Recommended Velocities in Steam Systems

The steam velocity in a steam distribution system should be

within certain limits to avoid excessive wear and tear
The steam velocities or speeds below are commonly recommended as
acceptable for steam distribution systems:
Velocity
(m/s)
(ft/s)
Saturated Steam - high pressure
25 - 40
82 - 131
Saturated Steam - medium and low pressure 30-40
99 - 131
Saturated Steam at peak load
< 50
< 164
Steam and Water mix
< 25
< 82
Superheated Steam
35 - 100
100 - 300
Saturated steam - low pressure - is common for heating services and secondary
process pipes.
Saturated steam - high pressure - is common in powerhouse, boiler and main
process lines.
Superheated steam is common in power generation and turbine plants.
Steam System

Sizing Steam Pipes (kg/h)

Steam is a compressible gas where the mass flow capacity of
the pipe lines depends on the steam pressure. This table,

where pressure is in bar, velocity in m/s and capacity in

kg/h, is suitable for sizing steam pipes
A steam velocity of 25 m/s is in general sufficient for saturated steam
applications.
Capacity
(kg/hour)
Steam
Pressure
Speed
(bar)
(m/s)
0.4
15
25
40
0.7
15
25
40
1
15
25
40
2
15
25
40
3
15
25
40
4
15
25
40
5
15
25
40
6
15
25
40
7
15
25
40
8
15
25
40
10
15
25

Pipe Size (mm)

15 20 25 32 40

50

65

80

100 125

150

200

250

300

7
10
17
7
12
18
8
12
19
12
19
30
16
26
41
19
30
49
22
36
59
26
43
71
29
49
76
32
54
84
41
66

99
162
265
109
182
298
112
193
311
182
195
475
245
425
595
281
450
796
352
548
855
425
658
1025
445
785
1210
475
810
1370
626
990

145
265
403
166
287
428
182
300
465
280
428
745
385
632
1025
432
742
1247
526
885
1350
632
1065
1620
705
1205
1865
800
1260
2065
1012
1530

213
384
576
250
430
630
260
445
640
410
656
1010
535
910
1460
635
1080
1825
770
1265
1890
925
1520
2270
952
1750
2520
1125
1870
3120
1465
2205

394
675
1037
431
716
1108
470
730
1150
715
1215
1895
925
1580
2540
1166
1980
3120
1295
2110
3510
1555
2530
4210
1815
3025
4585
1990
3240
5135
2495
3825

917
1457
2303
1006
1575
2417
1020
1660
2500
1580
2520
4175
2040
3440
5940
2460
4225
7050
2835
5150
7870
3400
6175
9445
3990
6900
10880
4540
7120
12470
5860
8995

1606
2806
4318
1708
2816
4532
1864
3099
4815
2814
4815
7678
3983
6779
10479
4618
7866
12661
5548
8865
13761
6654
10629
16515
7390
12288
19141
8042
13140
21247
9994
15966

2590
4101
6909
2791
4629
7251
2814
4869
7333
4545
7425
11997
6217
10269
16470
7121
12225
1963
8586
14268
23205
10297
17108
27849
12015
19377
30978
12625
21600
33669
16172
25860

368
5936
9500
3852
6204
10323
4045
6751
10370
6277
10575
16796
8743
14316
22950
10358
17304
27816
11947
20051
32244
14328
24042
38697
16096
27080
43470
17728
33210
46858
22713
35890

14
25
35
16
25
37
17
26
39
25
43
64
37
56
87
42
63
116
49
81
131
59
97
157
63
114
177
70
122
192
95
145

24
40
64
25
45
68
29
48
71
45
70
115
60
100
157
70
115
197
87
135
225
105
162
270
110
190
303
126
205
327
155
257

37
62
102
40
72
106
43
72
112
70
112
178
93
152
250
108
180
295
128
211
338
153
253
405
165
288
455
190
320
510
250
405

52
92
142
59
100
167
65
100
172
100
162
275
127
225
357
156
270
456
187
308
495
225
370
595
260
450
690
285
465
730
372
562

648
972
1670
680
1145
1715
694
1160
1800
1125
1755
2925
1505
2480
4050
1685
2925
4940
2105
3540
5400
2525
4250
6475
2765
4815
7560
3025
5220
8395
3995
6295

14

40
15
25
40

104
50
85
126

216
121
195
305

408
205
331
555

615
310
520
825

910
465
740
1210

1635
810
1375
2195

2545
1270
2080
3425

3600
1870
3120
4735

6230
3220
5200
8510

9880
5215
8500
13050

14390
7390
12560
18630

26621
12921
21720
35548

41011
20538
34139
54883

57560
29016
47128
76534

Pressure Drop Theory

This page describes in detail which factors need to be considered when calculating pressure drops through pipe systems, their
fluid flow and conditions at the pump inlet, and how Pipe Flow 3D can help with the calculations.
Resistance to fluid flow

Fluids in motion are subjected to various resistances, which are due to friction. Friction may occur between the fluid & the pipe
friction also occurs within the fluid as sliding between adjacent layers of fluid takes place. The friction within the fluid is due to
viscosity.
When fluids have a high viscosity, the speed of flow tends to be low, and resistance to flow becomes almost
totally dependant on the viscosity of the fluid, this condition is known as Laminar flow.
How do you establish the pipework resistance losses?
Before the pipework losses can be established, the friction factor must be calculated. The friction factor will be
dependant on the pipe size, inner roughness of the pipe, flow velocity and fluid viscosity. The flow condition,
whether Turbulent or not, will determine the method used to calculate the friction factor. The starting point
must be to find the fluids viscosity. This will be the factor that has most effect on the pipework losses.

Understanding viscosity units (dynamic viscosity)

Many terms can be used to describe a fluid's viscosity (its resistance to flow): Centipoise, Poise, Saybolt
Universal (SSU), Saybolt Furol, Ford Cup No. 3, Ford Cup No.4, Redwood No.1, Degrees Engler, Zahn No.1,
Zahn No.2 and Zahn No. 3 are some of the scales that have been used in the immediate past.
All of these scales have differing upper and lower values and are usually not directly related to each other.
Some references may be found in text books which attempt to list equivalent values for these different
methods of measuring viscosity.
Pipe Flow 3D provides a means of calculating the equivalent centistokes viscosity from some other known
viscosity scales.

Kinematic viscosity and Reynolds numbers

Dynamic viscosity must be converted to its Kinematic viscosity equivalent before the viscosity value can be
used to calculate Reynolds numbers and hence friction factors.
It is very common today to express dynamic viscosity in centipoise.
one Centipoise = 1 mPa.s or 0.001 (kg/m) x s
The units of centipoise are:

Force per unit area x Time

It is very common today to express kinematic viscosity in centistokes.

one Centistoke = 1 mm/s or 0.000001 m/s
The units of centistokes are:

Length
Time

Kinematic viscosity is simply:

Dynamic viscosity
Mass density

Reynolds numbers

Reynolds numbers (Re) describe the relationship between a fluids velocity, the pipe size and the fluids
kinematic viscosity.
Reynolds number =

Fluid velocity x Internal pipe diameter

Kinematic viscosity

Effect of the inner roughness of the pipe

The inner roughness of the pipe can create eddy currents. This increases the friction between the pipe wall
and the fluid. The relative roughness of the inside of the pipe is used in determining the friction factor to be
used.
Relative roughness =

Inside pipe roughness

Inside pipe diameter

The average inner roughness of commercial pipes:

Steel tube
Copper tubing
Glass tubing
Polythene
Flexible P.V.C.
Rigid P.V.C.
Cast iron tube
Concrete tube

Friction factor chart

0.0460
0.0015
0.0001
0.0010
0.2000
0.0050
0.2600
2.0000

mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm

The chart above shows the relationship between Reynolds number and pipe friction.
Calculation of friction factors is dependant on the type of flow that will be encountered.
For Re numbers <2300 the fluid flow is Laminar, when Re number is >2300 the fluid flow is Turbulent.
Laminar flow (Re < 2300) f = 64/Re
Turbulent flow (Re > 2300) 1/sqrt(f) = -1.8 log [ (6.9/Re) + ((k/3.7)^1.11 ]
(where k = inner pipe roughness / inner pipe diameter)
Most commercial applications involve Turbulent flow. In these cases the inner roughness of the pipework can
have a significant effect on the Friction factor.
The Relative roughness is the inner roughness divided by the internal diameter of the pipe work.
The Friction factor is found by plotting the intersection of Re and Relative roughness, and reading the friction
factor on the left hand axis of the chart.
The Fluid head loss can be calculated once the friction factor is known.
The Pressure drop in pipe work can be calculated from fluid head loss, the density of fluid and the acceleration
due to gravity.
Calculating the fluid head resistance
Fluid head resistance can be calculated from h = f (L/d) x (v /2g)
where
h = head loss (m)
f = friction factor
L = length of pipe work (m)
d = inner dia of pipe work (m)

v = velocity of fluid (m/s)

g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s )
Calculating the losses through pipe work fittings
The fluid head resistance through various pipe work fittings can be calculated when the 'K' factor of the fitting
is known. Manufacturers of pipe work fittings & valves publish 'K' factors for their products.
Usually a particular type of fitting from various manufacturers have similar 'K' factors, therefore this computer
program tends to use average 'K' factor values.
Fluid head loss of these fitting can be calculated from h = total 'K' x v / 2g
where
h = head loss (m)
total 'K' = total of 'K' factors for each fitting
v = velocity of fluid (m/s)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s )
Note: If the pipework involves different pipe sizes, this calculation must be carried out separately for each
pipe size, using the appropriate velocity within that pipe section.
The 'K' value of entry & exit points can be taken as 0.8 and 1.0 respectively to calculate the head loss
attributable to these features.
Calculating the total pressure drop
The total fluid head resistance may be used to calculate the pressure required to overcome the resistance to
fluid flow.
Pd = h x p x g / 100000
where
Pd = pressure drop (bar)
h = head loss (m)
p = fluid density (kg/m3)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s )
Finally, the fluid is most likely to exit into atmospheric pressure. The difference between the pressure on the
fluid surface during storage & the atmospheric pressure must be taken into account in determining the
pressure drop to be overcome by the pump.
This difference in pressure may be positive (assisting fluid flow) or negative (resisting fluid flow).
Summarising the steps to be considered
Factors that affect fluid flow
Fluid flow in pipes is affected by many different factors:

The viscosity, density, and velocity of the fluid.

Changes in the fluid temperature will change the viscosity & density of the fluid.
The length, inner diameter, and in the case of turbulent flow, the internal roughness of the pipe.
The position of the supply and discharge containers relative to the pump position.
The addition of rises & falls within the pipe layout.

The number & types of bends in the pipe layout.

The number & types of valves, & other fittings, in the pipe layout.
Entrance & exit conditions of the pipe work.

Calculating the fluid head

When all of the above information is known, the following steps must be carried out to determine the fluid
head necessary to overcome the flow of the fluid through the pipe work layout:

Calculate the Reynolds number

Determine if the flow is Laminar or Turbulent
Calculate the friction factor for either Laminar flow or Turbulent flow
Calculate the fluid head resistance to overcome the flow through the pipe work
Determine the K factors for the fittings within the pipe work layout
Calculate the fluid head resistance to overcome the flow through the fittings
Determine which lengths & components within the pipe work layout are significant in establishing the
maximum fluid head to be considered (branch lines may be important).

The effect of fluid density & gravity must be applied to the maximum fluid head to calculate the pressure
required to overcome the resistance to fluid flow.

Fluid Flow Velocities

Guidelines for the acceptable ranges of flow velocity for various

fluids found in a sugar factory
Goodall
Velocity [m/s]
Water for space heating

Water for boiler feed

Saturated steam

30

50

Superheated steam

50

100

Hugot
Velocity [m/s]
Superheated steam

40

76

Saturated steam

24

37

Exhaust - wet/oily

31

46

Bled vapour

37

49

Vapour under vacuum

46

76

Water

1.25

Juice

1.2

Syrup

0.51

Molasses

0.25

0.5

Massecuites

0.1

0.2

Water

1.25

2.5

Juice

1.22

Syrup

0.75

Suction

Delivery

Molasses

0.5

1.25
0.75

Lyle
Velocity [m/s]
Water

1.22

2.44

Superheated steam

46

61

Dry saturated steam

31

40

Wet exhaust steam

21

31

Moderate vacuum water vapour

46

61

High vacuum water vapour

61

107

Babcock & Wilcox

Velocity [m/s]
High pressure steam

41

61

Low pressure steam

61

76

Water general

2.54

3.81

From a source on the internet

Maximal velocity in pipes

Water

m/s

ft/s

Tap water (low noise)

0.5 - 0.7

1.6 -8.2

Tap water

1.0 - 2.5

3.3 - 8.2

Cooling water

1.5 - 2.5

4.9 - 8.2

Boiler feed water. suction

0.5 - 1.0

1.6 - 3.3

Boiler feed water. discharge

1.5 - 2.5

4.9 - 8.2

Condensate

1.0 - 2.0

3.3 - 6.5

Heating circulation

1.0 - 3.0

3.3 - 9.8

Steam

m/s

ft/s

Saturated Steam. high pressure

25 - 40

82 - 131

Saturated Steam. in special cases

- 60

- 197

Saturated Steam. medium and low

pressure

30-40

99 - 131

Saturated Steam. at peak load

- 50

- 164

Steam / Water emulsion

- 25

- 82

Oil

m/s

ft/s

Suction lines for pumps

- 0.5

-1.6

Suction lines for pump (low pressure)

0.1 - 0.2

0.3 - 0.65

Discharge line for booster pump

1.0 - 2.0

3.3 - 6.5

Discharge line for burner pump

- 1.0

- 3.3

Air

m/s

ft/s

Combustion air ducts

12 - 20

40 - 66

Air inlet to boiler room

1-3

3.3 - 9.8

Warm air for house heating

0.8 - 1.0

2.6 - 3.3

Vacuum cleaning pipe

8 - 15

26 - 49

Compressed air pipe

20 - 30

66 - 98

Ventilation ducts (hospitals)

1.8 - 4

5.9 - 13

Ventilation ducts (office buildings)

2.0 - 4.5

6.5 - 15

Exhaust gas

m/s

ft/s

Ducts at minimum load

- 4.0

- 13

Stack at minimum load

- 5.0

- 16

Boiler with one-step burner (on - off)

5.0 - 8.0

16 - 26

Boiler with two-step burner (high - low)

10 - 15

31 - 49

Boiler with modulating burner (3:1)

15 - 25

49 - 82

To keep the surface free from soot the

velocity should always exceed

3.0 - 4.0

9.8 - 13

It is recommended that the maximum inlet velocities applied to

control valves should be as shown in the tables below.

Gate Valve Size

Liquid

mm

m/s

ft/s

Steam or Gas
m/s

ft/s

15 - 25

30

120

400

40 - 50

7.5

25

90

300

65 - 100

20

75

250

150 - 200

20

70

225

250 - 400

4.5

15

55

175

Angle Valves Size

Liquid

mm

m/s

ft/s

Steam or Gas
m/s

ft/s

15 - 25

13.5

45

135

450

40 - 50

12

40

105

350

65 - 100

10.5

35

90

300

150 - 200

30

85

275

250 - 400

7.5

25

70

225

References

Goodall, Efficient Use of Steam, pg 192 Table 9.5

Hugot, Handbook of Cane Sugar Engineering, pg 1058 Table 47.6 and pg
1123 Table 45.2
Lyle, Efficient Use of Steam, pg 132 Table XXVII
Babcock & Wilcox, Steam: Its Generation and Usage