambassadors to foreign countries
and receives their diplomats. All international treaties and agreements are concluded on behalf of the
President. However, these treaties and agreements are subject to rectification by the Parliament)

I.

Vice-President
The Constitution provides for a Vice-President who is elected by members of the two houses of Parliament
in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of a single transferable vote. A
candidate for the office of the Vice-President must be proposed and seconded by at least 25 members. He
is also required to deposit a security of Rs 15,000. Election disputes regarding the Vice-President are
decided by the Supreme Court.

I.

II.

Qualifications

A candidate for the office of Vice-President must

1.

be a citizen of India

2.

be more than 35 years of age

3.

possess the qualifications prescribed for member ship of the Rajya Sabha

4.

not be a member of either house of the Parliament or state legislature

5.

not be a person of unsound mind or insolvent

6.

not hold any office of profit under the union or state government or local authority.

Term and Emoluments

The Vice-President holds office for a term of five years from the date on which he enters office. He is
eligible for re-election. His term can be cut short if he submits his resignation to the President or is
removed by the Rajya Sabha through a resolution passed by a two-third majority of its members and
likewise agreed to by the Lok Sabha. The Vice-President draws a monthly salary of Rs 1,25,000. In
addition he enjoys several benefits, like free residence, free travel, medical facilities etc. On retirement he
is entitled to monthly pension.

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III.

Oath of Office
Before entering upon his office the Vice-President has to take an oath before the President or some other
person appointed by him.

IV.

Powers
The Vice-President is the ex-officio chairman of the Rajya Sabha (Article 64) and presides over its
meetings. All bills, resolutions, motions or questions can be taken up by the Rajya Sabha only with his
consent. He is the chief spokesman of the Rajya Sabha before the President as well as the Lok Sabha.

He discharges the functions of the office of the President in case that post falls vacant on account of the
death, resignation or removal of the President (Article 65). The Vice-President can act as President for a
maximum period of six months because fresh elections for the office of President must be held within six
months of the occurrence of vacancy. Similarly, if the President is unable to discharge his functions for
some reason, the Vice-President discharges all his functions.

J.

The Parliament
The parliament is the union legislature of India. It consists of the President and the two houses the Lok
Sabha (House of People) and Rajya Sabha (Council of States).

I.

Lok Sabha
The Lok Sabha is the popular house of the Indian Parliament. It consists of representatives elected by the
people on the basis of universal adult franchise through secret ballot. The maximum strength of the Lok
Sabha has been fixed at 550, out of which 530 represent the states and 20 represent the union territories.
The President can nominate two members of the Anglo-Indian community if, in his opinion, this
community is not adequately represented in the Lok Sabha. The strength of the Lok Sabha was fixed at
543 (plus two nominated members of the Anglo-Indian community) in 1976.
To be eligible for membership of the Lok Sabha a person,
1. must be a citizen of India,
2. should be at least 25 years of age,
3. should possess such other qualifications as may be prescribed by Parliament,
4. must not hold any office of profit under the union or state government,
5. must not be of unsound mind or declared insolvent
A person is disqualified from becoming a member of Parliament,
6. if he is not a citizen of India or has voluntarily acquired the citizenship of a foreign state, and
7. if he is disqualified under any law made by the Parliament.
Under the defection law, a member is disqualified from being member of either house of Parliament (i) if
he voluntarily gives up the membership of the political party on whose ticket he is elected to the house; or
(ii) if he votes or abstains from voting in the house against any direction given by his political party.

Vacation of Seat A member of Parliament can vacate his eat before the expiry of his term by writing to
the Chairman or the Speaker as the case may be. The seat of a member can also be declared vacant if he
absents himself from the meetings of the house for 60 days without intimation.

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Members of the Lok Sabha are elected for a term of five years but the term can be cut short if the
President dissolves the House earlier on the recommendation of the Prime Minister.
Presiding Officers The presiding officer of the Lok Sabha is known as the Speaker. He is elected by the
members of Lok Sabha from among themselves. In addition to the Speaker, the house elects a Deputy
Speaker who discharges the duties of the presiding officer in the absence of the Speaker.

The Speaker and the Deputy Speaker remain in office as long as they are members of the House. If they
cease to be members of the House they have to vacate their office. However, the Speaker continues in
office even after the dissolution of the Lok Sabha till a newly elected Lok Sabha meets. The Speaker and
the Deputy Speaker can tender resignation from their office at any time. They may also be removed from
their office by a resolution of the House of People passed by a majority of the members of the House.
Leader of Opposition The original constitution did not provide for the office of Opposition Leader. This
post was created through an Act of Parliament in 1977. The Act provided that the leader of the party
(other than the ruling party) with the largest number of members in the Parliament shall be recognised as
Leader of Opposition, provided his party has captured atleast 10 percent of the total Lok Sabha seats. The
Leader of the Opposition enjoys Cabinet rank under the Act.
II.

Rajya Sabha
The Rajya Sabha is the Upper House of the Parliament. It consists of representatives of the states. The
maximum strength of the Rajya Sabha is 250. Of these, 238 represent the states and union territories and
the rest are nominated by the President. The nominees are persons who have distinguished themselves in
the field of literature, art, science, social service and so on. Representatives of the states are elected by
members of state legislative assemblies on (the basis of proportional representation through a single
transferable vote. It is noteworthy that in the Rajya Sabha, the states^have been provided representation
on the basis of their population.
As regards qualifications for membership of the Rajya Sabha, the candidate must
1. be a citizen of India
2. be 30 years of age or more
3. be a parliamentary elector in the state in which he is seeking election
4. possess such other qualifications as may be pre scribed by the Parliament from time to time.
The candidates seeking membership to the Rajya Sabha must not have any of the disqualifications listed
for the members of the Lok Sabha.
The members of the Rajya Sabha are elected for a term of six years. Even though the Rajya Sabha is a
permanent house, one-third of the members retire every two years. The Vice-President is the ex-officio
Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. In addition, the Rajya Sabha elects a Deputy Chairman from its members,
who presides over the meetings in the absence of the Vice-President.

III.

Sessions of Parliament
The sessions of Parliament are convened at the discretion of the President. However, there should not be
a gap of more than six months between two sessions.

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Adjournment
Adjournment is a short recess within the session of the Parliament ordered by the Presiding Officer of the
House. The duration of adjournment can be few minutes or days. The adjournment does not bring the
session to an end. It merely postpones the proceedings of the House to a future date and time. Sometime
the Presiding Officer adjourns to house without fixing any date or time of the next meeting. This is known
in Parliamentary language as adjournment sine die.
Prorogation of House
The Constitution vests the power to prorogue the House in the President who uses it on the advice of the
council of ministers. Prorogation of House only ends the session of the House and not its life. It merely
implies that the house ceases to do its business at a particular time. It may be noted that unlike England,
where prorogation brings to an end all bills or business pending before the House, in India the pending
bills or business do not lapse on the prorogation of a session. The House takes up pending business for
consideration when it meets after prorogation.
Dissolution of House
Dissolution ends the life of the House and a fresh House has to be reconstituted thereafter. In India, only
the Lok Sabha is subject to dissolution before the expiry of its normal term. The Rajya Sabha, on the
other hand, is a permanent house and is not subject to dissolution. The power to dissolve the Lok Sabha
vests in the President, who generally takes this action on the advice of the Prime Minister. In the event of
the dissolution of the House, any Bill pending in the Lok Sabha lapses. Any bill passed by the Lok Sabha
and pending in the Rajya Sabha also lapses, unless the President indicates his intention to call a joint
sitting of the two houses. However, in the event of dissolution of the Lok Sabha, any bill pending in the
Rajva Sabha, but not passed by the Lok Sabha, does not lapse.
Joint Sessions
The President can call joint sessions (Article 108) of the two houses if a bill passed by one house is
rejected by the other house or if the amendments proposed to a bill by one house are not acceptable to
the other, or if the other house does not take any action on a bill remitted to it for six months. The joint
session of Parliament is presided over by the Speaker of the Lok Sabha and a decision is taken by
majority of the total members present. Since the inauguration of the constitution, joint sessions of the two
Houses have been called only three times in 1961, 1978 and 2002. The last joint session of the two
Houses was called on March 26, 2002 to pass the Prevention of Terrorism Bill.
IV.

Powers of Parliament
1. The Parliament legislates on subjects included in the union and concurrent lists. It can also legislate on
subjects included in the state list,
(a) if the Rajya Sabha passes a resolution by two-third majority that it is in the national interest that
Parliament should legislate on the state subject; (Article 249)
(b) if the legislatures of two or more states recommend to Parliament to legislate; (Article 252)
(c) for the implementation of treaties and agreements with foreign powers; (Article 253) and
(d) during the proclamation of emergency on account of threat to the security of India or a breakdown of
constitutional machinery in the state. (Article 250)
The power to legislate on residuary subjects also vests with Parliament. (Article 248)

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1. The Parliament exercises completed control over the union finances. No taxes can be levied or
expenditure incurred without its approval.
2. The Parliament exercises completed control over the executive. The council of ministers, which is the
real executive, is accountable to Parliament and stays in office as long as it enjoys the confidence of
Parliament. If the Parliament especially the Lok Sabha expresses lack of confidence in the council of
ministers, it has to resign. The Parliament exercises control over government in numerous ways through
questions, supplementary questions, resolutions and adjournment motions, and so on. Actually, on
account of rigid party discipline, the members of Parliament do not exercise any real control over the
council of ministers as they readily endorse its policies and actions.
3. The Parliament plays a major role in the amendment of the Constitution (Article 368). Major portions of
the Constitution can be amended by the Parliament alone by a simple or two-third majority. Only in
respect of a limited numbers of provision can the amendments be carried out by Parliament with the
approval of the legislatures of not less than one-half of the states.
4. The Parliament elects the Vice-President and can initiate impeachment proceedings against the President of India. (Articles 66, 61)
5. The Parliament recommends the creation of new All India Services. (Article 312)
6. The Parliament reserves the right to recommend removal of a judge of the Supreme Court and High
Courts to the President. (Articles 124, 217)
7. Parliament's approval is essential for the continuance of proclamation of emergency made by the
President. (Articles 352, 356, 360)
V.

Legislative Procedure
The legislative procedure in India is quite elaborate. A bill has to pass through numerous stages before it
becomes law. There is a slightly different procedure for the passage of ordinary bills and money bills.

a.

Ordinary Bill An ordinary bill can be introduced in either house of the Parliament and has to pass through
the following stages in each house, before it is submitted to the President for his assent.
First Reading At this stage the title of the bill is read and a brief speech regarding the aims and objective
of the bill is made. Opponents of the bill also make a brief speech at this stage and after a formal vote,
the bill is published in gazette.
Second Reading At this stage the general principles of the bill as a whole are discussed and decision
regarding reference of the bill to the appropriate committee is taken. No amendments are possible at this
stage.
Committee Stage After the second reading, the bill is referred to the appropriate committee where its
provisions are thoroughly discussed. The committee can also make suitable suggestions for improvement
of the bill and suggest necessary amendments.
Report Stage The committee submits its report to the House, where it is thoroughly discussed. The
members of the House hold a clause-by-clause discussion and vote thereon. At this stage, they can also
propose fresh amendments, which are accepted by majority vote.
Third Reading A general discussion on the bill takes place and formal voting for the acceptance or
rejection of the bill is held. No amendments can be proposed at this stage.
After a bill has been passed by one house it is transmitted to the other house, where it goes through all
these stages once again. After the bill has been passed by the other house, it is sent to the President for
assent. However, if the other house proposes certain amendments which are not acceptable to the

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originating house, it may lead to a deadlock. The deadlock is resolved by convening a joint-sitting of the
two houses where the decision is taken by majority vote.
The President can either accord his assent or return the bill for reconsideration of the Parliament. But if
the Parliament repasses the bill, the President has to accord assent to it.
b.

Money Bill
A money bill deals with the imposition or abolition of tax, borrowing of money by the Government of
India, custody and maintenance of the Consolidated Fund or Contingency Fund or the Public Accounts of
India and the audit of the accounts of the union and state. The final decision, whether a bill is a money bill
or not, rests with the Speaker of the Lok Sabha.
The procedure for the passage of a money bill is quite different from the procedure for enactment of an
ordinary bill. A money bill can originate only in the Lok Sabha on the recommendation of the President.
After a money bill has been passed by the Lok Sabha, it is transmitted to the Rajya Sabha. The Rajya
Sabha is given 14 days to make its recommendations. If it fails to make recommendations within this
period, the bill is considered to have been passed by both houses and is transmitted to the President for
his assent. If the Rajya Sabha returns the bill within 14 days with its recommendations, it is up to the Lok
Sabha to accept or reject the recommendations. Even if the Lok Sabha does not accept the
recommendations of the Rajya Sabha, the bill is deemed to have been passed by both houses in the form
in which it was transmitteed to the Rajya Sabha. Thus, with regard to money bills, the final authority rests
with the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha can delay its enactment for a maximum period of 14 days.

VI.

Parliamentary Terms
It shall be desirable to know the meaning of the various parliamentary terms connected with
Parliamentary procedure.

a.

Question Hour The first hour of every sitting in the two Houses of Parliament is devoted to asking and
answering of questions and is popularly known as Question Hour. During this hour, matters concerning
government are raised and the problems facing the country are brought to the notice of the government
with a view to seek the redress or to expose the administrative excesses. The questions are generally
addressed to the ministers and are of three categories, viz., starred questions, unstarred questions, and
short notice questions. The starred questions are to be answered orally on the floor of the House and are
generally distinguished by an asterisk. The answers to starred questions can be followed by
supplementary questions by members. The unstarred questions, on the other hand, do not carry any
asterisk mark and are answered in written form. Naturally, no supplementary questions can be asked on
these questions. Short notice question are generally asked on matters of urgent public importance and do
not need ten days notice as prescribed for the ordinary questions.

b.

Zero Hour There is no mention of zero hour in the rules of Parliamentary Procedure, and the term was
coined by the press in the early 1960s. The hour after the Question Hour in the two Houses of Parliament
is known as zero hour. During this hour, the members raise matters which, they feel, cannot brook any
delay. It is noteworthy that since the matters are raised without any permission or prior notice, it results
in loss of precious time of the House and encroaches on the legislative, financial and other regular
business of the House.

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c.

Adjournment Motion Adjournment motion is moved to draw the attention of the House to a recent
matter of urgent public importance having serious consequences. The adjournment motion can be moved
by any member if 5C members support it and the Speaker grants permission for the motion. Notice for
adjournment motion has to be giver before the commencement of the sitting of the House. The Speaker
admits the adjournment motion only if it relates to a definite matter of public importance, which has a
factual basis and is of an urgent nature. General issues like political situation in the country, railway
accidents, closure of mills international situation in general, etc., cannot be subject matters of
adjournment motion.

d.

No Confidence Motion
The council of ministers remains in office as long as it enjoys the confidence of the Lok Sabha. The
moment the Lok Sabha expresses lack of confidence in the council of ministers, it has to tender
resignation. To ascertain the confidence of the house in the council of ministers, the rules provide for 'no
confidence motion'. According to the rules, a notice of motion of no confidence has to be given before the
commencement of the sitting on the day it is proposed to be raised. No specific grounds have to be given
for moving such a motion and it is for the Speaker to decide whether the motion is in order or not. If the
Speaker feels that the motion is in order, he reads the motion in the House. If at least 50 members of Lok
Sabha support the motion, the Speaker admits the no confidence motion. The motion must be taken up
for discussion within 10 days of the leave being granted. The time for the discussion is usually decided on
the advice of the Business Advisory Committee. If the government so desires, the discussion can even be
taken up forthwith. After the members have spoken on the motion, the Prime Minister replies to the
charges levelled against the government. The mover of the motion has the right of reply. After the
conclusion of the debate, the Speaker puts the question to the vote of the House. It may be noted that
the Rajya Sabha has no power to entertain a motion of no confidence, because the government is
collectively responsible only to the Lok Sabha.

e.

Censure Motion
Censure motion is moved with a view to censure the government for certain policies and actions. It differs
from the no confidence motion insofar as specific grounds or charges have to be made against the
government. Further, unlike no confidence motion which can be moved against the council of ministers
alone, the censure motion can be moved against individual ministers or a group of ministers for the failure
to act or not to act on their policy. The motion must precisely and briefly record the reasons for the
censure and must be supported by at least 50 members. The decision whether the motion is in order or
not, rests with the Speaker. If the censure motion is admitted by the Speaker, it is the discretion of the
government to find time and to fix a date for its discussion. If the motion is passed in the Lok Sabha, the
council of ministers has to tender its resignation.

K.

The Supreme Court

Introduction
The Supreme Court stands at the apex of the judicial system of India. It consists of Chief Justice and 30
other judges (2008). The strength of the Supreme Court was raised from 26 to 31 in February 2009 on
the plea that this would enable the Supreme Court to function more efficiently and effectively. It was
further argued that the increase in the number of judges would help in attaining the ultimate goal of
rendering speedy justice. The Chief Justice is appointed by the President in consultation with such judges

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of the Supreme Court and High Courts as he deems necessary. The other judges of the Supreme Court
are appointed by the President in consultation with the Chief Justice. However, he may also consult other
judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts while appointing a judge of the Supreme Court.
The position is this regard underwent a drastic change following Supreme Court Judgment of 1993 in S.C.
Advocates on-Record Association vs. Union of India case. The Court held that in the matter of
appointment of the judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts, the President is bound to act in
accordance with the opinion of the Chief Justice of India, who would tender his opinion on the matter after
consulting his a collegium of four senior-most judges of the Supreme Court (see the third Judges case,
1998). Thus, the discretion of the Prime Minister and the President regarding the appointment o1 judges
has been reduced. In the selection of candidate; for appointment as judges of Supreme Court and High
Courts, the judiciary plays a major role and the executive merely acts as a check on the exercise of power
by the Chief Justice.
I.

Conditions of Service

a.

Qualifications
To be appointed judge of the Supreme Court, a person
(a) must be a citizen of India
(b) must have been a judge of a High Court or of two such courts in succession for a period of five years;
or an advocate of a High Court for at least 10 years; or is, in the view of the President, a distinguished
jurist of the country.
It may be observed that so far no non-practising person has been appointed as judge of the Supreme
Court in India.

b.

Term and Salary

The Chief Justice and other judges of the Supreme Court hold office till they attain the age of 65 years.
They can relinquish office earlier by addressing their resignation to the President. They can be removed
from office before the age of retirement by the President on the basis of a resolution passed by the
Parliament on grounds of proved misbehaviour or incapacity. So far no judge of Supreme Court has been
removed from office through impeachment.

II.

Independence of Judges
The Constitution has made elaborate provisions to ensure the independence of judges.
1. The salaries and allowances of judges have been charged on the Consolidated Fund of India and are not
subject to a vote of Parliament.
2. The salaries and other service conditions of judges cannot be changed to their disadvantage during
their tenure.
3. The removal of the judges has been made quite difficult. They can be removed from office by the President only on grounds of proved misbehaviour or incapacity on the basis of a resolution passed by the I
two houses of Parliament by two-third majority.
4. Judges are barred from carrying on any practice before any court in India after their retirement.
5. The decisions and actions of judges cannot be criticised and a person can be punished for contempt of
the court.
6. The conduct of judges cannot be discussed in the Parliament or the state legislature.

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7. The appointment of judges of Supreme Court does not depend on the discretion of the President. The
President has to consult the judges of the Supreme Court and such other courts as he may deem fit, while
appointing the judges.
8. The court enjoys complete freedom with regard to appointment of officers and servants of the court.
III.

Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court

The Supreme Court enjoys three types of jurisdictions.

a.

Original Jurisdiction
This means that certain types of cases can originate with the Supreme Court alone. The Supreme Court
has original jurisdiction in
(a) disputes between the Centre and one or more states (Article 131)
(b) disputes between the Centre and any state or states on the one hand and one or more states on the
other (Article 131)
(c) disputes between two or more states (Article 131)
(d) disputes regarding the enforcement of Fundamental Rights. (Article 32)

b.

Appellate Jurisdiction
The Supreme Court is the highest court of appeal and its writs and decrees run throughout the country. All
cases that come to the Supreme Court in the form of appeals against judgments of lower courts fall in the
appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court (Articles 132, 133, 134). Three types of cases fall within the
appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Courtconstitutional, civil, criminal. An appeal can be made to the
Supreme Court against any judgment, decree or final order of a High Court if the High Court certifies that
the case involves substantial question of law as to the interpretation of the Constitution. An appeal can be
made to Supreme Court in civil cases against judgement, decree or final order in a civil proceeding of a
High Court only if the High Court certifies (a) that the case involves a substantial question of law of
general importance; and (b) that in the opinion of the High Court, the said question needs to be decided
by the Supreme Court. An appeal can be made to the Supreme Court against the judgment, final order or
sentence in a criminal proceeding of a High Court if the High Court certifies that it is a fit case for appeal
to the Supreme Court. Without the certificate of the High Court also an appeal can be made to the
Supreme Court if the High Court (a) has on appeal reversed an order of acquittal of an accused person
and sentenced him to death; (b) has withdrawn for trial before itself any case from any court subordinate
to its authority and has in such trial convicted the accused person and sentenced him to death. It may be
observed that if the High Court has reversed the order of conviction and has ordered the acquittal of an
accused, no appeal would lie to the Supreme Court.

c.

Advisory Jurisdiction
If the President feels that a question of law or fact has arisen or is likely to arise, and the question is of
such a nature and of such public importance that it is expedient to obtain the opinion of the Supreme
Court upon it, he can refer the same to the Supreme Court for advisory opinion (Article 143). The
Supreme Court is duty bound to give its opinion on the matter referred to it by the President. However,
the opinion of the Supreme Court is not binding on the President.

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L.

State Executive
Introduction
The executive at the state level has been modelled on the central pattern. It consists of the governor, the
council of ministers and the chief minister.

I.

The Governor
The governor is the nominal executive head of the state. All the executive authority of the state is vested
in him and is exercised by him either directly or through officers subordinate to him.
The governor is appointed by the President and holds office during his pleasure. As a matter of
convention, the President sounds the chief minister of the concerned state while appointing the governor.
Before entering upon his office, the governor is to take an oath or affirmation before the Chief Justice of
the High Court of that state. In case the Chief Justice of the High Court is not available, the oath is to be
conducted by the senior most judge of the court available.
To be eligible for appointment as governor, a person
1. must be a citizen of India;
2. must have completed 35 years of age;
3. should not be a member of either House of Parliament or the state legislature;
4. must possess the qualifications prescribed for membership of the state legislature;
5. must not hold any office of profit.
Term and Salary The governor is appointed for a term of five years. However, he can relinquish his office
earlier by tendering his resignation to the President. The President can also remove him from office before
expiry of his term. The term of the Governor gets automatically extended if his successor does not
assume office on the expiry of his term. The governor draws a monthly salary of Rs 1,10,000. In addition
he is entitled to free residence, medical facilities, and certain other allowances. The salary and allowances
of the governor are charged to the Consolidated Fund of the state and are not subject to the vote of the
state legislature.

II.

Powers of the Governor

The Constitution vests quite extensive powers in the governor, though he is expected to exercise his
powers on the advice of the council of ministers. In addition, he also enjoys certain discretionary powers
that he exercises on his own. He enjoys the following powers:

a.

Executive Powers
The governor is the executive head of the state and all executive actions of the state are taken in his
name. He also appoints all important officials of the state including the chief minister, ministers, advocate
general, chairman and members of the state public service commission and so forth. The governor also
reserves the " right to recommend to the President that the government of the state is not being carried
on in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution and Presidential rule be imposed in the state.
When the state is placed under President's rule, the governor acts as the representative of the President
in the state and assumes extensive powers.

b.

Legislative Powers
These powers include the right to
(a) summon or prorogue either house of the state legislature and dissolve the state legislative assembly;

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(b) address the first session of the state legislature after the general elections;
(c) send messages to the state legislature on bills pending before it;
(d) appoint one-sixth members of the legislative council;
(e) nominates one member of the Anglo-Indian community to the legislative assembly if it does not get
representation otherwise;
(f) give assent to the bills passed by the state legislature;
(g) reserve certain types of bills passed by the legislature for the assent of the President;
(h) make laws through ordinances during the recess of the state legislature.
c.

Financial Powers
He ensures that the budget of the state is laid before the state legislature every year. All money bills can
be introduced in the state legislature only on the recommendation of the governor. The governor
administers the contingency fund of the state and can advance money out of it to meet unforeseen
expenditure. However, the money must be recouped with the authority of the state legislature.

d.

Judicial Powers
The governor is consulted by the President while appointing the Chief Justice and judges of the state High
Court. He appoints judges of courts below the High Court. He can grant pardon, reprieve, respite or
remission of punishments to persons convicted of an offence against state laws.

M.

STATE LEGISLATURE
The state legislature consists of the governor and one or two houses. If the state has only one house, it is
known as legislative assembly. The other is the legislative council. At present, only six states have a
bicameral legislature Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Uttar
Pradesh. All other states have only one house. Legislative councils can be created or abolished in a state
on the recommendation of the legislative assembly

I.

Legislative Assembly
This is the popular house of the state legislature and consists of directly elected representatives of the
people. The strength of the legislative assembly varies from 60 to 500 in different states according to
population. However, the legislative assembly of Sikkim has only 32 members. The assembly enjoys a
term of five years but can be dissolved earlier by the governor. Likewise, its term can be extended by one
year at a time by the Parliament during national emergency.
A person can become a member of the legislative assembly only if he
1. is a citizen of India;
2. is more than 25 years of age;
3. possesses such other qualifications as may be pre scribed by or under the law enacted by the Parliament.
On the other hand, a person is disqualified to be a member of state legislature (i) if he holds any office of
profit under the central or state government; (ii) if he is of unsound mind; (iii) if he is an undischarged
insolvent; (iv) if he has voluntarily acquired the citizenship of a foreign state; (v) if he is disqualified by or
under any law of Parliament. The question whether a member of a house of legislature of a state has
become subject to any of the said disqualifications, shall be referred to the governor and his decision shall

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be final. However, before giving his decision on such a question, the governor is expected to obtain the
opinion of the election commission.
Presiding Officer The presiding officer of the legislative assembly is known as Speaker. He is elected by
the members of the assembly from among themselves. In addition the assembly also elects a Deputy
Speaker, who performs the duties of the speaker in his absence. In case the office of the deputy speaker
is vacant, the duties of the office of the speaker are performed by such members of the assembly as the
government may appoint for the purpose.
II.

Legislative Council
It is the upper house of the state legislature and contains various categories of members. It has members
elected by the legislative assembly (one-third) members elected by local bodies (one-third), members
elected by teachers (one-twelfth), members elected by university graduates (one-twelfth), members
nominated by the governor (one-sixth). The maximum strength of the legislative council can be one-third
the total membership of the legislative assembly, but in no case less than 40. The legislative council
enjoys a term of six years with one-third from its members retiring every two years. The council elects a
chairman and a vice-chairman from among its members. At present, legislative council exists in Andhra
Pradesh, Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Uttar Pradesh. To be eligible for
membership of the legislative council, a person
1. must be a citizen of India;
2. must be more than 30 years of age;
3. must possess such other qualifications as may be prescribed by Parliament from time to time.
Like the members of legislative assembly, the members of the legislative council must not suffer from any
of the prescribed disqualifications, viz. he should not hold any office of profit under the central or state
government; he should not be of unsound mind; he should not be an undischarged insolvent; he should
not have voluntarily acquired the citizenship of a foreign state; and he should not be disqualified by or
under any law of Parliament.
Presiding Officer The presiding officer of the legislative council is known as Chairman. He is elected by
the members of the legislative council from amongst its members. In addition the council elects a deputy
chairman who discharges the duties of the Chairman in his absence.

III.

Legislative Procedure The legislative procedure followed in the state legislature is similar to the one
followed by the Parliament at the Centre.
A money bill can be introduced only in the state legislative assembly. After it is passed by the assembly it
is sent to the legislative council, if there is one in the state. The council can at the most delay the passage
of the money bill by 14 days. However, if there is only one house in the state, the bill after it is passed by
the assembly is sent to the governor for his assent.
The non-money or ordinary bills can originate in either of the two houses of state legislature. The
legislative council can delay an ordinary bill for a maximum period of three months. Unlike at the Centre,
at the state level there is no provision for a joint sitting of the two houses of the state legislature. If an
ordinary bill originates in the council, the assembly can reject it and put an end to it.

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Governor's Assent
After the bill is passed by the state legislature it is presented to the governor of the state. The governor
can: (i) give an assent to the bill and it becomes a law; (ii) withhold his assent; (iii) return the bill
(provided it is not a money bill) with a message; (iv) reserve the bill for the consideration of the
President. It may be noted that if the bill is reserved for the consideration of the President, the final
authority to enact the bill shifts to President and the governor cannot play any role in this regard.
If a money bill is reserved for the consideration of the President, he can either give his assent or withhold
it. The President can also direct the Governor of the state to send back the bill to the state legislature for
reconsideration. In such an eventuality, the state legislature has to reconsider the bill within six months. If
the state legislature repasses the bill, it is directly presented to the President for his assent. In this case,
the President is not obliged to give his assent. The President can also refer the bill to the Supreme Court
for its opinion.
IV.

Powers of the State Legislature

The state legislature enjoys the following powers:
1.

It can legislate on subjects contained in the state list as well as the concurrent list. However, its laws
on concurrent subjects must not conflict with the laws enacted by the Parliament on the same subject.

2.

The state legislature exercises complete control over state finances. No taxes can be levied or expenditure incurred by the state government without its approval.

3.

The state legislature exercises control over the state council of ministers through questions,
supplementary questions, by seeking information, by moving adjournment or censure motions and so
on. It can even oust the council of ministers by passing a vote of no-confidence.

4.

The state legislature participates in the election of the President.

5.

It has a share in the amendment of the Constitution insofar as certain provisions of the Constitution
can be amended only after ratification by the legislatures of the majority of states.

6.

The state legislature considers reports of the Public Service Commission, Comptroller and Auditor
General, etc. pertaining to the state.

N.

HIGH COURT
Introduction
Each state has a High Court, which is the highest judicial organ of the state. However, there can be a
common High Court for two or more states. Punjab, Haryana and the Union Territory of Chandigarh have
a common High Court. A union territory can also have a separate High Court. Thus, the National Capital
Territory of Delhi has a separate High Court. The other union territories come under the jurisdiction of
various High Courts. At present there are 24 High Courts.
The High Court consists of a chief justice and such other judges as the President may determine from time
to time. The strength of the various High Courts is not identical. For example, the Allahabad High Court
has 37 judges as against five in the Jammu and Kashmir High Court. The Chief Justice of High Court is
appointed by the President in consultation with the Chief Justice of India and the governor of the
concerned state. However, in the appointment of judges of the High Court, the President also consults the
Chief Justice of the High Court.

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I.

Conditions of Service

a.

Qualifications
To qualify for appointment as a judge of the High Court, a person
(a) must be a citizen of India;
(b) should have been an advocate of a High Court or of two or more such courts in succession for at least
10 years; or should have held judicial office in Indian territory for a period of at least 10 years.

b.

Oath
Before entering office the judge of a High Court has to take an oath in the prescribed form before the
governor of that state or some person appointed for that purpose, affirming that he will bear true faith
and allegiance to the Constitution of India and will perform the duties of his office without fear or favour,
affection or ill-will and will uphold the Constitution and the laws.

c.

Term and Salary

The judges of the High Court hold office till they attain the age of 62 years. Their term can be cut short
due to resignation or removal by the President on grounds of proved misbehaviour or incapacity. The
President can remove a judge of the High Court from his office only if the Parliament passes a resolution
by a two-third majority of its members present and voting in each house, requesting him to remove the
judge. At present the Chief Justice and other judges of the High Court draw a monthly salary of Rs 90,000
and Rs 80,000 respectively. In addition they are entitled to pension, death-cum-retirement gratuity and
benefits of deposit linked insurance scheme. The salary and service conditions of the judges of High Court
cannot be changed to their disadvantage during their tenure. The expenditure in respect of the judges of
the High Courts and other staff is charged on the consolidated fund of the states.

II.

Jurisdiction of High Court

1. The High Court enjoys the same powers which it enjoyed immediately before the commencement of the
Constitution.
2. The High Court is a court of record and has all the powers of such a court, including the power to punish for its contempt.
3. Cases relating to admiralty, matrimonial matters and issues concerning contempt of court are direct
ly taken to the High Court.
4. The High Court can issue directions, orders or writs to any person or authority within its jurisdiction.
The writs which the High Court can issue for the enforcement of Fundamental Rights or other purpose, include habeas corpus, mandamus, pro-hibition, quo warranto, and certaiorari.
5. The High Court exercises supervision over the working of courts and tribunals within its jurisdiction, and
ensures that the lower courts discharge their duties properly.
6. The High Court can withdraw a case pending before a subordinate court and may itself dispose of the
case, or determine the question of law involved in the case and return the case together with its judgment
on the question, to the said court for disposal in conformity with its judgment.
7. The Parliament can further extend the jurisdiction of the High Court.
The powers and jurisdiction of the High Court show that it is primarily a supervisory court which exercises
supervision over subordinate courts and tribunals. It also acts as guardian of the fundamental liberties of
people.

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III.

Family Courts
The family courts can be set up by the state government under the Family Courts Act 1984. Such
courts are usually set up in cities or towns with a population of more than 10 lakh. The main aim of these
courts is to promote conciliation and to secure speedy settlement of disputes relating to marriage and
family affairs.
The

Parliamentary

Committee

on

Empowerment

of

Women

recommended

that

all

the

State

Government/Union Territories be asked to set up one Family Court in each district of the country.

O.

EMERGENCY PROVISIONS
The emergency provisions are contained in Part XVIII of the Constitution, from Articles 352 to 360. These
provisions enable the Central government to meet any abnormal situation effectively.

The rationality

behind the incorporation of these provisions in the Constitution is to safeguard the sovereignty, unit,
integrity and security of the country, the country, the democratic political system, and the Constitution.
During an Emergency, the Central government becomes all powerful and the states go into the total
control of the Centre. It converts the federal structure into a unitary one without a formal amendment of
the Constitution. This kind kind of transformation of the political system from federal during normal times
to unitary during Emergency is a unique feature of the J Indian Constitution. In this context, Dr. B R
Ambedkar observed in the Constituent Assembly that:
The Constitution stipulates three types of emergencies:
1. An emergency due to war, external aggression or armed rebellion (Article 352). This is popularly known
as 'National Emergency'. However, the Constitution employs the expression 'proclamation of emergency'
to denote an emergency of this type.
2. An Emergency due to the failure of the constitutional machinery in the states (Article-356). This is
popularly known as 'President's Rule'. It is also known by two other names'State Emergency' or
'constitutional Emergency'. However, the Constitution does not use the word 'emergency' for this
situation.
3. Financial Emergency due to a threat to the financial stability or credit of India (Article 360).
I.

National Emergency
Under Article 352, the President can declare a national emergency when the security of India or a part of
it is threatened by war or external aggression or armed rebellion.
When a national emergency is declared on the ground of war or external aggression, it is known as
External

Emergency o n the other hand, when it is declared on the ground of armed rebellion, it is

known as Internal Emergency.

a.

Parliamentry Approval and Duration

The proclamation of Emergency must be approved by both the Houses of Parliament within one month
from the date of its issue. Originally, the period allowed for approval by the Parliament was two months,
but was reduced by the 44th Amendment Act of 1978. However, if the proclamation of emergency is issued
at a time when the Lok Sabha has been dissolved or the dissolution of the Lok Sabha takes place during
the period of one month without approving the proclamation, then the proclamation survives until 30 days

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from the first sitting of the Lok Sabha after its reconstitution, provided the Rajya Sabha after its
reconstitution, provided the Rajya Sabha has in the meantime approved it.
If approved by both the Houses of Parliament, the emergency continues for six months, and can be
extended to an indefinite period with an approval of the Parliament for every six months.
b.

Effects of National Emergency

A proclamation of Emergency has drastic and wide ranging effects on the political system. These consequences can be grouped into three categories:
1. Effect on the Centre-state relations
2. Effect on the life of the Lok Sabha and State assembly, and
3. Effect on the Fundamental Rights.

1.

Effect on the centre-State Relations

While a proclamation of Emergency is in force, the normal fabric of the Centre state relations undergoes a
basic change. This can be studied under three heads, namely, executive, legislative and financial.

2.

Executive
During a national emergency, the executive power of the Centre extends to directing any state regarding
the manner in which its executive power is to be exercised.

3.

Legislative
During a national emergency, the Parliament becomes empowered to make laws on any subject
mentioned in the state legislature is not suspended, it becomes subject to the overriding power of the
Parliament. Thus, the normal distribution of the legislative powers between the Centre and states is
suspended, though the state Legislatures are not suspended, though the state Legislatures are not
suspended. In brief, the Constitution becomes unitary rather than federal.

4.

Effect on the Life of the Lok Sabha and State

While a proclamation of National Emergency is in operation the life of the Lok Sabha may be extended
beyond its normal term (five years) by a law of time). However, this extension cannot continue beyond a
period of six months after the emergency has ceased to operate. For example, the term of the Fifth Lok
Sabha (1971-1977) was extended two times by one year at a time.
Similarly, the Parliament may extend the normal tenure of a state legislative assembly (five years)'By one
year each time (for any length of time) during a national emergency, subject to a maximum period of six
months after the Emergency has ceased to operate.

II.

Presidents Rule
Grounds of Imposition
Article 355 imposes a duty on the Centre to ensure that the government of every state is carried on in
accordance with the provisions of the Constitution. It is this duty in the performance of which the Centre
takes over the government of a state under Article 356 in case of failure of constitutional 'machinery in
state. This is popularly known as 'President's Rule'.

241
1. Article 356 empowers the President to issue a proclamation, if he is satisfied that a situation has arisen
in which the government of a state cannot be carried on in accordance with the provisions of the
Constitution. Notably, the president can act either on a report of the governor of the state or otherwise
too (ie, even without the governor's report
a.

Parliamentary Approval and Duration

A proclamation imposing Presidents Rule must be approved by both the House of Parliament within two
months from the date of its issue. However, if the proclamation of Presidents Rule is issued at a time
when the Lok Sabha has been dissolved or the dissolution of the Lok Sabha takes place during the period
of two months without approving the proclamation, then the proclamation survives until 30 days from the
first sitting of the Lok Sabha after its reconstitution, provided the Rajya Sabha approves it in the mean
time.
If approved by both the Houses of Parliament, the President's Rule continues for six months. It can be
extended for a maximum period of three years with the approval of the Parliament, every six months.

b.

Consequences of President's Rule

The President acquire the following extraordinary powers when the Presidents Rule is imposed in a state.;
1. He can take up the functions of the state government and powers vested in the governor or any other
executive authority in the state.
2. He can declare that the powers of the state legislature are to be exercised by the Parliament.
3. He can take all other necessary steps including the suspension of the" constitutional provisions relating
to anybody or authority in the state.
Therefore, when the Presidents Rule is imposed in a state, the President dismisses the state council of
ministers headed by the chief minister. The state governor, on behalf of the President, carries on the state
administration with the help of the chief secretary of the state or the advisors appointed by the President.
This is the reason why a proclamation under Article 356 is popularly known as the imposition of 'President's Rule' in a state. Further, the President either suspends or dissolves the state legislative assembly.
The Parliament passes the state legislative bills and the state budget.

III.

Financial Emergency
Grounds of Declaration
Article 360 empowers the president to proclaim a financial Emergency if he is satisfied that a situation has
arisen due to which the financial stability or credit of India or any part of its territory is threatened.

a.

Parliamentary Approval and Duration

A proclamation declaring financial emergency must be approved by both the Houses of Parliament within
two months from the date of its issue. However, if the proclamation of Financial Emergency is issued at a
time when the Lok Sabha has been dissolved or the dissolution of the Lok Sabha takes place during the
period of two months without approving the proclamation, then the proclamation survives until 30 days
from the first sitting of the Lok Sabha after its reconstitution, provided the Rajya Sabha has in the
meantime approved it.

242
Once approved by both the Houses of Parliament, the Financial Emergency continues indefinitely till it is
revoked. This implies two things:
1. There is no maximum period prescribed for its operation; and
2. repeated parliamentary approval is not required for its continuation
A resolution approving the proclamation of financial emergency can be passed by either House of
Parliament only by a simple majority, that is, a majority of the members of that house present and voting.
b.

Effects of Financial Emergency

The consequences of the proclamation of a Financial Emergency are as follows:
1. The executive authority of the Centre extends (a) to directing any state to observe such canons of
financial propriety as are specified by it; and (b) to directions as the President may deem necessary and
adequate for the purpose.
2. Any such direction may include a provision requiring (a) the reduction of salaries and allowances of all
or any class of persons serving in the state; and (b) the reservation of all money bills or other financial
bills for the consideration of the President after they are passed by the legislature of the state.
3. The President may issue directions for the reduction of salaries and allowances of (a) all or any class of
persons serving the Union; and (b) the judges of the Supreme Court and the high court.

P.

PRIME MINISTER
In the scheme of parliamentary system of government provided by the constitution, the President A- is
the nominal executive authority (de jure executive) and Prime Minister is the real executive authority (de
facto executive). In other words, president is the head of the State while Prime Minister is the head of the
government.

I.

Appointment of the Prime Minister

The Constitution does not contain any specific procedure for the selection and appointment of the Prime
Minister. Article 75 says only that the Prime Minister shall be appointed by the president. However, this
does not imply that the president is free to appoint any one as the Prime Minister. In accordance with the
conventions of the parliamentary system of government, the President has to appoint the leader of the
majority party in the Lok Sabha as the Prime Minister. But, when no party has a clear majority in the Lok
Sabha, then the President may exercise his personal discretion in the selection and appointment of the
Prime Minister. In such a situation, the President usually appoints the leader of the largest party or
coalition in the Lok Sabha as the Prime Minister and asks him to seek a vote of confidence in the House
within a month.

II.

Oath, Term and Salary

Before the Prime Minister enters upon his office, the president administers to him the oaths of office and
secrecy. In his oath of office, the Prime Minister swears:
1.

to bear true faith and allegiance to the Constitution of India,

2.

to uphold the sovereignty and integrity of India,

3.

to faithfully and conscientiously discharge the duties of his office, and

4.

to do right to all manner of people in accordance with the Constitution and the law, without fear

or favour, affection or ill will.

243
In his oath of secrecy, the Prime Minister swears that he will not directly or indirectly communicate or
reveal to any person(s) any matter that is brought under his consideration or becomes known to him as a
Union Minister except as may be required for the due discharge of his duties as such minister.
The term of the Prime Minister is not fixed and he holds office during the pleasure of the president.
However, this does not mean that the president can dismiss the Prime Minister at any time. So long as the
Prime Minister enjoys the majority support in the Lok Sabha, he cannot be dismissed by the President.
However, if he loses the confidence of the Lok Sabha, he must resign or the President can dismiss him.
The salary and allowances of the Prime Minister are determined by the Parliament from time to time. He
gets the salary and allowances that are payable to a Member of Parliament.
III.

Powers and Functions of the Prime

The powers and functions of Prime Minister can be 3 studied under the following heads:

a.

In Relation to Council of Ministers

The Prime Minister enjoys the following powers as head of the Union council of ministers:
1. He recommends persons who can be appointed as ministers by the president. The President can
appoint only those persons as ministers who are recommended by the Prime Minister.
2. He allocates and reshuffles various portfolios among the ministers.
3. He can ask a minister to resign or advise the President to dismiss him in case of difference of opinion.
4. He presides over the meeting of council of ministers and influences its decisions.
5. He guides, directs, controls, and coordinates the activities of all the ministers.
6. He can bring about the collapse of the council of ministers by resigning from office

b.

In Relation to the President

The Prime Minister enjoys the following powers in relation to the President:
1. He is the principal channel of communication between the President and the council of ministers. It is
the duty of the prime minister:
(a) to communicate to the President all decisions of the council of ministers relating to the administration
of the affairs of the Union and proposals for legislation;
(b) to furnish such information relating to the administration of the affairs of the Union and proposals for
legislation as the President may call for; and
(c) if the President so requires, to submit for the consideration of the council of ministers any matter on
which a decision has been taken by a minister but which has not been considered by the council.

c.

In Relation to Parliament
The Prime Minister is the leader of the Lower House. In this capacity, he enjoys the following powers:
1. He advises the President with regard to summoning and proroguing of the sessions of the Parliament.
2. He can recommend dissolution of the Lok Sabha to President at any time.
3. He announces government policies on the floor of the House.

d.

Other Powers & Functions

In addition to the above-mentioned three major roles, the Prime Minister has various other roles. These
are:

244
1. He is the chairman of the Planning Commission, National Development Council, National Integration
Council, Inter-State Council and National Water Resources Council.
2. He plays a significant role in shaping the foreign policy of the country.
3. He is the chief spokesman of the Union government.
4. He is the crisis manager-in-chief at the political level during emergencies.
5. As a leader of the nation, he meets various sections of people in different states and receives
memoranda from them regarding their problems, and so on.
6. He is leader of the party in power.
7. He is political head of the services.
Thus, the Prime Minister plays a very significant and highly crucial role in the politico-administrative
system of the country.

Q.

CENTRAL COUNCIL OF MINISTERS

The principles of parliamentary system of government are not detailed in the Constitution, but two Articles
(74 and 75) deal with them in a broad, sketchy and general manner. Article 74 deals with the status of
the council of ministers while Article 75 deals with the appointment, tenure, responsibility, qualification,
oath and salaries and allowances of the ministers.

I.

Constitutional Provisions

a.

Article 74Council of Ministers to aid and advise President

There shall be a Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister at the head to aid and advise the President
who shall, in the exercise of his functions, act in accordance with such advice. However, the President may
require the Council of Ministers to reconsider such advice and the President shall act in accordance with
the advice tendered after such reconsideration.
2. The advice tendered by Ministers to the President shall not be inquired into in any court.

b.

Article 75Other Provisions as to Ministers

1. The Prime Minister shall be appointed by the President and the other Ministers shall be appointed by the
President on the advice of the Prime Minister.
2. The total number of ministers, including the Prime Minister, in the Council of Ministers shall not exceed
15% of the total strength of the Lok Sabha. The provision was added by the 91st Amendment Act of 2003.
3. A member of either house of Parliament be longing to any political party who is disqualified on the
ground of defection shall also be disqualified to be appointed as a minister. This provision was also added
by the 91st Amend-ment Act of 2003.
4. The ministers shall hold office during the pleasure of the President.
5. The council of ministers shall be collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha.
6. The President shall administer the oaths of office and secrecy to a minister.
7. A minister who is not a member of the Parliament (either house) for any period of six consecutive
months shall cease to be a minister.
8. The salaries and allowances of ministers shall be determined by the Parliament.

245
c.

Article 77 Conduct of Business of the Government of India.

1. All executive action of the Government of India shall be expressed to be taken in the name of the
President.
2. Orders and other instruments made and executed in the name of the President shall be authenticated
in such manner as may be specified in rules to be made by the President. Further, the validity of an order
or instrument which is so authenticated shall not be called in question on the ground that it is not an order
or instrument made or executed by the President.
3. The President shall make rules for the more convenient transaction of the business of the Government
of India, and for the allocation among Ministers of the said business.

d.

Article 78Duties of Prime Minister

It shall be the duty of the Prime Minister
1. To communicate to the President all decisions of the Council of Ministers relating to the administration
of the affairs of the Union and proposals for legislation
2. To furnish such information relating to the administration of the affairs of the Union and proposals for
legislation as the President may call for
3. If the President so requires, to submit for the consideration of the Council of Ministers any matter on
which a decision has been taken by a Minister but which has not been considered by the Council.

II.

Appointment of Ministers
The Prime Minister is appointed by the President, while the other ministers are appointed by the President
on the advice of the Prime Minister. This means that the President can appoint only those persons as
ministers who are recommended by the Prime minister.
Usually, the members of Parliament, either Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha, are appointed as ministers. A
person who is not a member of either House of Parliament can also be appointed as a minister. But, within
six months, he must become a member (either by election or by nomination) of either House of
Parliament, otherwise, he ceases to be a minister.
A minister who is a member of one House of Parliament has the right to speak and to take part in the
proceedings of the other House also, but he can vote only in the House of which he is a member.

III.

Council of Ministers Vs Cabinet

The words 'council of' ministers' and cabinet' are often used interchangeably though there is a definite
distinction between them. They differ from each other in respects of composition, functions, and role.

R.

Chief Minister
In the scheme of parliamentary system of government provided by the Constitution, the governor is the
nominal executive authority (de jure executive) and the Chief Minister is the real executive authority (de
facto executive). In other words, the governor is the head of the state while the Chief Minister is the head
of the government. Thus the position of the Chief Minister at the state level is analogous to the position of
prime minister at the Centre.

246
I.

Appointment of Chief Minister

The Constitution does not contain any specific procedure for the selection and appointment of the Chief
Minister. Article 164 only says that the Chief Minister shall be appointed by the governor. However, this
does not imply that the governor is free to appoint any one as the Chief Minister. In accordance with the
convections of the parliamentary system of government, the governor has to appoint the leader of the
majority party in the state legislative assembly as the Chief Minister. But, when no party has a clear
majority in the assembly, then the governor may exercise his personal discretion in the selection and
appointment of the Chief Minister. In such a situation, the governor usually appoints the leader of the
largest party or coalition in the assembly as the Chief Minister and ask him to seek a vote of confidence in
the House within a month.
The governor may have to exercise his individual judgement in the selection and appointed of the Chief
Minister when the Chief Minister in office dies suddenly only and there is no obvious successor. However,
on the death of a Chief Minister, the ruling party usually elects a new leader and the governor has no
choice but to appoint him as Chief Minister.

II.

Oath, Term and Salary

Before the Chief Minister enters his office, the governor administers to him the oaths of office and secrecy.
In his oath, of office, the Chief Minister swears:
1. to bear true faith and allegiance to the Constitution of India,
2. to uphold the sovereignty and integrity of India,
3. to faithfully and conscientiously discharge the duties of his office, and
4. to do right to all manner of people in accordance with the Constitution and the law, without fear or
favour, affection or ill-will.
In his oath of secrecy, the Chief Minister swears that he will not directly or indirectly communicate or
reveal to any person(s) any matter that is brought under his consideration or becomes known to him as a
state minister except as may be required for the due discharge of his duties as such minister.
The term of the Chief Minister is not fixed and he holds office during the pleasure of the governor.
However, this does not mean that the governor can dismiss him at any time. He cannot be dismissed by
the governor as long as he enjoys the majority support in the legislative assembly. But, if he loses the
confidence of the assembly, he must resign or the governor can dismiss him.
The salary and allowances of the Chief Minister are determined by the state legislature. In addition to the
salary and allowances, which are payable to a member of the state legislature, he gets a sumptuary
allowance, free accommodation, travelling allowance, medical facilities, etc.

III.

Powers and Functions of Chief Minister

The powers and functions of the Chief Minister can be studied under the following heads:

a.

In Relation to Council of Ministers

The Chief Minister enjoys the following powers as head of the state council of ministers:
(a) The governor appoints only those persons as ministers who are recommended by the Chief Minister.
(b) He allocates and reshuffles the portfolios among ministers.
(c) He can ask a minister to resign or advise the governor to dismiss him in case of difference of opinion.

247
(d) He presides over the meetings of the council of ministers and influences its decisions.
(e) He guides, directs, controls and coordinates the activities of all the ministers.
(f) He can bring about the collapse of the council of ministers by resigning from office. Since the Chief
Minister is the head of the council of ministers, his resignation or death automatically dissolves the council
of ministers. The resignation or death of any other minister, on the other hand, merely creates a vacancy,
which the Chief Minister may or may not like to fill.
b.

In Relation to the Governor

The Chief Minister enjoys the following powers in relation to the governor:

(a)

He is the principal channel of communication between the governor and the council of ministers. It is the
duty of the Chief Minister:
(i) to communicate to the Governor of the state all decisions of the council of ministers relating to the
administration of the affairs of the state and proposals for legislation;
(ii) to furnish such information relating to the administration of the affairs of the state and proposals for
legislation as the governor may call for; and
(iii) if the governor so requires, to submit for the consideration of the council of ministers any matter on
which a decision has been taken by a minister but which has not been considered by the council.

(b)

He advises the governor with regard to the appointment of important officials like advocate general,
chairman and members of the state public service commission, state election commissioner, and so on.

(c)

In Relation to State Legislature

The Chief Minister enjoys the following powers as the leader of the house:
(a) He advises the governor with regard to the sum moning and proroguing of the sessions of the state
legislature.
(b) He can recommend the dissolution of the legislative assembly to the governor at any time.
(c) He announces the government policies cm the floor of the house.

(d)

Other Powers and Functions

In addition, the Chief Minister also performs the following functions:
(a) He is the chairman of the State Planning Board.
(b) He acts as a vice-chairman of the concerned zonal council by rotation, holding office for a period of
one year at a time.
(c) He is a member of the Inter-State Council and the National Development Council, both headed by the
prime minister.
(d) He is the chief spokesman of the state government.
(e) He is the crisis manager-in-chief at the political level during emergencies.
(f) As a leader of the state, he meets various sections of the people and receives memoranda from them
regarding their problems, and so on.
(g) He is the political head of the services.
Thus, he plays a very significant and highly crucial role in the state administration. However, the
discretionary powers enjoyed by the governor reduces to some extent the power, authority, influence,
prestige and role of the Chief Minister in the state administration.

248
(b) to furnish such information relating to the administration of the affairs of the state and proposals for
legislation as the governor may call for; and
(c) if the governor so requires, to submit for the consideration of the council of ministers any matter on
which a decision has been taken by a minister but which has not been considered by the council

S.

STATE COUNCIL OF MINISTERS

The principles of parliamentary system of government are not detailed in the Constitution; but two Articles
(163 and 164) deal with them in a broad, sketchy and general manner. Article 163 deals with the status of
the council of ministers while Article 164 deals with the appointment, tenure, responsibility, qualifications,
oath and salaries and allowances of the ministers.

I.

Article 163Council of Ministers to aid and advise Governor

1. There shall be a Council of Ministers with the Chief Minister as the head to aid and advise the Governor
in the exercise of his functions, except in so far as he is required to exercise, is functions in his discretion.
2. If any question arises whether a matter falls within the Governor's discretion or not, decision of the
Governor shall be final, and the validity of anything done by the Governor shall not be called in question
on the ground that he ought or ought not to have acted in his discretion.
3. The advice tendered by Ministers to the Governor shall not be inquired into in any court.

II.

Article 164Other Provisions as to Ministers

1. The Chief Minister shall be appointed by the Governor and the other Ministers shall be appointed by the
Governor on the advice of the Chief Minister. However, in the states of Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya
Pradesh and Odisha, there shall be a Minister in charge of tribal welfare who may in addition be in
charge of the welfare of the scheduled castes and backward classes or any other work. The state of Bihar
was excluded from this provision by the 94th Amendment Act of 2006.
2. The total number of ministers, including the chief minister, in the council of ministers in a state shall
not exceed 15 per cent of the total strength of the legislative assembly of that state. But, the number of
ministers, including the chief minister, in a state shall not be less than 12. This provision was added by
the 91st Amendment Act of 2003.
3. A member of either House of state legislature belonging to any political party who is disqualified on the
ground of defection shall also be disqualified to be appointed as a minister. The provision was also added
by the 91st Amendment Act of 2003.
4. The ministers shall hold office during the pleasure of the Governor.
5. The council of ministers shall be collectively responsible to the state Legislative Assembly.
6. The Governor shall administer the oaths of office and secrecy to a minister.
7. A minister who is not a member of the state legislature for any period of six consecutive months shall
cease to be a minister.
8. The salaries and allowances of ministers shall be determined by the state legislature.

III.

Article 166Conduct of Business of the Government of a State

1. All executive action of the Government of a State shall be expressed to be taken in the name of the
Governor.
2. Orders and other instruments made and executed in the name of the Governor shall be authenticated
in such manner as may be specified in rules to be made by the Governor. Further, the validity of an order

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or instrument which is so authenticated shall not be called in question on the ground that it is not an order
or instrument made or executed by the Governor.
3. The Governor shall make rules for the more convenient transaction of the business of the government
of the state, and for the allocation among ministers of the said business in so far as it is not business with
respect to which the Governor is required to act in his discretion.
IV.

Article 167Duties of Chief Minister

It shall be the duty of the Chief Minister of each state
1. To communicate to the governor of the state all decisions of the council of ministers relating to the
administration of the affairs of the state and proposals for legislation
2. To furnish such information relating to the administration of the affairs of the state and proposals for
legislation as the governor may call for
3. If the governor so requires, to submit for the consideration of the council of ministers any matter on
which a decision has been taken by a minister but which has not been considered by the council.

V.

Appointment of Ministers
The chief minister is appointed by the governor. The other ministers are appointed by the governor on the
advice of the chief minister. This means that the governor can appoint only those persons as ministers
who are recommended by the chief minister.
But, there should be a tribal welfare minister in Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh and Odisha.
Originally, this provision was applicable to Madhya Pradesh and Odisha.
Usually, the members of the state legislature, either the legislative assembly or the legislative council, are
appointed as ministers. A person who is not a member of either House of the state legislature can also be
appointed as a minister. But, within six months, he must become a member (either by election or by
nomination) of either House of the state legislature, otherwise, he ceases to be a minister.

VI.

Oath and Salary of Ministers

Before a minister enters upon his office, the governor administers to him the oaths of office and secrecy.
In his oath of office, the minister swears:
1. to bear true faith and allegiance to the Constitution of India,
2. to uphold the sovereignty and integrity of India,
3. to faithfully and conscientiously discharge the duties of his office, and
4. to do right to all manner of people in accordance with the Constitution and the law, without fear or
favour, affection or ill-will.
In his oath of secrecy, the minister swears that he will not directly or indirectly communicate or reveal to
any person(s) any matter that is brought under his consideration or becomes known to him as a state
minister except as may be required for the due discharge of his duties as such minister.

VII.

Cabinet
A smaller body called cabinet .is the nucleus of the council of ministers. It consists of only the cabinet
ministers. It is the real centre of authority in the state government. It performs the following role:
1. It is the highest decision making authority in the politico-administrative system of a state.
2. It is the chief policy formulating body of the state government.
3. It is the supreme executive authority of the state government.

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4. It is the chief coordinator of state administration.
5. It is an advisory body to the governor.
6. It is the chief crisis manager and thus deals with all emergency situations.
7. It deals with all major legislative and financial matters.
8. It exercises control over higher appointments like constitutional authorities and senior secretariat
administrators.

T.

PANCHAYATI RAJ
The term Panchayati Raj in India signifies the system of rural local self-government. It has been
established in all the states of India by the Acts of the state legislatures to build democracy at the grass
root level. It is entrusted with rural development. It was constitutionalised through the 73rd Constitutional
Amendment Act of 1992.

I.

73rd Amendment Act of 1992

This act has added a new Part-IX to the Constitution of India. It is entitled as 'The Panchayats' and
consists of provisions from Articles 243 to 243 0. In addition, the act has also added a new Eleventh
Schedule to the Constitution. This schedule contains I 29 functional items of the panchayats. It deals with
Article 243-G.

II.

Salient Features
The salient features of the act are:

a.

Gram Sabha
The act provides for a Gram Sabha as the foundation of the panchayati raj system. It is a body consisting
of persons registered in the electoral rolls of a village comprised within the area of Panchayat at the
village level. Thus, it is a village assembly consisting of all the registered voters in the area of a
panchayat. It may exercise such powers and perform such functions at the village level as the legislature
of a state determines.

b.

Three-Tier System
The act provides for a three-tier system of panchayati raj in every state, that is, panchayats at the village,
intermediate, and district levels. Thus, the act brings about uniformity in the structure of panchayati raj
throughout the country. However, a state having a population not exceeding 20 lakh may not constitute
panchayats at the intermediate level.

c.

Election of Members and Chairpersons

All the members of panchayats at the village, intermediate and district levels shall be elected directly by
the people. Further, the chairperson of panchayats at the intermediate and district levels shall be elected
indirectlyby and from amongst the elected members thereof. However, the chairperson of a panchayat
at the village level shall be elected in such manner as the state legislature determines.

d.

Reservation of Seats
The act provides for the reservation of seats for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in every panchayat
(i.e., at all the three levels) in proportion of their population to the total population in the panchayat area.

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Further, the state legislature shall provide for the reservation of offices of chairperson in the panchayat at
the village or any other level for the SCs and STs.
e.

Duration of Panchayats
The act provides for a five-year term of office to the panchayat at every level. However, it can be
dissolved before the completion of its term. Further, fresh elections to constitute a panchayat shall be
completed (a) before the expiry of its duration of five years; or (b) in case of dissolution, before the expiry
of a period of six months from the date of its dissolution.

f.

Disqualifications
A person shall be disqualified for being chosen as or for being a member of pan-chayat if he is so
disqualified, (a) under any law for the time being in force for the purpose of elections to the legislature of
the state concerned, or (b) under any law made by the state legislature. However, no person shall be
disqualified on the ground that he is less than 25 years of age if he has attained the age of 21 years.
Further, all questions of disqualifications shall be referred to such authority as the state legislature
determines.

g.

State Election Commission

The superintendence, direction and control of the preparation of electoral rolls and the conduct of all
elections to the panchayats shall be vested in the state election commission. It consists of a state election
commissioner to be appointed by the governor. His conditions of service and tenure of office shall also be
determined by the governor. He shall not be removed from the office except in the manner and on the
grounds prescribed for the removal of a judge of the state high court4. His conditions of service shall not
be varied to his disadvantage after his appointment. The state legislature may make provision with
respect to all matters relating to elections to the panchayats.

h.

Finance Commission
The governor of a state shall, after every five years, constitute a finance commission to review the
financial position of the panachayats. It shall make the following recommendations to the Governor:
1.

The principles that should govern:

(a) The distribution between the state and the panchayats of the net proceeds of the taxes, duties, tolls
and fees levied by the state.
(b) The determination of taxes, duties, tolls and fees that may be assigned to the panchayats.
(c) The grants-in-aid to the panchayats from the consolidated fund of the state.
2. The measures needed to improve the financial position of the panchayats.
3. Any other matter referred to it by the governor in the interests of sound finance of the panchayats.
The state legislature may provide for the composition of the commission, the required qualifications of its
members and the manner of their selection.
The governor shall place the recommendations of the commission along with the action taken report
before the state legislature.

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The Central Finance Commission shall also suggest the measures needed to augment the consolidated
fund of a state to supplement the resources of the panchayats in the states (on the basis of the
recommendations made by the finance commission of the state.

U.

MUNICIPALITIES
The term 'Urban Local Government' in India signifies the governance of an urban area by the people
through their elected representatives. The jurisdiction of an urban local government is limited to a specific
urban area which is demarcated for this purpose by the state government.
There are eight types of urban local governments in India Municipal Corporation, municipality, notified
area committee, town area committee, cantonment board, township, port trust and special purpose
agency.

I.

74th Amendment Act of 1992

This Act has added a new Part IX-A to the Constitution of India. It is entitled 'The Municipalities' and
consists of provisions from Articles 243-P to 243-ZG. In addition, the act has also added a new Twelfth
Schedule to the Constitution. This schedule contains eighteen functional items of municipalities. It deals
with Article 243-W.
The act gave constitutional status to the municipalities. It has brought them under the purview of
justiciable part of the Constitution. In other words, state governments are under constitutional obligation
to adopt the new system of municipalities in accordance with the provisions of the act.
The act aims at revitalising and strengthening the urban governments so that they function effectively as
units of local governments so that they function effectively as units of local governments.

II.

Salient Features
The salient features of the act are:

a.

Three Types of Municipalities

The act provides for the constitution of the following three types of municipalities in every state.
1.

A nagar panchayat (by whatever name called) for a transitional area, that is, an area in transition

from a rural area to an urban area.

b.

2.

A municipal council for a smaller urban area.

3.

A municipal corporation for a larger urban area

Composition
All the members of a municipality shall be elected directly by the people of the municipal area. For this
purpose, each municipal area shall be divided into territorial constituencies to be known as wards. The
state legislature may provide the manner of election of the chairperson of a municipality. It may also
provide for the representation of the following persons in a municipality.
1.

Persons having special knowledge or experience in municipal administration without the right to vote

in the meetings of municipality.

2.

The members of the Lok Sabha and the state legislative assembly representing constituencies that

comprise wholly or partly the municipal area.

3. The members of the Rajya Sabha and the state legislative council registered as electors within the
municipal area.

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4. The chairpersons of committees (other than wards committees).
c.

Reservation of Seats
The act provides for the reservation of seats for the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes in every
municipality in proportion of their population to the total population in the municipal area. Further, it
provides for the reservation of not less than one-third of the total number of seats for women (including
the number of seats reserved for woman belonging to the SCs and the STs).
The state legislature may provide for the manner of reservation of offices of chairpersons in the
municipalities for SCs, STs and women. It may also make any provision for the reservation of seats in any
municipality or offices of chairpersons in municipalities in favour of backward classes.

d.

Duration of Municipalities
The act provides for a five-year term of office for every municipality. However, it can be dissolved before
the completion of its term. Further, the fresh elections to constitute a municipality shall be completed (a)
before the expiry of its duration of five years; or (b) in case of dissolution, before the expiry of a period of
six months from the date of its dissolution.

e.

Disqualifications
A person shall be disqualified for being chosen as or for being a member of a municipality if he is so
disqualified (a) under any law for the time being in force for the purposes of elections to the legislature of
the state concerned; or (b) under any law made by the state legislature. However, no person shall be
disqualified on the ground that he is less than 25 years of age if he has attained the age of 21 years.
Further, all questions of disqualifications shall be referred to such authority as the state legislature
determines.

f.

State Election Commission

The superintendence, direction and control of the preparation of electoral rolls and the conduct of all
elections to the municipalities shall be vested in the state election commission. The state legislature may
make provision with respect to all matters relating to elections to the municipalities.

g.

Powers and Functions

The state legislature may endow the municipalities with such powers and authority as may be necessary
to enable them to function as institutions of self-government. Such a scheme may contain provisions for
the devolution of powers and responsibilities upon municipalities at the appropriate level with respect to
(a) the preparation of plans for economic development and social justice; (b) the implementation of
schemes for economic development and social justice as may be entrusted to them, including those in
relation to the eighteen matters listed in the Twelfth Schedule.

III.

Planning at Local Level

a.

District Planning Committee

Every state shall constitute at the district level, a district planning committee to consolidate the plans
prepared by panchayats and municipalities in the district, and to prepare a draft development plan for the
district as a whole. The state legislature may make provisions with respect to the following:

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1. The composition of such committees;
2. The manner of election of members of such committees;
3. The functions of such committees in relation to district planning; and
4. The manner of the election of the chairpersons of such committees.
The act lays down that four-fifths of the members of a district planning committee should be elected by
the elected members of the district panchayat and municipalities in the district from amongst themselves.
The representation of these members in the committee should be in proportion to the ratio between the
rural and urban populations in the district.
The chairperson of such committee shall forward the development plan to the state government.
In preparing the draft development plan, a district planning committee shall
(a) Have regard to (i) matters of common interest between the Panchayats and the Municipalities including spatial planning,
sharing of water and other physical and natural resources, the integrated development of infrastructure
and environmental conservation;
(ii) the extent and type of available resources whether financial or otherwise; and
(b) Consult such institutions and organisations as the Governor may specify.
b.

Metropolitan Planning Committee

Every metropolitan area shall have a metropolitan planning committee to prepare a draft development
plan5. The state legislature may make provisions with respect to the following:
1.

The composition of such committees;

2.

The manner of election of members of such committees;

3.

The representation in such committes of the Central government, state government and other
organisations;

4.

The functions of such committees in relation to planning and coordination for the metropolitan area;
and

5.

The manner of election of chairpersons of such committees.

The act lays down that two-thirds of the members of a metropolitan planning committee should be elected
by the elected members of the municipalities and chairpersons of the panchayats in the metropolitan area
from amongst themselves. The representation of these members in the committee should be in proportion
to the ratio between the population of the municioalities and the panchayats in that metropolitan area.

V.

ELECTION COMMISSION
The Election Commission is a permanent and an independent body established by the Constitution of India
directly to ensure free and fair elections in the country. Article 324 of the Constitution provides that the
power of superintendence, direction and control of elections to parliament, state legislatures, the office of
president of India and the office of vice-president of India shall be vested in the election commission.
Thus, the Election Commission is an all-India body in the sense that it is common to both the Central
government and the state governments.

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I.

Composition
Article 324 of the Constitution has made the following provisions with regard to the composition of
election commission:

a.

The Election Commission shall consist of the chief election commissioner and such number of other
election commissioners, if any, as the president may from time to time fix.

b.

The appointment of the chief election commissioner and other election commissioners shall be made by
the president.

c.

When any other election commissioner is so appointed, the chief election commissioner shall act as the
chairman of the election commission.

d.

The president may also appoint after consultation with the election commission such regional
commissioners as he may consider necessary to assist the election commission.

e.

The conditions of service and tenure of office of the election commissioners and the regional
commissioners shall be determined by the president.
The chief election commissioner and the two other election commissioners have equal powers and receive
equal salary, allowances and other perquisites, which are similar to those of a judge of the Supreme
Court. In case of difference of opinion amongst the Chief Election Commissioner and or two other election
commissioners, the matter is decided by the Commission by majority.
They hold office for a term of six years or until they attain the age of 65 years, whichever is earlier. They
can resign at any time or can also be removed before the expiry of their term.

II.

Independence
Article 324 of the Constitution has made the following provisions to safeguard and ensure the independent
and impartial functioning of the Election Commission:
1. The chief election commissioner is provided with the security of tenure. He cannot be removed from his
office except in same manner and on the same grounds as a judge of the Supreme Court. In other words,
he can be removed by the president on the basis of a resolution passed to that effect by both the Houses
of Parliament with special majority, either on the ground of proved misbehavior or incapacity. Thus, he
does not hold his office till the pleasure of the president, though he is appointed by him.
2. The service conditions of the chief election commissioner cannot be varied to his disadvantage after his
appointment.
3. Any other election commissioner or a regional commissioner cannot be removed from office except on
the recommendation of the chief election commissioner.

III.

Powers and functions

The powers and functions of the Election Commission with regard to elections to the Parliament, state
legislatures and offices of President and Vice-President can be classified into three categories, viz,
1. Administrative
2. Advisory
3. Quasi-Judicial
In details, these powers and functions are:

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a.

To determine the territorial areas of the electoral constituencies throughout the country on the basis of
the Delimitation Commission Act of Parliament.

b.

To prepare and periodically revise electoral rolls and to register all eligible voters.

c.

To notify the dates and schedules of elections and to scrutinise nomination papers.

d.

To grant recognition to political parties and allot election symbols to them.

e.

To act as a court for settling disputes related to granting of recognition to political parties and allotment of
election symbols to them.

f.

To appoint officers for inquiring into disputes relating to electoral arrangements.

g.

To determine the code of conduct to be observed by the parties and the candidates at the time of
elections.

h.

To prepare a roster for publicity of the policies of the political parties on radio and TV in times of elections.

i.

To advise the president on matters relating to the disqualifications of the members of Parliament.

j.

To advise the governor on matters relating to the disqualifications of the members of state legislature.

k.

To cancel polls in the event of rigging, booth capturing, violence and other irregularities.

l.

To request the president or the governor for requisitioning the staff necessary for conducting elections.

m.

To supervise the machinery of elections throughout the country to ensure free and fair elections.

n.

To advise the president whether elections can be held in a state under president's rule in order to extend
the period of emergency after one year.

o.

To register political parties for the purpose of elections and grant them the status of national or state
parties on the basis of their poll performance

W.

Union Public Service Commission

The Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) is the central recruiting agency in India. It is an independent
constitutional body in the sense that it has been directly created by the Constitution. Articles 315 to 323 in
Part XIV of the Constitution contain elaborate provisions regarding the composition, appointment and
removal of members along with the independence, powers and functions of the UPSC.

I.

COMPOSITION
The UPSC consists of a chairman and other members appointed by the president of India. The Constitution, without specifying the strength of the Commission has left the matter to the discretion of the
president, who determines its composition. Usually, the Commission consists of nine to eleven members
including the chairman. Further, no qualifications are prescribed for the Commission's membership except
that one-half of the members of the Commission should be such persons who have held office for at least
ten years either under the Government of India or under the government of a state. The Constitution also
authorises the president to determine the conditions of service of the chairman and other members of the
Commission.
The chairman and members of the Commission hold office for a term of six years or until they attain the
age of 65 years, whichever is earlier. However, they can relinquish their offices at any time by addressing
their resignation to the president. They can also be removed before the expiry of their term by the
president in the manner as provided in the Constitution.
The President can appoint one of the members of the UPSC as an acting chairman in the following two
circumstances :
(a) When the office of the chairman falls vacant; or
When the chairman is unable to perform his functions due to absence or some other reason

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II.

Removal
The President can remove the chairman or any other member of UPSC from the office under the following
circumstances:
(a) If he is adjudged an insolvent (that is, has gone bankrupt);
(b)If he engages, during his term of office, in any paid employment outside the duties of his of office; or
(c) If he is, in the opinion of the president, unfit to continue in office by reason of infirmity of mind or
body.

III.

Independence
The Constitution has made the following provisions to safeguard and ensure the independent and impartial
functioning of the UPSC:
(a) The chairman or a member of the UPSC can be removed from office by the president only in the
manner and on the grounds mentioned in the Constitution. Therefore, they enjoy security of tenure.
(b) The conditions of service of the chairman or a member, though determined by the president, cannot
be varied to his disadvantage after his appointment.
(c) The entire expenses including the salaries, allowances and pensions of the chairman and members of
the UPSC are charged on the Consolidated Fund of India. Thus, they are not subject to vote of Parliament.
(d) The chairman of UPSC (on ceasing to hold office) is not eligible for further employment in the
Government of India or a state.
(e) A member of UPSC (on ceasing to hold office) is eligible for appointment as the chairman of UPSC or a
State Public Service Commission (SPSC), but not for any other employment in the Government of India or
a state.
(f) The chairman or a member or UPSC is (after having completed his first term) not eligible.

IV.

Functions
The UPSC performs the following functions:
(a) It conducts examinations for appointments to the all-India services, Central services and public
services of the centrally administered territories.
(b) It assists the states (if requested by two or more states to do so) in framing and operating schemes of
joint recruitment for any services for which candidates possessing special qualifications are required.
(c) It serves all or any of the needs of a state on the request of the state governor and with the approval
of the president of India.
(d) It is consulted on the following matters related to personnel management:
(i) All matters relating to methods of recruitment to civil services and for civil posts.
(ii) The principles to be followed in making appointments to civil services and posts and in making
promotions and transfers from one service to another.
(iii) The suitability of candidates for appointments to civil services and posts; for promotions and transfers
from one service to another; and appointments by transfer or deputation. The concerned departments
make recommendations for promotions and request the UPSC to ratify them.
(iv) All disciplinary matters affecting a person serving under the Government of India in a civil capacity
including memorials or petitions relating to such matters. These include:

Censure (Severe disapproval)

Withholding of increments

Withholding of promotions

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X.

Recovery of pecuniary loss

Reduction to lower service or rank (Demotion)

Compulsory retirement

Removal from service

Dismissal from service

STATE PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION

Parallel to the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) at the Centre, there is a State Public Service
Commission (SPSC) in a state. The same set of Articles (i.e., 315 to 323 in Part XIV) of the Constitution
also deal with the composition, appointment and removal of members, power and functions and
independence of a SPSC.

I.

Composition
A State Public Service Commission consists of a chairman and other members appointed by the governor
of the state. The Constitution does not specify the strength of the Commission but has left the matter to
the discretion of the Governor. Further, no qualifications are prescribed for the commission's membership
except that one-half of the members of the commission should be such persons who have held office for
at least ten years either under the government of India or under the Government of a state. The
Constitution also authorises the governor to determine the conditions of service of the chairman and
members of the Commission.
The chairman and members of the Commission hold office for a term of six years or until they attain the
age of 62 years, whichever is earlier (in the case of UPSC, the age limit is 65 years). However, they can
relinquish their offices at anytime by addressing their resignation to the governor.

II.

Removal
Although the chairman and members of a SPSC are appointed by the governor, they can be removed only
by the president (and not by the governor). The president can remove them on the same grounds and in
the same manner as he can remove a chairman or a member of the UPSC. Thus, he can remove him
under the following circumstances:
(a) If he is adjudged an insolvent (i.e., has gone bankrupt); or
(b) If he engages, during his term of office, in any paid employment outside the duties of his office; or
(c) If he is, in the opinion of the president, unfit to continue in office by reason of infirmity of mind or
body.

III.

Independence
As in the case of UPSC, the Constitution has made the following provisions to safeguard and ensure the
independent and impartial functioning of a SPSC:
(a) The chairman or a member of a SPSC can be removed from office by the president only in the manner
and on the grounds mentioned in the Constitution. Therefore, they enjoy the security of tenure.
(b) The conditions of service of the chairman or a member, though determined by the governor, cannot be
varied to his disadvantage after his appointment.
(c) The entire expense including the salaries, allowances and pensions of the chairman and members of a
SPSC are charged on the consolidated fund of the state. Thus, they are not subject to vote of the state
legislature.
(d) The chairman of a SPSC (on ceasing to hold office) is eligible for appointment as the chairman or a
member of the UPSC or as the chairman of any other SPSC, but not for any other employment under the
Government of India or a state.

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(e) A member of a SPSC (on ceasing to hold office) is eligible for appointment as the chairman or a
member of the UPSC, or as the chairman of that SPSC or any other SPSC, but not for any other
employment under the Government of India or a state, (f) The chairman or a member of a SPSC is (after
having completed his first term) not eligible for reappointment to that office (that is, not eligible for
second term.
IV.

Functions
A SPSC performs all those functions in respect of the state services as the UPSC does in relation to the
Central services:
(a) It conducts examinations for appointments to the services of the state.
(b) It is consulted on the following matters related to personnel management:
(i) All matters relating to methods of recruitment to civil services and for civil posts.
(ii) The principles to be followed in making appointments to civil services and posts and in making
promotions and transfers from one service to another.
(iii) The suitability of candidates for appointments to civil services and posts; for promotions and transfers
from one service to another; and appointments by transfer or deputation. The concerned departments
make recommendations for promotions and request the SPSC to ratify them.
(iv) All disciplinary matters affecting a person serving under the government of the state in a civil capacity
including memorials or petitions relating to such matters. These include:

Y.

Censure (severe disapproval)

Withholding of increments

Withholding of promotions

Recovery of pecuniary loss

Reduction to lower service or rank (demotion)

Compulsory retirement

Removal from service

Dismissal from service

FINANCE COMMISSION
Article 280 of the Constitution of India provides for a Finance Commission as a quasi judicial body. It is
constituted by the president of India every fifth year or at such earlier time as he considers necessary.

I.

Composition
The Finance Commission consists of a chairman and four other members to be appointed by the president.
They hold office for such period as specified by the president in his order. They are eligible for
reappointment.
The Constitution authorises the Parliament to determine the qualifications of members of the commission
and the manner in which they should be selected. Accordingly, the Parliament has specified the
qualifications of the chairman and members of the commission. The chairman should be a person having
experience in public affairs and the four other members should be selected from amongst the following:
1. A judge of high court or one qualified to be appointed as one.
2. A person who has specialised knowledge of finance and accounts of the government.

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3. A person who has wide experience in financial matters and in administration.
4. A person who has special knowledge of economics.
II.

Functions
The Finance Commission is required to make recommendations to the president of India on the following
matters:

a.

The distribution of the net proceeds of taxes to be shared between the Centre and the states, and the
allocation between the states of the respective shares of such proceeds.

b.

The principles that should govern the grants-in-aid to the states by the Centre (i.e., out of the
consolidated fund of India).

c.

The measures needed to augment the consolidated fund of a state to supplement the resources of the
panchayats and the municipalities in the state on the basis of the recommendations made by the state
finance
commission.

d.

Any other matter referred to it by the president in the interests of sound finance
The commission submits its report to the president. He lays it before both the Houses of Parliament along
with an explanatory memorandum as to the action taken on its recommendations.

III.

Advisory Role
It must be clarified here that the recommendations made by the Finance Commission are only of advisory
nature and hence, not binding on the government. It is up to the Union government to implement its
recommendations on granting money to the states.
To put it in other words, 'It is nowhere laid down in the Constitution that the recommendations of the
commission shall be binding upon the Government of India or that it would give rise to a legal right in
favour of the beneficiary states to receive the money recommended to be offered to them by the
Commission.

Z.

COMPTROLLER AND AUDITOR GENERAL OF INDIA

The Constitution of India (Article 148) provides for an independent office of the Comp-JL trailer and
Auditor General of India (CAG). He is the head of the Indian Audit and Accounts Department. He is the
guardian of the public purse and controls the entire financial system of the country at both the levels the
Centre and the state. His duty is to uphold the Constitution of India and laws of Parliament in the field of
financial administration.

I.

Appointment and Term

The CAG is appointed by the president of India by a warrant under his hand and seal. The CAG, before
taking over his office, makes and subscribes before the president an oath or affirmation:
1. to bear true faith and allegiance to the Constitution of India;
2. to uphold the sovereignty and integrity of India;
3. to duly and faithfully and to the best of his ability, knowledge and judgement perform the duties of his
office without fear or favour, affection or ill-will; and
4. to uphold the Constitution and the laws.

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He holds office for a period of six years or upto the age of 65 years, whichever is earlier. He can resign
any time from his office by addressing the resignation letter to the president. He can also be removed by
the president on same grounds and in the same manner as a judge of the Supreme Court.
II.

Independence
The Constitution has made the following provisions to safeguard and ensure the independence of CAG:

a.

He is provided with the security of tenure. He can be removed by the president only in accordance with
the procedure mentioned in the Constitution. Thus, he does not hold his office till the pleasure of the
president, though he is appointed by him.

b.

He is not eligible for further office, either under the Government of India or of any state, after he ceases
to hold his office.

c.

His salary and other service conditions are determined by the Parliament. His salary is equal to that of a
judge of the Supreme Court.

d.

Neither his salary nor his rights in respect of leave of absence, pension or age of retirement can be altered
to his disadvantage after his appointment.

e.

The conditions of service of persons serving in the Indian Audit and Accounts Department and the
administrative powers of the CAG are prescribed by the president after consultation with the CAG.

f.

The administrative expenses of the office of the CAG, including all salaries, allowances and pensions of
persons serving in that office are charged upon the Consolidated Fund of India. Thus, {hey are not subject
to the vote of Parliament

III.

Duties and Powers

The Constitution (Article 149) authorises the Parliament to prescribe the duties and powers of the CAG in
relation to the accounts of the Union and of the states and of any other authority or body. Accordingly, the
Parliament enacted the CAG's (Duties, Powers and Conditions of Service) act, 1971. This Act was
'amended in 1976 to separate accounts from audit in the Central government.
The duties and functions of the CAG as laid down by the Parliament and the Constitution are:
(a) He audits the accounts related to all expenditure from the Consolidated Fund of India, consolidated
fund of each state and consolidated fund of each union territory having a Legislative Assembly.
(b) He audits all expenditure from the Contingency Fund of India and the Public Account of India as well
as the contingency fund of each state and the public account of each state.
(c) He audits all trading, manufacturing, profit and loss accounts, balance sheets and other subsidiary
accounts kept by any department of the Central Government and state governments.
(d) He audits the receipts and expenditure of the Centre and each state to satisfy himself that the rules
and procedures in that behalf are designed to secure an effective check on the assessment, collection and
proper allocation of revenue.
(e) He audits the receipts and expenditure of the following:

All bodies and authorities substantially financed from the Central or state revenues;

Government companies; and

Other corporations and bodies, when so required by related laws.

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(f) He audits all transactions of the Central and state governments related to debt, sinking funds,
deposits, advances, suspense accounts and remittance business. He also audits receipts, stock accounts
and others, with approval of the President, or when required by the President.
(g) He audits the accounts of any other authority when requested by the President or Governor. For
example, the audit of local bodies.
(h) He advises the President with regard to prescription of the form in which the accounts of the Centre
and the states shall be kept (Article 150).
(i) He submits his audit reports relating to the accounts of the Centre to President, who shall, in turn,
place them before both the Houses of Parliament (Article 151).
(j) He submits his audit reports relating to the accounts of a state to governor, who shall, in turn, place
them before the state legislature (Article 151).
(k) He ascertains and certifies the net proceeds of any tax or duty (Article 279). His certificate is final. The
'net proceeds' means the proceeds of a tax or a duty minus the cost of collection.
(l) He acts as a guide, friend and philosopher of the Public Accounts Committee of the Parliament.
(m) He compiles and maintains the accounts of state governments. In 1976, he was relieved of his
responsibilities with regard to the compilation and maintenance of accounts of the Central Government
due to the separation of accounts from audit, that is, departmentalisation of accounts.
The CAG submits three audit reports to the Presidentaudit report on appropriation accounts, audit report
on finance accounts, and audit report on public undertakings. The President lays these reports before both
the Houses of Parliament. After this, the Public Accounts Committee examines them and reports its
findings to the Parliament.
Attorney General of India
The Constitution (Article 76) has provided for the office of the Attorney General for India. He is the
highest law officer in the country.
I.

Appointment and Term

The advocate general is appointed by the governor. He must be a person who is qualified to be appointed
a judge e a high court. In other words, he must be a citizen of India and must have held a judicial office"
for ten years or been an advocate of a high court for ten years.
The term of office of the advocate general is not fixed by the Constitution. Further, the Constitution does
not contain the procedure and grounds for his removal.

II.

Duties and Functions

As the chief law officer of the Government of India, the duties of the AG include the following:
(a) To give advice to the Government of India upon such legal matters, which are referred to him by the
president.
(b). To perform such other duties of a legal character that are assigned to him by the president.
(c). To discharge the functions conferred on him by the Constitution or any other law.
The president has assigned the following duties to the AG:
(a) To appear on behalf of the Government of India in all cases in the Supreme Court in which the
Government of India is concerned.

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(b) To represent the Government of India in any reference made by the president to the Supreme Court
under Article 143 of the Constitution.
(c) To appear (When required by the Government of India) in any high court in any case in which the
Government of India is concerned.
III.

Rights and Limitations

In the performance of his official duties, the Attorney General has the right of audience in all courts in the
territory of India. Further, he has the right to speak and to take part in the proceedings of both the
Houses of Parliament or their joint sitting and any committee of the Parliament of which he may be named
a member, but without a right to vote. He enjoys all the privileges and immunities that are available to a
member of Parliament.

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Organization & Govt. Schemes

A.

Major International Organizations:

I.

United Nations: The United Nations Organisation is an association of states which have pledged
themselves to maintain international peace and security and cooperate in solving international political,
economic, social, cultural and humanitarian problems towards achieving this end.
The United Nations officially came into existence on Oct. 24,1945, with the deposit of the requisite
number of ratifications of the Charter, the constituting instrument of the UN with the US Department of
State. United Nations Day is celebrated on 24 Oct. each year. The headquarters of the UNO is in New
York.
Objects: To maintain international peace and security.

To develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and
self-determination of peoples.

To cooperate in solving international economic, social, cultural and humanitarian problems and in
promoting respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.

To be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations in attaining these common ends.

Flag : White UN Emblem (two bent olive branches open at the top and in between them in world map) on
a light blue background.
Official Languages: Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish.
Structure
The United Nations has six principal organs according to the Charter which are indicated as below :
The General Assembly: It consists of all 193 member nations and functions as the main deliberative
body. It meets once a year on the third Tuesday of the month of September and session lasts for two
weeks.

Important Years Observed by UNO (since 2010)

2010

International Year of Biodiversity

2011

International Year of Forests

2012

International Year of Cooperatives

2013

International Year of Water Cooperation

2014

International Year of Family Farming

2015

International Year of Soils

2016

International Year of Pulses

2017

International Year of Sustainable Tourism for Development

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Contemporary United Nations International Decade

II.

2001 to 2010

Second International Decade for Abolition of Colonialism

2001 to 2010

International Decade for Peace and Non-violence Culture in Children

2010 to 2020

International Decade for Deserts and fight against Desertification

Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)

Established in September 1960
Headquarters Vienna (Austria)
Member States 13 (Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Qatar, Saudi
Arabia, United

Arab Emirates, Venezuela)

Official Language English

Type of Organisation and Brief History: The Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
is a permanent, intergovernmental Organisation, created at the Baghdad Conference on September 1014, 1960, by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela. The five Founding Members were later
joined by nine other Members : Qatar (1961); Indonesia (1962)suspended its membership from January
2009; Libya (1962); United Arab Emirates (1967); Algeria (1969); Nigeria (1971); Ecuador (1973)
suspended its membership from December 1992October 2007; Angola (2007) and Gabon (1975-1994),
OPEC had its headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland, in the first five years of its existence. This was moved
to Vienna, Austria on September 1, 1965.
OPECs Objective and Mission: OPECs objective is to coordinate and unify petroleum policies among
Member Countries, in order to secure fair and stable prices for petroleum producers; an efficient,
economic and regular supply of petroleum to consuming nations; and a fair return on capital to those
investing in the industry.
III.

World Health Organisation (WHO):

Established in/on April 7, 1948
Headquarters Geneva (Switzerland)
Official Languages Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish
Member States 194 Member States
Type of Organisation: WHO is the directing and coordinating authority for health within the United
Nations system. It is responsible for providing leadership on global health matters, shaping the health
research agenda, setting norms and standards, articulating evidence-based policy options, providing
technical support to countries and monitoring and assessing health trends.
In the 21st century, health is a shared responsibility, involving equitable access to essential care and
collective defence against transnational threats.
Brief History
When diplomats met to form the United Nations in 1945, one of the things they discussed was setting up
a global health organization. WHOs Constitution came into force on April 7, 1948 a date we now celebrate
every year as World Health Day.

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IV.

INTERPOL: INTERPOL is the worlds largest international police organisation, with 190 member
countries. Created in 1923, it facilitates cross-border police co-operation, and supports and assists all
organisations, authorities and services whose mission is to prevent or combat international crime.
INTERPOL aims to facilitate international police co-operation even where diplomatic relations do not exist
between particular countries. Action is taken within the limits of existing laws in different countries and in
the spirit of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. INTERPOLs constitution prohibits any intervention
or activities of a political, military, religious or racial character.

V.

BRICS is the title of an association of leading emerging economies, arising out of the inclusion of South
Africa into the BRIC group in 2010. As of 2012, the group's five members are Brazil, Russia, India, China
and South Africa. With the possible exception of Russia, the BRICS members are all developing or newly
industrialised countries, but they are distinguished by their large, fast-growing economies and significant
influence on regional and global affairs. As of 2015, the five BRICS countries represent over 3 billion
people, or 42% of the world population. The five nations have a combined nominal GDP of US$16.039
trillion, equivalent to approximately 20% of the gross world product, and an estimated US$4 trillion in
combined foreign reserves.
President of the People's Republic of China Hu Jintao has described the BRICS countries as defenders and
promoters of developing countries and a force for world peace. However, some analysts have highlighted
potential divisions and weaknesses in the grouping, such as India and China's disagreements over Tibetan
and border issues, the failure of the BRICS to establish a World Bank-analogue development agency, and
disputes between the members over UN Security Council reform.
The grouping has held annual summits since 2009, with member countries taking turns to host. Prior to
South Africa's admission, two BRIC summits were held, in 2009 and 2010. The first five-member BRICS
summit was held in 2011. The most recent summit took place in New Delhi, India, on March 29, 2012.

Summit

Participants

Date

Host country

Host leader

Location

1st

BRIC

June 16, 2009

Russia

Dmitry Medvedev

Yekaterinburg

2nd

BRIC

April 16, 2010

Brazil

Luiz Incio Lula da Silva

Braslia

3rd

BRICS

April 14, 2011

China

Hu Jintao

Sanya

4th

BRICS

March 29, 2012

India

Manmohan Singh

New Delhi

5th

BRICS

2013

South Africa

Jacob Zuma

Durban

6th

BRICS

2014

Brazil

Dilma Rousseff

Fortaleza

7th

BRICS

2015

Russia

Vladimir Putin

Ufa

8th

BRICS

2016

India

Narendra Modi

New Delhi

VI.

International Monetary Fund (IMF): It was established on December 27, 1945 at the Bretton Woods
Conference, but it started its operations on March 1, 1947. It has 188 members.
Objectives
According to Articles of Agreement of the IMF, its main objectives are as follows:
1. To promote international monetary co-operation.
2. To ensure balanced international trade.
3. To ensure exchange rate stability.

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4. To grant economic assistance to member countries for eliminating the adverse imbalance in balance of
payment
Constitution, Membership and Capital of IMF: The main source of IMF resources is the quotas allotted
to member countries. Earlier, quotas and the assistance provided were denominated in US dollars, now
they are expressed in SDRs (Special Drawing Rights) which is also known as Paper Gold.
India and IMF: IMF has played an important role in Indian economy. IMF has provided economic
assistance from time to time to India and has also provided appropriate consultancy in determination of
various policies in the country. India is a founder-member of IMF. The Finance Minister is ex-officio
Governor on the IMF Board of Governors.
VII.

International Bank For Reconstruction And Development (IBRD): The IBRD and its associates as a
group are known as the World Bank, set up to rehabilitate the World War II-damaged economies. In 1945,
it was decided to concentrate on reconstructing these war affected economies. Besides, it was also
planned to develop under-developed economies in a planned way. IBRD was established in December
1945 with the IMF on the basis of the recommendation of the Bretton Woods Conference. That is the
reason why IMF and IBRD are called Bretton Wood Twins. IBRD started functioning in June 1946.
IMF VS World Bank: Since both these were together formed at the Brettonwoods Conference, they are
referred to as Brettonwoods Twins. Both the institutions were established to promote international
economic co-operation but a basic difference is found in the nature of economic assistance given by these
two institutions. The World Bank provides long-term loans for promoting balanced economic development
and finances developmental projects, while the IMF provides short-term loans to member countries for
eliminating BOP disequilibrium. Both these institutions are complementary to each other.

VIII.

International Development Association (IDA): The IDA is an associate institution of the World Bank
known as soft loan window of World Bank. IDA was established on September 24, 1960. It kept its
membership open to all members of World Bank. At present 173 countries are its members and no
interest is charged on these long-term loans. These soft loans are provided to the poor countries. The
resources of IDA include subscribed capital by member countries, general replenishments by developed
countries, net income transferred by IBRD etc. The IDA is administered by the same group, which
manages the working of World Bank.

IX.

International Finance Corporation (IFC): Established in July 1956, this corporation provides loans to
private industries of developing nations without any government guarantee and also promotes the
additional capital investment in these countries.

X.

General Agreement On Tariffs And Trade (GATT): During the Great Depression of the 1930s
(actually, it began in 1929), international trade was badly affected and various countries imposed import
restrictions for safeguarding their economies. This resulted in a sharp decline in world trade. In 1945, the
USA put forward many proposals for extending international trade and employment. In 1947, 23 countries
at Geneva, signed an agreement related to tariffs imposed on trade. This agreement is known as General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). It came into force in 1948. Initially GATT was established in the
form of a temporary arrangement but later on it took the shape of a permanent agreement. The World

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Trade Organization (WTO), which came into existence on January 1, 1995 after many years of Uruguay
Round negotiations, replaced GATT.

XI.

World Trade Organisation (WTO): The Uruguay Round of GATT gave birth to the World Trade
Organization. The members of GATT signed an agreement of Uruguay Round in April 1994 in Marrakesh
(Morocco) for establishing a new organization named WTO. It was officially constituted on January 1,
1995, which replaced GATT as an effective informal organization. Contrary to GATT, WTO is a permanent
organization and has international status like IMF and IBRD, but it is not an agency of the UNO. WTO has
Objectives of WTO
1.

To improve standards of living of people in the member countries.

2.

To ensure full employment and broad increase in effective demand.

3.

To enlarge production and trade of goods.

The above three objectives were also included in the GATT agreement, but the WTO also included
some other objectives which are:

4.

To enlarge production and trade of services.

5.

To ensure optimum utilization of world resources.

6.

accept the concept of sustainable development.

7.

To protect environment.

Functions of WTO
1.

To provide facilities for implementation, administration and operation of multilateral and bilateral
agreements of the world trade.

2.

XII.

To provide a platform a member countries to decide future strategies related to trade and tariff.

3.

To administer the rules and processes related to dispute settlement.

4.

To implement rules and provisions related to trade policy review mechanism.

5.

To assist IMF and IBRD for establishing coherence in universal economic policy determination

6.

To ensure the optimum use of world resources.

United Nations Conference On Trade And Development: At present, UNCTAD has become a
permanent organization for promoting international trade. Its headquarters is at Geneva, Switzerland.
Generally, UNCTAD has its session after every 4 years. IMF has got a permanent representation in all its
bodies. That is why IMF includes all UNCTAD proposals in its policies. UNCTAD recommendations are only
suggestions and no country can be compelled to accept them.
Objectives
1.
To promote international trade.
2.

To make policies and principles for international trade and economic development.

3.

To make a plan for implementing these principles and policies.

4.

To assist the Economic and Social Council of the UNO.

5.

To provide a suitable platform for trade dialogues.

Though UNCTAD is functioning as a permanent agency of the UNO, but its membership is fully optional.
Any country may join or quit the UNCTAD.

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XIII.

Asian Development Bank (ADB): The ADB was established in Dec. 1966 on the recommendations of
ECAFE (Economic Commission for Asia and Far East). The aim of this Bank was to promote economic
development in Asian countries. The head office of the Bank is located at Manila, Philippines.

XIV.

South

Asian

Association

For

Regional

Co-Operation

(SAARC):

India,

Maldives,

Pakistan,

Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Bhutan and Nepal constituted an organization known as SAARC, on the
recommendations of Dhaka Conference in 1985. Its headquarters has been established at Kathmandu.
Afghanistan was made a member in 2005. A conference of heads of the countries is held every year but
the conferences have been generally delayed for one reason or the other. The mutual misunderstandings
among member nations have created a big question mark on its ability to achieve its objectives.
XV.

Association Of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN): ASEAN is a union of South-East Asian Nations.
Indonesia, Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand constituted this association in 1967. Brunei also
joined the ASEAN in 1984 and Vietnam joined in 1995. At present, 10 countries are the members of
ASEAN. The object of ASEAN is to promote economic co-operation in South-East Asia and also to ensure
economic stability in the region. Its headquarters is in Jakarta but a Secretary of ASEAN lives in the
capital of each member country. The post of General Secretary of ASEAN is rotated among each member
country alphabetically, after every two years. In 1996, ASEAN gave advisory status or full-dialogue
partner status to India. Besides India, China and Russia also got this status. India cannot join the ASEAN
as a member due to its geographical location.
However, India entered into a Free Tree Agreement with this grouping on Jan 1, 2010.

XVI.

East Asia Summit: It has 16 members constituting all the members of ASEAN (Brunei Darussalam,
Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam) and six
neighbouring nations of India, China, Japan, South Korea, Australia and New Zealand. Its first summit
was held in 2005. At the Fourth Summit held in October 2009 in Thailand, it was decided to reestablish
Nalanda University in Bihar. It is also moving towards Comprehensive Economic Partnership in East Asia
(CEPEA).

XVII.

Organization For Economic Co-Operation And Development: To rehabilitate the weak economies of
Europe after Second World War, an organization named OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation
and Development) was founded. Its headquarter is in Paris (France). The aim of the OECD is to coordinate the welfare policies of the member countries and also to induce member countries for promoting
welfare activities in their respective economies.

XVIII. European Union: The EU (formerly known as European Community or European Economic Community)
is a union of 28 independent states based on the European Communities and founded to enhance political,
economic and social co-operation.
Six European countries known as Inner Six (France, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, W. Germany
and Italy) constituted EEC on the basis of Rome Treaty (1957) which was constituted for promoting
economic co-operation among non-communist countries of Europe. EEC started its functioning since
January 1, 1958. EEC attempted to unite economic policies of all 15 members. In 1991, important
decisions relating to political, monetary and economic unification of Europe were taken by Heads of States
of the then 12 member countries. This treaty was a major effort in the direction of European unification
and is known as the Maastricht Treaty.

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Since, November 1, 1993 this treaty was implemented for political and economic unification of these
countries. This treaty gave birth to a new organization known as European Union. This treaty and
documents of European Union, signed in February, 1992, state that all the countries of the union will
make all efforts to implement homogeneous economic and monetary policies.

B.

International Treaties and Agreements

I.

The Shimla Agreement: Signed by the P.M. of India and the President of Pakistan in 1971, the
Agreement had following provisions :

II.

to normalise relationship between the two countries,

to withdraw from the territories seized by them,

communications would be resumed.

Antarctic Treaty: It is an agreement signed on December 1, 1959 between 12 nations with an interest in
Antarctic. These countries are: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway,
South Africa, the erstwhile USSR (CIS), the U.K. and the US. In all, 53 countries became party to it by
2016. The treaty reserves the Antarctic area south of 60' south latitude for peaceful purposes, provides for
international cooperation in scientific investigation and research, and preserves.

III.

Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT): Signed in 1968, NPT came into force in 1970. Its main points
are as follows :

nuclear powers will not transfer nuclear weapons or control over them to any recipient.

non-nuclear countries agree neither to receive the weapons nor to manufacture them.

Nuclear know-how will be made available to the non-nuclear states for peaceful purposes.

Originally, for a period of 25 years, NPI was extended indefinitely in 1995. India, Israel and Pakistan have
not signed the NPI citing various reasons.
IV.

Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT): This treaty was approved by US General Assembly in 1996.
India, Iran and Libya voted against it. India is under constant pressure to sign it.

V.

Indo-Russian Friendship Treaty: This treaty was signed by the then P.M. of India and the then
President of Russia in 1993. Its main provisions are as follows:

VI.

to develop cooperation in political, trade, economic, scientific, technical, cultural and other fields.

to promote relations in defence, commerce, science and technology and culture.

to work together for achievement of a world without armaments.

to support territorial intensity of each other.

Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START-II): Signed by the then Russian and American Presidents in
1993, its main provisions are:

to reduce nuclear warheads.

to eliminate all Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles.

to reduce nuclear warheads at submarine-based ballistic missiles.

to limit nuclear warheads with which heavy bombers can be equipped.

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VII.

Chemical Weapons Convention: The Chemical Weapons Convention came into force on April 29, 1997.
The signatory states have undertaken to destroy existing stock of chemical weapons by 2007. As of
September 2015, 192 states have given their consent to be bound by the CWC. Israel has signed but not
ratified the agreement. Egypt, North Korea and South Sudan have neither signed nor acceded to the
treaty. Most recently, Angola deposited its instrument of accession to the CWC on 16 September 2015.

VIII.

Human Cloning Agreement: On January 12, 1998, Nineteen European nations signed an agreement
banning human cloning. On January 17, 186 member states of UNESCO adopted a declaration denouncing
human cloning.

C.

Major National Organizations

I.

National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) is an apex development bank in
India having headquarters based in Mumbai (Maharashtra) and other branches are all over the country.
The Committee to Review Arrangements for Institutional Credit for Agriculture and Rural Development
(CRAFICARD), set up by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) under the Chairmanship of Shri B. Sivaraman,
conceived and recommended the establishment of the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural
Development (NABARD). It was established on 12 July 1982 by a special act by the parliament and its
main focus was to uplift rural India by increasing the credit flow for elevation of agriculture & rural non
farm sector. It has been accredited with "matters concerning policy, planning and operations in the field of
credit for agriculture and other economic activities in rural areas in India". RBI sold its stake in NABARD to
the Government of India, which now holds 99% stake. It is active in developing financial inclusion policy
and is a member of the Alliance for Financial Inclusion.

II.

Reserve Bank of India: The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) is India's central banking institution, which
controls the monetary policy of the Indian rupee. It was established on 1 April 1935 during the British Raj
in accordance with the provisions of the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934. The share capital was divided
into shares of 100 each fully paid which was entirely owned by private shareholders in the beginning.
Following India's independence in 1947, the RBI was nationalised in the year 1949.
The RBI plays an important part in the development strategy of the Government of India. It is a member
bank of the Asian Clearing Union. The general superintendence and direction of the RBI is entrusted with
the 20-member-strong Central Board of Directorsthe Governor (currently Raghuram Rajan), four Deputy
Governors, one Finance Ministry representative, ten Government-nominated Directors to represent
important elements from India's economy, and four Directors to represent Local Boards headquartered at
Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai and New Delhi. Each of these Local Boards consist of five members who
represent regional interests, as well as the interests of co-operative and indigenous banks

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Main functions:
Monetary authority: The Reserve Bank of India is the main monetary authority of the country and
beside that the central bank acts as the bank of the national and state governments. It formulates,
implements and monitors the monetary policy as well as it has to ensure an adequate flow of credit to
productive sectors. Objectives are maintaining price stability and ensuring adequate flow of credit to
productive sectors. The institution is also the regulator and supervisor of the financial system and
prescribes broad parameters of banking operations within which the country's banking and financial
system functions. Its objectives are to maintain public confidence in the system, protect depositors'
interest and provide cost-effective banking services to the public.
Managerial of exchange control: The central bank manages to reach the goals of the Foreign Exchange
Management Act, 1999. Objective: to facilitate external trade and payment and promote orderly
development and maintenance of foreign exchange market in India.
Issuer of currency: The bank issues and exchanges or destroys currency notes and coins that are not fit
for circulation. The objectives are giving the public adequate supply of currency of good quality and to
provide loans to commercial banks to maintain or improve the GDP. The basic objectives of RBI are to
issue bank notes, to maintain the currency and credit system of the country to utilize it in its best
advantage, and to maintain the reserves. RBI maintains the economic structure of the country so that it
can achieve the objective of price stability as well as economic development, because both objectives are
diverse in themselves.
Banker of Banks: RBI also works as a central bank where account holders (are commercial bank's) can
deposit money. RBI maintains banking accounts of all scheduled banks. Commercial banks create credit. It
is the duty of the RBI to control the credit through the CRR, bank rate and open market operations. As
banker's bank, the RBI facilitates the clearing of checks between the commercial banks and helps interbank transfer of funds. It can grant financial accommodation to schedule banks. It acts as the lender of
the last resort by providing emergency advances to the banks. It supervises the functioning of the
commercial banks and take action against it if need arises.
Developmental role: The central bank has to perform a wide range of promotional functions to support
national objectives and industries. The RBI faces a lot of inter-sectoral and local inflation-related
problems. Some of these problems are results of the dominant part of the public sector.

III.

Export Import Bank Of India: It is the premier export finance institution of the country, established in
1982 under the Export-Import Bank of India Act 1981. It is headquartered at Mumbai.
Exim Bank is managed by a Board of Directors, which has representatives from the Government, Reserve
Bank of India, Export Credit Guarantee Corporation of India, a financial institution, public sector banks,
and the business community.

IV.

Unit Trust of India: UTI is a financial organization in Mumbai, India, which was created by the UTI Act
passed by the Parliament in 1963. For more than two decades it remained the sole vehicle for investment
in the capital market by the Indian citizens. In mid- 1980s public sector banks were allowed to open
mutual funds. The real vibrancy and competition in the MF industry came with the setting up of the

273
Regulator SEBI and its laying down the MF Regulations in 1993.UTI maintained its pre-eminent place till
2001, when a massive decline in the market indices and negative investor sentiments after Ketan Parekh
scam created doubts about the capacity of UTI to meet its obligations to the investors. This was further
compounded by two factors; namely, its flagship and largest scheme US 64 was sold and re-purchased
not at intrinsic NAV but at artificial price and its Assured Return Schemes had promised returns as high as
18% over a period going up to two decades.
V.

NSE: The National Stock Exchange (NSE) is stock exchange located at Mumbai, India. It is in the top 20
largest stock exchanges in the world by market capitalization and largest in India by daily turnover and
number of trades, for both equities and derivative trading. NSE has a market capitalization of around
US$1 trillion and over 1,652 listings as of July 2012. Though a number of other exchanges exist, NSE and
the Bombay Stock Exchange are the two most significant stock exchanges in India, and between them are
responsible for the vast majority of share transactions. The NSE's key index is the S&P CNX Nifty, known
as the NSE NIFTY (National Stock Exchange Fifty), an index of fifty major stocks weighted by market
capitalisation.
NSE is mutually owned by a set of leading financial institutions, banks, insurance companies and other
financial intermediaries in India but its ownership and management operate as separate entities. There
are at least 2 foreign investors NYSE Euronext and Goldman Sachs who have taken a stake in the NSE. In
2011, NSE was the third largest stock exchange in the world in terms of the number of contracts (1221
million) traded in equity derivatives. It is the second fastest growing stock exchange in the world with a
recorded growth of 16.6%.

VI.

Bombay Stock Exchange: Established in 1875, BSE Ltd. (formerly known as Bombay Stock Exchange
Ltd) is Asias first Stock Exchange and one of Indias leading exchange groups. Over the past 137 years,
BSE has facilitated the growth of the Indian corporate sector by providing it an efficient capital-raising
platform. Popularly known as BSE, the bourse was established as "The Native Share & Stock Brokers'
Association" in 1875.
BSEs popular equity index - the SENSEX - is India's most widely tracked stock market benchmark index.
It is traded internationally on the EUREX as well as leading exchanges of the BRCS nations (Brazil, Russia,
China and South Africa).

VII.

SEBI: The Securities and Exchange Board of India was established on April 12, 1992 in accordance with
the provisions of the Securities and Exchange Board of India Act, 1992. It is headquartered in Mumbai,
India.
SEBI has to be responsive to the needs of three groups, which constitute the market:

the issuers of securities

the investors

the market intermediaries.

SEBI has three functions rolled into one body: quasi-legislative, quasi-judicial and quasi-executive. It
drafts regulations in its legislative capacity, it conducts investigation and enforcement action in its
executive function and it passes rulings and orders in its judicial capacity. Though this makes it very
powerful, there is an appeals process to create accountability. There is a Securities Appellate Tribunal
which is a three-member tribunal. A second appeal lies directly to the Supreme Court.

274
SEBI has enjoyed success as a regulator by pushing systemic reforms aggressively and successively (e.g.
the quick movement towards making the markets electronic and paperless rolling settlement on T+2
basis). SEBI has been active in setting up the regulations as required under law.
SEBI has also been instrumental in taking quick and effective steps in light of the global meltdown and the
Satyam fiasco. It had increased the extent and quantity of disclosures to be made by Indian corporate
promoters. More recently, in light of the global meltdown, it liberalised the takeover code to facilitate
investments by removing regulatory structures.
VIII.

ISRO: The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is the primary space agency of the Indian
government. ISRO is amongst the six largest government space agencies in the world, along with NASA,
RKA, ESA, CNSA and JAXA. Its primary objective is to advance space technology and use its applications
for national benefit.
Established in 1969, ISRO superseded the erstwhile Indian National Committee for Space Research
(INCOSPAR). Headquartered in Bangalore, ISRO is under the administrative control of the Department of
Space, Government of India.
ISRO has achieved numerous milestones since its establishment. Indias first satellite, Aryabhata, was
built by ISRO and launched by the Soviet Union in 1975. Rohini, the first satellite to be placed in orbit by
an Indian-made launch vehicle, SLV-3, was launched in 1980. ISRO subsequently developed two other
rockets: the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) for putting satellites into polar orbits and the
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) for placing satellites into geostationary orbits. These
rockets have launched numerous communications satellites, earth observation satellites, and, in 2008,
Chandrayaan-1, Indias first mission to the Moon.
Over the years, ISRO has conducted a variety of operations for both Indian and foreign clients. ISRO's
satellite launch capability is mostly provided by indigenous launch vehicles and launch sites. In 2008,
ISRO successfully launched its first lunar probe, Chandrayaan-1, while future plans include indigenous
development of GSLV, manned space missions, further lunar exploration, and interplanetary probes. ISRO
has several field installations as assets, and cooperates with the international community as a part of

D.

Research Institutions:

I.

Agricultural Research Centres in India:

S.

Agricultural

No.

Research Center

Central

Arid

Zone

Abbr.

Location

Year Of

Objective

Estb.
CAZRI

Rajasthan

1952

Research Institute

To find ways to stabilising shifting sand dunes,

establishing

silipastoral

and

firewood

plantations, planting windbreaks to reduce wind

speed and subsequent erosion, rehabilitating
degraded forests and starting afforestation of
barren hill slopes.
2

Central

Food

CFTRI

Mysore

1950

Technological

Employment

generation,

Food

processing

Rural Development

Research Institute
3

Central
Fisheries
Institute

Inland
Research

CIFRI

West Bengal

1947

To conduct investigations for a proper appraisal

of inland fisheries resources of the country and
to

evolve

suitable

methods

conservation and optimum utilization.

for

their

275
S.
No.
4

Agricultural

Abbr.

Location

CIRG

Uttar

Research Center
Central

Institute

Year Of

Objective

Estb.

for

Research on Goats

1929

Pradesh

To plan, undertake, aid, promote and coordinate education, research and its application
in agriculture, agro forestry, animal husbandry,
fisheries, home science and allied sciences

Central

Plantation

Crops

CPCRI

Kerala

1970

Research

To develop appropriate production, protection

and processing technologies for coconut, are

Institute

canut and cocoa through basic and applied

research etc.

Directorate of Maize

DMR

New Delhi

1994

Research

To

carry

out

basic,

strategic

and

applied

research aimed at enhancement of production

and productivity of maize crop in the country,
etc.

Directorate of Wheat

DWR

Haryana

1966

Research

Organize,

evolve, coordinate

and

supervise

research to develop and identify superior and

high yielding varieties.

Indian

Agricultural

IARI

New Delhi

1905

Research Institute
9

Indian

information.

Agricultural

Statistics

Agriculture research, education, extension and

IASRI

New Delhi

Research

Institute

estb. as full

To provide statistical methodology for national

fledged

agricultural statistics system of the country for

national

generating

institute of

crop

statistics

and

livestock

statistics.

ICAR in1978
10

Indian

Institute

of

IIFM

Bhopal

1982

Forest Management

To fulfill the growing need for managerial

human resource in forest and allied sectors.
IIFM has developed as an educational, research,
training and consultancy organization and is
gradually acquiring an internationally visible
name.

11

National Academy of

NAARM

Agricultural Research

Andra

1976

Pradesh

To

build

the

Agricultural

Management

capacity

Research

of

Indias

System

in

National
Research

Management by providing online, non-formal,

free and interactive learning opportunitie.

12

National

Botanical

Research Institute

NBRI

Uttar

found as the

Pradesh

National

Creation of website on "Plants and Pollution"

with

Botanic

accession

regional

Gardens in

information

1948

newsletters,

language

of

disseminate

interface

information,
in

the

form

reports,
information

To
on

for

easy

To

document

of

database,

generate

and

"Plants

and

Pollution", To respond to the user queries on

the subject, To co-ordinate with the focal point
for supplying relevant and adequate information
to end users.

276
S.

Agricultural

No.

Research Center

13

National

Bureau

Animal

Abbr.

Location

NBAGR

Haryana

Year Of

Objective

Estb.
of

1984

Genetic

To conduct systematic surveys to characterise,

evaluate and catalogue farm livestock and

Resources

poultry genetic resources and to establish their

National Data Base, etc.

14

National

Bureau

Plant

of

NBPGR

New Delhi

1976

Genetic

To

plan, organize, conduct and

coordinate

exploration and collection of indigenous and

Resources

exotic plant genetic resources, To undertake

introduction, exchange and quarantine of plant
genetic resources, etc.

15

16

National

Centre

for

NCAP

New Delhi

1991

Enhance the availability of reliable household,

Agricultural

individual and field specific, high frequency,

Economics and Policy

time series data in selected villages and meso-

Research

level.

National Institute

of

Agricultural Extension

MANA

Hyderabad

1987

GE

To develop systematic linkages between state,

regional, national and international institutions

Management

of outstanding accomplishments in the field of

Agricultural Extension Management, et.

17

National Institute

of

NIAM

Rajasthan

1988

Agricultural Marketing

To

undertake

operational

and

study

research

in

of

applied

problem

and

areas

of

agricultural marketing. To impart training, to

various

levels

agricultural

of

functionaries

marketing

involved

activities. To

in

offer

consultancy services to the State and Central

Departments,

Public

Sector

Undertakings,

Cooperatives etc; in formulation of Projects,

preparing

Master

Plans

for

States,

Export

Institutions, Traders and Farmers.

18

Sugarcane

Breeding

SBI

Tamil Nadu

1912

Institute
19

To

evolve

superior

varieties

of

sugarcane

suitable for various agro climatic zones in India.

Directorate of Water

DWM

Bhubaneswar

1988

Management

To

develop

improved

technologies
production

for
and

water

management

sustainable
disseminate

agricultural
it

amongst

researchers, government functionaries, NGOs

and farmers.
20

Central

Institute

of

CIAE

Bhopal

1976

To

develop

Agricultural

processes

Engineering

utilizing

for

appropriate

equipment

modernization

animate

and

of

and

agriculture

mechanical

power

sources, To develop technology for reducing

post harvest losses and add value to agroproduce through processing.
21

Central

Institute

of

CIBA

Chennai

1987

To conduct research for development of techno-

Brackishwater

economically

Acquaculture

systems

for

brackishwater.

viable

and sustainable

finfish

and

culture

shellfish

in

277
S.

Agricultural

No.

Research Center

22

Central

Abbr.

Location

CIFA

Orissa

Year Of

Objective

Estb.

Institute

of

1949

To conduct investigations for a proper appraisal

Freshwater

of inland fisheries resources of the country and

Aquaculture

to

evolve

suitable

methods

for

their

conservation and optimum utilization.

23

National

Bureau

Plant

of

NBPGR

New Delhi

1976

To serve and promote the scientific cause and

Genetic

advance academic interests in the field of plant

Resources
24

genetic resources, both in India and abroad.

National

Dairy

NDRI

Haryana

1923

To enhance animal productivity and also to

Research Institute

develop cost effective technologies for the

benefit of the teeming millions.

II.

Health and Medicinal Research Centres in India:

S.

Health and

No.

Medicinal

Location

Year of

Objective

Estb.

Research Center
1

All

India

Maleria

New Delhi

1977

Research Institute

To find short term as well as long term solutions to

the problems of malaria through basic, applied and
operational field research.

National

Tuberclosis

Bangalore

1959

Institute

To develop a nationally applicable tuberculosis

control programme on a community basis and to
train

the

key

personnel

to

execute

this

mission-oriented

research

and

programme in the states.

3

Indian

Cancer

Mumbai

1952

Research Center

To

carry

out

development on cancers prevalent in the Indian

subcontinent, and where there are internationally
competitive opportunities, will use state-of-the-art
technology.

Indian

veterinary

Research Institute

Mukteshwar

1889

Institute of Ayurvedic
Studies and Research

conduct

research,

provide

postgraduate

(H.P.),

education and transfer of the technology in all

Izzatnagar

areas of animal sciences with emphasis on animal

(U.P.)
5

To

Jamnagar

health and production, etc.

2006-07

(Gujarat)

To establish a quality Ayurveda Institute for

providing

value

added

and

globally

relevant

education based on eteral human values.

6

Vallabh

Bhai

Patel

Delhi

1949

Chest Institute

To conduct research on basic and clinical aspects of

chest

medicine,

to

train

post

graduates

in

Pulmonary medicine and allied subjects, to develop

new

diagnostic

technology

and

disseminate

scientific knowledge related to chest medicine.

7

Haffkine Institute

Mumbai

1899

to

support

the

Learning

Community,

Faculty,

Researchers and Scientists in their day-to-day

information needs, to collect, process, organize and

278
disseminate the scientific information in Print and
other media in the field of Biomedicine and allied
subjects, etc.
8

National

Institute

of

Delhi

1963

11

provide

training,

service

and

operational

Communicable

research in the field of communicable diseases and

Diseases

their prevention and control in the country.

School

of

Tropical

Kolkata

1921

Medicine
10

To

To provide research modules in the feild of

medicine in tropical and developing countries.

Central

Leprosy

Chingelpet

1955

To

provide

diagnostic

treatment

and

referral

Training and Research

services to leprosy patients, training aspects of

Institute

leprosy and its control.

P.

G.I.

Medical

Education

Chandigarh

1962

and

To provide high quality patient care, to attain selfsufficiency in postgraduate medical education and

Research

to meet the countrys need for highly qualified

medical teachers in all medical and surgical fields,
etc.

12

National

Institute

of

Hyderabad

1918

Nutrition

To study the health-related nutrition and food

hygiene problems and to train nutrition and food
hygiene specialists.

13

National

Institute

of

Ahmedabad

1969

Occupational Health

Epidemiological and environmental monitoring and

corollary

toxicological

studies

in

hazardous

occupations for recognition and evaluation of risk

factors, development of tools for early diagnosis of
health

impairment

intervention

and

measures

design
for

the

of

appropriate

prevention

of

hazards at work places., etc.

14

King

Institute

of

Preventive Medicine

Guindy

1899

(Chennai)

To revive the manufacturing unit according to GMP

norms utilizing it as a common facility for the
production of Anti snake venom, cholera and
Typhoid Vaccine, etc.

15

All India Institute of

Hygiene

&

Kolkata

1932

Public

To deliver

integrated occupational health care

programme by conducting short term certificate

Health

course in occupational health and safety for the

medical/non-medical

personnel

attached

to

different industries, research studies in the field of

occupational health and safety, etc.
16

Indian

institute

health

management

research

of

Jaipur

1984

Organization and management of health system

based on primary health care with

particular

emphasis on district health system in urban and

rural areas.

279
III.

S.No.

Nuclear Research Centres in India:

Nuclear

Location

Research

Year

of

Objective

Estb

Center
1

Saha Institute of

Kolkata

1949

Nuclear Physics
2

To conduct and foster excellent and interesting

interdisciplinary research of significant utility.

Physical Research

Ahmedabad

1947

Laboratory (PRL)

To provide services such as networking, email,

printing, backup and maintaining computational
environment for scientific and engineering research.

Center of Earth
Science's Studies

Trivendrum

1978

(Kerala)

To Promote and establish modern scientific and

technological research and development studies of
importance to India and to Kerala in particular, in
the field of Earth Sciences, etc.

Nuclear

Fuel

Hyderabad

1971

Complex

To identify strenuous jobs and awkward postures

during work causing musculoskeletal problems in
various plants and suggest remedial measures,
To undertake the pulmonary function studies in
some

selectyed

category

workers.

(Reference

technical report submitted to management by CLI in

1981).
5

Bhabha

Atomic

Research Center

Trombay

1957

(Mumbai)

To fulfill its mandate of indigenous nuclear power

programme

and

various

other

applications

of

nuclear energy, etc.

6

Electronics

Hyderabad

Corporation

1967

of

To continue services to the country's needs for the

peaceful uses Atomic Energy. Special and Strategic

India

requirements of Defence and Space, Electronics

Security Systems and Support for Civil Aviation
sector.

Atomic

Energy

Mumbai

1948

Commission

To continue services to the country's needs for the

peaceful uses Atomic Energy.

(AEC)
8

Uranium

Jadugoda

Corporation

1967

of

Mining and Processing of uranium ore to produce

uranium concentrate.

India
9

India Rare Earths

Alwaye (Kerala)

1950

Limited

To become nationally and globally competitive

player in beach sand minerals and to achieve
annual

production

of

ilmenite

with

associate

minerals of 8 lakh tons by the year 2012, etc, o

improve productivity, capacity utilization, and cost
effectiveness, etc.
10

Indira

Gandhi

Tamil Nadu

1971

To

conduct

broad

based

multidisciplinary

Centre For Atomic

programme of scientific research and advanced

Research

Engineering, directed towards the development of

sodium

cooled

technology

Fast

Breeder

Reactor

[FBR]

280
11

National Chemical

Pune,

1950

Laboratory (NCL)

Maharashtra

To

design

new

solid

catalysts

for

chemical

transformations with high conversion and selectivity

for

petrochemicals,

chemicals

and

selected

organic

high

value

intermediates,

fine

develop

catalysts for pollution abatement, etc.

12

High

Altitude

Gulmarg,

Research

1963

To provide the scientific community of the country a

Kashmir

self

Laboratory
13

14

contained

high

high

latitude

laboratory for scientific research.

Central

Durgpur,

Mechanical

Bengal

West

1958

to provide assistance to mechanical engineering

industries

in

the

form

Engineering

research,

Research Institute

substitution & export

Central

altitude

Mining

Dhanbad, Bihar

1956

training,

of

feasibility

consultancy

etc.

for

studies,
import

To carry out the work of research and development

Research

in the area of mining and allied subjects.

Institution
15

Radio

Astronomy

Tamil Nadu

1968

To provide stimulating environment for the front-

Center
16

line research in radio astronomy and astrophysics

Variable

Energy

Mumbai

1977

Development around the accelerator technology and

Cyclotron Center

research in the fields of accelerator physics, nuclear

physics, quark-gluon plasma, theoretical physics,
material sciences, chemistry, isotope production
etc.

17

Atomic

Minerals

Directorate

for

Exploration

and

Hyderabad

1948

To carry out geological exploration and discover

mineral

deposits

required

for

nuclear

power

programme of India.

Research
IV.

S.No.

Nanotechnology Research Centres in India:

Nanotechnology

Location

Research

Year

Of

Objective

Estb.

Center
1

Bhabha

Atomic

Mumbai

1954

Research Center

To fulfill its mandate of indigenous nuclear power

programme

and

various

other

applications

of

nuclear energy, etc.

2

Center of Materials
for

Pune

1990

Electronics

materials for the present and future industrial

Technology
3

Central

To establish technology strength in electronics

requirement.

Electronics

Rajasthan

1953

Advanced research and development in Electronics.

1977

To

Research Institute
4

Central
Ceramic
Institute

Glass

and

Research

Kolkata

provide

scientific

industrial

research

and

development in the area of glass, ceramics and

related materials that maximizes the economic,
environmental and societal benefit for the people of
India

281
5

Central

Scientific

Chandigarh

1959

Promotion, guidance and coordination of scientific

Instruments

and industrial research in India including other

Organization

institutions and financing the specific research

activities.

Defence
and

Research

Gwalior

1973

Development

Research

and

development

of

detection

and

protection against toxic chemical and biological

Establishment

agent.

(DRDE)
7

Indian

Association

Kolkata

1876

for the Cultivation of

To foster high quality fundamental research in

frontier disciplines of the basic sciences.

Sciences (IACS)
8

Institute

of

Mumbai

1945

Fundamental

To conduct research primarily in natural sciences,

mathematics and theoretical computer science.

Research
9

National Center for

Karnataka

1892

Biological Sciences
10

National

areas of biology.

Chemical

Pune

1950

Laboratories
11

To conduct fundamental research in the frontier

To conduct research, development and consultancy
services in the related field of science.

National

Jamshedpur

1950

Progressive

enhancement

of

its

resources,

Metallurgical

generation and acquisition of Intellectual Property

Laboratory

Assets' and strives to maximise the business of

R&D meeting the customer requirements through
maintenance of sustainable growth

12

National

Physics

New Delhi

1947

Laboratories

To maintain standards of SI units in India and

calibrates the national standards of weights and
measures.

13

Raman

Research

Bangalore

1948

Institute
14

To conduct research in Astronomy, Astrophysics,

Liquid Crystals, Theoretical Physics, Optics.

Regional

Research

Trivandrum

1961

Laboratories

To undertake externally funded projects and offers

know-how, feasibility reports, analysis and testing
facilities, consultancy and technical information
services and human resource development in its
various R&D Divisions.

15

S. N. Bose National
Center

for

Kolkata

1986

Basic

advanced studies in selected branches of basic

Sciences (DST)
16

Saha

Institute

sciences, etc.
of

Kolkata

1949

Nuclear Physics
17

Solid State Physics

Laboratory

To foster, encourage and promote the growth of

basic

research

and

training

in

physical

and

biophysical sciences
Delhi

1962

research in the field of Solid State Materials,

Devices and Sub-systems.

282
V.

Other Research Institutions:

Departmental Research Centres
Anthropological Survey of India

Kolkata

Central Water Power Research Station

Khadakvasla (Pune)

Central Power Research Institute

Bangalore and Bhopal

Forest Research Institute

Dehradun

Geological Survey of India

Kolkata

Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology

Pune

Space Research
Indian Scientific Satellite Project

Bangalore

Indian Space Research Organization

Bangalore

Physical Research Laboratory

Ahmedabad

Propelling Fuel Complex

Thiruvananthapuram

Satellite Launch Vehicle Project

Thiruvananthapuram

Space Applications Centre

Ahmedabad

Space Commission

Bangalore

Sriharikota Range

Sriharikota (Andhra Pradesh)

Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station

Thumba

Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre

Thiruvananthapuram

Ocean Research Institutions

National Institute of Oceanography

Panaji, Goa

Indian National Centre for Ocean and Information Services

Hyderabad

Project Directorate, Integrated Coastal and Marine Area

Chennai

Management
Centre for Marine Living Resources and Ecology

Kochi

Physical and Earth Sciences

National Physical Laboratory

New Delhi

Central Fuel Research Institute

Dhanbad

Indian Institute of Petroleum

Dehradun

National Chemical Laboratory

Pune

283
Biological Sciences
Central Leather Research Institute

Chennai

National Botanical Research Institute

Lucknow

Engineering
National Aeronautical Laboratory
National

Environmental

Bangalore

Engineering

Research

National Metallurgical Laboratory

Nagpur
Bangalore

Scientific Museums
Birla Industrial Technological Museum

Kolkata

Indian National Scientific Documentation Center

New Delhi

Visvesvaraya Industrial and Technological

Bangalore

Co-Operative Research Institutions

Cement Research Institute of India

Ballabhgarh

National Surveys and Other Institutes

Botanical Survey of India

Kolkata

National Atlas Organization

Kolkata

Indian National Science Academy

New Delhi

Sports Institutes
Netaji Subhash National Institute of Sports

Sr.
No.

PROGRAMME

Community
Development
Programme
High Yielding Variety Programme
(HYVP)
Employment Guarantee Scheme
(Maharashtra)
Drought-Prone Area Programme
(DPAP)
Command
Area
Development
Programme (CADP)
20-Point Programme

Desert Development Programme

Food for Work Programme

Antyodaya Yojana (Rajasthan)

10

Training of Rural Youth for SelfEmployment (TRYSEM)

Integrated Rural Development
Programme (IRDP)

2
3
4
5

11

YEAR

Patiala

GOALS

1952

Overall development of rural areas with people participation

196667
197273
1973

Increase food grain output by adopting high-yielding varieties of

seeds
Assist the economically weaker sections of the rural society

197475
1975

Protection from drought by achieving environmental balance and

by developing ground water resources
Better, rapid utilization of irrigation capacities of medium and
large projects
Poverty eradication and better living standards

197778
197778
197778
1979

Curbing desertification and maintaining environmental balance

1980

Overall development of the rural poor through asset endowment

for self- employment

Foodgrain to labour for development work

Uplift the poorest in villages to make them economically
independent
Train rural youth for self-employment

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12

National
Rural
Employment
Programme
Development of Women and
Children in Rural Areas
Rural
Landless
Employment
Guarantee Programme (RLEGP)

1980

Profitable employment for the rural poor

1982

Self-employment to rural women from below poverty line

1983

Employment to landless farmers and labourers

15

Self-Employment to the Educated

Unemployed Youth (SEEUY)

1983

Financial and technical assistance for self- employment

16

Comprehensive Crop Insurance

Scheme
Council for Advancement of
People's
Action
and
Rural
Technology (CAPART)

1985

Risk cover for farm crops against floods, drought etc.

1986

Assistance for rural prosperity

1986

19

Self-Employment Programme for

the Urban Poor (SEPUP)
Jawahar Rozgar Yojana

1989

Self- employment for urban poor by providing subsidies and

loans
Employment for rural jobless

20

Nehru Rozgar Yojana

1989

Employment for urban jobless

21

Scheme
of
Urban
Enterprises (SUME)
Scheme
of
Urban
Employment (SUWE)
National Renewal Fund

Micro

1990

Assistance to urban poor for small enterprises

Wage

1990

13
14

17

18

22

1992

Wage employment for urban poor in areas with population less

than 1 lakh
Retraining the retrenched PSU employees

Employment Assurance Scheme

(EAS)
Members of Parliament Local Area
Devp Scheme (MPLADS)
Antyodaya Anna Yojana

1993

Employment for at least 100 days a year in villages

1993
2000

Rs. 5 crore per year to every MP for local devp works in their
areas
Provide food security to the the very poor

Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak

Yojana (PMGSY)
National
Food
for
Work
Programme
Bharat Nirman Programme

2000

Link all villages with pucca roads

2004

Intensify the creation of supplementary wage employment

2005
2006

31

National
Rural
Employment
Guarantee Scheme
Aam Aadmi Bima Yojana

Rural Infrastructure Devp. - Irrigation, Water, Housing, Roads,

Telecom, Power
Minimum 100 days wage employment for every rural family

2007

Scheme extends the benefit of life insurance coverage as well as

coverage of partial and permanent disability to the head of the
family or an earning member of the family of rural landless
households and educational assistance to their children studying
from 9th to 12th standard as an extended benefit.

32

Gramin Bhandaran Yojna

2007

Creation of scientific storage capacity with allied facilities in rural

areas to meet the requirements of farmers for storing farm
produce, processed farm produce and agricultural inputs.
Improve their marketability through promotion of grading,
standardization and quality control of agricultural produce.

33

Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana

2007

34

Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana

2008

Achieve 4% annual growth in agriculture through development of

Agriculture and its allied sectors during the XI Plan period
Health insurance to poor (BPL), Domestic workers, MGNERGA
workers, Rikshawpullers, Building and other construction
workers, and many other categories as may be identified by the
respective states

35

Bachat Lamp Yojna

2009

Reduce the cost of compact fluorescent lamps

36

Indira Gandhi Matritva Sahyog

Yojana
Pradhan Mantri Adarsh Gram
Yojana
Swavalamban

2010

A cash incentive of Rs. 4000 to women (19 years and above) for
the first two live births [6]
Integrated development of Schedule Caste majority villages in
four states
Pension scheme to the workers in unorganised sector. Any citizen
who is not part of any statutory pension scheme of the
Government and contributes between Rs. 1000 and Rs. 12000/per annum, could join the scheme. The Central Government shall
contribute Rs. 1000 per annum to such subscribers.

23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30

37
38

2010
2010

285
39

AADHAR

2010

The Unique Identification Authority of India (UIDAI) is

responsible for implementing the AADHAR scheme. The authority
aims to provide a unique ID number to all Indians and also
maintain a database containing biometric and other information.
The Aadhar logo is a yellow sun with a fingerprint embedded in
its centre. Aadhaar is a 12-digit exclusive number stored in a
centralized database, which is coupled to the essential
demographic and biometric information photograph, 10
fingerprints and iris of every person.

40

Swabhiman

2011

41

Rajiv Awas Yojana

2013

To make banking facility available to all citizens and to get 5

crore accounts opened by Mar 2012. Replaced by Pradhan Mantri
Jan Dhan Yojana.
It envisages a Slum Free India" with inclusive and equitable
cities in which every citizen has access to basic civic
infrastructure and social amenities and decent shelter

42

Saksham or Rajiv Gandhi Scheme

for Empowerment of Adolescent
Boys

2014

Aims at all-round development of Adolescent Boys and make

them self-reliant, gender-sensitive and aware citizens, when they
grow up. It cover all adolescent boys (both school going and out
of school) in the age-group of 11 to 18 years subdivided into two
categories, viz. 11-14 & 1418 years. In 2014-15, an allocation
of Rs. 25 crore is made for the scheme.

43

Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana

2014

44

Deen Dayal Upadhyaya

Jyoti Yojana [2]

Gram

2015

National Mission for Financial Inclusion to ensure access to

financial services, namely Banking Savings & Deposit Accounts,
Remittance, Credit, Insurance, Pension in an affordable manner
It is a Government of India program aimed at providing 24x7
uninterrupted power supply to all homes in Rural India

45

Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen

Kaushalya Yojna[3]

2015

It is a Goveronment of India Project to engage rural youth

specially BPL and SC/ST segment of population, in gainful
employment through skill training programmes.

46

Pradhan
Yojna [11]

2015

47

Atal Pension Yojana

2015

To provide encouragement to youth for development of

employable skills by providing monetary rewards by recognition
of prior learning or by undergoing training at affiliated centres.
Social Sector Scheme pertaining to Pension Sector

48

Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima

Yojana [1]

2015

Accidental Insurance with a premium of Rs. 12 per year.

49

Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima

Yojana [1]

2015

Life insurance of Rs. 2 lakh with a premium of Rs. 330 per year.

50

Smart Cities Mission

2015

51

Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and

Urban Transformation (AMRUT)

2015

To enable better living and drive economic growth stressing on

the need for people centric urban planning and development.
To enable better living and drive economic growth stressing on
the need for people centric urban planning and development.

52

Pradhan Mantri Awas

(PMAY)
Digital India Programme

2015

53

54

Mantri

Kaushal

Vikas

[1]

Yojana

2015

Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas

Yojana
Sukanya Samridhi Yojana (Girl
Child Prosperity Scheme)

2015

56

HRIDAY

Heritage
City
Development and Augmentation
Yojana

2015

57

Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana

2016

55

2015

To enable better living and drive economic growth stressing on

the need for people centric urban planning and development.
Aims to ensure that government services are available to citizens
electronically and people get benefited from the latest
information and communication technology
Seeks to provide the institutional capacity to train a minimum 40
crore skilled people by 2022 [20]
The scheme primarily ensures equitable share to a girl child in
resources and savings of a family in which she is generally
discriminated as against a male child.
The scheme seeks to preserve and rejuvenate the rich cultural
heritage of the country.
Launched to provide free LPG connections to women from below
poverty line families.

286

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

A.

Physics

I.

Concepts:
Mass: It is the quantity of matter contained in a body. It is measured in Kilogram or Grams
Weight: Is the downward force acting on a body due to the attraction of the earth. It is measured in
Newtons or Dynes (the same units as force).
Internationally, it is measured in terms of a kilogram.
1000 grams = 1 kilogram.

1 milligram = of a gram.

1 kilogram = 2.2 lbs. Approx.

1 litre of water weighs 1 kgm.

1 pound weigh 453.6 gms.

1 cubic centimeter of water weighs 1 gram.

Density: The mass contained in a unit volume of a body is called its density. It can be expressed in terms
of Kg/Litre or Gm/Cubic Centimeter. A substance having more density will obviously occupy lesser space
as compared to another substance having lesser density.
Specific Gravity: Is the ratio of the mass of a given volume of the substance to the mass of an equal
volume of water.
Illustrations:
(i) Lactometer is a kind of hydrometer which is immersed in milk to test its density and it is based on the
principle that the greater the density of a liquid the lesser will be the immersion.
(ii)The ship floats on the surface of water because the weight of water that it displaces is equal to its own
weight.
Motion: Motion is the change of position of a body with respect to its surroundings.
Speed: Is the rate of motion. It is a scalar quantity, i.e., it does not have direction. Velocity is the rate of
motion in a particular direction. It is a vector quantity, i.e., it possesses both magnitude and direction.
Thus in a uniform circular motion, though the speed remains constant, the velocity continually goes on
changing.
Acceleration: Is the rate of increase of velocity. Its units are m/s2. When a physical object falls freely
under the influence of the gravitational pull of the Earth, the acceleration with which it falls below is
known as the Acceleration of Free Fall or Acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2).
Newtons First Law of Motion: States that a body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in
a straight line unless compelled by an external force to change that state. This law can be reworded like
this: Departure from a straight line motion path indicates the presence of an external force.

287
Illustrations:
(i) A man jumping of the moving train falls forward because his feet suddenly come to rest, while his body
is in motion with the train.
Centripetal Force: When a small piece of stone tied to a string is whirled, one has to pull the string
inwards. This pull on the stone is called the centripetal force. An equal and opposite force is exerted by
the stone on the hand. This force on the hand is called centrifugal force. Thus centripetal force is directed
towards the center while centrifugal force is directed away from the centre.
Illustrations:
(i) Mud sticking to a bicycle tyre is pulled in radially by the force of adhesion; when the latter force is less
than the centripetal force required to move the mud in a circle, the mud files off tangentially.
(ii) The sparks, which fly off from the grinding stone of a blacksmith, are also due to the same
phenomenon.
Newtons Second Law of Motion: States that the rate of change of momentum is in proportion to the
impressed fore and takes place in the direction of force. The harder a football is kicked, the faster will it
move, and it will move in the same direction in which it is kicked.
Newtons Third Law of Motion: Says that to every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Illustrations:
(i) If we step out of a boat, we go in one direction and the boat goes in the other direction.
(ii) When a bullet is fired from a gun, the bullet goes forward and the gun kicks backward. This is called
the recoil of the gun. Unless there is action we cannot have reaction.
(iii) We cannot drive a nail into a wooden block unless it is supported against something to offer reaction.
Gravity: Is the pull of the earth with which it attracts bodies towards itself.
Law of Gravitation: States that every particle in this universe attracts every other particle with a force
which is directly proportional to the product of other masses and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them.
Relative Velocity: Is the velocity of one body in relation to another body. Supposing a body A moves
with a velocity of 10 miles per hour towards the east and another body B moves in the same direction
with a velocity of 5 miles/hour, then relative velocity of A with respect to B is 5 miles/hour to the east and
that of B with respect to A is 5 miles/hour to the west.
Momentum literally means the quantity of motion in a body. Mathematically, Momentum = mass x velocity
of the body. Thus force is equivalent to mass x acceleration of the body.
Power: The rate of doing work is called Power. Horse Power is a unit of power (1 H.P. = 746 watts). 1
Watt (= 107 erg/sec.) is S.I. unit of power.
Energy: The capacity of doing work is called Energy. This is of two types: Potential Energy is the energy
which a body possesses owing to its position and Kinetic Energy is the energy possessed by a body due to
its motion. In the case of stretched or wound up string or bent how, the energy is potential. The ball lying

288
on the roof of a house is capable of driving a nail into the ground, if allowed to fall on it. A watch spring
when wound up possesses energy to keep the wheels of the watch in motion for a day. Each one provides
an example of Potential Energy. On the other hand, the water flowing downstream on account of gravity
is, by virtue of its motion, capable of setting a water mill in motion.
Principle of work: Input = output
Work done on a machine = Work done by the machine
What we gain in power, we lose in speed or distance. A screw jack lifts a huge car through small distance
by the application of small force through a large distance. The various kinds of simple machines are:
lever, wheel and axle, pulley, inclined plane, wedge and screw.
Surface Tension: The force of tension on account of the inter-molecular forces on the surface of a liquid
is called surface tension. The effect of surface tension is to make the area of the free surface as small as
possible. It is on account of this fact that rain drops are spherical, and the free surface of water is plain
like a stretched membrane.
Viscosity: Is the force of drag between molecules of the same substance. For example, honey pours itself
into a container very slowly as compared to water or milk. This is simply due to the fact the honey
molecules exercise a lot of backward acting force on the molecules which want to leave their field. Owing
to this, honey or glycerine pour themselves very slowly while water and milk do not.
Pascals Law: The liquids transmit pressure equally in all directions. If a vessel has two pistons A and B,
cross section area of piston B being twice that of A, then if A is pushed in with a force of 1 lb, B will be
pushed out with a force of 2 lbs. This principle is employed in Brahma Press or Hydraulic Press.
Archimedes Principle (The Eureka! Experience) Says that when a body is immersed in a fluid, it
experiences an upward thrust. The upward thrust or loss of weight is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced.
A ships hull is so shaped that the weight of steel and other parts together with the weight of the cargo
and air inside are equal to the weight of the water displaced by the immersed portion; and hence it floats.
An iron nail displaces such a small volume of water because of its tiny profile that the upward thrust
generated is much less than the weight of the nail. Hence it sinks. On the other hand, a piece of straw of
the same profile floats because its low weight is easily supported by the upward thrust set up.
Pressure: Air has a weight and therefore it exerts pressure on the surface of the earth. Pressure is
defined as force per unit area.
Atmospheric pressure = weight of 76 cm of Mercury column
Considering the average area of a human body as 1.3 sq. metre the total pressure (or force) acting on a
human being is about 13.4 metric tons, which is enormous but our bodies have been adjusted to this in its
long evolutionary history. The instrument used to measure pressure is called barometer.
II.

HEAT
Effects of heat
1. Raises temperature

2. Increases volume

3. Changes state

4. Brings about chemical action

5. Changes physical properties

289
Illustrations:
(i) On a hot day while cycling on a road if we touch the handle of a bicycle, the handle will seem to be
otter than the grips because the handle is a good conductor of heat and when we touch any part of it,
heat flows to the hand, not only from the part but also from the neighboring parts: whereas in the case of
grips the heat flows to the hand from only that part which is touched. The handle seems hotter because it
is a good conductor of heat and the flow of heat to the hand is greater and more rapid than in the case of
the grips.
Temperature: It is the degree of hotness, and it can be measured on three scales: Centigrade,
Fahrenheit, Reaumur and Absolute or Kelvin scales. The freezing and boiling points of water in these
scales are as follows:
They are related to each other as

C
F 32 R K 273.15
=
=
100
180 80
100
Calorie: Is a unit of heat. It is equal to the heat given to one gm of water to raise its temperature by 10C.
Latent Heat: Is the heat which is used up in changing the state of a body without raising its temperature.
One gram of ice at 00C takes in 80 calories of heat to change into 1 gm. of water at 00C and one gram of
water at 1000C needs to be given 537 calories of heat to change it to 1 gm. of steam at 1000C. 80 cal. and
537 cal. are called the latent heat of fusion of ice and latent heat of vaporization of water respectively.
Illustration:
(i) Burns from steam at 1000C are more severe than burns from hot boiling water at 1000C. This is
because, as stated above, 1 g of water at 1000C needs to be given 537 calories of (latent) heat to change
it to 1 g of steam at 1000C. Thus steam packs this much more heat than boiling water and so causes
burns more severely.
Evaporation: It is the change of state from liquid to vapour. Cooling is caused by evaporation.
1. We feel cold immediately after sprinkling water on our body. It is because the evaporation of the water
gives the cooling effect.
Transference of Heat: Heat can be transferred in three ways:(a) Conduction is a process in which heat is transferred from particle to particle.
For example, when one end of a metal rod is put in the fire the other end outside gets hot. Here heat
travels from one end to the other by conduction. The rate of heat flow is directly proportional to the cross
sectional area of the rod and inversely proportional to its length. That is why long thin handles are
preferred for parts used in foundry work and in cooking.
(b) Convection: Is the transmission of heat from one part of the body to another by the actual motion of
the heated particles of liquid or gas.

290
Illustration: Ventilation is an application of the convection currents in gases. The air in a dwelling room
is always warmer than the free air outside, and hence it rises upwards and passes out through the
ventilators, while cold fresh air comes into the room through the doors and windows to take its place.
(c) Radiation: It is the process by which heat is transmitted from one point to another without heating
the medium. It takes place through the Electro-magnetic waves.
Illustrations:
(i) Thermos flask is a glass vessel with double walls, the space between the walls being vacuum. The
outer surface of the inner walls and the inner surface of the outer walls are silvered. The vacuum does not
allow the conduction and convection to take place and the polished surface minimizes radiation of heat.
(ii) While linen is more suitable in summer as it absorbs very little of the suns rays. Black clothing is
preferred in winter, for it absorbs almost the whole of the incident radiation, and thus it gives more
warmth.
Water possesses the maximum density at 4oC. This fact plays a very important part in nature. The cooling
of water in winter goes on till the ponds and tanks are all at 4oC. Further cooling results in the water at
the surface becoming lighter and, therefore, remaining at the top, leaving the water at the bottom 4oC,
and hence unaffected. The cooling of the top layers may be so much that they may entirely freeze. Since
ice is a bad conductor of heat, it does not allow the layers below the ice to be cooled by the cold outside.
This enables aquatic animals to continue to live in the most severe winter.
The melting point of a substance which expands on freezing (water on becoming ice) is lowered by the
increase of pressure; whereas it is raised in the case of substance which contracts on freezing (e.g. wax).
III.

LIGHT
Rectilinear Propagation of Light: Light travels in a straight line. This is why we place a small obstacle
between the object and our eyes, when we do not want to look at it. Shadows are formed due to the same
phenomenon of rectilinear propagation of light.
Reflection: When a ray of light falls on a mirror, it is sent back to the first medium in a certain direction
according to certain laws. This is referred to as reflection. Many day-to-day phenomena can be easily
explained with the help of this principle.
Illustrations:
(i) When an object is placed between two mirrors parallel to each other we see infinite images due to
successive reflections. They look smaller because their distance from the eye is successively increased.
(ii) Construction of a toy, called kaleidoscope (made by using small pieces of mirror and pieces of broken
bangles) is due to successive reflection at the surface of inclined mirrors.
Refraction: Is there when a ray of light is incident obliquely on a surface of separation between two
media, part of it goes into the second medium along a path different from the direction of the incident
beam.
(i) It is due to refraction that a stick immersed in water appears bent.

291
(ii) The brilliance of a diamond is due to the fact that when light enters a piece of diamond, on
account of high refractive index (and consequential small critical angle) and the cut of its face, it gets
totally reflected at most of the face. The few faces from which it comes out throw a good deal of light
and make them appear brilliantly lit.
(iii) Mirage is an optical illusion owing to total internal reflection. In sandy deserts the air in contact with
the hot earth is rarer than the upper layers. As we go towards the earth the density of the air goes on
decreasing. Hence the rays of light from a distant object traverse through successively rare layers and
hence go on bending away from the normal and ultimately get totally reflected at the rarest layer, and
reach the observers eye as if they come from a point as far below the reflecting layer as the object is
above it. Since these layers of air are shaking the inverted image as seen by total internal reflection also
is shaking, giving man the illusion of splashing water everything.
IV.

ELECTRICITY & MAGNETISM: Magnet is a substance which has the property of attracting pieces of iron,
cobalt and nickel, and when freely suspended, it points towards North and South.
Natural Magnet: A naturally occurring mineral called magnetite is found in Asia.
Minor: It is a compound of iron and oxygen. It is also called lodestone. It attracts piece of iron, cobalt and
nickel and when suspended points in the north-south direction. It is a natural magnet.
Artificial Magnets: These are pieces of iron to which the properties of a magnet have been imparted by
artificial means. Steel is mostly employed for making permanent artificial magnets.
How does lightning strike a building?: Let us consider a charged cloud hanging over the earth. By
induction, the earth and other bodies below get charged with opposite kind of electricity. When the strain
becomes too great the insulation of moist air in between, breaks down and the discharge takes place
between the cloud and some object below it. A heavy charge thus passes between the cloud and building,
and in its passage damage the building.
Current Electricity: When two vessels filled with water up to different levels are connected together,
water flows from the higher to the lower level. Similarly when two bodies having different degrees of
electrification are connected together, electricity flows from higher degree of electrification to the lower,
and this gives rise to current electricity.
Potential: Is called the degree of electrification. For example, in a dry cell, the metal tip at the top of
the carbon rod is at a higher (positive) potential than the zinc cylinder, which is at a lower (negative)
potential. If these two ends are connected by means of a conducting wire to a bulb, it will keep on
glowing, till the difference of potential between the carbon and zinc in the cell is maintained.
Heating Effects of Current: When an electric current is passed through wire of any metal it
experiences (electron) resistance to its flow. This resistance manifests itself as heat and light, the
proportion of the two depending on the properties of the material. In wires of Nichrome, more heat is
produced than light. Construction of electric heaters, electric tea-kettles, stoves, boilers, electric irons,
etc., is based on the heating effects of electric current. The heat H, produced when a current I amperes
flows through a conductor is given by Joules Law.

292
i.e., H = VIt Joules
Where V is the potential difference in volts, and t is the time for which the current flows.
Or H = I2Rt
Microwaves: Electromagnetic waves having a wavelength in the centimeter range and occupying a
region in the electromagnetic spectrum between Radio waves and Infrared waves.
Microwave Cooker: It uses microwaves for food processing. In conventional heating, a heat source
(like the flame of a gas stove) transfers heat to the foodstuffs by conducting, convection or radiation;
the surface of the foodstuff is first heated after which heat is slowly transferred to the interior.
Microwave heating is bulk heating since there is direct conversion of microwave energy into heat
throughout the material, hence it is faster. Microwaves interact differently with different materials. They
pass through paper, glass, ceramics; hence they make good containers for foodstuffs for microwave
cooking. They are reflected by metals; hence containers should never be metallic. They are absorbed by
and so heat up food products, water etc. Apart from dramatically reducing cooking times, microwave
cooking increases the efficiency of energy utilization.
V.

SOUND: Sound is a form of energy which produces a sensation of hearing. Sound waves are longitudinal
in character. These can propagate in solids, liquids and gases. Human ear is sensitive to frequencies from
about 20 cycle/s are called infrasonic and those above 20,000 cycle/s are called ultrasonic. The sound
waves originate in the vibration of bodies like strings, air columns plates and membranes etc. In human
being the vocal cards vibrate to produce sound. In air the speed of the sound is affected by pressure,
temperature, density, humidity and wind speed. In dry air at 0oC the speed in about 331 m/s. It travels
faster in damp air or the speed also increases with temperature. In water at 15oC the speed in about 1450
m/s and in iron at 200C is about 5130 m/s. When expressed in decibels (dB) the intensity of the loudest
painless sound equals 120 dB. The normal conversation has the intensity of about 65 dB. The intensity of
the sound from a nearby airplane is about 120 dB. The intensity varies inversely as a square of the
distance from the source.
Sound shows the phenomenon of reflection, refraction, interference and diffraction. Sound waves which
are approximately periodic give rise to pleasing sensation (if there are no sudden changes in loudness)
e.g. musical sounds, like humming of a bee. Sound waves with no regularity or a super position of
periodic waves having very large number of components is heard as noise. The three characteristics of
sound are
(i) loudness

(ii) pitch and

(iii) quality

Forces

Force is a vcetor quantity, with Newton and Dyne being the mks and cgs units respectively.

Newton's First Law: for objects at rest or moving at constant velocity the net force is zero.

For Newton's Second Law: a net unbalanced force produces acceleration.

The normal force and the gravitational force are not an action-reaction pair.

Static friction exists between two surfaces when motion is impending; kinetic friction occurs when two
surfaces are in relative motion. In either case, the friction forces are proportional to the normal force.

293
Work, Energy And Momentum

Work and energy are scalar quantities.

Work is equal to the product of the displacement and the component of the force in the direction of
the displacement.

For an object traveling in circular motion, the centripetal force never does work.

Mechanical energy is the sum of all kinetic and potential energies.

Work-Energy Theorem: the net work is equal to the change in kinetic energy.

Conservation of mechanical energy under the action of a dissipative force includes the work due to
frictional forces (non-conservative forces).

Power is the time rate of change of work or energy, but it can also be calculated using force x speed.

The impulse is the product of the average force and the time interval through which it acts. Impulse is
equal to the change in momentum.

VI.

Momentum is conserved in all collision systems. Kinetic energy is conserved only in elastic collisions.

Objects stick together in perfectly inelastic collisions.

Circular Motion And Gravitation

Uniform circular motion refers to motion in a circle where the speed is constant and only the direction
changes. The change in direction produced by a central force is called centripetal acceleration.

The centripetal force is not a special kind of force; therefore never label a force on a free-bodydiagram as 'centripetal'. The centripetal force is provided by the component of the force that is
directed towards the center of the circular path e.g. friction, tension, gravity, normal, etc.

The gravitational force is directly proportional to the product of the masses and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between them.

Fluid Mechanics And Thermal Physics

VII.

Fluid Mechanics

Absolute pressure is equal to the gauge pressure plus the atmospheric pressure.

Fluid pressure is independent of the shape or area of the container.

Archimedes' Principle: An object that is completely or partly submerged in fluid experiences an

upward force (buoyant force) equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.

An object will float (sink) in a fluid if the density of the object is less (greater) than the density of the
fluid.

The submerged fraction of an object is the ratio of the submerged volume to the total volume or the
ratio of the density of the object to the density of the fluid.

Pascal's Principle: An external pressure applied to a confined fluid is transmitted throughout the fluid.

Bernoulli's Equation: The net work done on a fluid is equal to the changes in kinetic and potential
energy of the fluid in terms of quantities per volume.

VIII.

Electricity and Magnetism

Electricity

Coulomb's Law: the force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges is directly proportional
to the product of the two charges and inversely proportional to the square of the separation between
the charges.

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Use the sign of the charges to determine the direction of the forces and Coulomb's Law to determine
their magnitudes.

Electric forces and electric fields are vectors, electric potentials are scalars.

Electric fields point in the direction of the force on a positive test charge.

The electric field inside a closed conductor is zero. Outside the conductor the electric field is not zero
and the electric field lines are drawn perpendicular to the surface.

Electric field lines are perpendicular to equipotential lines.

Electric fields between two parallel plates are uniform in strength except at the edges.

The electric potential energy increases as a positive charge is moved against the electric field, and it
decreases as a negative charge is moved against the same field.

Resistance depends on the kind of material (resistivity), the length, cross-sectional area, and
temperature. Resistance is proportional to length and inversely proportional to cross-sectional area.

All resistors in parallel have equal voltage. Adding a resistor in parallel decreases the total resistance
of a circuit.

All resistors in series have equal current. Adding a resistor in series increases the total resistance of a
circuit.

Voltmeters have a high resistance (to keep from drawing current) and are wired in parallel (because
voltage is the same in parallel). Ammeters have a low resistance (to keep from reducing the current)
and are wired in series (because current is the same in series).

All capacitors in parallel have equal voltage. The total charge is equal to the sum of the charges and
the effective capacitance is the sum of the individual capacitances.

All capacitors in series have equal charge. The potential difference across the battery is equal to the
sum of the drops across each capacitor.

For circuits that contain capacitors and resistors:

- A capacitor that is empty allows the flow of current such as a wire.
- A capacitor that is full acts like a broken wire.

Magnetism

Magnetic fields point from the north to the south outside the magnet.

A particle entering a magnetic field between two plates will follow a circular path. The magnetic force
provides the centripetal force.

Magnetic force on a charged particle is at its maximum when the field and velocity vectors are at right
angles. The force is at a minimum (0) when the field and velocity vectors are parallel or anti parallel.

Right hand rules are for positive charges, for negative charges the direction is the opposite of the one
found with the right hand rule.

IX.

Waves and optics

Waves and sound

Transverse wave particles vibrate perpendicular to the wave direction and longitudinal wave particles
vibrate parallel to the direction of the wave propagation.

Sound waves are mechanical longitudinal waves. Light waves are electromagnetic transverse waves.

The speed of a wave depends only on the properties of the medium.

The energy of a wave is directly proportional to the square of the amplitude.

The intensity of sound is inversely proportional to the distance.

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Geometrical And Physical Optics

The wave behavior of light is proven by diffraction, interference and the polarization of light.

The particle behavior of light is proven by the photoelectric effect.

The electromagnetic spectrum (radio, microwaves, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, x-ray and gamma

The range of wavelengths for visible light goes from 400 nm for violet to 700 nm for red.

All angles in reflection and refraction are measured with respect to the normal.

At the critical angle a wave will be refracted to 90 degrees.

Total internal reflection occurs at angles greater than the critical angle.

Light rays bend away from the normal as they enter a lower index of refraction medium while the

rays) is listed from lowest frequency to highest (longer to smaller wavelength).

frequency remains constant.

Concave mirrors are converging and convex mirrors are diverging. Concave lenses are diverging and

Convex mirrors and concave lenses produce only small virtual images.

convex lenses are converging.

X.

Classic Experiments:
J.J. Thomson: Experimentally measured the charge to mass ratio of cathode rays.
Ernest Rutherford: The scattering of alpha particles by a thin sheet of gold foil. This experiment
demonstrated that atoms consist of mostly empty space with a very dense core, the nucleus.
Neils Bohr: Bohr's planetary model of the atom correctly describes the spectra of hydrogen.
R.A. Millikan: Millikan's oil drop experiment confirmed that the fundamental electric charge is
quantized.
Hertz and Einstein: The photoelectric effect was first observed by Hertz and later explained by E
instein. Einstein obtained a Nobel Prize for the mathematical description of the photoelectric effect.
A.H. Compton: The scattering of x-rays photons provided the final confirmation of the validity of
Planck's quantum hypothesis that electromagnetic radiation came in discrete massless packets (photons)
with energy proportional to frequency.
Davisson-Germer: Their experiment of the diffraction of electrons demonstrated the wave nature of
the electron, confirming the earlier hypothesis of de Broglie.

XI.

Graphical Analysis:
Valuable information can be obtained by analyzing graphs.
A. Most common areas under the curve:
1. The area under the curve of a velocity-time graph gives the displacement.
2. The area under the curve of an acceleration-time graph gives the change in velocity.
3. The area under the curve of a force-time graph gives the impulse (change in momentum).
4. The area under the curve of a force-distance graph gives the work done.

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5. The area under the curve of a pressure-volume graph gives the work done by the gas.
6. The area under a charge-voltage graph is the work required to charge the capacitor i.e. energy
stored.
XII.

Important Units:
MEASUREMENT

UNIT

SYMBOL

EXPRESSED IN

EXPRESSED IN

BASE UNITS

OTHER SI UNITS

Acceleration

m/s

m/s
2

A .s4/kg.m2

Capacitance

Farad

Current

Ampere

Electric charge

Coulomb

A.s

N/C

kg.m/C.s2

kg.m2/A2.s3

Electric field
Electric resistance
Energy, work

Ohm
Joule

C/s

kg.m /s
2

V/A
N.m

Emf, voltage

Volt

kg.m /A.s

Force

Newton

kg.m/s2

Frequency

Hertz

Hz

s-1

Magnetic field

Tesla

kg/A.s2

N.s/C.m or Wb/m2

Magnetic flux

Weber

Wb

kg.m2/A.s2

V.s

Pressure

Pascal

Pa

kg/ms

N/m2

Potential

Volt

kg.m2/A.s3

W/A or J/C

Watt

Kg.m2/s3

J/s

difference
Power

B.

Chemistry

I.

General Concepts:

Physical Change: It is a temporary change in which only the physical properties, e.g., colour, state,
etc., alter but no new substance with new properties is formed. By reversing conditions we can get the
original substances, e.g., changing ice into water; glowing of an electric bulb; adding common salt to
water; magnetizing a steel needle.
Chemical Change: It is a permanent change in which new substances with new properties are formed.
It is not possible to get back the original substance, e.g., burning a candle; boiling an egg; heating
magnesium ribbon; souring of milk.
Element: It cannot be split into simpler substances, e.g., iron, sulphur, oxygen, gold. There are about
106 elements.
Compound: It can be split into simpler substances and is formed by the union of two or more elements
in definite proportions by weight, e.g.
1. Water can be split into hydrogen and oxygen.
2. Iron sulphide is split into iron and sulphur.
3. Chalk is made of calcium, carbon and oxygen.
4. Carbondixoide is made up of carbon and oxygen.

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Mixture: It is one in which two or more substances are mixed together in any ratio without altering
their properties.
1. Sand and salt
2. Sugar and water
3. Air is a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen
4. Gun-powder is a mixture of nitre, charcoal and sulphur
Hard and Soft Water: Hard water is that water which does not produce lather with soap easily.
Soft water produces lather with soap very easily. There is two kinds of hardness: (i) Temporary

(ii) Permanent.

Temporary is due to bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium. Can be removed by

(i) boiling,

(ii) addition of lime.

Permanent is due to the sulphates and chlorides of calcium and magnesium. Permanent hardness can
be removed by
(I) addition of washing soda, or

(ii) by distillation.

Alloy: Is a mixture of two or more metals in a certain proportion. Alloys are made to impart certain
special properties to the metals in question. For example, stainless steel is made using Iron, Manganese,
Carbon etc. to give it high strength, elasticity etc which is not found in Iron.
Amalgam: any alloy containing Mercury as an essential component is known as amalgam.
II.

Chemical Names of substances:

Substance

Chemical Name

Composition

1. Green vitriol

Iron sulphate

Iron, sulphur and oxygen

2. Litharge

Lead monoxide

Lead and oxygen

3. White vitriol

Zinc sulphate

Zinc sulphur and oxygen

4. Caustic lotion

Silver nitrate

Silver, nitrogen and oxygen

5. Candy fluid

Potassium permanganate

Potassium, manganese and oxygen

6. Blue vitriol

Copper sulphate

Copper, sulphur and oxygen

7. Kansi (Alloy)

Bronze

Copper, zinc, tin

8. Pital (Alloy)

Brass

Copper, zinc

9. Shora or nitre

Potassium nitrate

Potassium, nitrogen and oxygen

10. Caustic potash

Potassium hydroxide

Potassium, hydrogen and oxygen

11. Chile saltpeter

Sodium nitrate

Sodium, nitrogen and oxygen

12. Baking soda

Sodium bicarbonate

Sodium, hydrogen, carbon and oxygen

13. Washing soda

Sodium carbonate

Sodium, carbon and oxygen

14. Common salt

Sodium chloride

Sodium and chlorine

15. Caustic soda

Sodium hydroxide

Sodium, hydrogen and oxygen

16. Glubers salt

Sodium sulphate

Sodium, sulphur and oxygen

17. Iron pyrites

Iron sulphide

Iron and sulphur

18. Galena

Lead sulphide

Lead and sulphur

19. Gyspum

Calcium sulphate

Calcium, sulphur and oxygen

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III.

20. Epsom

Magnesium sulphate

Magnesium, sulphur and oxygen

21. Aspirin

Acetyl Salicylic Acid

22. Vinegar

Acetic Acid (Glacial)

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen

23. Bleaching Powder

Calcium Oxychloride

Calcium, Oxygen, Chlorine

24. Marble

Calcium Carbonate

Calcium, Carbon, Oxygen

25. Rust

Ferric Hydroxide

Iron, Hydrogen, Oxygen

26. Plaster of Paris

Hydrated Calcium Sulphate

Calcium, Sulphur, Hydrogen, Oxygen

Glossary of Chemistry Terms:

A

absolute zero - a theoretical condition concerning a system at zero Kelvin where a system does not
emit or absorb energy (all atoms are at rest)

accuracy - how close a value is to the actual or true value; also see precision

acid - a compound that, when dissolved in water, gives a pH of less than 7.0 or a compound that
donates a hydrogen ion

acid anhydride - a compound with two acyl groups bound to a single oxygen atom

acid dissociation constant - an equilibrium constant for the dissociation of a weak acid

actinides - the fifteen chemical elements that are between actinium (89) and lawrencium (103)

activated complex - a structure that forms because of a collision between molecules while new
bonds are formed

addition reaction - within organic chemistry, when two or more molecules combine to make a larger
one

aeration - the mixing of air into a liquid or solid

alkali metals - the metals of Group 1 on the periodic table

alkaline earth metals - the metals of Group 2 on the periodic table

allomer - a substance that has different composition than another, but has the same crystalline
structure

allotropy - elements that can have different structures (and therefore different forms), such as
Carbon (diamonds, graphite, and fullerene)

anion - negatively charge ions

aromaticity - chemical property of conjugated rings that results in unusual stability. See also
benzene.

atom - a chemical element in its smallest form, and is made up of neutrons and protons within the
nucleus and electrons circling the nucleus

atomic number - the number representing an element which corresponds with the number of
protons within the nucleus

atomic orbital - the region where the electron of the atom may be found

base - a substance that accepts a proton and has a high pH; a common example is sodium hydroxide
(NaOH)

biochemistry - the chemistry of organisms

boiling - the phase transition of liquid vaporizing

bond - the attraction and repulsion between atoms and molecules that is a cornerstone of chemistry

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burette (also buret) - glassware used to dispense specific amounts of liquid when precision is
necessary (e.g. titration and resource dependent reactions)

catalyst - a chemical compound used to change the rate (either to speed up or slow down) of a
reaction, but is regenerated at the end of the reaction.

cation - positively charged ion

centrifuge - equipment used to separate substances based on density by rotating the tubes around a
centred axis

cell potential - the force in a galvanic cell that pulls electron through reducing agent to oxidizing
agent

chemical Law - certain rules that pertain to the laws of nature and chemistry - examples

chemical reaction - the change of one or more substances into another or multiple substances

colloid - mixture of evenly dispersed substances, such as many milks

combustion - an exothermic reaction between an oxidant and fuel with heat and often light

compound - a substance that is made up of two or more chemically bonded elements

condensation - the phase change from gas to liquid

conductor - material that allows electric flow more freely

covalent bond - chemical bond that involves sharing electrons

crystal - a solid that is packed with ions, molecules or atoms in an orderly fashion

cuvette - glassware used in spectroscopic experiments. It is usually made of plastic, glass or quartz
and should be as clean and clear as possible

deionization - the removal of ions, and in water's case mineral ions such as sodium, iron and
calcium

deliquescence - substances that absorb water from the atmosphere to form liquid solutions

deposition - settling of particles within a solution or mixture

dipole - electric or magnetic separation of charge

dipole moment - the polarity of a polar covalent bond

dissolution or solvation - the spread of ions in a solvent

double bond - sharing of two pairs of electrons

earth metal - see alkaline earth metal

electrolyte - a solution that conducts a certain amount of current and can be split categorically as
weak and strong electrlytes

electrochemical cell - using a chemical reaction's current, electromotive force is made

electromagnetic radiation - a type of wave that can go through vacuums as well as material and
classified as a self-propagating wave

electromagnetism - fields that have electric charge and electric properties that change the way that
particles move and interact

electromotive force - a device that gains energy as electric charges pass through it

electron - a subatomic particle with a net charge that is negative

electron shells - an orbital around the atom's nucleus that has a fixed number electrons (usually two
or eight)

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electric charge - a measured property (coulombs) that determine electromagnetic interaction

element - an atom that is defined by its atomic number

energy - A system's ability to do work

enthalpy - measure of the total energy of a thermodynamic system (usually symbolized as H)

entropy - the amount of energy not available for work in a closed thermodynamic system (usually
symbolized as S)

enzyme - a protein that speeds up (catalyses) a reaction

eppendorf tube - generalized and trademarked term used for a type of tube; see microcentrifuge

freezing - phase transition from liquid to solid

Faraday constant - a unit of electrical charge widely used in electrochemistry and equal to

96,500 coulombs.
It represents 1 mol of electrons, or the Avogadro number of electrons: 6.022 1023 electrons. F =
96 485.339 9(24) C/mol

Faraday's law of electrolysis - a two part law that Michael Faraday published about electrolysis
o

the mass of a substance altered at an electrode during electrolysis is directly proportional to the
quantity of electricity transferred at that electrode

the mass of an elemental material altered at an electrode is directly proportional to the

element's equivalent weight.

frequency - number of cycles per unit of time. Unit: 1 hertz = 1 cycle per 1 second

galvanic cell - battery made up of electrochemical with two different metals connected by salt bridge

gas - particles that fill their container though have no definite shape or volume

geochemistry - the chemistry of and chemical composition of the Earth

Gibbs energy - value that indicates the spontaneity of a reaction (usually symbolized as G)

halogens - Group 17 on the Periodic Table and are all non-metals

jodium Latin name of the halogen element iodine

indicator - a special compound added to solution that changes color depending on the acidity of the
solution; different indicators have different colors and effective pH ranges

inorganic compound - compounds that do not contain carbon, though there are exceptions (see

inorganic chemistry - a part of chemistry concerned with inorganic compounds

International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) -

insulator - material that resists the flow of electric current

ion - a molecule that has gained or lost one or more electrons

ionic bond - electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions

ionization -The breaking up of a compound into separate ions.

main article)

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K

Kinetics - A sub-field of chemistry specializing in reaction rates

Kinetic energy - The energy of an object due to its motion.

lanthanides - Elements 57 through 71

lattice - Unique arrangement of atoms or molecules in a crystalline liquid or solid.

Laws of thermodynamics

liquid - A state of matter which takes the shape of its container

light - Portion of the electromagnetic spectrum which is visible to the naked eye. Also called "visible light."

London dispersion forces - A weak intermolecular force

Metal - Che mical element that is a good conductor of both electricity and heat and forms cations
and ionic bonds with non-metals.

melting - The phase change from a solid to a liquid

metalloid - A substance possessing both the properties of metals and non-metals
methylene blue - a heterocyclic aromatic chemical compound with the molecular formula
C16H18N3SCl
microcentrifuge - a small plastic container that is used to store small amounts of liquid
mole - abbreviated mol - a measurement of an amount of substance; a single mole contains
approximately 6.0221023 units or entities
o

a mole of water contains 6.0221023 H 2 O molecules

molecule - a chemically bonded number of atoms that are electrically neutral

molecular orbital - region where an electron can be found in a molecule (as opposed to an atom)
N
neutron - a neutral unit or subatomic particle that has no net charge
neutrino - a particle that can travel at speeds close to the speed of light and are created as a result
of radioactive decay
nucleus - the centre of an atom made up of neutrons and protons, with a net positive charge
noble gases - group 18 elements, those whose outer electron shell is filled
non-metal - an element which is not metallic
nuclear - of or pertaining to the atomic nucleus
nuclear - magnetic resonance spectroscopy - technique that exploits the magnetic properties of
certain nuclei, useful for identifying unknown compounds
number density a measure of concentration of countable objects (atoms, molecules, etc.) in
space; number per volume
O
orbital - may refer to either an atomic orbital or a molecular orbital
organic compound - compounds that contain carbon
organic chemistry - a part of chemistry concerned with organic compounds

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P
pH - the measure of acidity (or basicity) of a solution
plasma - state of matter similar to gas in which a certain portion of the particles are ionized
poor metal - Metallic elements in the p-block, characterized by lower melting and boiling points than
other metals
potential energy - energy stored in a body or in a system due to its position in a force field or due to
its configuration
precipitate - formation of a solid in a solution or inside another solid during a chemical reaction or by
diffusion in a solid
precision - How close the results of multiple experimental trials are. See also accuracy.
photon - a carrier of electromagnetic radiation of all wavelength (such as gamma rays and radio
waves)
proton - a positive unit or subatomic particle that has a positive charge
protonation - the addition of a proton (H+) to an atom, molecule, or ion
Q
Quantum mechanics - the study of how atoms, molecules, subatomic particles, etc. behave and are
structured
quarks - elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter
R
radiation - energy in the form of waves or subatomic particles when there is a change from high
energy to low energy states
radioactive decay - the process of an unstable atomic nucleus losing energy by emitting radiation
S
s-block elements - Group 1 and 2 elements (alkali and alkaline metals), which includes Hydrogen
and Helium
salts - ionic compounds composed of anions and cations
salt bridge - devices used to connection reduction with oxidation half-cells in an electrochemical cell
saline solution - general term for NaCl in water
Schrdinger equation - quantum state equation which represents the behaviour of an election
around an atom
semiconductor - an electrically conductive solid that is between a conductor and an insulator
single bond - sharing of one pair of electrons
sol - a suspension of solid particles in liquid. Artificial examples include sol-gels.
solid - one of the states of matter, where the molecules are packed close together, there is a
resistance of movement/deformation and volume change; see Young's modulus
solute - the part of the solution that is mixed into the solvent (NaCl in saline water)
solution - homogeneous mixture made up of multiple substances. It is made up of solutes and
solvents.
solvent - the part of the solution that dissolves the solute (H 2 O in saline water)
spectroscopy - study of radiation and matter, such as X-ray absorption and emission spectroscopy
speed of light - the speed of anything that has zero rest mass (Energy rest = mc where m is the
mass and c is the speed of light)

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Standard conditions for temperature and pressure or SATP - a standardisation used in order
compare experimental results (25 C and 100.000 kPa)
state of matter - matter having a homogeneous, macroscopic phase; gas, plasma, liquid, and solid
are the most well known (in increasing concentration)
sublimation - a phase transition from solid to gas
subatomic particles - particles that are smaller than an atom; examples are protons, neutrons and
electrons
substance - material with definite chemical composition
T
talc - a mineral representing the one on the Mohs Scale and composed of hydrated magnesium
silicate with the chemical formula H 2 Mg 3 (SiO 3 ) 4 or Mg 3 Si 4 O 10 (OH) 2
temperature - the average energy of microscopic motions of particles
theoretical yield - see yield
theory - a model describing the nature of a phenomenon
thermal conductivity - a property of a material to conduct heat (often noted as )
thermochemistry - the study of absorption/release of heat within a chemical reaction
thermodynamics - the study of the effects of changing temperature, volume or pressure (or work,
heat, and energy) on a macroscopic scale
thermodynamic stability - when a system is in its lowest energy state with its environment
(equilibrium)
thermometer - device that measures the average energy of a system
titration - the process of titrating one solution with another, also called volumetric analysis
torr - a unit to measure pressure (1 Torr is equivalent to 133.322 Pa or 1.3158103 atm)
transition metal - elements that have incomplete d sub-shells, but also may be referred to as the dblock elements
transuranic element - element with atomic number greater than 92; none of the transuranic
elements are stable
triple bond - the sharing of three pairs of electrons within a covalent bond (example N 2 )
triple point - the place where temperature and pressure of three phases are the same (Water has a
special phase diagram)
tyndall effect - the effect of light scattering by colloidal (mixture where one substance is dispersed
evenly through another) or suspended particles
U
UN number - a four digit code used to note hazardous and flammable substances
uncertainty - a characteristic that any measurement that involves estimation of any amount cannot
be exactly reproducible
Uncertainty principle - knowing the location of a particle makes the momentum uncertain, while
knowing the momentum of a particle makes the location uncertain
unit cell - the smallest repeating unit of a lattice
unit factor - statements used in converting between units
universal or ideal gas constant - proportionality constant in the ideal gas law (0.08206
Latm/(Kmol))

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V
valence electron - the outermost electrons of an atom, which are located in electron shells
Valence bond theory - a theory explaining the chemical bonding within molecules by discussing
valencies, the number of chemical bonds formed by an atom
van der Waals force - one of the forces (attraction/repulsion) between molecules
van 't Hoff factor - ratio of moles of particles in solution to moles of solute dissolved
vapor - when a substance is below the critical temperature while in the gas phase
vapour pressure - pressure of vapour over a liquid at equilibrium
vaporization - phase change from liquid to gas
viscosity - the resistance of a liquid to flow (oil)
volt - one joule of work per coulomb - the unit of electrical potential transferred
voltmeter - instrument that measures the cell potential [disambiguation needed]
volumetric analysis - see titration
W
water - H 2 O - a chemical substance, a major part of cells and Earth, and covalently bonded
wave function - a function describing the electron's position in a three dimensional space
work - the amount of force over distance and is in terms of joules (energy)
X
X-ray - form of ionizing, electromagnetic radiation, between gamma and UV rays
X-ray diffraction - a method for establishing structures of crystalline solids using singe wavelength
X-rays and looking at diffraction pattern
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy - a spectroscopic technique to measure composition of a
material
Y
yield - the amount of product produced during a chemical reaction
Z
Zone melting - a way to remove impurities from an element by melting it and slowly travel down an
ingot (cast)
Zwitterion - is a chemical compound whose net charge is zero and hence is electrically neutral. But
there are some positive and negative charges in it, due to the formal charge, owing to the partial
charges of its constituent atoms.

C.

Biology
A major part of the planet Earth comprises living beings, which make up the biological world. There are
millions of varieties of plants and animal that can be distinguished. All living beings are distinguished by
their ability for movement, respiration, growth and reproduction which are absent in non-living things.
Studying these millions of varieties is a Herculean task for any scientist. To achieve this purpose,
therefore, the scientist have grouped together similar types of plants/animals to make their study simpler.
By studying a representative of each group, we can know fairly well the characteristic features of the
whole group. Such a system of grouping together of living beings is known as classification. Several
systems of classification have been proposed.

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I.

Animal And Plant Groups:

1. Phylum Protozoa e.g. Amoeba, Plasmodium, Entamoeba

1. Algae e.g. seaweeds, Spirogyra

2. Fungi e.g. Penicillium

2. Phylum Porifera e.g. sponges

3. Bryophytes e.g. Marchantia

3. Phylum Coelentrata e.g. Corals, Jelly-fish, Star-fish

4. Pteridophytes e.g. Ferns

4. Phylum Platyhelminthess e.g. Tapeworm

5. Gymnosperms e.g. Pinus

5. Phylum Nemahelminthes e.g. Ascaris

6. Angiosperms e.g. Triticum

6. Phylum Insecta e.g. Silver Fish, Cockroaches

7. Phylum Echinodermata .
8. Phylum Mollusca
9. Phylum Chordata e.g. Rat, Whale, Fishes
Of these, chordates are the most highly advanced group in terms of biological organization. They are
distinguished by the presence of a notochord or vertebral column. They are further divided into many
types.
A. Pisces (Swimming Fishes)

B. Amphibia

C. Reptilia (Crawling Reptiles)

D. Aves (Flying Birds)

E. Mammalia (Child-Bearing Mammals)

Each of the animal groups is characterized by certain features which are unique to them e.g.
1. Fishes are defined by the presence of gills for respiration in the adult stage, presence of fins all over the
body and internal fertilization. Therefore, swimming doesnt define a fish nor does the name tag of fish
attached to the name of an animal make it a fish. For example, the commonly known animal Silver Fish is
not fish at all (it is an insect), because it lacks gills, fins and other features exclusive to fishes.
2. Amphibians are those animals that can live on both land and in water.

A typical example is a frog

which lives in ponds normally, but can come on earth if required.

3. Reptiles are defined as those animals which have scales found all over the body. Since they live in dry
places, it helps them in conserving body water to a large extent.
4. From birds onwards, a true four-chambered heart is found in all animals, which means that pure and
impure blood are actually separated in separate chambers of the heart. Birds are identified by the
presence of wings (which are actually modified fore-limbs) and a constant body temperature, apart from a
four-chambered heart. Of course, they can fly, but the ability to fly does not make an animal a bird. For
instance, many insects can fly with wings that are extensions of the skin. So technically speaking, they
cannot be called birds.
5. Mammals are the most advanced lot of the animal groups. Many features distinguish them other groups
like
A. Presence of hair all over the body.
B. Internal fertilization (in all other groups, fertilization takes place outside the body, i.e. is external)
C. Ability to give birth to young ones directly (birds and fishes lay eggs)

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D. A constant body temperature which does not change according to environmental changes in
temperature
F. A highly developed Central Nervous System.
II.

Structural Organization: Robert Hook was the first man to observe ells in a living being. All living
beings are made of tiny chambers called cells. A cell is the smallest functional structural unit of a living
organism. By functional unit, we mean that a cell works in totality and any part of a cell cannot function
independently of other parts. A group of cells that performs a specialized function for the body is known
as a tissue. Many tissues make up an organ and many organs together make up an organ-system. For
example the human digestive system comprises many different organs, the tissues in which are highly
specialized for performing digestive functions and not functions of any other type.
Nucleus, mitochondria and centriole are some of the major parts of a cell. In fat, the animal and plant
cells do not differ much in structure and function, except the fact that all plant cells are additionally
covered by a cell wall and that they lack centriole. The nucleus controls all the cell functions while actual
production of energy takes place on the mitochondria. This energy is released in the form of ATP
molecules (Adenosine Triphosphate) and thats why mitochondria is often known as the powerhouse of the
cells. Inside the nucleus, a thread-like network of chromatin can be seen under a microscope. Under
conditions of cell division, this network is clearly differentiated into chromosomes, bodies that contains
genes responsible for transmission of traits from one generation to the next. Every species is having a
fixed number of chromosomes in all body cells. For example, in case of humans, the number of
chromosomes is 46, which is organized into 23 pairs. The chromosomes and the genes always occur in
pairs.
A cell keeps on growing until a certain stage, beyond which it has to divide. The division of a cell can
take place in two ways:

III.

(a) Mitosis: This is an equational division in which a body cell divides into two equal halves, each
containing all the essential parts to run it as a cell. In such a division, first the chromosome number gets
doubled i.e. each chromosome gets divided into two, thereby doubling the total number of chromosomes
in the cell. Later on, each half receives half the chromosomes. For example, each human cell has 46
chromosomes, which become 92 in number at the time of mitosis. Each new mitotic cell gets half of it, i.e.
46. Thus the chromosome number remains constant in the species in each cell.
This type of division goes on in the body cells (except sex cells) all the time and is the major source of
repair, growth and development.
(b) Meiosis: Meiosis is a special type of cell division exclusively found in sex cells (sperms and eggs). In
this case, a reduction division takes place first i.e. after duplication of each chromosome, the 92
chromosomes thus produced get divided into four parts, each having 23 chromosomes. Thus each
daughter cell gets 23 chromosomes. That is why this is called a reduction division. Each of the four
sperms containing 23 chromosomes will combine with an egg having 23 chromosomes, thus giving rise to
a zygote having 16 chromosomes in all. Thus the number of chromosomes has again stayed the same in
the specie.
(c) Twins: When two offspring are born at the same time, they are referred to as twins. Depending upon
the mode of formation, they are of two types.

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(d) Identical or Monozygotic Twins: Such twins develop from a single fertilized egg, which divides into
exactly two halves some time after fertilization has occurred. Twins born as a result of such division are
known as identical twins and they share virtually identical physical and psychological features.
(e) Dizygotic or Fraternal Twins:

Fraternal twins are the result of fertilization of two ova with two

separate sperms. Twins produced as a result of such separate fertilization are no more alike than ordinary
siblings.
(f) Gene Expression & Genetic Disorders: Each chromosome is composed of many individual
hereditary units called genes. A gene is a segment of Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA), which is the actual
carrier of all genetic information. The DNA molecule looks like a twisted ladder or a double-stranded helix.
The gene, a segment of the DNA molecule will give coded instruction to the cells, directing it to perform a
particular function (usually to manufacture a particular protein). Although all cells in the body contain the
same genes, the specialized nature of each cell is due to the fact that only 5 to 10 percent of the genes
are active in any given cell. In the process of developing from a fertilized egg, each cell switches on some
genes and switches off all others.
Genes, like chromosomes, occur in pairs. One gene of each pair comes from the sperm chromosome and
the other from the ovum chromosome. Thus, a child receives only half of his genes from each parents
total genes. The total number of genes in each human chromosome is around 10000 - perhaps higher.
Since the number of genes is so high, it is extremely unlikely that two human beings would have the same
heredity, even if they were siblings. The only exception is the identical twins, who, because they
developed from the same fertilized egg, have exactly the same genes.
Some of the characteristics that are carried by recessive genes are baldness, hemophilia and a
susceptibility to poison ivy. However, not all gene pairs follow the dominant-recessive a pattern and most
of the human traits are determined by many genes acting together.
Some human characteristics are determined by a single gene pair. For instance, Phenylketunoria (PKU)
and Huntingtons Disease. In case of PKU, the person is not able to digest an essential amino acid which
gets logged in the nervous system.
(g) Sex-linked Genes And Related Disorders: The X chromosome may carry either dominant or
recessive genes, the Y chromosome carries a few genes dominant for some male sexual characteristics,
but otherwise carries only recessive genes. Thus, most recessive characteristics carried by a mans X
chromosome (received from his mother) are expressed since they are not blocked by dominant genes. For
example, colour-blindness is a recessive sex-linked characteristic. A man will be colour-blind if he inherits
a colour-blind gene on the X chromosome received from mother. Females are less often colour-blind,
because a colour-blind female has to have both a colour-blind father and a mother who is either colourblind or who carries a recessive gene for colour-blindness. A number of genetically determined disorders
are linked to abnormalities of the 23rd pair of chromosomes, or by recessive genes carried by this pair.
They are called sex-linked disorders.
(h) Chromosomal Abnormalities: On rare occasions, a female may be born with only one chromosome
instead of the usual XX. Such a condition is referred to as Turners Syndrome.

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Sometimes, when the 23rd chromosome fails to divide properly, the developing organism ends up with an
extra X or Y chromosome. An individual with XXY condition is said to be suffering from the Klinefelters
syndrome. Such a person is physically a male, but with marked feminine traits. A person born with XYY
composition will be known as supermale, a person with exaggerated male features.

IV.

Infectious Diseases: These are conveyed from one person to another by air, inanimate objects, water,
wounds and direct physical contact with the affected person e.g. small-pox, cholera and dysentery,
tetanus, cholera (through flies), malaria (through mosquitoes), typhus (by lice), AIDS, Syphilis, Herpes(
all three by sexual contact), common cold etc.
Certain terms are used to describe the method of occurrence of infectious diseases:Tuberculosis: Tuberculosis of lungs is called Phthisis or Consumption. It is caused by tubercle bacillusweak chest, dusty occupation, over-work, chronic worry, starvation, intemperance, early marriage,
malaria, influenza, pleurisy; all these increase susceptibility to TB by lowering general vitality.
Cure.
B.C.G. vaccine; use of Streptomycin and Rifampicin.
Smallpox: It is caused by a virus. The onset is sudden, with headache and backache followed by
vomiting, fever and running of the nose. Eruption on the skin, small red pimples become pocks on the
third day. Scabs fall on the 14th day leaving behind pits or scars on the skin.
Cholera: It is caused by cholera vibrio. Characterized by passing copious colourless stools and also
vomiting, pain in legs and back, cramps, suppression of urine and collapse.
Malaria: Bite of female anopheles mosquito. Malarial parasites (protozoa) enter red-blood corpuscles
where they multiply till the red blood corpuscles burst. The process is repeated. Plasmodium is the causal
microbe in usual cases. However, a fatal type of malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum (which is
spread through mosquitoes)
Symptoms: Repeated attacks of high fever with shivering and a feeling of cold, and its going away with
sweating. Quinine, obtained from the bark of Cinchona is widely used in cases of malaria.
Filaria: It is caused by the bite of a male mosquito-it generally occurs in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa and
practically all those places with poor drainage. Other important diseases carried through the bites of
insects are
Kala-Azar: By the bite of bed bug.
African sleeping sickness: By Tse-tse fly (Trypanosome gambiense -causal microbe)
Diabetes: Inability of pancreas to secrete sufficient insulin to make use of sugar in the food. The excess
sugar is excreted through urine.
Typhoid : Typhoid bacillus. Infection conveyed mostly through water or milk.
Pyorrhea: An infection of gums which causes edges of the tooth sockets to bleed easily. In later stages,
there is constant discharge of pus.
Mumps: The swelling of the salivary glands in front of the ears which makes the face look dull. Fluid diet
and rest in bed is the best cure.
Rabies or Hydrophobia: A disease caused by the bite of a mad dog, cat or jackal. There is no cure, until
the symptoms have developed. The best treatment is inoculation invented by Louis Pasteur.

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Diphtheria: It is a childrens disease, which causes the inflammation of the throat. It is highly infectious,
and the best way to fight it is immunize the children by diphtheria vaccine.
Poliomyelitis: Infantile paralysis. It is a viral infection of the nerves of movement. Usually the muscles
affected are those of legs or arms, but if the breathing organs are affected, the results are disastrous.
Polio begins with sore throat, fever and sometimes vomiting. The Salk vaccine prevents infection.
Meningitis: It means inflammation of the meninges.
Encephalitis: This is an infection of the brain caused by a virus.
Aids: The Acquired Human Immuno-Deficiency Syndrome is caused by the infections of HIV-3 virus.
Symptoms include unexplained loss of weight, opportunistic infections like pneumonia, TB etc. So far,
there is no known cure for this disease. It is spread by means of shared syringes, sexual intercourse etc.
Vaccination: A vaccine is a biological preparation which gives the vaccinated person immunity from a
specified illness for a considerable period of time. In most of the vaccines, either dead or weakened germs
of a particular diseases (the germs are always of the same disease against which the person is to be
secured) are injected (or given orally in certain cases) inside the persons body. The germs on entering
the body prompt the body to create its internal defences against the germs, in the form of antibodies
(antibodies are those chemicals which are released by the body to fight any external attack of a disease).
Since the germs injected are too weak to cause any disease but the body is ready with its own defences to
fight it, a vaccine provides protection against a disease for a considerable period. So in future, if an attack
of a disease takes place, the body is always ready to fight it. It can be likened to a defence force put on
constant alert which can repel the enemy attack any time.
V.

Minerals and their significance to the Human Body

Mineral Elements

Sources

Significance

Effects of deficiency

Milk, cereals, Cheese,

Required for formation of teeth

Weak theeth and bones ;

Green Vegetables.

and Bones , blood clotting,

retarded body growth.

Macro Elements
Calcium(Ca)#

function of nerves and muscles

Phosphorus(P)

Weak theeth and bones ;

retarded body growth and
physiology.

Sulphur(S)
Pottassium(K)

Chlorine(Cl)
Magnesium(Mg)

Many protiens of food.

Component of many amino

Distributed protein

acids.

metabolism.

Meat, milk,

Required for acid-base balance,

Low blood pressure, weak

cereals,fruits and

water regulation nad function of

muscles; risk of paralysis..

vegetables.

nerevs..

Table salt

Required for acid base balance;

Loss of appetite; muscles

component of gastric juice.

cramps

Cereals, green

Cofactor of many enzymes of

Irregularties of metabolism

vegetables.

glycolysis anda number of

principally affecting nervous

another metabolic reactions

functions.

dependent upon ATP

Iron(Fe)

Meat, eggs , cereals,

Component of haemoglobin and

Anaemia, weakness and

green vegetables.

cytochromes.

weak immunity.

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Iodine(I)
Fluorine(F)

Milk, cheese, sea food,

important component of

Goitre, Cretinism

iodized salt

thyroxine hormone

Drinking water, tea ,

Maintence of bones and teeth.

Weak theeth, larger amount

sea food
Zinc(Zn)

Cereals,

causes motting of teeth.

Milk,

eggs,

meat, sea food

Cofactor of digestive and many

Retarded growth, anaemia,

other enzymes

rough skin, weak immunity

and fertility

Copper(Cu)

Meat, dry fruits , POds

Cofactor of cytochrome oxidase

Anaemia,weak

, Green vegetables, sea

enzyme.Necessary

iron

vessels

food

metabolism and development

tissues

for

and

blood
connective

of blood vessels and connective

tissues
Macro Elements
Manganese(MN)

Dry

fruits,

fruits

cereals,tea

and

green

vegetables

Cofactor of some enzymes

Irregular growth of bones,

of

cartilages and connective

urea

transfer

synthesis
of

and

phosphate

tissues

group
Cobalt(Co)

MIlk, cheese, meat

Important component of

Anaemia

vitamin B12
Selenium(SE)

Meat, cereals, sea food

Cofactor

of

many

enzymes; assists vitamin

Muscular pain; weakness

of cardiac muscles

E
Chromium(CR)

Yeast,

sea

food,

meat,

some vegetables

Important

for

catabolic

metabolism

Irregularities of catabolic
meatbolism

and

ATP

production
Molybdenum(MO)

Cereals,

pods,

some

Cofactor of some enzymes

vegetables

Irregular

excreation

nitrogenous

waste

products
Vitamin

Chemical

Properties

Deficiency disease

Name
A

Retinol

General health giving vitamin, can be stored liver

Night blindness

B1

Thiamine

For Growth, carbohydrate metabolism, functioning

Beri-Beri

B2

Riboflavin

For Keeping skin and mouth healthy

Cheilosis

B5

Niacin

For healthy skin, sound mental health

Pellagra

B6

Pyridoxine

Processing of proteins and for nervous system

Convulsions in child

B12

Cynacobalamin

Required for formation and maturation of RBCs

Pernicious anaemia

Ascorbic Acid

For keeping teeth , gums and joints healthy .Gets

Scurvy

of heart

destroyed on heating
D

Calciferol

For normal bones and teeth, can be stored in liver

Rickets

Tocopherol

For normal reproduction , removes scars and

Sterility

wrincles
K

Phylloquinone

For normal clotting of blood

Haemophilia

of

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Blood Groups : Dr. Costtello and later Dr. Moss in 1910 were responsible for classification of blood; the
blood groups are AB, A, B, and O. Patients must be given transfusion of blood of their own group with the
exception of Group O, which is universal. Another classification of blood groups is done on the basis of
presence or absence of a chemical factor known as Rh factor (derived from Rhesus monkey). If a person
has Rh in his blood, he will be referred to as Rh+ while an Rh negative person will not be having such a
factor in his blood. This aspect also needs to be considered while transfusing blood because mixing Rh+
with Rh blood leads to agglutination
(clumping together) and immediate death.
Glands: A gland is a group of cells which makes some useful chemical for the use of the body in its
various reactions. There are two kinds of glands in the human body:
1. Exocrine glands - as liver, spleen, pancreas. The secretions are transported to the desired part by
means of a special channel called duct.
2. Endocrine Or Ductless glands - as pituitary (The Master Gland), suprarenal, thyroid. The secretions are
transported by means of blood to the desired part of the body.
Liver: The largest gland is in the body, it performs the following functions in the body - (1) Stores
excessive sugar in the form of glycogen (insoluble carbohydrate), which helps in the digestion of fats.
Pancreas: It is both an ordinary as well as an endocrine gland. As an ordinary gland, it secretes
pancreatic juice which, through pancreatic duct, goes to duodenum to help digestion there. As an
Endocrine gland, it secretes insulin which helps utilizing sugar in the body, and its deficiency causes
diabetes, a disease in which the patient passes sugar along with urine.
Spleen: White blood corpuscles are formed here
Pituitary Gland: Its secretion regulates growth and stature of the body, milk secretion in mammals, and
influences sex organs.
Adrenal Glands: They are small, yellowish glands just above the kidneys one on each side. Their
secretion is known as adrenaline and noradrenaline. This secretion is released in emergencies and
prepares the body to fight such situations by releasing excessive energy.
Thyroid: Brownish red body situated in front of the neck. Its abnormal increase in size is known as goitre.
Its secretion, known as thyroxine, is rich in iodine.
The human retina contains two types of cells:
1. Cone Cells-Meant for seeing during the day, also responsible for colour vision
2. Rod Cells: Meant for seeing in low intensity lights.
Since humans have many more cone cells as compared to rod cells, they are much better at seeing the
things in bright intensity as compared to other. Humans see with both the eyes together and both the
eyes form separate images of an object. Those two separate images are then fused in the brain to create
an impression of depth.

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(Otherwise, the human retina is a 2-D structure, does not give perception of depth). This difference in
images in the two eyes is referred to as binocular disparity.
(i) Myopia (or short-sightedness). When a person can see nearer objects distinctly but not distant ones,
he is said to be suffering from myopia. In this case the convexity of the lens of his eye cannot be
sufficiently decreased to form the image of the distant object on the retina. It is remedied by the use of
concave glasses.
(ii) Hypermetropia (or long-sightedness). When a person can see distant objects clearly but not the never
he is said to be suffering from hypermetropia. It is remedied by the use of convex glasses.
(iii) Astigmatism. The person can see vertical liens clearly but not the horizontal ones, or vice versa. It is
remedied by the use of cylindrical glasses.
(iv) Colour Blindness: If a person cannot distinguish between different colours (especially between red and
green), he is said to be suffering from this defect.
VI.

Scientific Appliances
Aeroplane: An aeroplane usually consists of the following three parts:
(i) Wings,
(ii) The engine and the propeller; and
(iii) The tail.
In order to operate an aeroplane, the propeller is made to revolve at a very high speed with the help of a
powerful petrol engine. The direction of the blades is so adjusted as to push the air in a backward
direction, thereby producing a relative velocity between the plane and airthus pushing the aeroplane in
a forward direction. The push should be large enough to overcome the drag and should supply power for
climbing.
Air conditioning: is the process of controlling the humidity, temperature, purity and circulation of air in a
certain factory, a public building, hotels or a private house. The major aim of air-conditioning is to
regulate the temperature, thereby producing a cooling effect on the whole. Exhaust machines are
devised at a particular place for driving out waste and dirty gases, thereby completely purifying the air.
Cinematography: The principle of persistence of vision is utilised in cinematography. A cinematograph is
an apparatus for projecting the pictures of moving objects on the screen. The instantaneous photographs
of the successive positions of the moving body are photographed on a continuous film with the help of a
special camera called the movie camera, with an automatic shutter at the rate of nearly 16 per second.
The film duly developed is projected intermittently with a similar shutter as above so that it opens when
the film is stationary and closes when it jerks off.
Dewar Flask: is a double-walled glass flask, the inner surface of the outer vessel and the outer surface of
the inner vessel of which have been silvered. The vacuum is created in the space between the two walls.
This principle successfully prevents any interchange of temperature of the contents, because:
(1) glass is a bad conductor
(2) convection is not possible because there is vacuum between the walls and
(3) a little radiation that takes place from the inner vessel is reflected by the inner surface of the outer
wall.

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Diesel Engine: It is a particular type of internal combustion engine, known as compression ignition
engine. The air inside the cylinder is usually compressed to over 500 lbs. per sq. in. and the temperature
is attained up to 800F. At this stage the oil is injected into the hot compressed air, which gets ignited
immediately, thereby producing a continuous gas stream, which pushes the piston upward. And thereafter
the engine gets into operation.
Dynamo: The origin of the electricity in a dynamo is the transformation of mechanical energy into
electrical energy. It depends on the principle of electro-magnetic induction whereby a current is produced
on traversing a magnetic field.
Electric Lamp: The electric lamp is based on the principle that when an electric current is passed through
a very fine metallic filament inside an evacuated glass bulb, it is heated so as to render the wire white hot
or incandescent. The wire being very thin offers great resistance to the passage of the current so that
considerable heat is developed and the temperature rises to make it luminous and thus emit light. The
resistance generally increases as the temperature rises and soon an equilibrium is reached and there is no
further rise of temperature, the amount of heat radiated by the filament being equal to that generated in
it by the electric current. In order that the metallic filament shall not oxidise or rust, oxygen is removed
from the bulb by pumping out air or generally some inert gas such as nitrogen or some other gas is made
to fill the bulb.
Electric Motor: An electric motor is a device which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. A
D.C. motor generally consists of several segments of a coil of a wire of a large number of turns wound
over a soft iron cylinder called the armature. It is mounted on an axle about which it revolves and is
placed between the poles of an electromagnet called the field magnets.

There are the commutator,

brushes and the leads. It is based on the principle that a conductor carrying current experiences a force
when placed in a magnetic field.
Electro Cardio-gram (E.C.G.): It is actually a graphic picture of the heart-beat which the physician can
make use of in the diagnosis. When the heart beats, its muscles contract and this causes a change in the
electrical potential of the system. This change in potential is recorded on a paper by an electrical
instrument known as electrocardiograph. The electrodes are connected to the two wrists and the left leg of
the patient, and the machine acts like a galvanometer, the needle of which rests on a rotating drum
covered with a paper, and thus the movements of the needle are recorded.
Electromagnet: whenever an electric current passed through a coil of wire, a large number of turns,
wound round a soft iron core, the iron core gets magnetised and it becomes a powerful magnet, and is
known as an electromagnet. This magnetism is temporary and lasts so long as the current passes through
the coil. Looking at the end of the soft iron bar if the current in the coil is clockwise in direction that end of
the bar is South Pole; if the current is counter-clockwise, that end is a North Pole.
Fibre Optics: Optical fibres have a highly transparent core of glass or plastic surrounded by a covering
called a cladding. Light impulses from a laser, a light bulb, or some other source enter one end of the
optical fibre. As light travels through the core, it is typically kept inside it by the cladding. The cladding is
designed to bend or reflect-inward-light rays that strike its inside surface. At the other end of the fibre, a
detector, such as a photosensitive device or the human eye, receives the light.

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Optical fibres have a number of uses. Various industries use optical fibres to measure temperature,
pressure, acceleration, and voltage. In fibre-optic communication systems, lasers transmit coded
messages by flashing on and off at high speeds. The messages travel through optical fibres to interpreting
devices that decode the messages, converting them back into the form of the original signal. Fibre-optic
communication systems have a number of features that make them superior to systems that use
traditional copper cables. For example, they have a much larger information-carrying capacity and are not
subject to electrical interference. In addition, signals sent over long-distance fibre-optic cables need less
amplification than do signals sent over copper cables of equal length. Optical fibres are well-suited for
medical use. They can be made in extremely thin, flexible strands for insertion into the blood vessels,
lungs, and other hollow parts of the body. Optical fibres are used in a number of techniques that enable
physicians to look and work inside the body through tiny incisions.
Fire Extinguisher: works by spraying continuous streams of carbon dioxide gas, which does not support
combustion, and so acts as a fire extinguishing agent. Fire extinguisher is a medium size metallic cylinder
fitted with a head-knob and a handle. At the time of emergency, the knob is struck against the floor, and
carbon dioxide gas begins to evolve. Inside this cylinder a bottle of dilute solution of sulphuric acid is
embedded in sodium carbonate powder. When the bottle is broken, sulphuric acid reacts with sodium
carbonate to produce large quantities of the gas.
Fusion Torch: is an instrument to be evolved by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. It will use the
power of the Hydrogen bomb to vaporise solid waste like junk-cars and bearcans, into their basic
elements. The idea is based on the assumption that within a few years scientists will be able to harness
the energy of the Hydrogen bombControlled thermo-nuclear fusionfor use in electrical power plants.
Internal Combustion Engine: is an engine in which energy supplied by a burning fuel is directly
transformed into mechanical energy by the controlled combustion of the fuel in an enclosed cylinder
behind a piston. It is usually applied to the petrol- burning or Diesel oil-burning engine.
Jet Propulsion: It is now being commonly employed for propulsion of aircraft and the underlying
principle is Newtons third law of motion, that is, to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Here a gas turbine drives the rotary air compressor which supplies compressed air to the combustion
chamber, where the fuel-like gasoline enters and burns. The hot exploded gases are expelled to the rear
in a high velocity jet exhaust. It is the reaction of the plane on this jet of fastly ejected gases that drives
it forward. It has made possible supersonic speeds.
Difference between Rocket and Jet Engine: The essential difference between the propulsion of a jet
engine and a rocket is that the gas turbines used in a jet engine require air to supply oxygen for the
burning of the fuel. Rockets contain both fuel and an oxidizer to make them burn. Liquid oxygen is often
used. So a jet engine would work only in the lower strata of the atmosphere where sufficient oxygen can
be supplied by the air-compressors. The high velocity jet from a rocket is available for thrust in the upper
atmosphere and even beyond the limits of our atmosphere. For rocket flights of course, the wings and
rudders would be absolutely useless since there would be no air to exert force on them.
LASER: or Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation, LASER is a device that harnesses light
to produce an intense beam of radiation of a very pure, single colour. The power of the beam can be low

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(as in a food store laser scanner which reads prices on packages) or high (as in lasers used to cut metals).
The first laser was built in 1960.
Lightning Conductor: It consists of a metal rod, the upper part of which is made up of copper with a
number of conical points, the lower portion being an iron strip which extends deep into the earths moist
layers. A lightning conductor protects the building from the effect of lightning in two ways:
(i) The pointed conductors are charged by induction oppositely thus setting up an opposite wind which
brings about a slow and silent discharge of the cloud.
(ii) If however the lightning does strike, the discharge may be carried to the earth through the metal strip
without doing any damage to the building. In ships also, lightning conductors are fixed to the masts and
carried down through the ships keel-sheathing.
Loud Speaker: It is a device for converting electrical energy into sound energy. There are various types
of loud speakers but the commonest and most efficient type used now-a-days is the moving coil type. It is
based on the principle that when a varying current is passed through a conductor in a magnetic field, the
conductor is acted on by a variable force and if the current is oscillatory, the conductor is set into
vibrations.
Mariners Compass: is an apparatus which is used to guide the sailors. The needle always points northsouth. It consists of a magnetised bar with a card bearing the directions viz., north, south, east etc. The
card is correctly mounted above and firmly attached to the magnetised bar. When the magnet moves in
relation to the ships course, the card automatically moves with it.
Motor-Car: A motor-car usually consists of the following working parts:
(i) Internal combustion engine
(ii) Gear Box
(iii) Battery
(iv) Carburettor
(v) Dynamo
(vi) Radiator
In order to operate a motor-car, the petrol from a container is ignited with the help of the battery. The
vapours produced thereof are allowed to mix with air in the carburettor section, and thereafter the
mixture is allowed to enter the cylinder of the internal combustion engine. The gases on expansion push
the piston upwards thereby moving the crank-shaft, which in turn moves the main axle of the car. The
motion of axle is controlled by the gear box.
Periscope: It is a device for viewing objects which are above the eye-level of the observer, or are placed
so that direct vision is obstructed. It is usually used by the crew of a submarine to survey the ships etc.,
on the surface of the sea while the submarine is under water. It also enables sailors to observe objects on
the other side of an obstacle without exposing themselves. It consists of a long tube, at each end of which
is a right-angled prism, so situated that, by total internal reflection at the longest faces, light is turned
through an angle of 90 by each prism. The light from a viewed object thus enters the observers eye in a
direction parallel to, but below, the original direction of the object.

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Phytotron: is a big machine costing two million dollars and capable of producing any type of climate to
order. It has been installed in Duke University, Durham, North Carolina to facilitate studies of
environmental biologyparticularly growing of plants under varying climatic conditions. The machine can
duplicate any set of climatic conditions from the tropical to the Arctic in the brick and glass building in
which it is housed. It has six specially equipped green houses and 40 controlled plant chambers. It is a
useful device for the study of environmental biology.
Radar: precisely means: Radio, Angle, Detection And Range. It is one of the interesting developments of
wireless waves the principle of which has been utilised in the radio location technique or popularly known
as RADAR. It is an electrical device used for the detection and location of the aircraft with the help of radio
frequency waves.
Refrigerator: It is an apparatus or chamber for producing and maintaining a low temperature. The
principle employed in the working of a refrigerator is that heat is absorbed by a liquid as it evaporates,
thus producing a cooling effect. The substance commonly employed is liquid ammonia sulphur dioxide.
Rocket: The underlying principle of the flight of a rocket is Newtons Third Law of Motion viz., To every
action there is an equal and opposite reaction. It is a self-propelled vehicle which depends upon the force
provided by a fuel carried along with it. As the fuel burns, products of combustion are forced out at terrific
speed at the rear of the vehicle and ejection imparts motion to it in the forward direction. It has its own
oxygen supply for burning the fuel and therefore, there is no dependence on air for combustion or
propulsion.
Seismograph: It is an instrument used for the registration of earth tremors, and consists of principle of a
heavy pendulum system, the supporting framework following the ground movements and the bob
remaining at rest on account of its large inertia thereby setting up a relative movement between the two
parts of the seismograph. This movement is recorded with the help of electromagnetic transducers,
galvanometers and electronic amplifiers. In order to record the displacements completely, usually three
seismographs are made to set at one particular station.
Steam Engine: is a machine utilizing steam power through a device by virtue of which heat is converted
into mechanical energy. The steam engine has two main parts: (i) boiler, and (ii) proper engine. It
consists essentially of a cylinder in which a piston is moved backwards and forwards by the expansion of
steam under pressure.
Stereoscope: It is an optical device that makes photographs seem to have three dimensions. An ordinary
camera sees things only in a flat plane and never in the round. But if two cameras set several inches apart
photograph the same object simultaneously, and if these two photographs are then mounted side by side
and viewed through a combination of lenses and prisms in such a manner that the two units enter the two
eyes without strain, the resulting mental picture (image) appear to have three dimensions. Everything is
seen in the round, the way our two eyes normally view things. These are employed in aerial survey and in
astronomical telescopes.
Tape Recorder: It is an instrument which converts sound waves into electrical impulses which are
recorded as a wavy groove on the tape. When it is required to produce the voice, the electrical impulses
are again converted into sound waves.

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Telephotography: is a process by which the transmission of moving objects is made by radio from one
place to another. A succession of still pictures is transmitted at the rate of twenty-five per second which
gives an illusion of continuous movement. The television camera changes the light pattern of the
transmitted scene into a series of electrical signals which modulate a very high frequency radio carrier
wave. The received signals are changed into light variations and reassembled on the screen of a cathoderay tube at the receiver.
Thermometer, Clinical: A clinical thermometer is used to note the temperature of a human body and
has graduations from 65F to 100F. It consists of a thin glass bulb connected with a thick walled capillary
tube known as the stem. There is a constriction in the bore near the bulb. When the thermometer is
placed below the tongue (or in the arm-pit) of a person, mercury in the bulb gets heated and expands.
The force of expansion pushes the mercury past the constriction, which thus rises into the stem. When
thermometer is removed, the temperature falls and mercury contracts. But the level remains intact as the
thread is now broken at the constriction. The temperature can thus be conveniently read. The mercury
can be again brought into the bulb by giving it a slight jerk.
Tokamak T-3: is a machine designed by Russians to harness fusion reaction for peaceful purposes. A
fusion reaction takes place under extreme pressure and temperatures such as exist in the core of the sun.
In this machine such conditions are created by generating a hot gas or plasma. The Russians are already
at work on an improved version of the machine which should achieve self-supporting generation of fusionenergy.
Transformer: It is an apparatus by which the voltage of an alternating current is made higher (step-up
Transformer) or lower (step-down Transformer) or its frequency. Transformer is made up of two coils, one
of a small number of turns of thick wire and the other of a great number of turns of thin wire. A current
going through the first of these causes an induction current of higher voltage in the second. If the main
current goes through the second one, induction current of a lower voltage is generated in the first coil.
Transistor: It is an active component of an electric circuit which may be used as an amplifier or detector.
It consists of a small block of a semi-conducting material to which at least three electrical contacts are
made, two of them being closely spaced rectifying contacts generally and one ohmic or loose (nonrectifying) contact. Transistors are now being used in radio receivers, in electronic computers, in
electronic control equipments, in place of vacuum tubes where the required voltages are not too high.
They are much smaller than their vacuum tube counterparts, consume less power and have no filaments
to burn out.
Ultrasonoscope: It is a compact, diagnostic instrument designed to measure and use ultrasonic sound
(with a frequency higher than 20,000 cycles per second, beyond human hearing). It emits brief bursts of
ultrasound which are reflected back by bone, fluid or tissue in the body and give an echo-gram. The
instrument can be helpful in detecting deep-seated brain tumours, defective heart valves and abnormal
growths.

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VII.

Scientific Instruments and Laws

Scientific Instruments:
Altimeter: an apparatus used in aircraft for measuring altitudes.
Ammeter: is used for to measure intensity of sound.
Anemometer: is an instrument for measuring the force and velocity of wind.
Audiometer: an instrument to measure intensity of sound.
Audiophone: is an instrument required for improving imperfect sense of hearing.
Barograph: for continuous recording of atmospheric pressure.
Barometer: is an apparatus used for measuring the atmospheric pressure.
Binoculars: is an instrument used for seeing distant objects, the rays of light are twice reflected by
means of right-angled prisms.
Callipers: a compass with legs for measuring the inside or outside diameter of bodies.
Calorimeter: an instrument used for measuring quantities of heat.
Carburettor: is an apparatus for charging air with petrol vapours in an internal combustion engine.
Cardiogram: a medical instrument used for tracing the movements of the heart.
Cardiograph: is a medical instrument for tracing heart movements.
Chronometer: is an instrument kept on board the ships for measuring accurate time.
Cinematograph: It consists of a series of lenses arranged to throw on a screen an enlarged image of
photographs. The lens system which forms the image on the screen is termed the focusing lens.
Commutator: split ring which forms the main part of a D.C. Dynamo.
Compass needle: for knowing approximately the North-South direction at a place.
Crescograph: is an instrument for use in recording growth of plants; invented by J.C. Bose.
Dip Circle: It is an instrument used to determine the angle between the direction of the resultant
intensity of earths field and the horizontal component at a place. This particular angle is know as the dip
of that place.
Drinkers apparatus: to help breathing in infantile paralysis.
Dynamo: The origin of electricity in a Dynamo is the transformation of mechanical energy into electrical
energy. It depends on the principle of electro-magnetic induction whereby a current is produced on
traversing a magnetic field.
Electroencephalograph (EEG): It is the technique of recording and interpreting the electrical activity of
the brain. Records of the electrical activity of the brain, commonly known as brain waves, are called
electroencephalograms or electroencephalographs. EEG is the common abbreviation for both the
technique and the records.

319
Epidiascope: for projecting films as well as images of opaque articles on a screen.
Eudiometer: It is a glass tube for measuring volume changes in chemical reactions between gases.
Fathometer: is an instrument used for measuring depth of the ocean.
Galvanometer: an instrument for measuring currents of small magnitude.
G.M. Counter (Geiger Muller Counter): This special device is used for detecting the presence of
radiation and counting certain atomic particles.
Gramophone: an instrument with which we can reproduce the sound recorded by a suitable recording
apparatus. It is fitted with a special type of apparatus known as sound box invented by Berliner.
Gravimeter: is an instrument for recording measurement under water and to determine the presence of
oil deposits under water.
Gyroscope: is an instrument used to illustrate dynamics of rotating bodies. It is a type of spinning wheel
fixed to the axle.
Hydrometer: is an instrument used for measuring the specific gravity of liquids.
Hydrophone: is an instrument used for recording sound under water.
Hygrometer: is an instrument used for measuring humidity in air.
Kymograph: is an instrument used to record graphically various physiological movements i.e., blood
pressure, heart beating, study of lungs etc in living beings.
Lactometer: is an apparatus used for measuring the purity of milk.
Manometer: for determining the pressure of a gas.
Mariners Compass: is an apparatus which is used to guide the sailors. The needle always points northsouth.
Micrometer: is an instrument used for converting sound i.e., fraction of the lowest division of a given
scale.
Microphone: is an instrument used for converting sound waves into electrical vibrations.
Microscope: is an instrument which is used for magnifying minute objects by a lens system.
Microtome: is used for cutting an object into thin parts for microscopic inspection.
Odometer: is an instrument by virtue of which the distance covered by wheeled vehicles is recorded.
Periscope: It is usually used by the crew of a submarine to survey the ships etc, on the surface of the
sea while the submarine is under water. It also enables the sailors to observe objects on the other side of
an obstacle without exposing themselves.
Phonograph: is an instrument used for reproducing sound.
Photometer: is an apparatus used to compare the illuminating power of two sources of light.
Pipette: It is a glass tube with the aid of which a definite volume of liquid may be transferred.

320
Potentiometer: is used for comparing the e.m.f.s, of cells, measurements of the thermal e.m.f.s, large
potential differences and currents. It is also used for measuring low resistances.
Psychrometer: is an instrument for measurement of the humidity of the atmosphere.
Pyrometer: is an instrument for recording high temperatures from a great distance (i.e., for recording
temperature of the sun etc.) by making use of the laws of radiation.
Radar: Radio, Angle, Detection And Range is used to detect the direction and range of an approaching
aeroplane by means of radio microwaves.
Rain Gauge: is an apparatus for recording of rainfall at a particular place.
Radiometer: is an instrument for measuring the emission of radiant energy.
Refractometer: is an instrument to measure refractive indices.
Saccharimeter: is an instrument for determining the amount of sugar in a solution. It is used in
breweries.
Seismometer or Seismograph: is an instrument used for recording earthquake shocks.
Sextant: is an instrument invented by John Hadley used for measuring the altitude of the sun and of
other inaccessible heavenly bodies.
Spectrometer:
(1) It is a type of spectroscope suitable for the precise measurements of refractive indices.
(2) An instrument for measuring the energy distribution of a particular type of radiation.
Speedometer: is an instrument which indicates speed at which a vehicle is moving.
Spherometer: is an instrument for measuring curvature of surfaces.
Sphygmomanometer: an instrument used for measuring arterial blood-pressure.
Sphygmophone: an instrument, with the help of which a pulse beat makes a sound.
Sphygmoscope: an instrument, by virtue of which, arterial pulsations become visible.
Stereoscope: It is a special type of binocular, through which a double photograph snapped from two
different angles by a two-lensed camera is viewed in solid relief.
Stethoscope: is an instrument to hear and analyse movements of heart and lungs.
Stop watch: for recording small intervals of time in the laboratory, in races and other events.
Stroboscope: is an instrument for viewing objects moving rapidly with a periodic motion and to see them
as if they were at rest.
Tachometer: is an instrument for determining speeds of aeroplanes and motor boats.
Telephone: a device by virtue of which two persons at two different places can communicate. It consists
of two main parts
(i) a microphone and
(ii) a receiver.

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Teleprinter: an instrument which prints automatically messages sent from one place to another, on
telegraph lines.
Telescope: is an apparatus used for observing distant objects.
Theodolite: is an instrument for measuring horizontal and vertical angles.
Thermocouple: an instrument based on thermo-electricity used for measuring temperatures.
Thermometer: is an apparatus used for measuring temperature.
Thermostat: It is an instrument used to regulate the temperature to a particular degree.
Viscometer: is an instrument to measure viscosity.

VIII.

Scientific Inventions & Discoveries:

Inventions and discoveries in Physics and Chemistry
AndersonDiscovered positive electrons.
ArchimedesDiscovery of the Principles of lever and of specific gravity; invention of the famous
Archimedean screw.
AvogadroAn Italian scientist known for Avogadros Hypothesis.
Bacquerel Radio-activity of uranium.
BairdTelevision.
Baron NapierLogarithms.
Benjamin FranklinInvented lightning conductor.
BessemerSteel smelting process.
Bhabha, Dr H.J.Research in Cosmic rays and Quantum theory.
BinetIntelligence Test.
Birbal SahniResearches in Botany.
Bose, J.C.Invented Crescograph and published many works on plant physiology. He discovered that
plants have sense and perception.
Bose, S.N.Discovery of a group of nuclear particles named after him Boson.
BoyleBoyles law; Pressure x volume = constant at a constant given temperature. Boyle was the
greatest scientist of England in his time.
BohrElectron TheoryAtomic structure.
Braun, Dr Wernher vonspace flying.
BunsenInvention of the spectroscope.
CarothersNylon plastics.
CavendishDiscovery of chemical composition of water; discovery of hydrogen (Inflammable Air); rare
gases.

322
ChadwickDiscovery of the neutron.
ChandrasekharMathematical Astrophysics.
Charles DarwinTheory of Evolution; Origin of Species.
Clarke, Arthur C.Concept of Geostationary Orbit.
Curie, MadameDiscovery of radium.
DaltonAtomic theory; laws of chemical combination; law of partial pressures; the law of multiple
proportions.
DemocritusGreek philosopher(Atomic theory).
DewarInvented cordite, liquid oxygen and introduced thermos flask.
EinsteinTheory of relativity.
EuclidScience of geometry.
FahrenheitFahrenheit mercury thermometric scale in which freezing point is 32 and boiling point is
212.
FaradayElectromagnetic induction and laws of electrolysis.
FermiDiscovered artificial splitting of atoms.
FreudDoctrine of Psycho-analysis.
Gay LussacLaw of gases.
GaussSystem of absolute electric measurements.
Good YearDiscovered the art of vulcanising rubber.
Herschel, WilliamDiscovered the PlanetUranus.
HertzElectrical waves.
HippalusFounder of scientific astronomy.
HoffmannDiscovered the first aniline dye.
Kelvin, LordDynamical theory of heat.
Khorana, Dr HargobindDeciphering the genetic code.
KodakFilm and photographic goods.
LablancManufacture of washing soda.
LawrenceInvention of cyclotron.
LockyerHelium gas.
Louis BraillePerfected his system of reading and writing for the blind.
MarconiWireless telegraphy; radio.
Maria-MontessoriMontessori method of teaching children.
MaxwellElectro-magnetic Theory of Light.
Meghnad SahaEffect of pressure on Radiation through bodies.

323
MendelLaws of heredity.
MandeleevPeriodic Table.
MorseMorse system of electric telegraphy.
NewtonLaws of gravitation; Law of Motion.
NobelDynamite.
Oliver LodgePhysicist. Researches in wireless communications.
OppenheimerResearches in atomic theory.
Otto HahnDiscovery of uranium fission.
ParkesCelluloid.
ParsonsSteam turbine.
PavlovTheory of Conditioned Reflex.
PerkinMauve dye.
PitmanFounded the Pitman system of phonographic shorthand.
PlanckQuantum theory.
PlimsollIntroduced a line of demarcation on the ships beyond which the ships cannot be loaded.
PriestleyDiscovery of Oxygen.
Raman, C.V.Raman Effect on polarisation of light and theories on crystals and diamond formation.
RamanathanMolecular scattering of light in fluids.
RamanujamA great Indian mathematician.
RamsayDiscovery of Inert gases such as Argon, Neon, Helium etc.
Ray, P.C.Researches in chemistry.
RegnaultExperiments in regard to the physical properties of bodies and their relation to heat.
Roger BaconGun powder.
RontgenDiscovery of X-rays.
RohmkorffInduction coil.
RutherfordAtomic Research; succeeded in splitting the atom for the first time in 1918.
ShalimarPaints.
StephensonBritish engineer and pioneer in Railways. He was the first to put a locomotive on the line
that was able to draw a train of 31 carriages.
Thomson, J.J.Discovered electron.
TraversDiscovery of Neon gas (Working with Ramsay).
UreyDiscovery of Heavy Hydrogen.
VoltaCurrent electricity and electric battery.

324
Pioneers in Mechanical Inventions and Discoveries
AustinMotor Car.
Bell, GrahamTelephone.
BerlinerMicrophone.
BrequetHelicopter.
BushwellSubmarine.
CaxtonPrinting Press.
ColtRevolver.
DaimlerGas engine.
DavyMiners Safety Lamp.
DieselInternal Combustion engine (Diesel engine).
DunlopPneumatic tyre.
EdisonFirst electric bulb and gramophone.
FaradayDynamo.
FickLaw of DiffusionFicks Law.
Frank WhittleJet propulsion.
FultonStream boat.
GalileoTelescope.
GilletteSafety razor.
GuttenburgArt of Printing.
HoeRotary Printing Press.
HoweSewing Machine.
HuygensPendulum clock.
James WattSteam engine (patented in 1769).
Landstrom, J.E.Safety Matches.
MacmillanBicycle (1842).
MauserMagazine of rifle.
MercatorCelestial and a terrestrial globe.
MontgolfierBalloon (1883)
PascalCalculating Machine.
Puckle, JamesMachine gun
ShockleyTransistor.
SholesTypewriter.
StephensonRailway engine.

325
SwintonMilitary tank.
TorricelliBarometer.
Watt, Robert WatsonRadar.
W. & O. Wright (Wright Brothers)Aeroplane (1903).
WatermanFountain pen.
ZeissLenses; Camera.

Pioneers in Medical Inventions and Discoveries

BantingInsulin (as a palliative for diabetes)
Barnard, ChristianReplacing the human heart.
Brahmchari, U.M.Cure of Kala-a-zar fever.
DavyIsolation of metals by electricity; studied properties of chlorine.
DomagkSulpha drugs as bactericides.
EijkmanCause of Beri-Beri.
FinsenDiscovered curative effect of ultra violet rays; photography.
Fleming, AlexanderPenicillin (in 1929).
HarveyCirculation of blood.
HahnemannHomoeopathy (founder).
Hopkins, Frederick GowlandVitamin D.
JennerSmallpox Vaccination.
KochTubercle Bacillus.
LainnecStethoscope.
Lister, LordAntiseptic treatment.
Pasteur, LouisTreatment of rabies; cure of hydrophobia.
Ronald RossMalaria Parasite.
Salk, Jonas E.Anti-polio Vaccine.
Simpson and HarrisonChloroform.
WaksmanStreptomycin

326

BOOKS, AUTHORS & CULTURE

A.

Popular books by Indian Authors

Book

Author

A bend in the river

V.S. Naipal

A brush with life

Satish Gujral

A House of Mr. Biswar

V.S. Naipal

A Million Mutinies Now

V.S. Naipal

A Passage to England

Nirad C.Chodhury

A Prisoner's Scrapbook

L.K. Advani

A River Sutra

Gita Mehra

A sense of time

H.S.Vatsyayan

A strange and subline address

Amit Chaudhary

A suitable boy

Vikram Seth

A village by the sea

Anita Desai

A voice for freedom

Nayantara Sehgal

Aansoo

Jayashankar Prasad

Afternoon Raag

Amit Chaudhari

Ageless Body, Timeless Mind

Deepak Chopra

Agni Veena

Kazi Nazrul Islam

Ain-i-Akbari

Abul Fazal

Amar Kosh

Amar Singh

An autobiography

Jawaharlal Nehru

An Equal Music

Vikram Seth

An Idealist View of life

Dr. S. Radhakrishan

Amrit Aur Vish

Amrit Lal Nagar

Anamika

Suryakant Tripathi Nirala

Anandmath

Bankim Chandra Chatterjee

Areas of Darkness

V.S. Naipal

Arthashastra

Kautilya

Ashtadhyayi

Panini

Autobiography of an Unknown India

Nirad C. Choudhury

Bandicoot Run

Manohar Malgonkar

Beginning of the Beginning

Bhagwan Shri Rajneesh

Between the Lines

Kuldip Nayyar

Beyond Modernisation, Beyond Self

Sisirkumar Ghose

Bhagvad Gita

Ved Vyas

Bharat Bharati

Maithilisharan Gupt

Bharat Durdasha

Bhartendu Harischandra

Border and Boundaries : women in India's Partition

Ritu Menon & Kamla Bhasin

Bharat Bharati

Maithili Saran Gupt

Breaking the Silence

Anees Jung

327
Bride and the Sahib and the other stories

Khushwant Singh

Broken Wings

Sarojini Naidu

Bubble, The

Mulk Raj Anand

Buddha Charitam

Ashwaghosh

By God's Decree

Kapil Dev

Chandalika

Rabindra Nath Tagore

Chandrakanta Santati

Devkinandan Khatri

Chemmen : Thakazhi

Sivasankara Pillai

Chitra

Rabindranath Tagore

Chitralekha

Bhagwati Charan Verma

Chitrangada

Rabindra Nath Tagore

Circle of Reason

Amitav Ghosh

Clear Light of Day

Anita Desai

Confessions of a Lower

Mulk Raj Anand

Confrontation with Pakistan

B. M. Kaul

Conquest of Self

Mahatma Ghandhi

Continent of Crime

Nirad C Chaudhary

Coolie

Mulk Raj Anand

Court Dancer

Rabindranath Tagore

Culture in the Vanity Bag

Nirad C Chaudhury

Days of My Years

H.P. Nanda

Daybhag

Jeemootwahan

Death of a City

Amrita Pritam

Devdas

Sharat Chandra Chatterjee

Discovery of India

Jawaharlal Nehru

Distant Drums

Manohar Malgonkar

Distint Neighbours : India

Kuldip Nayar

Divine Life

Swami Shivananda

Durgesh Nandini

Bankim Chandra Chatterjee

Dynamics of Social Change

Chandra Shekhar

Eight Lives

Rajmohan Gandhi

English August

Upamanyu Chatterjee

Essays on Gita

Sri Aurobindo Ghosh

Eternal Himalayas

Major H.P.S. Ahluwalia

Eternal India

Mrs Indira Gandhi

Faces of Everest

Major H.P.S. Ahluwalia

Foreign Policy of India

I.K. Gujral

Forty Nine Days

Amrita Pritam

From Rajpath to Lokpath

Vijaya Raje Scindia

Gaban

Munsi Premchand

Ganadevata

Tara Shankar Bandopadhyaya

Gardener

Rabindra Nath Tagore

Geet Govind

Jayadev

Ghasiram Kotwal

Vijay Tendulkar

Gitanjali

Rabindranath Tagore

328
Gita Rahasya

Bal Gangadhar Tilak

Glimpses of World History

Jawaharlal Nehru

Godan

Prem Chand

Golden Threshold

Sarojini Naidu

Gora

Rabindra Nath Tagore

Guide

R.K. Narayanan

Harsha Charita

Bana Bhatta

Harvest

Manjula Padmanabhan

Heir Apparent

Dr. Karan Singh

Himalayan Blunder

Brigadier J.P. Dalvi

Hind Swaraj

M.K. Gandhi

Hindu View of Life

Dr. S. Radhakrishan

Hinduism

Nirad C. Choudhury

History of India

Romila Thapar

Hullabaloo in a Guava Orchard

Kiran Desai

Humanyunama

Gulbadan Beghum

Hungary Stones

Rabindranath Tagore

I follow the Mahatma

K.M. Munshi

Idols

Sunil Gavaskar

India After Nehru

Kuldip Nayyar

India Divided

Rajendra Prasad

India Unbound

Gurcharan Das

India of Our Dreams

M.V. Kamath

India Wins Freedom

Abdul Kalam Azad

India's Priceless Heritage

N.A. Palkhivala

Indian Philosophy

Dr. S. Radhakrishan

Indira Ghandi Returns

Khushwant Singh

Indira Gandhi : Badhate Kadam

Khushwant Singh

Inscrutable Americans

Anurag Mathur

Interpreter of Maladies

Jhumpa Lahiri

It's Always Possible

Kiran Bedi

Jai Somnath

K.M. Munshi

Jayadev

Geet Govind

Jhansi Ki Rani

Vrindavanlal Verma

Kadambari

Bana Bhatt

Kagaz Te Kanwas

Amrita Pritam

Kamasutra

S.H. Vatsyayan

Kanthapura

Raja Rao

Kapala Kundala

Bankim Chandra Chatterjee

Karmabhumi

Munsi Premchand

Kashmir : A Tale of Shame

Hari Jaisingh

Kashmr : A Tragedy of Errors Kayar

Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai

Kitab-ul-Hind

Al-Beruni

Kitni Nawon Kitni Bar

S.H. Vatsyayan

Kulliyat

Ghalib

329
Kumar Sambhava

Kalidas

Kurukshetra

Ramdhari Singh Dinkar

Last Burden

Upamanyu Chatterjee

Life Divine

Sri Aurobindo Ghosh

Lipika

Rabindranath Tagore

Lost Child

Mulk Raj Anand

Mahabharta

Ved Vyas

Mahatma Gandhi and his Apolstles

Ved Mehta

Malgudi Days

R.K. Narayanan

Malti Madhav

Bhavabhuti

Meghdootam

Kalidasa

Mitakshara

Vigyaneshwar

Mrichhakatikam

Shudrak

My Days

R.K. Narayanan

My India

S. Nihal Singh

My Life and Times

V.V. Giri

My Music, My Life

Pt. Ravi Shankar

My Presidental Years

R. Venkatraman

My Truth

Indira Gandhi

Mudra Rakshas

Vishakhadatta

Natural History

Plini

New Dimensions of India's Foreign Policy

A.B. Vajpayee

Nisheeth

Uma Shankar Joshi

Operation Bluestar : The True Story

Lt. Gen K.S. Brar

Our Films, Their Films

Satyajit Ray

Padmavat

Malik Mohammed Jayasi

Painter of Signs

R.K. Narayan

Panchatantra

Vishnu Sharma

Parineeta

Sharat Chandra Chatterji

Past Forward

G.R. Narayanan

Pather Panchali

Bibhuti Bhushan

Plain Speaking

N. Chandrababu Naidu

Portrait of India

Ved Mehta

Post Office

Rabindranath Tagore

Prem Pachisi

Munsi Prem Chand

Prem Vatika

Raskhan

Rajatarangini

Kalhana

Ram Charita Manas

Tulsidas

Ramayana

Maharishi Valmiki

Raghuvamsa

Kalidas

Ranghbhommi

Munsi Premchand

Ratnavali

Harsha Vardhan

Ravi Paar (Across the River)

Gulzar

Red Earth and Pouring Rain

Vikram Chandra

Ritu Samhara

Kalidas

330
Saket

Maithili Sharan Gupta

Satya Karischandra

Bhartendu Harischandra

Sakharam Binder

Vijay Tendulkar

Secular Agenda

Arun Shourie

Seven Summers

Mulk Raj Anand

Shadow from Ladakh

Bhabani Bhattacharya

Shahnama

Firdausi

Shrikant

Sharat Chandra Chatterji

Snakes and Ladders : Essays on India

Gita Mehta

Social Change in Modern India

M.N. Srinivas

Sultry Days

Shobha De

Sunny Days

Sunil Gavaskar

Sursagar

Sur Das

Swami and Friends

R.K. Narayanan

The Bride's Book of Beauty

Mulk Raj Anand

The Cat and Shakespeare

Raja Rao

The Company of Women

Khushwant Singh

The Critical Years : In Jail

Kuldip Nayyar

The Dark Room

R.K. Narayanan

The Degeneration of India

T.N. Seshan

The Glass Palace

Amitav Ghosh

The God of Small Things

Arundhati Roy

The Golden Gate

Vikram Seth

The Judgement

Kuldip Nayyar

The Men Who Killed Gandhi

Manohar Malgonkar

The Seven Spiritual Laws of Success

Deepak Chopra

The Songs of India

Sarojini Naidu

The Story of My Experiments with Truth

Mahatma Gandhi

The Strange and Subline Address

Amit Chaudhuri

The Sword and the Sickle

Mulk Raj Anand

The vendor of Sweets

R.K. Narayanan

The way of the Wizard

Deepak Chopra

Train to Pakistan

Khushwant Singh

Two Leaves and a Bud

Mulk Raj Anand

Untold Story

B. M. Kaul

Urvashi

Ramdhari Singh Dinkar

Visarjana

Rabindra Nath Tagore

Waiting for the Mahatma

R.K. Narayanan

Wake up India

Annie Besant

We, Indians

Khushwant Singh

Wreck, The

Rabindranath Tagore

Yama

Mahadevi Verma

Yashodhara

Maithili Sharan Gupt

Years of Pilgrimage

Dr. Raja Ramana

331
B.

Books and Authors in Ancient India

Book

Author

Astadhyayi

Panini

Mahabhasya

Patanjli

Nagananda

Harshvardhana

Naishadhacharita

Sri Harsha

Mrichhakatika

Sudraka

Gitagovinda

Jayadev

Navratna

Virsena

Mudrarakshasa

Visakdatta

Rajtarangini

Kalhana

Kathasaritsagar

Somdeva

Kamasutra

Vatsayana

Prashnottarmalika

Amoghavarsha

Swapanvasdattam

Bhasa

Buddha charita

Asvaghosa

Natyashastra

Bharata

Abhigyan Shakuntalam

Kalidasa

Vikramorvashi

Kalidasa

Raghuvansan

Kalidasa

Amarkosa

Amarshmha

Panc hsidhantika and Brihat Samhita

Varharmihara

Surya Sidhanta and Aryabhatta

Aryabhatta

Panch tantra

Vishnu Sharma

Nitisara

Kamandaka

Aihole Prasasti

Ravi Kriti

Indica

Megasthanese

Arthasastra

Kautilya

Charaka Samhita

Charaka

Lilawati

Bhaskara II

Harshacharita and Kadambari

Harsha vardhan

Ratnavali

Harsha vardhan

Gathasaptashati

Hala

Nitisara

Kamandaka

332
C.

Popular Quotations

Quote

Quoted By

Name

Swaraj is my Birth Right

Bal Gangadhar Tilak

Take care to get what you like or you will be forced to like what you get.

G. B. Shaw

A thing of beauty is a joy forever

John Keats

To be and not to be that is the question.

Shakespeare

Delhi Chalo

Netaji

Subhash

Chandra Bose
6

Superstition is the religion of feeable minds.

Edmund Burke

Let a hundread flowers bloom and let a thousand school of thought contend.

Mao-Ste-Tunng

Aram Haram Hai

Jawahar Lal Nehru

Where wealth accumulates, men decay.

Goldsmith

10

Beauty is truth, truth is beauty, that is all.

John Keats

11

I came I saw I conquered

Shekspear

12

Good Government is no substitute for self government.

Alfred Tennyson

13

A democratic Government is of the people, for the people and by the people.

Abraham Linkon

14

Jay Hind

Netaji

15

Law grinds the poor and rich men rule the men.

Gold Smith

16

The human soul needs actual beauty more than bread.

D. H. Lawrence

17

War is the greatest crime man perpetrates against man.

Zarathustra

18

There never was a good war or a bad peace.

Benjamin Franklin

19

The only man who never makes mistakes is the man who never does

Theodore Roosevelt

anything.
20

Truth and Non-violence is my God

M. K. Gandhi

21

Jai Jawan, Jai Kishan

Lal Bahadur Shastri

22

Eureka Eureka

Archimedes

23

Just as I would not like to be a slave, so I would not like to be a master.

Abraham Linkon

24

Brevity is the soul of wit.

Shekspear

25

East is east and west is west and never the twin shall meet.

Kipling

26

Knowledge is Power

Hobbes

27

Man is by nature a political animal.

Aristotol

28

Temptation usually comes in through a door that has delibaretly been left

Arnold Glasow

open.
29

I therefore want freedom immediately this very night, before dawn if it can be

Gandhiji

had?
30

Man is not the creature of circumstance. Circumstances are the creature of

Disraeli

men.
31

Excellent things are rare.

Plato

32

Well done is better than well said.

Benjamin Franklin

33

Ambition is like love : Impatient both of delays as well as rivals.

Buddha

34

The child is father of the man.

William Wordsworth

35

Faith is the bird that feels the light when the dawn is still dark.

Rabindra Nath Tagore

36

Patriotism is religion and religion is love for India.

Bankim
Chatterjee

Chandra

333

AWARDS & HONOURS

A.

Prominent National Awards

The Indian honour system is primarily recognized by Indian Central Government. The most recognized are
Padma awards which are Padma Shri, Padma Bhushan, Padma Vibhushan and Bharat Ratna with
increasing order of merit. They are awarded every year. However, the most coveted and highest civilian
award Bharat Ratna may not necessarily be awarded every year. The Padma awards are civilian awards
for a broad set of achievements in fields such as Education, Arts, Civil Service, or Social Service. Awards
were also bestowed posthumously and they are also given for foreign citizens.

I.

Padma awards:
Bharat Ratna Gem/Jewel of India (Bharat), the highest honour bestowed by the Government of India.
Bharat Ratna living recipients

Amartya Sen (1999)

Lata Mangeshkar (2001)
C.N.R Rao (2014)
Sachin Tendulkar (2014)
Atal Bihari Vajpeyi (2015)

Foreign recipients

Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan (1987)

Nelson Mandela (1990)

Controversies

Award to Subhas Chandra Bose

Indian freedom fighter Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose was awarded Bharat Ratna posthumously in 1992.
The award was later withdrawn due to a legal technicality. This is the only case of an award being
withdrawn. It was withdrawn in response to a Supreme Court of India directive following a Public Interest
Litigation filed in the Court against the posthumous nature of the award. The Award Committee could not
give conclusive evidence of Boses death and thus it invalidated the posthumous award.
Award to Abul Kalam Azad
When the award was offered to freedom fighter and India's first Minister of Education, Abul Kalam Azad,
he promptly declined it saying that it should not be given to those who have been on the selection
committee. Later he was awarded posthumously in 1992.
Nobody was given countrys highest civilian award Bharat Ratna during the year 2002, 2003,
2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2010, 2011 and 2012

Padma Vibhushan The Padma Vibhushan is the second highest civilian award in the Republic of
India. It consists of a medal and a citation and is awarded by the President of India. It was
established on 2 January 1954. It ranks behind the Bharat Ratna and comes before the Padma
Bhushan and Padma Shri. It is awarded to recognize exceptional and distinguished service to the
nation in any field, including government service.The first recipitants of this award were Satyendra
Nath Bose, Nand Lal Bose, Zakir Hussain, Balasaheb Gangadhar Kher, Jigme Dorji Wangchuk, V. K.
Krishna Menon in the year 1954.

Padma Bhushan The Padma Bhushan is the third highest civilian award in the Republic of India,
after the Bharat Ratna and the Padma Vibhushan, but comes before the Padma Shri. The award was
established on 2 January 1954 by the President of India. It is awarded to recognize distinguished
service of a high order to the nation, in any field

Padma Shri Padma Shri (also Padmashree) is the fourth highest civilian award in the Republic
of India, after the Bharat Ratna, the Padma Vibhushan and the Padma Bhushan. It is awarded to
citizens of India to recognize their distinguished contribution in various spheres of activity including
the Arts, Education, Industry, Literature, Science, Sports, Medicine, Social Service and Public Affairs.
However it has also been awarded to some distinguished individuals who were not citizens of India
and who did contribute in various ways to India.

334
B.

C.

D.

National Sports Awards

Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna- Indias highest honour given for achievement in sports. The award is
named after the late Rajiv Gandhi, former Prime Minister of India. It carries a medal, a scroll of
honour and a substantial cash component. Up to 200405, the cash component was Rs. 500,000/.The money has been increased from Rs. 500,000 to Rs. 750,000.The award was instituted in the year
199192 to supply the lack of a supreme national accolade in the field of sports. The Khel Ratna was
devised to be an overarching honour, conferred for outstanding sporting performance, whether by an
individual or a team, across all sporting disciplines in a given year.

Arjuna Award Recognizes outstanding achievement in National sports. The Arjuna Awards were
instituted in 1961 by the government of India to recognize outstanding achievement in National
sports. The award carries a cash prize of 500,000, a bronze statuette of Arjuna and a scroll.Over the
years the scope of the award has been expanded and a large number of sportspersons who belonged
to the pre-Arjun Award era were also included in the list. Further, the number of disciplines for which
the award is given was increased to include indigenous games and the physically handicapped
category.The Government has recently revised the scheme for the Arjun Award. As per the revised
guidelines, to be eligible for the Award, a sportsperson should not only have had good performance
consistently for the previous three years at the international level with excellence for the year for
which the Award is recommended, but should also have shown qualities of leadership, sportsmanship
and a sense of discipline.From the year 2001, the award is given only in disciplines falling under the
following categories:
1. Olympic Games / Asian Games / Commonwealth Games / World Cup / World Championship
Disciplines and Cricket
2. Indigenous Games
3. Sports for the Physically Challenged

Dronacharya award - an award presented by the government of India for excellence in sports
coaching. The award comprises a bronze statuette of Dronacharya, a scroll of honour and a cash
component of Rs.500,000. The award was instituted in 1985.

Dhyan Chand Award - India's highest award for lifetime achievement in sports and games. The
award is named after the legendary Indian hockey player Dhyan Chand. The award was initiated in
2002. The award carries a cash prize of INR 5 lakh, a statuette,ceremonial dress and a scroll of
honour.

Vir Chakra Valour awards

Param Vir Chakra The Param Vir Chakra (PVC) is India's highest military decoration awarded
for the highest degree of valour or self-sacrifice in the presence of the enemy. It can be, and often
has been, awarded posthumously.The PVC was established on 26 January 1950 (the date of India
becoming a republic), by the President of India, with effect from 15 August 1947 (the date of Indian
independence). It can be awarded to officers or enlisted personnel from all branches of the Indian
military. It is the second highest award of the government of India after Bharat Ratna (amendment in
the statute on 26 January 1980 resulted in this order of wearing). It replaced the former British
colonial Victoria Cross (VC).

Maha Vir Chakra - The Maha Vir Chakra (MVC) is the second highest military decoration in India and
is awarded for acts of conspicuous gallantry in the presence of the enemy, whether on land, at sea or
in the air.

Vir Chakra - is an Indian gallantry award presented for acts of bravery in the battlefield. Award of
the decoration carried with it the right to use Vr.C. as a postnominal abbreviation. It is third in
precedence in the war time gallantry awards and comes after the Param Vir Chakra and Maha Vir
Chakra.

Peacetime gallantry awards

Ashok Chakra Award - is an Indian military decoration awarded for valor, courageous action or selfsacrifice away from the battlefield. It is the peace time equivalent of the Param Vir Chakra, and is
awarded for the "most conspicuous bravery or some daring or pre-eminent valour or self-sacrifice"
other than in the face of the enemy. The decoration may be awarded either to military or civilian
personnel and may be awarded posthumously..

Kirti Chakra - The Kirti Chakra is an Indian military decoration awarded for valour, courageous
action or self-sacrifice away from the field of battle. It may be awarded to civilians as well as military

335
personnel, including posthumous awards. It is the peacetime equivalent of the Maha Vir Chakra. It is
second in order of precedence of peacetime gallantry awards; it comes after Ashoka Chakra and
before Shaurya Chakra. Before 1967, the award was known as the Ashoka Chakra, Class II.
Shaurya Chakra - is an Indian military decoration awarded for valour, courageous action or selfsacrifice while not engaged in direct action with the enemy. It may be awarded to civilians as well as
military personnel, sometimes posthumously. It is the peacetime equivalent of the Vir Chakra. It is
generally awarded for Counter-Insurgency operations and actions against the enemy during peacetime. It is third in order of precedence of peacetime gallantry awards and comes after the Ashoka
Chakra and the Kirti Chakra. It precedes the Sena Medal. Before 1967, the award was known as the
Ashoka Chakra, Class III.

E.

Other National Awards

Awards
India

Significance
Science

The Government of India instituted this award in 2004. It is awarded to a noted scientist.

Award
Vyas Samman

The award is given to an outstanding Hindi Literary work, authored by an Indian. It is

given by K.K. Birla Foundation.

Shanti swarup

These awards are given to Scientists and Engineers for their research and development
work

Dada

Saheb

Phalke

Instituted in 1970, the award is given to a person in Award recognition for his contribution
to Indian Cinema.

Rajiv

Gandhi

Khel

Ratna

The award constituted in the year 1991-92 honouring the outstanding sports person in
the year for his/her achievement in sports.

Award
Dronacharya

Instituted in 1985, the award honours eminent coaches who have successfully trained

Award

sports persons or teams and enabled team to achieve outstanding results in international
competitions.

Dewang

Mehta

Award

The

award

instituted

by

department

of

information technology in memory of Mr.

Dewang Mehta, former chief of NASSCOM.

GD Birla Award

This award is given to an Indian scientist living and working in India, for the high calibre

for

scientific research undertaken by him.

Scientific

Research
Kalinga Award

Kalinga award was constituted by Mr. Biju Patnaik, the founder of the Kalinga Foundation
Trust in Orissa in 1952.
The award is given for popularization of science by the United Nation
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
It is awarded Biannually.

Nehru Award for

This award was instituted by the Government of India in honour of Pandit Jawaharlal

International

Nehru who passed away in 1964.

understanding

The award is given annually for outstanding contribution to the promotion of friendship
among the people of world. The award was instituted in 1965. Prize money for this award
is Rs. 15,00,000 and a citation,

Saraswati

This award was constituted in the year 1992 by K.K. Birla foundation.

Samman

This award is given for the outstanding contribution to literature in any language include
in Eight Schedule. Dr. Harivansh Rai Bachchan was the first recipient of this award.

336
It carries a cash award of Rs. 3 lakhs.
Bharatiya

This award was constituted in 1965 by literary organization in India.

Jnanptith Award

It is India's highest literary Award

This award is given for the outstanding contribution in India literature
Prize money is 2.5 lakh
Noted Tamil Writer D. Jayakanthan was awarded for the 2002.

Jamna Lai Bajaj

This award is given for the constructive work in society,

Award

science and technology for rural development, upliftment of women and social welfare

emphasis

on

the

use

of

and for spreading the Gandhian values outside India

National

Film

Awards

These are the most prominent film award ceremony in India, and the country's oldest
alongside the Filmfare Awards. Established in 1954, these have been administrated by
the Indian government's Directorate of Film Festivals since 1973. Every year a national
panel appointed by the government selects the winning entry, followed by the
inauguration of the National Film Festival, where the award-winning films are screened
for the public.
Declared for films produced in the previous year across the country, they hold the
distinction of awarding merit to the best of Indian cinema overall, as well as presenting
awards for the best films in each region and language of the country.

F.

Prominent International Awards

Awards

Significance

Nobel prize

This award was set up in 1900 under the Will of Alfred Bernhard Nobel. Alfred Nobel was an
unmarried Swedish scientist and chemical engineer who discovered Nitroglycerine and its use
in the manufacture of dynamite in 1866. This award was instituted in 1901 and is given
annually to those persons who have made outstanding contributions in literature, physics,
chemistry, medicine, peace and economics.

Indian Nobel Laureates

Name

Field

Rabindranath
Tagore

Literature, 1913

C.V. Raman

Physics, 1930

Mother Teresa

Peace, 1979

Hargobind
Khorana

Medicine, 1968

Subramanian
Chandrasekhar

Physics, 1983

Amartya Sen

Economics, 1998

V.S. Naipaul

Literature, 2001

Venkatraman
Ramakrishnan

Chemistry, 2009

Kailash Satyarthi

Peace, 2014

Booker prize

Instituted in 1968, it is the highest literary award conferred annually

by the Booker Company and the British Publisher Association.

337
Booker Prize Winners of Indian Origin
Year

Name

Name of Work

1971

V.S. Naipaul

In a Free State

1981

Salman Rushdie

Midnights Children

1993

Salman Rushdie Booker of Booker (Best Novel in 25 years of Booker)

Midnights Children

1997

Arundhati Roy

The God of Small Things

2006

Kiran Desai

The Inheritance of Loss

2008

Salman Rushdie Best of Booker (40 years of the Booker)

Midnights Children

2008

Arvind Adiga

The White Tiger

Templeton Award

Instituted in 1972. It is conferred by the Templeton foundation for progress in religion.

Magsaysay Award

It was instituted in the year 1957. It is named after Ramon Magsaysay, the former
President of Philippines, It is conferred for outstanding contribution in the field of public
service, journalism, literature, community leadership and international understanding.

Pulitzer Prize

This prize was instituted in 1970 and named after the U.S. Publisher
Joseph Pulitzer.
Is conferred annually in the United States for accomplishments in
journalism, literature and music

Oscar Award

This awards was instituted in 1929 and is conferred annually by the Academy of Motion
Pictures in the United States.
Mahboob Khan's Mother India was the first Indian film to be nominated in the best
foreign film category in 1958.
The first Indian to share the Oscar was Bhanu Athaiya for the film Gandhi.
Satyajeet Ray was the first Indian who was awarded Oscar for
lifetime achievement in cinema in the 1992

Whitley Award

It is often called the Green Oscar.

It is the UK's top conservation prize.
The Whitley Awards were established in 1994 by Edward Whitley
and are designed to support passionate individuals who are
committed to precipitating long-lasting conservation benefits.

338

SPORTS
I.

National Sports:
A national sport or national pastime is a sport or game that is considered to be an intrinsic part of the
culture of a nation. Some sports are de facto national sports, as baseball is in the U.S., while others are
de jure as lacrosse and ice hockey are in Canada.
1. De jure national sports

II.

Argentina

Pato

Bahamas

Sloop sailing

Bangladesh ("national game")

Kabaddi

Brazil

Capoeira

Canada

Lacrosse (summer), Ice hockey (winter)

Chile

Chilean rodeo

Colombia

Tejo

Iran

Varzesh-e Bastani, Wrestling

Mexico

Charrera

Philippines

Arnis

Puerto Rico ("autochthonous

sport")

Paso Fino

Sri Lanka

Volleyball

Sports Terms:
AtheleticsRelay, Photofinish, Track, Lane, Hurdles, Shotput, Discuss Throw, Hammar Throw, Triple
Jump, High Jump, Cross Country, etc.
BadmintonShuttle cock, Service court, Fore hand, Back Hand, Smash, Hit, Drop, Net, Love, Double
fault, etc.
BaseballPinching, Home run, Base runner, Throw, Perfect game, Strike, Put out, etc.
BasketballFree throw, Technical foul, Common foul, Under head, Over head, etc.
BridgeMaster point, Perfect deals, Gland slam, Dummy, Trump, etc.
Billiards & SnookerPull, Cue, Hit, Object ball, Break shot, Scoring, Cushion billiards, etc.
BoxingKnock. out, Round, Ring Stoppage, Punch, Upper-cut, Kidney punch, Timing, Foot work, etc.
ChessE. L. O. rating, international master, Grand master, Gambit, Kings Indian Defence, etc.
CyclingSprint, Time trial, Point race, Trackrace, etc.
CricketToss, Run, Wicket, Pitch, Stump, Bails, Crease, Pavalion, Gloves, Wicket Keeper, Over, Maiden
over, Followon, Rubber, Ashes, Catch, Bowled, Stump out, Run out, L. B. W; Hit Wicket, Not out, No ball,
Wide ball, Dead ball, Over Throw, Bye, Leg by, Cover drive, Late cut, Hook, Glance, Stroke, Spot, Pull,
Sixer, Followthrough, Turn, Googley, Spin, Yorker, Bouncer, Hat trick, Round the wicket, Over the wicket,
Seamer, Boundry line, Slip,Square leg, Runner. Cover, Gully, Long on, Silly point, Midwicket, Mid on,
Forward short leg, Deep/mid-wicket, etc.
HorseridingThree day Event, Show jumping, Presses, Faults, etc.
FootballGoal, Kick, Head, Penalty kick, Dribble, Off side, Hat trick, Foul, Left out, Right out, Stopper,
Defender, Move, Sideback, Pass, Baseline, Rebound, Comer bick, etc.
GymnasticsParellel bar, Horizontal bar, Floor exercise, Uneven bar, Push up, Sit up. etc.
JudoCocoa, Blue, white, Green belt, etc.

339
HockeyBully Sudden death, Short corner, Hat trick, Goal, Penalty Corner, Penalty stroke,
Pushin, Cut, Dribble, Scoop, Centre forward, Half back, Astroturf, Left in, Left out, Off-side, Tie breaker,
Carried, Stick, Striking circle, Under cutting, etc.
SwimmingFreestyle, Breast stroke, Back stroke, Butterfly, Lane, Pool, Crawl, etc.
PoloPolo-Bunker, Chukker, Mallet, etc.
TennisService, Grandslam, Advantage, Deuce, Game Point, Breakpoint; Smash, Shot, Grass Court.
Break, Drop shot, Netplay, Baseline, etc.
ShootingRapidfire Pistol, Standard rifle, Air rifle, Free pistol, Range, Bull's eye, etc.
Table TennisVolley, Late service, Half volley, Back hand, Drive spin, Chop, etc.
Weight LiftingSnatch, Jerk, etc.
VolleyballDeuce, Spikers, Booster, Smash, Sidearm, Panetration, etc.
WrestlingFree style, Hal Nelson, Point, Heave, etc.

III.

Standard Measurements In Sports:

Basketball
(National Collegiate A.A. Men's Rules)
Playing court
Baskets

College: 94 feet long by 50 feet wide (ideal dimensions). High School: 84 feet
long by 50 feet wide (ideal dimensions).
Rings 18 inches in inside diameter, with white cord 12-mesh nets, 15 to 18
inches in length. Each ring is made of metal, is not more than 5/8 of an inch in
diameter, and is bright orange in color.

Height of basket

10 feet (upper edge).

Weight of ball

Not less than 20 ounces nor more than 22.

Circumference of
ball
Free-throw line

Not greater than 30 inches and not less than 29 1/2.

Three-point field
goal line

19 feet, 9 inches from the center of the basket. In the National Basketball
Association, the distance is 22 feet.

15 feet from the face of the backboard, 2 inches wide.

Boxing
Ring

Professional matches take place in an area not less than 18 nor more than
24 feet square including apron. It is enclosed by four covered ropes, each
not less than one inch in diameter. The floor has a 2-inch padding of
Ensolite (or equivalent) underneath ring cover that extends at least 6 inches
beyond the roped area in the case of elevated rings. For USA Boxing or
Olympic-style boxing, not less than 16 nor more than 20 feet square within
the ropes. The floor must extend beyond the ring ropes not less than 2 feet.
The ring posts shall be connected to the four ring ropes with the extension
not shorter than 18 inches and must be properly padded.

Gloves

In professional fights, not less than 8-ounce gloves generally are used. USA
Boxing, 10 ounces for boxers 106 pounds through 156 pounds; 12-ounce for
boxers 165 pounds through 201+ pounds; for international competition, 8
ounces for lighter classes, 10 ounces for heavier divisions.

Headguards

Mandatory in Olympic-style boxing.

340
Football
Length of field

120 yards (including 10 yards of end zone at each end).

Width of field

53 1/3 yards (160 feet).

Height of goal posts

At least 30 feet.

Height of crossbar

10 feet.

Width of goal posts

(above crossbar)
Length of ball

18 feet 6 inches, inside to inside.

Circumference of ball

20 3/4 to 21 1/4 inches (middle); 27 3/4 to 28 1/2 inches (long axis).

10 7/8 to 11 7/16 inches (long axis).

Golf
Specifications of
ball

Broadened to require that the ball be designed to perform as if it were

spherically symmetrical. The weight of the ball shall not be greater than 1.620
ounces avoirdupois, and the size shall not be less than 1.680 inches in
diameter.

Velocity of ball
Hole

Not greater than 250 feet per second when tested on USGA apparatus, with 2
percent tolerance.
4 1/4 inches in diameter and at least 4 inches deep.

Clubs

14 is the maximum number permitted.

Overall distance
standard

A brand of ball shall not exceed a distance of 280 yards plus 6% when tested on
USGA apparatus under specified conditions, on an outdoor range at USGA
Headquarters.

Hockey
Size of rink

200 feet long by 85 feet wide surrounded by a wooden wall not less than 40 inches
and not more than 48 inches above level of ice.

Size of goal

6 feet wide by 4 feet in height.

Puck

1 inch thick and 3 inches in diameter, made of vulcanized rubber; weight 5 1/2 to 6
ounces.

Length of
stick

Not more than 60 inches from heel to end of shaft nor more than 12 1/2 inches
from heel to end of blade. Blade should not be more than 3 inches in width but not
less than 2 inchesexcept goal keeper's stick, which shall not exceed 3 1/2 inches
in width except at the heel, where it must not exceed 4 1/2 inches, nor shall the
goalkeeper's stick exceed 15 1/2 inches from the heel to the end of the blade.

Tennis
Size of court

120 feet long by 60 feet wide, with rectangle marked off at 78 feet long by 27 feet
wide (singles) and 78 feet long by 36 feet wide (doubles).

Height of net

3 feet in center, gradually rising to reach 3-foot 6-inch posts at a point 3 feet
outside each side of court.

Ball

Shall be more than 2 1/2 inches and less than 2 5/8 inches in diameter and weigh
more than 2 ounces and less than 2 1/6 ounces.

Service line

21 feet from net.

341
IV.

Cups & Trophies Associated With Sports:

International

V.

American Cup : Yacht Racing

Ashes : Cricket
Benson and Hedges : Cricket
Canada Cup : Golf
Colombo Cup : Football
Corbitton Cup : Table Tennis (Women)
Davis Cup : Lawn Tennis
Derby : Horse Race
Grand National : Horse Streple Chase Race
Jules Rimet Trophy : World Soccer Cup
King's Cup : Air Races
Merdeka Cup : Football
Rydet Cup : Golf
Swaythling Cup : Table Tennis (Men)
Thomas Cup : Badminton
U. Thant Cup : Tennis

Uber Cup : Badminton (Women)

Walker Cup : Golf
Westchester Cup : Polo
Wightman Cup : Lawn Tennis
World Cup : Cricket
World Cup : Hockey
Reliance Cup : Cricket
Rothman's Trophy : Cricket
William's Cup : Basketball
European Champions Cup : Football
Eisenhower Cup : Golf
Essande Champions Cup : Hockey
Rene Frank Trophy : Hockey
Grand Prix : Table Tennis
Edgbaston Cup : Lawn Tennis
Grand Prix : Lawn Tennis
World Cup : Weight-lifting

Places Associated With Sports:

Sport

Associated Places

Baseball

Brooklyn (USA)

Boxing

1.
2.

Cricket

Golf

1. Aden Park (Aukland)

2. Brabourne Stadium (Mumbai)
3. Chepauk Ground (Chennai)
4. Eden Gardens (Kolkata)
5. Ferozeshah Kotla Ground (Delhi)
6. Green Park (Kanpur)
7. Leeds (London, England)
8. Lord's (London, England)
9. Nehru Stadiums (Chennai and New Delhi)
10. Melbourne (Australia)
11. Old Trafford (Manchester, England)
12. Oval (London, England)
13. Wankhede Stadium (Mumbai)
1. Brookland (England)
2. Wembley (London)
3. Blackheath (London)
4. Twickenham (London)
5. Corporation Stadium (Kolkata)
6. Ambedkar Stadium (New Delhi)
7. Nehru Stadium (New Delhi)
8. Yuba Bharati Stadium (Kolkata)
Sanday Lodge (Scotland)

Greyhound Race

White City (England)

Hockey

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
1.
2.
3.

Football

Horse Racing

Madison Square Garden (USA)

Yankee Stadium, New Delhi

Dhayn Chand Stadium (Lucknow)

Lal Bahadur Shastri Stadium (Hyderabad)
Merdeka Stadium (Kuala Lumpur)
National Stadium (Delhi)
Nehru Stadium (Delhi)
Sawai Man Singh Stadium (Jaipur)
Shivaji Stadium (New Delhi)
Aintree (England)Grand National Race
Doncaster (England)Derby Race
Epsom (England)Derby Race

342
Pole

Hurlingham (England)

Shooting

Bisley (England)

Sking

Florence (Chadwick)

Snooker

Blackpool (England)

Swimming and Rowing

1.
2.

Cape Gris Nez (Cross-channel swimming)

Putney-Mort-Lake (England)

Tennis

1.
2.

Wimbledon (England)
Forest Hill (US)

VI.

Olympic Games:

1.

History: The first historical mention of the ancient Olympic games is dated back to 776 B.C. During the
first six Olympic Games, however, the prize had been a portion of meat or `meria' taken from an animal
sacrificed to the Gods. The next Olympic Games will be held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil from 15th August to
21st August 2016.
The origin of the ancient Olympic Games is lost the midst of pre-history, but for many centuries they were
only a festival of the Greek people. The Games were first held in honour of the Greek God, Zeus in 776 BC
in the plain of kingdom of Elis, nestled in lush valley between the Alpheus River and Mount Kronion, 15 km
from the Ionian Sea. The Olympiad celebrated that year was considered as the first and was used to date
subsequent historic events. But religious ceremonies and games were held in Olympia before that time.
The oldest sanctuary of Greece was there, the altar of the Great Mother of Gods, Rhea (Earth). On the day
of the feast, the priest stood in front of the altar, ready to perform a sacrifice. Women were forbidden to
be present and the male contestants were naked. Young men waited at a distance on one stadium (about
200 yds). As soon as a signal was given they ran and the first to arrive at the altar received the torch
from the priests hand and lit the sacrificial fire.
The old Olympiads were held after every four years and the Greeks measured time in terms of Games
started on the first new moon after the summer solstice, around mid-July. The ancient Olympic Games
lasted for five days and the events took place in a precise order. On the first day, there were sacrifices
and opening ceremonies. On the second day there were special competitions for the ephebians. The
third day was devoted to events for adult competitors: dromos, diaulos, dolichos, pugilism, wrestling,
pancratium. On the fourth day, there were equestrian events, pentathlon, and race with arms. On the fifth
and the final day, there were closing ceremonies and proclamation of the heroes. During the first six
Olympic games, however, the prize had been a portion of meat or meria taken from an animal sacrificed
to the Gods. It was only after VII Games that the olive crown was given to the winners and the moral
significance of the prize was considerable. Once the prizes were awarded, a flock of pigeons was releases
to carry the names of the champions to all the corners of the Greece.
The Games came to a sudden end when the Roman Emperor Theodosius banned the competitions and
their attendant sacrificial offerings as pagan manifestations. From 395 AD onwards the fall of Olympia was
very rapid. In that year the first damage was caused by the invasion of Alarics barbarians. A year earlier
the famous crysele-phantide statute of Zeus had been taken to Constantinople. It was destroyed in 475
AD during the great fire. Following the attacks of the Goths, a fire destroyed the temple of Zeus; earth
quakes from 522 to 551 and the most severe of all in 580 brought down whatever had remained standing.
Glory had vanished and of the vast riches there were now left but a few ruins and the name of Olympia.
Something immortal remained, however, and that was the Olympic spirit.

343
The revival work of the Games was undertaken by Baron Pierre de Coubertin nearly 1,500 years after the
last of the ancient Games. He was born into a family of Italian origin which had settled in France. It was
on November 25, 1892, during a conference at Sorbonne about the history of physical exercises, that he
first pronounced those famous six words in public The Restoration of the Olympic Games. He said that
the games would ennoble and strengthen amateur sports, to give them strength and lasting quality for an
essential role in the world of modern education.
It was at the International Congress for the for the Study of the Propagation of the Principles of
Amateurism held in Paris in June 1894 that the delegates led by Baron Pierre de Coubertin and associates
unanimously voted to restore the Olympic Games and to create an International Olympic committee to
oversee them. De Coubertin had planned to propose Paris for the site of the first modern Olympics in 1900
but the enthusiasm and zeal of the delegates was so great that they insisted the first Games to be held in
1896. Athens was, therefore, the venue for the 1896 Games. Since then these Games are held very four
years. The aims of the Olympic Movement are to promote the development of these fine physical and
moral qualities which are the basis of amateur sports and to bring together the athletes of the world in a
great quadrennial festival of sports. The honour of holding the Olympic Games is entrusted to a city ad not
a country or area. The choice of a city for the celebration of an Olympiad is with the International Olympic
Committee.
2.

Olympic Flame: It was at the Amsterdam Games in 1928 that for the first time an Olympic flame was
ceremonially lighted and burned in a giant torch at the entrance of the stadium. The modern version of
the flame was adopted in 1936 at the Berlin Games. The Olympic flame symbolizes the continuity between
the ancient and modern Games. The torch used to kindle the flame, is first lit by the suns rays at
Olympia, Greece, and then carried to the site of the Games by relay of runners. Ships and planes are used
when necessary. On July 15, 1976, space age technology was used to transport the flame from one
continent to another.

3.

Olympic Motto: The Olympic motto is Citius-Altius-Fortius (faster, higher, stronger). Rev. Father Didon
(1840-1900), headmaster of a school near Paris and a great promoter of sports in the French Catholic
colleges near the end of the nineteenth century, first used the motto and had it embroidered on the
pennants of his school clubs. This succinct definition of the philosophy of sport appealed to father Didons
friend, Baron pierre de Coubertin who was responsible for the revival work of the Olympic Games nearly
1,500 yeas after the last of the ancient games. It was adopted at his suggestion at the International
Congress for the Study and Propagation of the Principles of Amateurism on June 23, 1894, the same day
on which the restoration of the Olympic Games and the creation of the International Olympic Committee
were also decided.

4.

Olympic Prizes, Medals and Certificates: While in ancient times the Olympic heroes received a crown
of olive branches for their exploits, modern Olympic champions are rewarded with medals and certificates.
The winning athlete now receives a gold medal, the athlete in the second place is awarded a Silver medal
and the third placed athlete wins a Bronze medal. In addition, all athletes ranking from first to sixth
receive a certificate. Each medal is 60 mm in diameter and 3 mm thick. The first and second place medals
are made of 92.5 per cent silver and the medal for the first winner is then plated with 6 gram of fine gold.
Thus this medal is not of full gold. The third place medal is of bronze.

344
VII.

Commonwealth Games: Ashley Cooper was the first person to propose the idea of having a PanBritannic sporting contest to foster a spirit of goodwill and understanding within the British Empire. In
1928, a key Canadian athlete, Bobby Robinson, was given the task of organizing the first ever
Commonwealth Games. These Games were held in 1930, in the city of Hamilton, Ontario, Canada and saw
the participation of 400 athletes from eleven countries.

S. No
1

Venue
Hamilton, Canada

Year

No of
Countries

1930

11

1934

16

1938

15

London,
United
Kingdom
Sydney, Australia

Auckland, New Zealand

1950

12

Vancouver, Canada

1954

24

Cardiff, United Kingdom

1958

35

Perth, Australia

1962

35

Jamaica, West Indies

1966

34

Edinburgh,
Kingdom

1970

42

1974

38

United

10

Christchurch,
Zealand

New

11

Edmonton, Canada

1978

48

12

Brisbane, Australia

1982

47

13

Edinburgh,
Kingdom

1986

26

14

Auckland, New Zealand

1990

55

15

Victoria, Canada

1994

64

16

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

1998

70

17

Manchchester,
Kingdom

2002

72

18

Melbourne, Australia

2006

71

19

New Delhi, India

2010

71

20

Glasgow, Scotland

2014

71

United

United

Since then, the Commonwealth Games have been held every four years, except for the period during the
Second World War. The Games have been known by various names such as the British Empire Games,
Friendly Games and British Commonwealth Games. Since 1978, they have been known as the
Commonwealth Games. Originally having only single competition sports, the 1998 Commonwealth Games
at Kuala Lumpur saw a major change when team sports such as cricket, hockey and netball made their
first appearance.
In 2001, the Games Movement adopted the three values of Humanity, Equality and Destiny as the core
values of the Commonwealth Games. These values inspire and connect thousands of people and signify
the broad mandate for holding the Games within the Commonwealth.

345
VIII. Asian Games: The Asian Games, officially known as Asiad, is a multi-sport event held every four years

among athletes from all over Asia.. The Games were regulated by the Asian Games Federation (AGF) from
the first Games in New Delhi, India, until the 1978 Games. Since the 1982 Games they have been
organized by the Olympic Council of Asia (OCA), after the breakup of the Asian Games Federation. The
Games are recognized by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and are described as the second
largest multi-sport event after the Olympic Games. In its history, nine nations have hosted the Asian
Games. 46 nations have participated in the Games, including Israel, which was excluded from the Games
after their last participation in 1974. The last Asian Games was held at Incheon, South Korea in 2014. The
next edition of the games will be held in Jakarta-Palembang in Indonesia in 2018.
Official logo of the games

IX.

FIFA World Cup

1.

History: The first international football match was played in 1872 between Scotland and England. At this
stage the sport was rarely played outside Great Britain and Ireland. As football started gaining popularity,
it was held as a demonstration sport (with no medals awarded) at the 1900 and 1904 Summer Olympics.
It became an official competition at the 1908 Summer Olympics. Planned by the Football Association, the
event was for amateur players only and was regarded suspiciously as a show rather than a competition.
The 1932 Summer Olympics, held in Los Angeles, did not plan to include football as part of the schedule
due to its low popularity of football in U.S. So football was dropped from the Games. FIFA President Jules
Rimet thus planned the inaugural World Cup tournament to be held in Uruguay in 1930. The national
associations of selected nations were invited to send a team, but the choice of Uruguay as a venue for the
competition meant a long and costly trip across the Atlantic Ocean for European sides. Indeed, no
European country pledged to send a team until two months before the start of the competition. Rimet
eventually persuaded teams from Belgium, France, Romania and Yugoslavia to make the trip. In total 10
nations took part- four from South Africa, four from Europe and two from North America.
The issues facing the early Worid Cup tournaments were the difficulties of intercontinental travel and war.

346
Few South American teams were willing to travel to Europe for the 1934 and 1938 tournaments, with
Brazil the only South American earn to compete in both. The 1942 and 1946 competitions were cancelled
due to World War II and its aftermath. The 1950 World Cup was the first to include British participants.
The tournament also saw the return of Uruguay, who had boycotted the previous two World Cups.
In the tournament between 1934 and 1978, 16 teams qualified for each finals tournament. The finals were
expanded to 24 teams in 1982, then 32 in 1998.
2.

Trophy: From 1930 to 1970, the trophy was awarded to the Cup winner. It was originally simply known
as the 'World Cup' or 'Coupe du Monde', but in 1946 it was renamed after the FIFA president who set up
the first tournament and thus called the 'Jules Rimet Trophy'. In 1970, Brazil's third victory in the
tournament entitled them to keep the trophy permanently. However the trophy was stolen in 1983 and
has never been recovered.
After 1970, a new trophy known as the FIFA World Cup Trophy was designed. This is not awarded to the
winning nation permanently. It will not be retired until the name plaque has been entirely filled with the
names of winning nations in 2038. The new trophy is 36 cm high, made of solid 18-carat gold and weighs
10.97 kilogrammes. The base contains two layers of semi-precious malachite while the bottom side of the
Trophy bears the engraved year and name of each FIFA World Cup winner since 1974. World Cup winners
retain it until the next tournament and are awarded a gold-plated replica rather than the solid gold
original.
The Golden Boot award is given to the top scorer of the tournament. Eusebio was the first player to be
awarded by the Golden Boot in 1966. The Golden Ball award started in 1982.

X.

World Cup Cricket:

History: The idea of organising a World Cup of cricket was mooted and agreed to in principle in 1971
when such a proposal was discussed at a meeting of the International Cricket Conference in London.
However, due to various commitments the tournaments could not be staged until 1975 when the original
plan of a South African team's visit to England fell through following opposition to the country's racial
policy. England's Prudential Assurance Company came forward with sponsorship and for three consecutive
years 1975, 1979 and 1983the one-day limited overs cricket tournament was held in England. It
became famous as the Prudential Cup.
In the first two tournaments, apart from the six full members of the International Cricket Conference
(England, Australia, West Indies, New Zealand, India and Pakistan), Sri Lanka, before being elevated to
Test status in 1981, had joined East Africa in 1975 and Canada in 1979 (two top teams among the
associate members) to complete the groups in the tournaments proper. The West Indies, under Clive
Lloyd, not only won the first two tournaments in 1975 and 1979 but in true Calypso style they produced
sparkling cricket and confirmed I heir unassailable supremacy in this game.

347
India broke the West Indian stranglehold in 1983 to open a new chapter in the brief annals of this
prestigious tournament. Apiirt from some sparkling individual performances, the competition witnessed
thrills and upsets. India with a poor total of 183 bowled themselves back into the game and became
memorable winners by 43 runs at the sensational final at Lord's. When India managed a total of 183 in
the final with useful contributions from Srikkanth (38), Amarnath (26) and Sandeep Patil (27), it seemed
an easy total for the West Indies to overcome, but they surprisingly folded up for 140 runs and India
pulled off one of the cricket's greatest upsets. Amarnath's performance earned him the coveted Man of the
Match award.

XI.

Lawn Tennis Grand Slam Tournaments:

The four Grand Slam tournaments are considered to be the most prestigious tennis tournaments in the
world. They are held annually and include, in chronological order, the Australian Open, the French Open,
Wimbledon, and the US Open. Apart from the Olympic Games, Davis Cup, Fed Cup, and Hopman Cup,
they are the only tournaments regulated by the International Tennis Federation (ITF).The ITF's national
associations, Tennis Australia (Australian Open), the Fdration Franaise de Tennis (French Open), the
Lawn Tennis Association (Wimbledon) and the United States Tennis Association (US Open) are delegated
the responsibility to organize these events.
Aside from the historical significance of these events, they also carry larger prize funds than any other
tour event and are worth double the number of ranking points to the champion than in the next echelon of
tournaments, the Masters 1000 (men) and Premier events (women). Another distinguishing feature is the
number of players in the singles draw. There are 128, more than any other professional tennis
tournament. This draw is composed of 32 seeded players, other players ranked in the world's top 100,
qualifiers, and players who receive invitations through wild cards. Grand Slam men's tournaments have
best-of-five set matches while the women play best-of-three. Grand Slam tournaments are among the
small number of events that last two weeks, the others being the Indian Wells Masters and the Miami
Masters. Currently, the Grand Slam tournaments are the only tour events that have mixed doubles
contests. Grand Slam tournaments are held in conjunction with wheelchair tennis tournaments and junior
tennis competitions. These tournaments also contain their own idiosyncrasies. For example, players at
Wimbledon are required to wear predominantly white. Andre Agassi chose to skip Wimbledon from 1988
through 1990 citing the event's traditionalism, particularly its "predominantly white" dress code.
Wimbledon has its own particular methods for disseminating tickets, often leading tennis fans to follow
complex procedures to obtain tickets.

Grand Slam Tournaments

Date

Tournament

Location

Surface

January

Australian Open

Melbourne

Hard (Plexicushion)

MayJune

French Open

Paris

JuneJuly

Wimbledon

AugustSeptember

US Open

Prize Money

First Held

A$26,000,000

1905

Clay

18,718,000

1925*

London

Grass

14,600,000

1877

New York City

Hard (DecoTurf)

US$21,016,000

1881

348

MISCELLANEOUS
A.

General Information

I.

Geographical epithets:
Bengals Sorrow

Damodar River

Blue Mountains

Nilgiri Hills

Britain of the South

New Zealand

City of Palaces

Kolkata

City of Skyscrapers

New York

City of Dreaming Spires

Oxford, England

City of Golden Gate

San Francisco

City of Seven Hills

Rome, Italy

City of Magnificent Distances

Washington D.C.

Cockpit of Europe

Belgium

Chinas Sorrow

Hawang Ho

Dakshin Ganga

Godavari

Dark Continent

Africa

Diamond Harbour

Calcutta

Emerald Island

Ireland

Empire City

New York

Eternal City

Rome, Italy

Forbidden City

Lhasa, Tibet

Gate of Tears

Bab-el-mandab, Jerusalem

Garden City of India

Bangalore

Gateway of India

Mumbai

Great White Way

Broadway, New York

Gift of Nile

Egypt

Holy Land

Palestine

Hermit Kingdom

Korea

Island Continent

Australia

Island of Pearls

Bahrain

Island of Cloves

Madagascar

Key to the Gibraltar

Mediterranean

Land of Kangaroo

Australia

Land of Golden Pagoda

Burma (Myanmar)

Land of Maple

Canada

Land of Thousand Lakes

Finland

Land of Morning Calm

Korea

Land of Midnight Sun

Norway

Land of Five Rivers

Punjab, India

Land of White Elephant

Thailand

Land of Thunderbolt

Bhutan

Never, Never Land

Prairies, N. Australia

349

II.

Pearl of Antilles

Cuba

Pillars of Hercules

Strait of Gibraltar

Pearl of the Pacific

Guyayaquil Port of Ecuador

Playground of Europe

Switzerland

Queen of the Arabian Sea

Cochin, India

Roof of the World

Pamirs, Central Asia

Rose-pink City

Jaipur

Sorrow of Bihar

Kosi

Sorrow of China

River Hwang Ho, China

Spice Garden of India

Kerala

Sick Man of Europe

Turkey

Sugar Bowl of the World

Cuba

The City of Nawabs

Lucknow

The Land of Kangaroo

Australia

Venice of the East

Cochin, India

Venice of the North

Stockholm, Sweden

White City

Belgrade, Yugoslavia

White Mans Grave

Guinea Coast

Worlds Loneliest Island

Tristan da Cunha

Worlds Bread Basket

Prairies of N. America

Countries & names of their parliaments:

Country

Parliament

Afghanistan

Shora

Andorra

General Council

Albania

People's Assembly

Azerbaijan

Melli Majlis

Algeria

National People's Assembly

Angola

National People's Assembly

Argentina

National Congress

Australia

Federal Parliament

Austria

National Assembly

Bahamas

General Assembly

Bahrain

Consultative Council

Bangladesh

Jatiya Sansad

Belize

National Assembly

Bhutan

Tsogdu

Bolivia

National Congress

Brazil

National Congress

Brunei

National Assembly

Botswana

National Assembly

Britain

Parliment (House of Common's and House of Lords)

Bulgaria

Narodno Subranie.

Cambodia

National Assembly

350
Congo Democratic

Rep. of National Legislative Council

Colombia

Congress

Canada

Parliament

China

National People's Assembly

Chile

Chamber of Deputies and Senate

Comoros

Legislative Council and Senate

Costa Rice

Legislative Council and Senate

Crotia

Sabor

Cuba

National Assembly of People's Power

Czech Republic

Chamber of Deputies and Senate

Denmark

Folketing

Ecuador

Natinal Congress

El Salvador

Legislative Assembly

East Timor

Constituent Assembly

Ethiopia

Federal Council and House of Representative

Egypt

People's Assembly

Fiji Islands

Senate & House of Representative

France

National Assembly

Finland

Eduskusta (Parliament)

Germany

Bundestag (Lower House) and Bundesrat (Upper House)

Guyana

National Assembly

Greece

Chamber of Deputies

Hungry

National Assembly

Iceland

Althing

India

Sansad

Indonesia

People's Consultative Assembly

Iran

Majlis

Iraq

National Assembly

Israel

Knesset

Italy

Chamber of Deputies and Senate

Japan

Diet

Jordan

National Assembly

Korea(North)

Supreme People's Assembly

Korea(South)

National Assembly

Kuwait

National Assembly

Laos

People's Supreme Assembly

Labanon

National Assembly

Lesotho

National Assembly and Senate

Lithuania

Seimas

Luxembourg

Chamber of Deputies

Libya

General People's Congress

Malaysia

Dewan Rakyat and Dewan Negara

Maldives

Majlis

Madagascar

National People's Assembly

Mongolia

Great People's Khural

351

III.

Montenegro

Federal Assembly

Mozambique

People's Assembly

Myanmar

Pyithu Hluttaw

Nepal

Rashtriya Panchayat

Netherlands

The Staten General

New Zealand

Parliament (House of Representative)

Oman

Monarchy

Pakistan

National Assembly & Senate

Paraguay

Senate & Chamber of Deputies

Philippines

The Congress

Papua New Guinea

National Parliament

Poland

Sejm

Romania

Great National Assembly

Russia

Duma & Federal Council

Serbia

Federal Assembly

Senegal

National Assembly

Seychelles

People's Assembly

South Africa Rep.

House of Assembly

Spain

Cortes

Sweden

Riksdag

Saudi Arabia

Majlis Al Shura

Sudan

Majlis Watani

Switzerland

Federal Assembly

Syria

People's Council

Turkey

Grand National Assembly

USA

Congress

Vietnam

National Assembly

Venezuela

National Congress

Zambia

National Assembly

Facts about the world's airports

The world's largest passenger movement airport is Heathrow Airport in London, U.K. The world's busiest
cargo airport is the Chep Lak Kok International Airport in Hong Kong.
The airport with the world's largest traffic movement, that is passenger and cargo movement combined, is
the Hartsfield - Jackson Airport in Atlanta, Georgia, U.S.A.
The World's Busiest Passenger Airports:
London Heathrow. (U.K) - 61,345,518 pax per annum
Paris Charles De Gaulle. (France) - 55,804,279 ppa.
Amsterdam Schipol. (Netherlands ) - 47,349,319 ppa.
Hong Kong International. ( China ) - 47,201,000 ppa.
Frankfurt International. (Germany ) - 46,707,577 ppa.
Dubai International. ( United Arab Emirates ) 36,592,307 ppa.
Singapore Changi. ( Singapore ) 36,288,050 ppa.
Tokyo International. ( Japan ) - 32,343,590 ppa.
London Gatwick. ( U.K ) 30,433,810 ppa.

352
Madrid Barajas. ( Spain ) - 30,135,120 ppa.
IV.

Monarchies of the World

The word monarch comes from the Latin word monarcha, which pertained to any single, absolute ruler,
although the term today has come to mean the sovereign of a nation who heads a traditional system of
hereditary rule by order of succession by virtue of bloodline and lineage within a royal house or dynasty.
The forty four monarchies around the world, also known as kingdoms, principalities, sultanates or
emirates, come under five categories, Absolute Monarchies, Commonwealth Realms, Constitutional
Monarchies, Elective Monarchies and Federal Monarchies. Below is a list of all the monarchies around the
world, listed under their appropriate category.

1.

Absolute Monarchies: An absolute monarchy has a head of state who rules as an autocrat with absolute
power over both state and government. There are eight absolute monarchies around the world, they are;
Brunei - Asia - Sultanate.
Liechtenstein - Europe - Principality.
Monaco - Europe - Principality.
Oman - Arabia - Emirate.
Qatar - Arabia - Emirate.
Saudi Arabia - Arabia - Kingdom
Swaziland - Africa - Kingdom.
Vatican City State - Europe - Ex Officio.

2.

Commonwealth Realms: The Commonwealth Realms are countries with a personal, union arrangement
with the United Kingdom, which has been in effect since the days of the British Empire. Their monarch is
Queen Elisabeth II, who has limited powers in these countires and is monarch in a ceremonial and or
traditional capacity only. There are fifteen Commonweath Realms around the world, they are;
Antigua & Barbuda - Caribbean
Australia - Oceania.
Bahamas - Caribbean.
Barbados - Caribbean.
Belize - Central America.
Canada - North America.
Grenada - Caribbean.
Jamaica - Caribbean.
New Zealand - Oceania.
Papua / New Guinea - Pacific.
Saint Kitts and Nevis - Caribbean.
Saint Lucia - Caribbean.
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines - Caribbean.
Solomon Islands - South Pacific.
Tuvalu - South Pacific.

3.

Constitutional Monarchies: A constitutional monarchy has a head of state who has limited political
power within the running of the country, due to their being subject to a constitution, and is therefore

353
monarch in a ceremonial and or traditional role only.There are twenty one constitutional monarchies
around the world, they are;
Andorra - Europe - Diarchy / Co - Principality.*
Bahrain - Arabia - Emirate.
Belgium - Europe - Kingdom.
Bhutan - Asia - Kingdom.
Cambodia - Asia - Kingdom.
Denmark - Europe - Kingdom.
Japan - Asia - Monarch known as Emperor or Imperial Majesty.
Jordan - Middle East - Kingdom.**
Kuwait - Arabia - Emirate.
Lesotho - Africa - Kingdom.
Luxembourg - Europe - Grand Duchy.
Malaysia - Asia - Monarch known as Supreme Head of State.
Morocco - North Africa - Kingdom.
Netherlands - Europe - Kingdom.
Norway - Europe - Kingdom.
Spain - Europe - Kingdom.
Sweden - Europe - Kingdom.
Thailand - Asia - Kingdom.
Tonga - South Pacific - Kingdom.
United Arab Emirates - Arabia - Monarch known as President.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland - Europe - Kingdom.
4.

Elective Monarchies: An elective monarchy has a head of state who has been elected or appointed,
for a defined period of time, by a particular ruling or governing body of a country. There are four elective
monarchies around the world, they are;
Andorra - Europe
Malaysia - Asia.
Vatican City State - Europe.
United Arab Emirates - Arabia.

5.

Federal Monarchies: A federal monarchy has a head of state who presides over a federation or group of
smaller or lesser monarchies.There are two federal monarchies around the world, they are ;
Malaysia - Asia.
United Arab Emirates - Arabia.
Note:
- Andorra is the only country in the world which has two diarchs who act as the country's monarch.
Known as the co - princes, they are traditionally the President of France and the Bishop of Urgell in Spain,
making Andorra the only country in the world to have their monarch elected by the democratic vote of
another country, or countries in Andorra's case.
- Jordan uses a form of elective monarchy, as the future monarch is always chosen by the current
monarch, who is generally a member of the Jordanian Royal Family.

354
- The monarch or ex officio of the Vatican City State, is The Pope, who is the elected head of state of both
the Roman Catholic Church and the Vatican City State, who after election, will remain absolute monarch
until death.
6.

The seven wonders of the ancient World:

Colossus of Rhodes - Island of Rhodes, Greece.
Great Pyramid at Giza - Giza, Egypt - The only structure on the list that still remains to this day.
Hanging Gardens of Babylon - Ancient Mesopotamia - Modern day Al Hillah, Iraq.
Lighthouse at Alexandria - Alexandria, Egypt.
Mausoleum of Halicarnassus - Caria, Ancient Greece - Modern day Bodrum, Turkey.
Statue of Zeus at Olympia - Elis,Greece.
Temple of Artemis at Ephesus - Ancient Greece - Modern day Selcuk, Turkey

V.

The world's most widely spoken languages

The world's 6,692,030,277, population speaks around 6,500 languages between them. A dialect is
defined as a variety of another largely spoken language, or by a speech pattern that alters a largely
spoken language.
An accent is defined as a manner of pronounciation defined by area or geographical location, or by
speech of a language which is not natural to the speaker.
A language is classified by having at least 1,000 natural speakers, although there are many languages
worldwide that have less than this number.

1.

The world's ten most widely spoken languages:

Chinese ( Mandarin ) - 836,132,000.
Spanish - 332,000,000.
English ( As a first language ) 322,000,000.
Bengali - 189,000,000.
Hindi - 182,000,000.
Arabic -174,950,000.
Portugese - 170,000,000.
Russian - 170,000,000.
Japanese - 125,000,000.
German - 98,000,000.

2.

Countries with the highest number of national languages: Below is a list of the countries that have
the most nationally recognised languages in the world.
Papua New Guinea - 820 recognised languages - Official language English.
Indonesia - 742 recognised languages - Official language Indonesian
Nigeria - 516 recognised languages - Official language English.
India - 427 recognised languages - Official languages English and Hindi.
China - 241 recognised languages - Official language Mandarin.
Brazil - 200 recognised languages - Official language Portugese.
PHILIPPINES - 175 recognised languages - Official languages Filipino and English.

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VI.

The World's Religions

1.

Major Religions: There are twelve classic religions in the world. Below are listed the names of these
twelve religions, followed by the name of the religion's prophet - denominations within the religion - the
name of the religion's Holy Book or Scriptures - followed by the religion's type of house of worship.
(i) BAHA'I. - Baha'u'llah - No denominations - BAB - Temple.
(ii)BUDDHISM. - Gautama Buddha - Mahayana. Prajna Tantric. Theravada. Vajrayana. Zen
SCRIPTURES OF BUDDHA Temple
(iii)CHRISTIANITY. - Jesus Christ - Catholicism. Orthodoxy. Protestantism - BIBLE - Church / chapel.
(iv)CONFUCIANISM. - Confucius - No denominations - SCRIPTURES OF CONFUCIUS
(v)HINDUISM. - No prophet. - Shavism. Shaktism. Smartism. Vaishnavism - VEDAS

- Temple.

- Temple.

(vi)ISLAM. - Mohammed - Ibadi. Shi'a. Sufi. Sunni. Wahabi - QUR'AN - Mosque.

(vii)JAINISM. - 24 Tirthankaras. - Digambar. Svetambar. - KALPASUTRA - Temple.
(viii)JUDAISM. - Abraham - Hasidic. Haskalah. Sephardic. Orthodox - TANAKH - Synogogue.
(ix)SHINTO. - No prophet. - No denominations. KOJIKI

- Shrine.

(x)SIKIHISM.- First Sikh Guru, Nanak Dev. - Namdhari. Udasi - ADI GRANTH - Gurudwara.
(xi)TAOISM. - No prophet. - No denominations. - TAO TE CHING - Temple.
(xii)ZOROASTRIANISM. - Zoroaster - No denominations. - AVESTA - Atash Behram.
2.

State Religions : Twenty eight countries around the world have an official, state religion, that is a
religion endorsed by the state, although most of them are tolerant of other religious groups within the
country.
BUDDHISM - THEREVEDA - Cambodia, Sri Lanka, Thailand.
BUDDHISM - VAJRAYANA - Bhutan.
CHRISTIAN - CATHOLiCISM - Liechtenstein, Malta, Monaco.
CHRISTIAN - ANGLICAN PROTESTANTISM - The Church of England.
CHRISTIAN - LUTHERAN PROTESTANTISM - The Church of Denmark, The Church of Iceland.
EASTERN ORTHODOXY - Greece, Finland.
ISLAM - SUNNI - Algeria, Bangladesh, Brunei, Comoros, Egypt, Jordan, Libya, Maldives, Mauritius,
Malaysia, Morocco, Pakistan, Qatar, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates.
JUDAISM - Israel.

3.

Theocratic Countries: Eleven countries around the world are theocracies, that is a country whose official
government policies are governed by divine guidance, pursuant to the doctrine of a particular religion. In
these countries, God is considered as the country's head of state.
BUDDHISM - MAHAYANA - Tibet.
CHRISTIAN - CATHOLOCISM - Vatican State.
ISLAM - IBADI - Oman
ISLAM - NON DENOMINATIONAL - Iraq.
ISLAM - SHI'A - Iran.
ISLAM - SUNNI - Afghanistan, Mauritania, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Yemen.

4.

Secular Countries: There are fifty three countries around the world which consider themselves secular,
that is they do not have a state religion, although the country could well have a particular, predominant
religion.

356
Albania, Australia, Azerbaijan, Brazil, Bolivia, Canada, Chile, Cuba, Cyprus, China, East Timor, Ecuador,
Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, India, Ireland, Italy, Jamaica, Japan, Kosovo, Laos, Latvia,
Lebanon, Macedonia, Mexico, Montenegro, Nepal, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nigeria, North Korea,
Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russian Federation, Serbia, Slovenia, Singapore, South Africa,
South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Syria, Trinidad & Tobago, Turkey, United States, Uruguay, Venezuela,
Vietnam.
5.

Non Religious Countries: Fifteen per cent of the world's population - 1.1 billion people - proclaim to be
non religious.The world's top five countries which between them make up the highest number of people
in the world who are non believers are CHINA - with 82% of it's population.
JAPAN - with 71 % of it's population.
VIETNAM - with 44% of it's population
RUSSIAN FEDERATION - with 59% of it's population.
GERMANY - with 62% of it's population.
The world's top five countries with the highest percentage of their population who are non believers are SWEDEN - with 88% of the population.
DENMARK - with 83% of the population.
CHINA - with 82% of the population.
ESTONIA - with 78% of it's population.
NORWAY - with 78% of it's population.

VII.

World Dimensions:
1. World Extremes:
Lowest point: Challenger Deep at 10,911 metres below sea level situated on the Mariana Trench in
the Pacific Ocean.
Lowest point on land: Shores of the Dead Sea at 418 metres below sea level, situated on the Israel
/ Jordan border.
Highest point: Summit of Mount Everest at 8,848 metres above sea level, situated on the Nepal /
Tibet border.
Most easterly and westerly points according to the International Date Line:
Most westerly, Attu Island, Alaska.
Most easterly, Caroline Island, Kiribati, Pacific Ocean.
Most northerly point:
North Pole, Arctic.
Most southerly point:
South Pole, Antartica.

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VIII.

The world's largest eco - systems and terrains:

1.

The world's top ten highest mountains:

2.

3.

4.

Mount Everest.- Asia.- 8,646 metres.

K2. - Asia.- 8,611 metres.

Kangchenjunga. - Asia. - 8,598 metres.

Aconcagua. - South America. - 6,960 metres.

Ojos del Salado. - South America. - 6,908 metres.

Chimborazo. - South America. - 6,310 metres.

Mount McKinley. - North America. - 6,194.

Kilimanjaro. - Africa. - 5,895.

Elbrus. - Asia. - 5,642.

Kirinyaga. - Africa. - 5,199 metres.

The world's top ten largest deserts:

Sahara. - Africa. - 3,320,000. sq km.

Arabian. - Asia. - 900,00. sq km.

Kalahari. - Africa. - 360,000.

Great Victoria. - Australia. - 250,000. sq km.

Syrian. - Asia. - 200,000.

Chihuahuan. - South America. - 175,000. sq km.

Great Sandy. - Australia. - 150,000.sq km.

Soworan. - Central America. - 120,000. sq km.

Thar. - Asia. - 77,000. sq km.

Gibson. - Australia. - 60,000. sq km.

The world's top ten largest lakes:

Caspian Sea- 371,000 sq km. Asia.

Lake Superior- 83,270 sq km. North America.

Lake Victoria- 68,800 sq km. Africa.

Lake Huron- 60,700sq km. North America.

Lake Michigan- 58,020. North America.

Aral Sea- 33,640. sq km. Asia.

Lake Tanganyika- 32,900 sqkm. Africa.

Great Bear Lake- 31,790 sq km. North America.

Lake Baikal- 30,500sq km. Asia.

Great Slave Lake- 28,440 sq km. North America.

The world's top ten longest rivers:

Nile. 6,695 km.- Africa.

Amazon. 6,516 km.- South America.

Yangste. 6,380 km.- Asia.

Mississippi / Misouri. 6,020 km.-North America.

Ob- Irtysh. 5,570 km. Asia.

Huang He. 5,464 km. Asia.

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5.

Congo. 4,667 km. -Africa.

Mekong. 4,425 km.- Asia.

Amur. 4,416 km. - Asia.

Lena. 4,400 km.-Asia.

Waterfalls:
The world's tallest waterfall is the Angel Falls in Venezuela at 979 metres tall.
The world's widest waterfall is the Victoria Falls on the Zimbabwe / Zambia border at 1609.344 metres
wide.
Find out how many types of waterfalls there are around the world

6.

Mountains And Mountain Ranges: The longest

mountain range on earth is the Oceanic Ridge

System, situated on the sea floor of all of the world's five oceans, which in total measures 80.000
kilometres long, with it's longest, continuous ridge measuring over 65,000 kilometres long.
The world's longest mountain range is the Andes situated on the continent of South America which is
7,242 kilometres long.
The world's highest mountain range is the Himalayas, with it's highest peak on Mount Everest, at 8,646
metre high, situated in Nepal.
The world's largest volcano is Mauna Lao in Hawaii, at 4,169 metres above sea level, with that distance
again also situated below sea level.
The world's tallest above ground volcano is Ojos de Salada in Chile, at 6,893 metres high.
IX.

Highest, Biggest, Longest, Largest, Deepest etc.

Airliner, Largest: Boeing 747
Animal, Tallest: Giraffe
Animal, Fastest: The Peregerine Falcon
Archipelago, Largest: Indonesia
Bird, Fastest: Swift
Bird, Largest: Ostrich
Bird, Smallest: Humming Bird
Bridge, Longest Railway: Huey P. Long Bridge (U.S.A.)
Building, Tallest in Asia: The Connaught Centre in Hong Kong (195 metres tall; has 46 floors)
Building, Highest in the world: Sears Tower in Chicago (440-metre high. It is a 110-storey tower which
is nearly 60 metres taller than the Empire State building in New York)
Canal, Longest, small ship: Beloye (White Sea) Baltic Canal (CIS) 226 km long
Canal, Longest, big ship: Suez Canal (U.A.R.) (161 km)
Canalised System, Longest: Volga-Baltic Canal (2960 km)
Capital, Highest: Lhasa (Before domination of Tibet by China) 3684 metres above sea-level
City, Highest: Wenchuan (China) 5,100 metres above sea-level La Paz (capital of Bolivia) stands at an
altitude of 3632 metres above sea-level
City, Largest in population: Shanghai followed by:

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Conference Hall, Worlds Highest: At Nathu-La Pass on Indo-China border in Sikkim
Continent, Largest: Asia
Continent, Smallest: Australia
Coral Formation, Largest: The Great Barrier Reef (North-east coast of Australia)
Country, Largest in Population: China followed by India
Country, Largest (in area): Russia
Country (with largest electorate): India.
Creature, Largest: Blue Whale is the largest creature in the world today. It can grow up to a weight of
150 tonnes.
Dam, Highest: The Grande (Switzerland)
Day, Longest: June 21 (in Northern Hemisphere)
Day, Shortest: Dec 22 (in Northern Hemisphere)
Delta, Largest: The worlds largest delta is that created by the Ganges and Brahmaputra in Bangladesh
and West Bengal, India.
Desert, Largest (in the world): Sahara (Africa)
Desert, Largest (in Asia): Gobi (Mongolia)
Diamond, Largest: The Cullinan (over 1 lb.)
Dome, Largest: Astrodome in Housten, Texas (U.S.A.); outside dia:
Employer, Largest of India: Indian Railways
Epic, Longest: Mahabharata
Forest, Largest: Coniferous forest of Northern Russia
Gulf, Largest: Gulf of Mexico
Highest Motorable Road: Khardungla-Leh-Manali sector 5682 Mt
Highest Non-military Airport: Leh 3256 Mt
Island, Largest: Greenland
Islands, Largest (Group of): Malaya Archipelago
Lake, Largest Artificial: Lake Mead (Boulder Dam)
Lake, Deepest: Baikal (Siberia); average depth 701 metres
Lake, Highest: Titicaca (Bolivia) 3854 metres above sea level
Lake, Largest Fresh Water: Superior (50,200 sq km)
Lake, Largest Salt Water: Caspian Sea (26 metres below sea-level)
Largest Crater of India: The Lonar in Vidharba region of Maharashtra
Largest Inland Waterway of India: Kerala
Largest Barrage of India: Farakka 224 mt
Largest Stadium of India: Salt Lake Stadium Kolkata, 1,20,00 capacity
Largest Tribe of India: Gond
Largest Library of India: National Library Kolkata
Largest Exhibition Ground of India: Pragati Maidan, New Delhi 150 Acres
Largest Ocean Island of India: Middle Andaman
Largest River Basin of India: Ganga Basin
Largest Estuary: at the mouth of the river Hooghly
Library, Largest: United States Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (more than 59,000,000 items).
Longest Ropeway in India: connecting Joshimath in Uttranchal 4.15 km long
Longest Train in India: Prayag Express running between Delhi and Allahabad (24 bogies)
Longest Road Tunnel in India: ChiplinKoya Nagar, Maharashtra 1 km long
Longest National Highway of India: NH-7, 2369 km

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Longest Cave of India: Krem um Kwan Jaintia Hills, Meghalaya
Mountain Peak, Highest in the world: Everest (Nepal)
Mountain Peak, Highest in India: Godwin Austen (8,611 m)
Mountain Peak, Highest in Africa: Kilimanjaro (5,888 m)
Mountain Peak, Highest in Europe: Elbruz (5,633 m )
Mountain Range, Highest: Himalayas
Mountain Range, Longest: Andes (S. America), 8,800 km in length
Museum, Largest: American Museum of Natural History, New York city. It comprises 19 inter-connected
buildings with 23 acres of floor space.
Nuclear Reactor, Biggest: France
Ocean, Deepest and Biggest: The Pacific
Palace, Biggest: Vatican
Park, Largest: Wood Buffalo National Park in Alberta Canada. Area :
Peninsula, Largest: Arabia
Pilot, Youngest of India: Capt Nivedita Bhasin, at age 26 in 1990 became youngest pilot to command a
jet aircraft
Place, Coldest: Verkhoyansk (Russia); Temperature 85 below zero
Place, Dryest: Death Valley (California); rainfall 1.5 inch
Place, Hottest: Azizia (Libya, Africa 58C (136F)
Place, Rainiest: Cheerapunji (Meghalaya, India)
Planet, Biggest: Jupiter
Planet, Brightest: Venus
Planet, Farthest (from the sun): Pluto
Planet, Nearest (to the sun): Mercury
Planet, Smallest: Mercury
Planetarium, biggest: Tsukuba, Japan
Plateau, Highest: Pamir (Tibet)
Platform, Longest: Kharagpur platform in West Bengal (India)
Railway, Longest: Trans-Siberian Railway (9,600 km long)
Railway Station, Largest: Grand Central Terminal, New York City, covers 48 acres. On an average more
than 550 trains and 180,000 people per day use it.
River, Longest: Nile (6,679 km)
Sea-bird, Largest: Albatross
Sea, Largest: South China Sea
Star, Brightest: Sirius (also called Dog Star)
Statue, Tallest : Motherland an enormous female figure on Mamayev Hill, outside Volgagrad (Russia).
Swimming Course, Longest recognised: English Channel
Tallest TV Tower of India: Rameshwaram, T.N. 1000 feet
Telescope, Largest Radio: The worlds largest and most sensitive radio telescope, Y-shaped with each
arm 21 km long with 27 mobile antennae on rails, built in New Mexico (USA).
Telescope, Largest Solar: Kit Peak National Observatory, Arizona USA
Telescope, Largest Reflector: Mount Semirodriki, in the Caucasus (CIS)
Telescope, Largest Refractor: Yerkes Observatory, Wisconsin (USA)
Tunnel, Longest Railway: Secken Tunnel (Japan)
Tunnel, Longest Road: St Gothard tunnel in Switzerland (16.32 km)
Village, Highest: Andean (Chile) 5334 metres above sea-level

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Volcano, Highest: Cotopaxi (Andes, Ecuador)
Volcano, Largest: Mauna Lea (Hawaii); crater
Wall, Longest: Great Wall of China (2400 km)
Water Falls, Greatest in the world: Victoria Falls on river Zambesi (Zambia) 1700 metres wide
Waterfall, Highest: Angel (Venezuela)
Water, Lowest body of: Dead Sea

X.

Tribes and Races:

Afridis: A war-like race of hill men on the north-west frontier of Pakistan (tribal area of Waziristan).
Bedouins: Nomadic tribe of Arabia, spread over the whole of Northern Africa and Western Asia.
Bhils: a primitive Dravidian race inhabiting Central India.
Boer: a name applied to South Africans of Dutch or Huguenot descent, especially to early settlers of
Transvaal and the Orange Free State and their descendants.
Bushmen: They live in the Kalahari desert. They are probably the descendants of the earliest inhabitants
of Africa. They rank among the most uncivilized and backward peoples in the world. Their food consists
almost entirely of meat, often raw or decomposed, and in times of scarcity they will eat insects, snakes
etc.
Cossacks: Peasants of the south-eastern border land of Poland, or Ukraina are known as Cossacks. Many
of them belong to Turkic people while many others are of a mix descent.
Eskimos: Race living in the Arctic regions: Greenland, Alaska, Labradors and the extreme north-east
corner of Siberia.
Karbis: are natives of Assam.
Khasis: are a tribe inhabiting the Khasi and Jaintia hills in the north-eastern hilly tracts in Meghalaya
State of India. The Khasis have their own distinctive language and culture.
Kikuyu: are a race of Bantu negroes who live in the north of Mount Kenya. They combine agriculture with
pastoralism.
Kirghiz: of Central Asia are an example of people adopted to a grassland environment. They are pastoral
nomads who move from pasture to pasture with the flocks and herds of horses, camels, oxen, sheep and
goats. Meat forms only a small portion of their food. The Kirghiz are fearless horsemen, and even their
children are expert riders.
Kiwis: inhabit New Zealand.
Lambadies: are concentrated in Karnataka State of India.
Lepchas: are aborigins of Sikkim and Darjeeling. They are one of the Scheduled Tribes of the Hills,
recognised by the Government of India.
Magyars: the Hungarian race who came to Eastern Europe from south-west Asia and settled in Hungary
in the 10th century.
Mahsud: Hill-tribe living in north-west of Pakistan.
Maoris: are the original inhabitants of New Zealand. The Maoris are tall, muscular, handsome people,
with brown skin and black hair. They are greatly skilled in stone and wood-carving.
Masai: of the east African Plateau are the example of pastoral people. They are tall, strong, warlike race,
partly negroid in type. They treat their cattle with great respect and affection and do not kill them for food
or for sale as meat.
Moplas: A Muslim tribe of Malabar (Kerala, India).
Mayas: A large group of American Indians living in the highlands of Gauatemala.
Munda: They are mostly located in the State of Madhya Pradesh in India.

362
Nagas: Hill tribe of Nagaland (India).
Negritos: are the ancient tribes of Andamans.
Negro: A race of men distinguished by dark skin, fuzzy hair, broad and protruding lips, living in southwest and Central Africa.
Red Indians: Race living in U.S.A. between the rocky Mountains and the Missouri River. They are original
inhabitants of America.
Santhals: Aboriginal natives of Orissa and Chhotanagpur.
Semangs: are tribal people living in Malaysia.
Todas: They are aboriginal tribe of the Nilgiris (India).
Zulus: are a race of negroid people in Natal (South Africa), having close ethnic, linguistic and cultural ties
with the Swazis and the Bantus.
XI.

First in the World:

1.

Chairman of Peoples Republic of China

Mao-Tse-Tung

2.

President of the Chinese Republic

Dr. Sun Yat Sen

3.

President of U.S.A

George Washington

4.

Chinese Traveller to India

Fahein

5.

Foreign Invader to India

Alexander the Great

6.

Person to reach South Pole

Amundsen

7.

Person to reach North Pole

Robert Pearey

8.

Person in Space

Yuri Gagarin

9.

Person on Moon

Neil Armstrong

10.

Lady to climb Mount Everest

Junko Taibei

11.

European to visit China

Marco Polo

12.

Place where atom bomb was dropped

Hiroshima

13.

Man to walk in Space

Alexei Leonov

14.

Woman cosmonaut in Space

Valentina Tereshkova

15.

Woman Prime Minister of a country

Mrs. Srimavo Bhandarnaike

16.

Woman President of a country

Maria Estela Peron

17.

Woman to Command a Space Mission

Colonel Eileen Collins (U.S.A.)

18.

The first residents of International Space station

Bill Shepherd (USA),

Yuri Gidzanko
and Sergei Krikalev (Russia)

19.
20.

The first blind man to scale Mt. Everest

The first Muslim woman to become the Secretary

Erik Weihenmayer (USA, May 25, 2001)

lrine Zubeida Khan

General of Amnesty International

21.

The first space astronaut to go into space seven

Jerry Ross (U.S.A.)

times till date

22.

The first South African to become the second

Mark Shuttleworth

space tourist
23.

The first woman Prime Minister of South Korea

Ms. Chang Sang

24.

The first youngest grandmaster of the world in

Sergey Karjakin (Ukraine)

chess
25.

The first adventurer flying successfully across the

Felix Baumgartner (July 2003)

363
English Channel without aircraft
26.

China's first man in space

Yang Liwei

27.

The first Muslim woman to receive Nobel Prize

Shirin Ebadi (Nobel Peace Prize 2003)

28.

The woman with the highest individual Test score

Kiran Baloch (Pakistani cricketer,

making a new world record

scoring 242 runs playing women's

cricket test against West Indies in Karachi in
March, 2004)

29.

The first woman of the world to climb Mt. Everest

Lakpa Sherpa (Nepali)

four times
30.

The first woman to cross seven important seas of

Bula Chaudhury (India)

the world by swimming

31.

Steve Fossett (March 2005)

The first aircraft pilot to round the entire world

non-stop by his 2 engine aircraft in 67 hours

32.

The first woman to be appointed as a Governor of

Habiba Sorabhi

a province in Afghanistan
33.

The first woman of the world to swim across five

Bula Chaudhury (India) (April 2005)

continents
34.
35.

The first woman athlete to touch 5.0 meter mark

Ms. Yelena Isinbayeva

in pole vault

(Russian, July 2005)

The first Hindu Chief Justice of Pakistani Supreme

Justice Rana Bhagwan Das

Court

Took over on Sept. 2, 2005 as

Acting Chief Justice

36.
37.
38.

The first duly elected woman President of an

Allen Johnson Sirleaf (elected

African country

President of Liberia in Nov. 2005)

The first woman Governor of the State Bank of

Shanshad Akhtar

Pakistan

(Appointed in Dec. 2005)

The first woman Chancellor of Germany

Angela Merkel
(Took over in Nov. 2005)

39.

The first woman President of Chile

Dr. Michelle Bachelet

40.

The first woman Prime Minister of Jamaica

Portia Simpson Miller (Feb. 2006)

41.

The first woman foreign Secretary of England

Margaret Backett (May 2006)

42.

The first double amputee to scale Mt. Everest

Mark Inglis (May 15, 2006)

XII.

Other Information:

1.

Crops and Major producing countries:

Crops
Rice

Major Producing country

China, India, Bangladesh, Indonesia

Wheat

USA, Russia, Ukraine, Canada, Argentina, Australia

Coarse

Russia, Brazil,

Grains

Central Africa

Sugarcane
Cotton
Tea

Cuba, India & Nigeria

USA, Russia, Egypt, India, China
India, China & Sri Lanka

364
Coffee

Brazil, Columbia, Nigeria

Sugarbeet

Russia

Barley

Russia

Corn
2.

3.

USA, Russia

Major Industries:

Name of the Industry

Major Producing Country

Iron & Steel

USA, Germany, Russia

Cotton textile

USA, Japan, Russia

Rubber

Malaysia, Indonesia & Thailand

Synthetic Rubber

USA, Germany, Japan

Woolen textile

Australia, Russia

Silk textile

China, Japan

Microelectronic

Japan, USA

Ship Manufacturing

USA, Japan

Automobile

USA, Japan

Pulp & Paper

Canada & USA

Newsprint Paper

USA & Canada

Petroleum Products

USA, Germany & Japan

Important Days:
January 9

NRI Day

January 10

World Laughter Day

January 12

National Youth Day

January 15

Army Day

January 26

India's Republic Day, International Customs Day

January 30

Martyrs' Day; World Leprosy Eradication Day

2nd Sunday of February

World Marriage Day

February 24

Central Excise Day

February 28

National Science Day

Second Monday March

Commonwealth Day

March 8

International Women's Day; Intl. literacy Day

March 15

World Disabled Day; World Consumer Rights Day

March 18

Ordnance Factories Day (India)

March 21

World Forestry Day; International Day for the Elimination of Racial

Discrimination

March 22

World Day for Water

March 23

World Meteorological Day

March 24

World TB Day

April 5

International Day for Mine Awareness; National Maritime Day

April 7

World Health Day

April 17

World Haemophilia Day

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April 18

World Heritage Day

April 21

Secretaries' Day

April 22

Earth Day

April 23

World Book and Copyright Day

May 1

Workers' Day (International Labour Day)

May 3

Press Freedom Day; World Asthma Day

May 2nd Sunday

Mother's Day

May 4

Coal Miners' Day

May 8

World Red Cross Day

May 9

World Thalassaemia Day

May 11

National Technology Day

May 12

World Hypertension Day; International Nurses Day

May 15

International Day of the Family

May 17

World Telecommunication Day

May 24

Commonwealth Day

May 31

Anti-tobacco Day

June 4

International Day of Innocent Children Victims of Aggression

June 5

World Environment Day

June 3rd Sunday

Father's Day

June 14

World Blood Donor Day

June 21

International Yoga Day

June 26

International Day against Drug Abuse and Illicit Trafficking

July 1

Doctor's Day

July 6

World Zoonoses Day

July 11

World Population Day

August 3

Internatioal Friendship Day

August 6

Hiroshima Day

August 8

World Senior Citizen's Day

August 9

Quit India Day, Nagasaki Day

August 15

Indian Independence Day

August 18

IntI. Day of the World's Indigenous Peoples

August 19

Photography Day

August 29

National Sports Day

September 2

Coconut Day

September 5

Teachers' Day; Sanskrit Day

September 8

World Literacy Day (UNESCO)

September 15

Engineers' Day

September 16

World Ozone Day

September 21

Alzheimer's Day; Day for Peace & Non-violence (UN)

September 22

Rose Day (Welfare of cancer patients)

September 26

Day of the Deaf

September 27

World Tourism Day

October 1

International Day for the Elderly

October 2

Gandhi Jayanthi

October 3

World Habitat Day

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4.

October 4

World Animal Welfare Day

October 8

Indian Air Force Day

October 9

World Post Office Day

October 10

National Post Day

October 2nd Thursday

World Sight Day

October 13

UN International Day for Natural Disaster Reduction

October 14

World Standards Day

October 15

World White Cane Day (guiding the blind)

October 16

World Food Day

October 24

UN Day; World Development Information Day

October 30

World Thrift Day

November 9

Legal Services Day

November 14

Children's Day; Diabetes Day

November 17

National Epilepsy Day

November 20

Africa Industrialisation Day

November 29

International Day of Solidarity with Palestinian People

December 1

World AIDS Day

December 3

World Day of the Handicapped

December 4

Indian Navy Day

December 7

Indian Armed Forces Flag Day

December 10

Human Rights Day; IntI. Children's Day of Broadcasting

December 18

Minorities Rights Day (India)

December 23

Kisan Divas (Farmer's Day) (India)

Major Countries- Capitals- Rivers

Below is a list of capital cities, found in country alphabetical order, with their respective areas of
freshwater supply, be it by means of a river, lake, oasis or canal system.
The river which flows through the most capital cities in the world is Europe's River Danube, which runs
through the four capital cities of :Belgrade - capital of Serbia
Bratislava - capital of Slovakia
Budapest - capital of Hungary
Vienna - capital of Austria.

A
Afghanistan. - Kabul. - River Kabul.
Albania. - Tirana. - The Rivers Ishem, Tirane and Lane, although the River Lane is no more than a brook
today.
Andorra - Andorra La Vella - Gran Valira.
Argentina. - Buenos Aries. - River Plate.
Armenia - Yerevan - Hrazdan River.
Australia. - Canberra. - River Molonglo.
Austria. - Vienna. - River Danube.
Autonomous Region of Tibet - Lhasa - Kyi River.

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B
Barbados - Bridgetown - River Careenage .
Bangladesh. - Dhaka. - River Buriganga.
Belize - Belmopan - Belize River.
Belgium. - Brussels. - River Zenne.
Bhutan. - Thimpu. - River Wong Chhu.
Bolivia. - La Paz. - River Choqueapu.
Bosnia and Herzogovenia - Sarajevo - River Miljacka.
Botswana - Gaborone - Notowahe River.
Brunei - Bandar Seri Begawan - Brunei River.
Bulgaria. - Sofia. - The Rivers Vladaiska and Perlovska.
Burundi - Bujumbura - Lake Tanganyika.

C
Cambodia. - Phnom. Penh. - Rivers Bassac and Mekong and Lake Tonle Sap.
Canada. - Ottawa. - River Ottawa.
Chad. - N'djamena. - River Chari.
China. - Beijing. - Yellow River.
Chile - Santiago. - River Mapocho
Colombia. - Bogota. - River Bogota.
Congo. - Brazzaville. - River Congo.
Croatia - Zagreb - River Sava.
Cuba - Havana - River Almendares.
Cyprus. - Nicosia. - River Pedieos.
Czech Republic. - Prague. - River Vltava.

D
Democratic Republic of Congo. - Kinshasa. - River Congo.
Dominica. - Roseau. - River Roseau.
Dominican Republic. - Santa Domingo. - River Ozama.

E
Ethiopia. - Addis Ababa. - River Chankelia.
Ecuador. - Quito. - River Guayllabamba.
England - London - River Thames.
Egypt. - Cairo. - River Nile.
Estonia. - Tallinn. - River Pirita.

F
Finland. - Helsinki. - River Vantaa.
France. - Paris. - River Seine.
French Guyana. - Cayenne. - River Cayenne.

G
Gabon. - Libreville. - River Komo.
Gambia. - Banjul. - River Gambia.
Georgia - Tblisi - River Kura.
Germany. - Berlin. - River Spree. and River Havel.
Ghana. - Accra. - River Odaw.

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Greece. - Athens. - River Kifissos.
Greenland. - Nuuk. - Nuup Kangerlua Fjord.
Guinea Bissau - Bissau - River Geba.
Guyana - Georgetown - River Demerara.

H
Honduras. - Tegucigalpa. - River Choluteca.
Hungary. - Budapest. - River Danube.

I
Iceland. - Reykjavik. - River Ellioaa.
India. - Delhi. - River Yamuna.
Indonesia. - Jakarta. - River Ciliwung.
Iran. - Tehran. - River Hableh Rood.
Iraq. - Baghdad. - River Tigris.
Isle of Man - Douglas - Built upon the confluence of the Rivers Dhoo and Glass.
Italy. - Rome. - River Tiber.

J
Japan. - Tokyo. - River Sumida.

K
Kazakstan. - Astana. - River Ishim.
Kenya. - Nairobi. - River Nairobi.
Kyrgyzstan. - Bishtek. - River Chu.

L
Laos. - Vientiane. - River Mekong.
Latvia. - Riga. - River Daugava.
Leichtenstein - Vaduz - River Rhine.
Lesotho. - Maseru. - River Mohokare.
Liberia - Monrovia - Built upon the confluence of the Rivers Mesurado and Saint Paul.
Libya. - Tripoli. - River Abu Ali.
Lithuania - Vilnius - Built upon the confluence of the Rivers Neris and Vilnia.
Luxembourg - Luxembourg City - Built upon the confluence of the Rivers Alzette and Pretusse.

M
Macedonia. - Skopje. - River Vardar.
Madagascar. - Antanarivo. - River Ikoro.
Malawi - Lilongwe - River Lilongwe.
Malaysia. - Kuala Lumpur. - River Klamp.
Mali - Bamako - River Niger.
Malta - Valletta - The city grew up around it's Grand Harbour which is fed by the Marsa Creek.
Mauritius. - Port Louis. - Black River.
Mexico. - Mexico City. - River Coatzacoalcos.
Mongolia. - Ulan Bator. - River Tuul.
Moldova - Chisinau - River Bic.
Morocco. - Rabat. - River Bou Regreg.
Myanmar. - Mandalay. - Irriwady River.

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N
Nepal. - Kathmandu. - River Bagmati.
Netherlands. - Amsterdam. - River Amstel.
New Zealand. - Wellington. - River Hutt.
Nicaragua. - Managua. - River San Juan.
Niger. - Niamey. - River Niger.
North Korea. - Pyongyang. - River Taedong.
Northern Ireland - Belfast - River Lagan.
Norway. - Oslo. - River Akerselva.

P
Panama. - Panama City. - River Caloosahatchee.
Papua New Guinea. - Port Moresby. - Brown River.
Paraguay. - Asuncion. - River Paraguay.
Peru. - Lima. - River Rimac.
Philippines - Manilla - Pasig River.
Poland. - Warsaw. - River Vistula.
Portugal. - Lisbon. - River Tejo.

R
Republic of Ireland - Dublin - River Liffey.
Republic of South Sudan - Juba - River White Nile.
Russian Federation. - Moscow. - River Moskva.
Rwanda. - Kigali. - River Ruganwa.

S
Saudi Arabia. - Riyadh. - Originally built beside the Riyadh Wadi - Orchard Oasis - this body of water
has since dried up.
Serbia. - Belgrade. - River Danube.
Scotland - Edinburgh - Firth of Forth.
Sierra Leone. - Freetown. - Freetown River.
Slovakia. - Bratislava. - River Danube.
Slovenia - Ljubljana - River Ljublanica.
Spain. - Madrid. - River Manzanares.
South Korea. - Seoul. - Han River.
Swaziland - Mbabane - Mbabne River
Sweden. - Stockholm. - River Norrstrom.
Switzerland. - Bern. - River Aare.
Sudan. - Khartoum. - River Nile.
Suriname - Paramaribo - Suriname River
Syria. - Damascus. - River Barada.

T
Taiwan. - Taipei. - River Danshui and River Xindian.
Tajikstan. - Dushanbe. - River Varzob.
Thailand. - Bangkok. - River Chao Phraya.
Tunisia. - Tunis. - Lake of Tunis.
Turkey. - Ankara. - River Ankara.

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U
Uganda. - Kampala. - Lake Victoria.
Ukraine. - Kiev. - River Dnieper.
Uruguay. - Montivideo. - River Plate.
United Arab Emirates - Abu Dhabi - Al Ain Oasis.
United Kingdom. - London. - River Thames
United States. - Washington D.C. - River Patomac
Uzbekistan - Tashkent - River Chirchik.

V
Venezuela. - Caracas, - River Guaire.
Vietman.- Hanoi. - Red River.

W
Wales - Cardiff - Rivers Taff and Ely.

Z
Zambia. - Lusaka. - River Chongwe.
Zimbabwe. - Harare. - River Limpopo and River Zambesi.

B.

INDIA

I.

National Particulars:

1.

The State Emblem: The state emblem is an adaptation from the Sarnath Lion Capital of Ashoka. In the
original, there are four lions, standing back to back, mounted on an abacus with a frieze carrying
sculptures in high relief of an elephant, a galloping horse, a bull and a lion separated by intervening
wheels over a bell-shaped lotus. Carved out of a single block of polished sandstone, the capital is crowned
by the Wheel of the Law (Dharma Chakra). In the State emblem, adopted by the Government of India on
26 January 1950. The wheel appears in relief in the centre of the abacus with a bull on right and a horse
on left and the outlines of other wheels on extreme right and left. The words Satyameva Jayate from
Mundaka Upanishad, meaning Truth Alone Triumphs, are inscribed below the abacus in Devanagari
script.

2.

National Song: The song Vande Mataram, composed in Sanskrit by Bankimchandra Chatterji, was a
source of inspiration to the people in their struggle for freedom. It has an equal status with Jana-ganamana. The first political occasion when it was sung was the 1896 session of the Indian National Congress.
The following is the text of its first stanza :
Vande Mataram!
Sujalam, suphalam, malayaja shitalam,
Shasyashyamalam, Mataram!
Shubhrajyothsna pulakitayaminim,
Phullakusumita drumadala shobhinim,
Suhasinim sumadhura bhashinim,
Sukhadam varadam, Mataram!

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3.

National Flower: Lotus, (Nelumbo Lucifera) is the national flower of India. It is a sacred flower and
occupies a unique position in the art and mythology in ancient India and has been an auspicious symbol of
Indian culture since time immemorial.

4.

National Flag: The National flag is a horizontal tricolour of deep saffron (kesari) at the top, white in the
middle and dark green at the bottom in equal proportion. The ratio of width of the flag to its length is two
to three. In the centre of the white band is a navy blue wheel which represents the charkha. Its design is
that of the wheel which appears on the abacus of the Sarnath Lion Capital of Ashoka. Its diameter
approximates to the width of the white band and it has 24 spokes. The use and display of national flag are
regulated by the Indian Flag Code: (i) The dipping of the Flag to any person or thing is prohibited. (ii) No
other Flag or Emblem is to be placed above or to the right of the National Flag. If hung in a line, all other
flags are to be placed on the left of the National Flag. When flown or raised with other flags, the National
Flag must be the highest. (iii) The flag is not to be carried flat or horizontally, but always aloft and free;
when carried in a procession it is to be brone high on the right shoulder of the standard bearer and
carrried in front of the procession. (iv) The saffron stripe should always be at the top when the Flag is
displayed from a staff projecting horizontally.

5.

National Calender: The national calendar is based on the Saka Era with Chaitra as its first month and a
normal year of 365 days was adopted from 22 March 1957 along with the Gregorian calendar for the
following official purposes: (i) Gazette of India, (ii) news broadcast by All India Radio, (iii) calendars
issued by the Government of India and (iv) Government communications addressed to the members of
the public.
Months of the National Calender
(1) Chaitra, (2) Vaishakha, (3) Jaishtha, (4) Ashadha, (5) Shravan, (6) Bhadra, (7) Ashvina, (8) Kartika,
(9) Margashirsha, (10) Pausha, (11) Magha, (12) Phalguna.
Dates of the national calendar have a permanent correspondence with dates of the Gregorian calendar :
1 Chaitra falling on 22 March normally and on 21 March in leap year.

6.

National Bird: The Indian peacock, Pavo cristatus (Linnaeus), the national bird of India, is a colourful,
swan-sized bird, with a fan-shaped crest of feathers, a white patch under the eye and a long, slender
neck. The male of the species is more colourful than the female, with a glistening blue breast and neck
and a spectacular bronze-green train of around 200 elongated feathers. The female is brownish, slightly
smaller than the male, and lacks the train.

7.

National Anthem: The song Jana-gana-mana, composed originally in Bengali by Rabindranath Tagore,
was adopted in its Hindi version by the Constituent Assembly as the national anthem of India on 24
January 1950. It was first sung on 27 December 1911 at the Calcutta Session of the Indian National
Congress. The complete song consists of five stanzas. The first stanza contains the full version of the
National Anthem :
Jana-gana-mana-adhinayaka, jaya he
Bharata-bhagya-vidhata.
Punjab-Sindh-Gujarat-Maratha
Dravida-Utkala-Banga
Vindhya-Himachala-Yamuna-Ganga

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Uchchala-Jaladhi-taranga.
Tava shubha name jage,
Tava shubha asisa mage,
Gahe tava jaya gatha,
Jana-gana-mangala-dayaka jaya he
Bharata-bhagya-vidhata.
Jaya he, jaya he, jaya he,
Jaya jaya jaya, jaya he!
Playing time of the full version of the national anthem is approximately 52 seconds. A short version
consisting of first and last lines of the stanza (playing time approximately 20 seconds) is also played on
certain occasions.
8.

National Animal: The magnificent tiger, Panthera tigris (Linnaeus), is a striped animal. It has a thick
yellow coat of fur with dark stripes. The combination of grace, strength, agility and enormous power has
earned the tiger its pride of place as the national animal of India. To check the dwindling population of
tigers in India Project Tiger was launched in April 1973. So far, 27 tiger reserves have been established
in the country under this project, covering an area of 37,761 sq km. To check the dwindling population of
tigers in India Project Tiger was launched in April 1973.

II.

Flora & Fauna:

1.

Flora: India has a rich and varied vegetation, which only a few countries of comparable size possess.
Following are eight distinctive flouristic regions:
The Western Himalayan region: Extends from Kashmir to Kumaon. Its temperate zone is rich in forests
of chir, pine, other conifers and broad-leaved temperate trees. Higher up, forests of deodar, blue pine,
spruce and silver fir occur. The alpine zone extends from the upper limit of the temperate zone of about
4,750 metres or even higher. The characteristic trees of this zone are high-level silver fir silver birch and
junipers.
The eastern Himalayan region: Extends from Sikkim eastwards and embraces Darjiling, Kurseong and
the adjacent tract. The temperate zone has forests of oaks, laurels, maples, rhododendrons, alder and
birch. Many conifers, junipers and dwarf willows also occur here. The Assam region comprises the
Brahmaputra and the Surma valleys with evergreen forests, occasional thick clumps of bamboos and tall
grasses.
The Indus plain region: Comprises the plains of Punjab, western Rajasthan and northern Gujarat. It is
dry and hot and supports natural vegetation. The Ganga plain region covers the area which is alluvial plain
and is under cultivation for wheat, sugarcane and rice. Only small areas support forests of widely differing
types.
The Deccan region: Comprises the entire table land of the Indian Peninsula and supports vegetation of
various kinds from scrub jungles to mixed deciduous forests. The Malabar region covers the excessively
humid belt of mountain country parallel to the west coast of the Peninsula. Besides being rich in forest
vegetation, this region produces important commercial crops, such as coconut, betelnut, pepper, coffee
and tea, rubber and cashewnut.

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The Andaman region: Abounds in evergreen, mangrove, beach and diluvial forests. The Himalayan
region extending from Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh through Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, Meghalaya and
Nagaland and the Deccan Peninsula is rich in endemic flora, with a large number of plants which are not
found elsewhere. India is in the tenth position in the world and fourth in Asia in plant diversity. From
about 70 per cent geographical area surveyed so far, 49,000 species of plants have been described by the
Botanical Survey of India.
2.

Fauna: The Zoological Survey of India (ZSI), with its headquarters in Calcutta and 16 regional stations
located in different parts of the country, is responsible for surveying the faunal resource of our country.
Possessing a tremendous diversity of climate and physical conditions, India has great variety of fauna
numbering 81,251 species. Of these, insects constitute about 60,000, molluscs a little over 5,000,
mammals 372, birds 1,228, reptiles 446, amphibians 204, and fishes 2,546.
More that 77 species of mammals, 72 species of birds, 17 species of reptiles, three species of amphibians,
two species of fish and a large number of butterflies, moth and beetles are considered vulnerable and
endangered. There are presently 94 national parks and 501 wildlife sanctuaries covering about 15.67
million hectares area which is nearly 4.5 per cent of the total geographical area of the country.

III.

Art & Culture:

1.

Dances of India: Dance in India, is rooted in age-old tradition. This vast sub-continent has given birth to
varied forms of dancing, each shaped by the influences of a particular period and environment. These
pristine forms have been preserved through the centuries, to become a part of our present culture, a
living heritage which is both our pride and delight.
Nurtured in temples, princely courts or villages, dance has moved into the auditorium of today, bringing
pleasure to many more people, in far-flung regions. It is now possible to appreciate the lyrical grace of the
Manipuri dance of North-Eastern India in, say, Gujarat. This dance-form arising out of Krishna-bhakti, is
sinuous in its movements and romantic in its concept, celebrating a divine theme which is meaningful to
people all over the country. Similarly, the sophistry of Kathak, which flowered at the courts of the Mughal
princes with its accelerated tempo, intricate foot-movements, and subtle facial expressions, evokes a
resplendent past common to us all.
The abundant largesse of dance in South India, from the Bharatnatyam of Tamil Nadu, to the Kathakali
dance-drama of Kerala, to the Kuchipudi of Andhra, has become part of the melting-pot of culture
enriching the life of any Indian today. For, to witness the strength and vigour of Kathakali as it enacts
episodes from the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, is an education in itself. The extremely stylised
gestures, the elaborate make-up, the masks and the splendid costumes of these all-male dancers,
recreates an incomparable sense of pageantry. Bharatanatyam, the temple-maiden's dance of devotion,
has a classic quality which is as daunting as it is beautiful. The rigorous precision of foot and hand
movements, the eloquent range of expression depicted through eyes and mouth, and the total linear
consonance of body is exacting and exciting in its perfection.
Bharata's 'Natya Sastra' is the Bible of Indian aestheticians. It says that the Creator (Brahma) created
dance to give joy in life to the gods who found their cosmic functions to be heavy and dreary.
'Bharatarmada' and 'Abhinaya Darpana' are other important classical works on the Indian art of dance.

374
Kalidasa's drama Malavikagnimitra, Vishnu Dharmothrara and Agni Purana throws much light on the art.
Other important Sanskrit works are Dhananjaya's Dasa Roopaka, Sargadava's Sangita Ratnakara,
Thulajaji's Sangita Saramitra, Bala Ramavarma's Bala Bharata, Haripala Deva's Sangita Sudhakara, Veda
Suri's Sangita Makaranda, Rasamanjari etc. Tamil works on dance are Bharata Senapatheeyam, Bharata
Siddhanta, Bharata Sangraha and Mahabharata Choodamani. In the famous Tamil epic Silappadikaram ,
there is a reference to eleven varities of dance (alliyam, kudai, kudam etc). It refers to 24 kinds of
abhinayam.
2.

Architecture:
Buddhist and Jaina architecture: Buddhism gained promi-nence during the reign of the emperor
Ashoka. It is primarily represented by three important building types- the Chaitya Hall (place of worship),
the Vihara (monastery) and the Stupa (hemispherical mound for worship/ memory)- exemplified by the
magnificent caves of Ajanta and Ellora and the monumental Sanchi Stupa. The Greek influence led the
Indian architecture of the time, especially the rock-cut art, to fall under one of the two categories: the
Mathura school of art which was strictly Indian in spirit and did not adopt from the Greek styles, and the
Gandharva

school of art which incorporated influences of the Greek art. The Jaina temples are

characterised by a richness of detail that can be seen in the Dilwara Temples in Mt. Abu.
The Hindu Temples: The reference to Hindu temples in literature go back early with Panini (520 BC 460 BC) and Patanjali mentioning temples which were called prasadas. Early beginnings of Hindu temple
architecture have been traced to the remains at Aihole and Pattadakal in present day Karnataka, and have
Vedic altars and late Vedic temples as described by Panini as models. Later, as more differentiation took
place, the Dravidian/ Southern style and or the Indo- Aryan/ Northern/ Nagara style of temple
architecture emerged as dominant modes, epitomised in productions such as the magnificent
Brihadeeswara Temple, Thanjavur, and the Sun Temple, Konark. Buddhist elements and motifs have
influenced temple architecture to a considerable extent.
Early temples were rock-cut, later structural temples evolved. The Kailasanatha temple at Ellora is a good
example of the former, excavated from top to bottom out of a massive rock face.
The pyramid formed an essential architectural element in any temple composition stepped in the
Dravidian style, stepped and slightly curved in the Northern style. The structural system was essentially
trabeated and with stone being the basic raw material for the Indian craftsman, construction could be
carried out with minimal or no mortar. Decoration was fundamental to Indian architecture and is seen in
the myriad details of figured sculpture as well as in the architectural elements. The garbha-griha or
thewomb chamber forms the central focus housing the deity of the temple and is provided with a
circumambulation passage around. However, there are also many subsidiary shrines within temple
complexes, more particularly in the South Indian (the Dravidianstyle) temple. As the Hindu temple is not
meant for congregational worship, the garbhagriha is small in scale when compared to the whole temple
complex. However, it is articulated externally by the vimana or the sikhara. Pillared halls or mandapas are
found preceding the garba-griha.
Islamic and the mughal architecture: With the advent of Islam, the erstwhile Indian architecture was
slightly adapted to allow the traditions of the new religion, but it remained strongly Indian at its heart and
character. Arches and domes began to be used and the mosque or masjid too began to form part of the

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landscape, adding to a new experience in form and space. The fundamental difference lay in the fact that
Islam prohibited idol worship and therefore a concentrated point of focus such as the garbhagriha was
unnecessary. However, the mihrab on the Western wall of the sanctuary articulating the Qibla or the
direction towards Mecca offered a notional focus. As idolatory was prohibited, the main means of
adornment was surface decoration through the use of geometry, arabesque and calligraphy. Later,
mosques began to be built with original material. The Jami masjid at Delhi is a representative example of
an Indian mosque. Islamic architecture was also represented by distinct regional styles that drew a lot of
inspiration from the local context.
The most famous Islamic buildings in India emerged during the Mughal period. Mughal architecture built
on the traditional Hindu architecture with influences from the Persian world. Over time, Hindu and
Islamic architecture produced a synthesis that is exemplified in the glorious production of Akbar- the city
of Fatehpur Sikri, considered by many to be superior to the Taj Mahal (often seen as representing India)
in terms of what it has to teach to civilisation- syncretism, tolerance and the best of different worlds, and
the Taj itself, renowned for its beauty in white marble, its intricate engravings, its minarets and its
setting.
The most popular Islamic building type in India is the tomb or the mausoleum which evolved from the
basic cube and hemisphere vocabulary of the early phase into a more elaborate form during the Mughal
period where multiple chambers are present and tombs were set in a garden known as the charbagh. The
tomb chamber houses the ceno taph below which is the grave. Well known examples are the Gol Gumbaz,
Bijapur and the Taj Mahal, Agra.
Architecture under the colonial rule: With colonisation, a new chapter began. Though the Dutch,
Portuguese and the French made substantial forays, it was the English who had a lasting impact. The
architecture of the colonial period varied from the beginning attempts at creating authority through
classical prototypes to the later approach of producing a supposedly more responsive image through what
is now termed Indo-Saracenic architecture- a mixture of Hindu, Islamic and Western elements.
Institutional, civic and utilitarian buildings such as post offices,railway stations, etc., began to be built in
large numbers over the whole empire. Perhaps the most famous example is the Chhatrapati Shivaji
Terminus(CST) in Mumbai, originally named in honor of Queen Victoria. The creation of New Delhi in early
20th century with its broad tree lined roads and majestic buildings generated lots of debate on what
should be an appropriate architecture for India
3.

Indian Classical Music

Origin: The origins of In dian classical music can be found from the oldest of the scriptures, Vedas. The
Samveda, one of the four vedas, describes music at length. Indian classical is heavily influenced by the
spirituality and hence it has its origins as a meditation tool for attaining self realization. However, Bharats
Natyashastra is the first treatise laying down the fundamental principles of drama, dance and music.
Indian classical music has one of the most complex and complete musical systems ever developed. Like
western classical music, it divides the octave into 12 semitones of which the 7 basic notes are Sa Re Ga
Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa.
Genres
The two main streams of Indian classical music are:

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Hindustani music: The Prime themes of Hindustani music are romantic love, nature and devotionals.
Players of tabla, usually keep the rhythm in Hindustani music. Another common instrument is the
stringed tanpura, which is played at a steady tone throughout the performance of the raga. Other
instruments for accompaniment include the sarangi and the harmonium. In Hindustani music, the
performance usually begins with a slow elaboration of the raga, known as alap. This can range from long
30-40 minutes to very short 2-3 minutes depending on the style and preference of the musician. Once the
raga is established, the ornamentation around the mode begins to become rhythmical, gradually speeding
up. This section is called the drut or jor. Finally, the percussionist joins in and the tala is introduced. There
is a significant amount of Persian influence in Hindustani music, in terms of both the instruments and the
style of presentation.
Carnatic music: Carnatic raga elaborations are generally much faster in tempo and shorter than their
equivalents in Hindustani music. The opening piece is called a varnam, and is a warm-up for the
musicians. A devotion and a request for a blessing follows, then a series of interchanges between ragams
(the unmetered melody) and thaalams (the ornamentation, equivalent to the jor). This is intermixed with
hymns called krithis. This is followed by the pallavi or theme from the raga. Carnatic music is similar to
Hindustani music in that it is improvised. Primary themes include worship, descriptions of temples,
philosophy, nayakanayaki themes and patriotic songs. Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar and Syama Sastri
are known as the Trinity of Carnatic music, while Purandara Dasa is often called the father of Carnatic
music.
4.

Indian Painting: The earliest Indian paintings were the rock paintings of prehistoric times, the
petroglyphs as found in places like Bhimbetka, and some of them are older than 5500 BC. Such works
continued and after several millennia, in the 7th century, carved pillars of Ellora, present a fine example of
Indian paintings. Thereafter, frescoes of Ajanta and Ellora caves appeared. Indian paintings provide an
aesthetic continuum that extends from the early civilization to the present day. From being essentially
religious in purpose in the beginning, Indian painting has evolved over the years to become a fusion of
various cultures and traditions. The Indian painting was exposed to Greco-Roman as well as Iranian and
Chinese influences.
Indian paintings can be broadly classified as the murals and miniatures. Murals are huge works executed
on the walls of solid structures, as in the Ajanta Caves and the Kailashnath temple. Miniature paintings
are executed on a very small scale on perishable material such as paper and cloth. The Palas of Bengal
were the pioneers of miniature paiting in India.
Murals: Early examples of murals are found in the caves of Ajanta and Bagh. Fragments of mural
paintings are also found in the comtemporary Pitalkhora Caves. Early evidences of the tradition of mural
paintings in southern India are found in the sites of Badami and Sittanavasal. Evidences of mural paintings
are also found in the Kailashnath temple in Ellora.
Miniature painting: The pattern of large scale wall painting which had dominated the scene, witnessed
the advent of miniature paintings during the 11th and 12th centuries. This new style figured first in the
form of illustrations etched on palm-leaf manuscripts. The contents of these manuscripts included
literature on the Buddhism and Jainism.

377
Eastern Indian painting: In eastern India miniature painting developed in 10th century. These
miniatures, depicting Buddhist divinities and scenes from the life of Buddha were painted on the leaves of
the palm-leaf manuscripts as well as their wooden covers. Most common Buddhist illustrated manuscripts
include the texts Astasahasrita Prajnaparamita.
Western Indian painting: In western India between the 10th to 12th century miniature painting
developed. These miniatures are found in some Jaina manuscripts and are of 2 to 4 inches in size. It was
in the 14th century, that paper replaced the palm leaf. The Jaina style of paintings attained a high degree
of development by the late 15th and 16th century. In the 16th century, a number of Hindu illustrated
manuscripts appeared in western India, which include the texts, the Gitagovinda of Jayadeva and the
Bhagavata Purana.
Malwa schools of painting: A new trend in manuscript illustration was set by a manuscript of
Nimatnama painted at Mandu, during the reign of Nasir Shah. This represent a synthesis of the indigenous
and the Persian style of painting.
Mughal painting: Mughal paintings were a unique blend of Indian, Persian and Islamic styles. Akbars
reign ushered a new era in Indian miniature painting. During his reign more than a hundred painters were
employed, most of whom were Hindus who gave birth to a new school of painting, popularly known as
the Mughal School of miniature paintings. One of the first productions of that school of miniature painting
was the Hamzanama series. They are in the Persian safavi style. After him, Jahangir was a good painter
himself. He encouraged artists to paint portraits and durbar scenes. His most talented portrait painters
were Ustad Mansur, Abdul Hasan and Bishandas. During the reign of Shahjahan this trend continued
though he was more interested in artitecture.
Rajput painting: Rajput painting, a style of Indian painting evolved and flourished, during the 18th
century, in the royal courts of Rajputana, India. Each Rajput kingdom evolved a distinct styly, but with
certain common features. Rajput paintings depict a number of themes,events of epics like the Ramayana
and the Mahabharata, Krishnas life, beautiful landscapes, and humans. Miniatures were thepreferred
medium of Rajput painting.
Tanjore painting: Tanjore painting is an important form of classical South Indian painting native to the
town of Tanjore in Tamil Nadu. These paintings are known for their elegance, rich colours and attention to
details. The themes for most of these paintings are Hindu Gods and Goddesses and scenes from Hindu
mythology.
Bengal school: The Bengal School of Art was an influential style of art that flourished in India during the
British Raj in the early 20th century. It was associated with Indian nationalism, but was also promoted
and supported by many British arts asministrators. The first artist of this school was Abanindranath
Tagore, a nephew of the poet Rabindranath Tagore. He painted a number of works influenced by Mughal
art. Tagores best-known painting Bharat Mata, depicted a young woman, portrayed with four arms in the
manner of Hindu deities, holding objects symbolic of Indias national aspirations. The Bengal schools
influence in India declined with the spread of modernist ideas in the 1920s.
Modern Indian painting: During the colonial era, western influences started to make an impact on
Indian art. Some artists developed a style that used Western ideas of composition, perspective and

378
realism to illustrate Indian themes. Others, like Jamini Roy, consciously drew inspiration from folk art. The
Progressive Artists Group, established shortly after India became independent in 1947, was intended to
establish new ways of expressing India in the post-colonial era. The founders were six eminent artists- K
H Ara, S K Bakre, H A Gade, M F Hussain, S H Raza and F N Souza. This group was dissolved in 1956, it
was profoundly influential in changing the idiom of Indian art. Almost all of Indias major artists in the
1950s were associated with the group. Some of those who are well-known today are Bal Chabda, V S
Gaitonde, Krishen Khanna, Ram Kumar, Tyeb Mehta and Akbar Padamsee. Other famous painters are
Jahar Dasgupta, Prodash Karmakar and Bijon Choudhure enriched the art and culture of India. They have
become the icon of modern Indian art. From 1990 to till 2009 the Indian art is growing with powerful
expression.
One of them is Raj Mehta.
5.

Languages of India: The languages of India primarily belong to two major linguistic families, IndoEuropean (whose branch Indo-Aryan is spoken by about 74% of the population) and Dravidian (spoken by
about 24%). Other languages spoken in India come from the Austro- Asiatic and Tibeto-Burmese linguistic
families.

ID

State Name

State Capital

Official Language

District

Andhra Pradesh

Amravati (planned)

Telugu

13

Arunachal Pradesh

Itanagar

English

16

Assam

Dispur

Assamese

27

Bihar

Patna

Hindi

37

Chhatisgarh

Raipur

Hindi

16

Goa

Panaji

Konkani

Gujarat

Gandhi Nangar

Gujarati

26

Haryana

Chandigarh

Hindi

20

Himachal Pradesh

Shimla

Hindi

12

Jammu and Kashmir

Srinagar(Summer),

Urdu, Kashmiri, Dogri

22

10

Jammu(Winter )
11

Jharkhand

Ranchi

Hindi

22

12

Karnataka

Bengaluru

Kannada

27

13

Kerala

Thiruvananthapuram

Malayalam

14

14

Madhya Pradesh

Bhopal

Hindi

50

15

Maharashtra

Mumbai

Marathi

35

16

Manipur

Imphal

Manipuri

17

Meghalaya

Shillong

English

18

Mizoram

Aizawl

English

19

Nagaland

Kohima

English

20

Odisha

Bhubaneshwar

Oriya

30

21

Punjab

Chandigarh

Punjabi

22

22

Rajasthan

Jaipur

Hindi

33

23

Sikkim

Gangtok

Nepali

24

Tamil Nadu

Chennai

Tamil

31

25

Telangana

Hyderabad

Telugu

10

379
26

Tripura

Agartala

Bengali

27

Uttarakhand

Dehradun

Hindi

13

28

Uttar Pradesh

Lucknow

Hindi

71

29

West Bengal

Kolkata

Bengali

19

State Capital

Official Language

District

Hindi, Nicobarese, Bengali, Tamil,

ID
1

Union Teritory
Andaman and Nicobar

Port Blair

Islands

Malayalam, Telugu

Chandigarh

Chandigarh

Hindi, Punjabi, English

Daman and Diu

Daman

Gujarati

Dadra

Silvassa

Gujarati, Hindi

and

Nagar

Haveli
5

Lakshadweep

Kavaratti

Jeseri (Dweep Bhasha) and Mahal

Puducherry

Puducherry

Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, English

and French
7
6.

NCT of Delhi

Delhi

Hindi,Punjabi

Religion; Place of Worship; Religious Book

Hinduism: Temple; Vedas; The Bhagwad Gita; Ramayana; Mahabharata.
Islam: Mosque; Koran.
Judaism : Synagogue; Torah.
Sikhism: Gurudwara; Guru Granth Sahib.
Christianity: Church; Bible. Zoroastrianism (Parsi religion): Fire Temple; ZendAvesta.
Buddhism : Temple; Pitakas;
Jainism: Temple; Angas

IV.

Famous Sites in India:

Adina Mosque: Pandua (West Bengal)
Ajanta Caves: Aurangabad (Maharashtra)
Akbars Tomb: Sikandra, Agra
Aksherdham: Gandhinagar, Gujarat
Amarnath Cave: Kashmir
Amber Palace: Jaipur (Rajasthan)
Anand Bhawan: Allahabad
Bibi Ka Maqbra: Aurangabad
Birla Planetarium: Kolkata
Black Pagoda: Konarak (Orissa)
Bodhistava: Ajanta Caves
Brihadeeswara: Tanjore Temple
Brindaban Gardens: Mysore
Buland Darwaza: Fatehpur Sikri
Char Minar: Hyderabad
Cheena Kesava Temple: Bellur
Chilka Lake: East Coast of India near Bhubaneswar
Dal Lake: Srinagar

380
Dilwara Temples: Mt Abu
Elephanta Caves: Mumbai
Ellora Caves: Aurangabad
Gateway of India: Mumbai
Golden Temple: Amritsar
Gol Gumbaz: Bijapur
Hanging Gardens: Mumbai
Hawa Mahal: Jaipur
Howrah Bridge: Kolkata
Island Palace: Udaipur
Itmad-ud-Daulahs Tomb: Agra
Jagannath Temple: Puri
Jahaz Mahal: Mandu
Jai Stambha (Tower of Victory): Chittorgarh
Jama Masjid: Delhi
Jantar Mantar: New Delhi
Jog (Gersoppa) Falls: Mysore
Kailasa Temple: Ellora
Kalan Masjid: Delhi
Kanyakumari Temple: Cape Comorin (Tamil Nadu)
Khajuraho: Bhopal
Konarak: Puri
Lakshmi Vilas Palace: Baroda
Lal Bagh Garden: Bengaluru
Lalgarh Palace: Bikaner
Lingaraj Temple: Bhubaneswar
Mahakaleshwar Temple: Ujjain
Maheshmurti (Trimurti): Elephanta Caves
Mahmud Gawans Mosque: Bidar
Malabar Hill: Mumbai
Marble Rocks: Jabalpur
Marina: Chennai
Minakshi Temple: Madurai
Mt Girnar (Jain Temples): Junagadh
Nagin Lake: Srinagar
Nataraja: Chennai
Nishat Bagh: Srinagar
Padmanabha Temple: Thiruvanthapuram
Palitana: Junagadh
Panch Mahal: Fatehpur Sikri
Pichola Lake: Udaipur
Qutab Minar: Delhi
Raj Ghat: Delhi
Rashtrapati Bhawan: Delhi
Red Fort: Delhi
Sanchi Tope (The Great Stupa): Sanchi, Bhopal

381
Santa Cruz: Mumbai
Shakti Sthal: Delhi
Shalimar Bagh: Srinagar
Shahi Chashma: Srinagar
Shanti Van: Delhi
Shore Temple: Mahabalipuram
Sidi Sayyid Mosque: Ahmedabad
Somnathpur Temple: Mysore
Statue of Gomateswara: Mysore
Statue of Ugra: Hampi
Sunderbans: West Bengal
Sun Temple: Konarak
Taj Mahal: Agra
Tehzeeb Mahal: Srinagar
Tirupati Temple: Andhra Pradesh
Tower of Silence: Mumbai (of the Parsis)
Victoria Memorial: Kolkata
Victoria Garden: Mumbai
Vijay Ghat: Delhi
V.

Firsts in India:

1.

Following is the list of First In India (Male Personalities):

S. No

Role

Name

The First President Of Indian Republic

Dr. Rajendra Prasad

The First Prime Minister Of Free India

Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru

The First Indian To Win Nobel Price

Rabindranath Tagore

The First President Of Indian National Congress

W. C. Banerjee

The First Muslim President Of Indian National Congress

Badruddin Tayyabji

The First Muslim President Of India

Dr. Zakir Hussain

The First British Governer General Of India

Lord William Bentinck

The First British Viceroy Of India

Lord Canning

The First Governor General Of Free India

Lord Mountbatten

10

The First And The Last Indian To Be Governor General Of Free India

C. Rajagopalachari

11

The First Man Who Introduced Printing Press In Free India

James Hicky

12

The First Indian To Join I.C.S.

Satyengra Nath Tagore

13

India's First Man In Space

Rakesh Sharma

14

The First Prime Minister In India Who Resigned Without Completing

Morarji Desai

The Full Term

382
15

The First Indian Commander-in-Chief Of India

General Cariappa

16

The First Chief Of The Army Staff

Gen. Maharaj Rajendra Singh ji

17

The First Indian Member Of The Viceroy's Executive Council

S. P. Sinha

18

The First President Of India Who Died While In Office

Dr. Zakir Hussain

19

The First Prime Minister Of India Who Did Not Face The Parliament

Charan Singh

20

The First Field Marshal Of India

S. H. F. Manekshaw

21

The First Indian To Get Nobel Price In Physics

C. V. Raman

22

The First Indian To Recieve Bharat Ratna Award

Dr. Radhakrishnan

23

The First Indian To Cross English Channel

Mihir Sen

24

The First Indian To Receive Jnanpith Award

Sri Shankar Kurup

25

The First Speaker Of The Lok Sabha

Ganesh Vasudeva Mavalankar

2.

Following is the list of First In India (Female Personalities):

S. No.

Role

Female Personalities

The First lady to become Miss World

Reita Faria

First Woman Judge in Supreme Court

Mrs Meera Sahib Fatima Bibi

The First Woman Ambassador

Ms C B Muthamma

The First Woman Governor Of a State In free India

Mrs Sarojini Naidu

The First Woman Prime Minister

Mrs Indira Gandhi

The First Woman to climb Mt. Everest

Bachhendri Pal

The First Woman to climb Mt. Everest Twice

Santosh Yadav

The First Woman President of the Indian National Congress

Mrs Annie Besant

The First Woman Chief Justice of a High Court

Mrs Leela Seth

10

The First Woman Pilot in Indian Air Force

Harita Kaur Dayal

11

The First Woman president of the United Nations General

Mrs Vijaya Laxmi Pandit

Assembly
12

The First Woman Chief Minister of an Indian state

Mrs. Sucheta Kriplani

13

The First Woman Chairman of union Public service

Roze Millian Bethew

commission
14

The First Woman Director General of Police (D.G.P.)

Kanchan Chaudhary Bhattacharya

15

The First Lieutnant General

16

First Woman Air Vice Marshal

P Bandhopadhyaya

17

First Woman Chairperson of Indian Airlines

Sushma Chawla

18

First Woman I.P.S. Officer

Mrs Kiran Bedi

19

The First & last Muslim ruler of Delhi

Razia Sultan

20

The First Woman to Recieve Ashoka Chakra

Neerja Bhanot

21

The First Woman to cross English Channel

Aarti Saha

22

The First Woman to Recieve Nobel Prize

Mother Teresa

23

The First Woman to Recieve Bharat Ratna

Mrs. Indira Gandhi

24

The First Woman to Recieve Jnanpith Award

Asha Purna Devi

25

The First Woman President of India

Pratibha Patil

Puneeta Arora

383
3.

Important Industries:
1. Cotton Textile Industry - Maharashtra, Gujarat, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, U.P., Delhi, Kerala and
Karnataka.
2. Steel Industry- Rourkela(Orissa), Bhilai (M.P.), Durgapur (W.Bengal), Jamshedpur(Bihar), Burnpur
(W. Bengal), Bhadrawati (Karnataka).
3- Paper Industry- Calcutta (W. Bengal), Lucknow (U.P.), Bombay (Maharashtra), Saharanpur(U.P.),
Poona (Maharashtra), Thapar Mill, Jagadahri (Haryana), Ballarpur (Maharashtra).
4. Jute Industry-Calcutta (W. Bengal).
5. Sugar- U.P., Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Punjab and Haryana.
6. Leather- Kanpur (U.P.), Calcutta (W. Bengal), Agra (U.P.), Madras (Tamil Nadu).
7. Silk - Mysore (Karnataka), Murshidabad (W. Bengal), Srinagar (Jammu & Kashmir), and Bhagalpur
(Bihar).
8. Woolen - Kanpur (U.P.), Dhariwal, Ludhiana and Amritsar (Punjab), Bombay (Maharashtra).
9. Aluminium Industry - Alwaye (Kerala), Asansol (W. Bengal), Katni (M.P.), Renukot (U.P.)
10. Antibiotic Factories- Bangalore (Karnataka), Kanpur (U.P.), Rishikesh (U.P), Delhi.
11. Aircraft Factories - Bangalore (Karnataka), Kanpur (U.P).
12. Cement Industry -Porbander (Gujarat), Katni (M.P.). Dalmianager (Bihar), Churk(U.P.), Surajpur
(Haryana), Sindri (Bihar), Lakheri (Rajasthan), Guntur (M.P.)
13. Newsprint Nepanagar (M.P)
14. Oil Refineries - Noonmati (Assam), Barauni (Bihar), Koyali (Gujarat), Mathura (U.P), Haldia (West
Bengal), Madras (Tamil Nadu), and Cochin (Kerala) in public sector, Trombay (Maharashtra),
Visakhapatnam (A.P.), Digboi (Assam) in private sector.
15. Locomotive Industry - Chittraanjan (W. Bengal), Varanasi (U.P), Jamshedpur (Bihar).
16. Fertilizers - Sindri (Bihar),Naya Nangal and Bathinda (Punjab), Panipat (Haryana), Neyevli (Tamil
Nadu), Trombay (Maharashtra), Gorakhpur (U.P.), Visakhapatnam (A.P.) Noonmati (Assam), Alwaye
(Kerala), Kota (Rajasthan), Rourkela (Orissa), Baroda (Gujarat), Durgapur (W. Bengal), Korba (M.P),
Panki near Kanpur (U.P), Cochin (Kerala), Kandla (Gujarat), Guna (Vijaypur, M.P.)
17. Ship Building - Mazagon Dock (Bombay), Visakhapatnam (A.P.), Cochin (Kerala).
18. Coach Factories - Perambur (Tamil Nadu), Kapurthala (Punjab).
19. Heavy Electricals - Bhopal (M.P), Hardwar (U.P).

4.

Major Ports of India: Kandla (Gujarat), Mumbai and Jawaharlal port (Maharashtra), Marmugao (Goa),
Mangalore (Karnataka), Cochin (Kerala). Tuticorin (Tamil Nadu), Chennai (Tamil Nadu), Visakhapatnam
(Andhra Pradesh). Paradeep (Orissa) and Calcutta (West Bengal) are termed as the major ports of India.
A new major port at Nhava Sheva called Jawaharlal constructed off Mumbai coast, cost Rs. 506 the main
item of export from Vizag, Marmugao and Mangalore.

5.

Important Hill Stations in India:

Station

State

Almora

U.P.

Cheerapunji

Meghalaya

Coonoor

Tamil Nadu

Dalhousie

Himachal Pradesh

Darjeeling

West Bengal

Gulmarg

Kashmir

Kasauli

H.P.

384

6.

Mahabaleshwar

Maharashtra

Mount Abu

Rajasthan

Mussoorie

U.P.

Nainital

U.P.

Panchamari

M.P.

Ranikhet

U.P.

Shillong

Mehgalaya

Important Towns on RIVER banks:

Agra

U. P.

Yamuna

Ahmedabad

Gujarat

Sabarmati

Allahabad

U. P.

Confluence of Ganga & Yamuna

Alwaye

Kerala

Periyar

Ayodhya

U. P.

Surya

Bhagalpur

Bihar

Ganga

Badrinath

U. P.

Gangotri

Buxar

Bihar

Ganga

Calcutta

West Bengal

Hoogly

Cuttack

Orissa

Mahanadi

Delhi

Delhi

Yamuna

Dilbbrugarh

Assam

Brahamputra

Ferozepore

Punjab

Sutlej

Gauhati

Assam

Brahamputra

Hardwar

U. P.

Ganga

Howrah

West Bengal

Hoogly

Jammu

Jammu & Kashmir

Tawi

Kanpur

U. P.

Ganga

Kota

Rajasthan

Chambal

Lucknow

U. P.

Gomti

Mathura

U. P.

Yamuna

Moradabad

U. P.

Ramganga

Monghyr

Bihar

Ganga

Nangal

Punjab

Sutlej

Nasik

Maharashtra

Godavari

Patna

Bihar

Ganga

Ropar

Punjab

Sutlej

Srinagar

Kashmir

Jhelum

Surat

Gujarat

Tapti

Ticchirapalli

Tamil Nadu

Cavery

Vijyawada

Andhra Pradesh

Krishna

varanasi

U.P.

Ganga

Jabalpur

Madhya Pradesh

Narmada

Jameshedpur

Bihar

Subarnalekha

Jammu

J&K

Ravi

Leh

Jammu & Kashmir

Indus

Ludhiana

Punjab

Sutlej

Yamuna Nagar

Haryana

Yamuna

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