LECTURE 1

MOBILE RADIO
PROPAGATION AND FADING:
Part A: Large Scale Fading

References:
Rappaport (Chapter 4 and 5)
Bernhard (Chapter 2)
Garg (Chapter 3)

INTRODUCTION
Performance of comm sys governed by the channel
environment

Comms channel is dynamic and unpredictable,

analysis often difficult
Unique characteristic in comms channel is a
phenomenon called fading variation of signal
amplitude over time and frequency
Fading may either be due to multipath propagation,
and/or shadow fading

INTRODUCTION

RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION

Radio waves extends from a frequency of 30 kHz to 300 GHz
In free space, radio waves propagate in straight line (LOS) and
are reflected off objects. Radio waves on the earth are affected by
the terrain of the ground, the atmosphere and the natural and
artificial objects on the terrain.
There are 3 main propagation means on the earth:
Ground wave
Ionespheric or Sky wave
Trophospheric Wave

RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION

Ground Wave

travels in contact with earths surface

reflection, refraction and scattering by objects on the ground
transmitter and receiver need NOT see each other
affects all frequencies
at VHF or higher, provides more reliable propagation means
signal dies off rapidly as distance increases

Tropospheric Wave
bending(refraction) of wave in the lower atmosphere
VHF communication possible over a long distance
bending increases with frequency so higher frequency more chance
of propagation
More of an annoyance for VHF or UHF (cellular)

Ionospheric or Sky Wave

Reflected back to earth by ionospheric layer of the earth atmosphere
By repeated reflection, communication can be established over
1000s of miles
Mainly at frequencies below 30MHz
More effective at times of high sunspot activity

EFFECT OF TRANSMISSION
Range
Transmission range: communication
possible, low error rate
Detection range: detection of the
signal possible, no communication
possible
Interference range: signal may
not be detected, signal adds
to the background noise

sender
transmission
distance
detection

interference

Region
Near-field (Fresnel)

No effect
The close-in region of an antenna wherein the angular field distribution is
dependent upon distance from the antenna

Far-field (Fraunhofer)
The region where the angular field distribution is essentially independent of
distance from the source.
If the source has a maximum overall dimension D that is large compared to
the wavelength, the far-field region is commonly taken to exist at distances
greater than 2D2/ from the source
For a beam focused at infinity, the far-field region is sometimes referred to
as the Fraunhofer region

Refer Example
4.1, Pg 109

a free line-of-sight IS NOT EQUAL TO a free Fresnel Zone

RADIO PROPAGATION MECHANISMS

Free Space propagation
Refraction
Conductors & Dielectric materials (refraction)
Diffraction
Radio path between transmitter and receiver obstructed by surface with sharp
irregular edges
Waves bend around the obstacle, even when LOS does not exist

Fresnel zones
Reflection
Propagating wave impinges on an object which is large compared to wavelength
e.g., the surface of the Earth, buildings, walls, etc.

Scattering
Clutter is small relative to wavelength
Objects smaller than the wavelength of the propagating wave
e.g., foliage, street signs, lamp posts

Radio wave

scattering

Radio wave
Radio wave
reflection

shadowing

diffraction

Radio Propagation Models and Mechanisms

(outdoor area)
3
2

Radio Propagation Models and Mechanisms

(indoor area)

Tx : Transmitter, Rx : Receiver

REAL WORLD
EXAMPLES

INTRODUCTION
Type of imperfections:
Large-scale fading:
Power varies gradually
Over large distance, terrain contours
Determine by path profile and antenna displacement

Small-scale fading:
Small changes of the reflected, diffracted and scattered signals
Resulting in vector summation of destructive/ constructive
interference at Rx, known as multipath wave
Rapid changes of amplitudes, phase or angle
Also known as Rayleigh fading [1] or frequency selectivity

[1] J.G. Proakis. Digital Communications. Fourth Edition, The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2001

FADING
Rapid fluctuation of the amplitude of a radio signal over a short
period of time or travel distance (sub-wavelength)
Large scale
mean signal attenuation versus distance
variation about the mean
Small scale
time spreading: flat fading and frequency selective fading
time variance of channel: fast fading and slow fading
Cause by: multipath waves and Doppler shift

Mobile Small Scale and Large Scale Variations

Distance

* Courtesy Prof. Rohling Hamburg Harburg University-Germany

FADING
Two major components
Long term fading m(t)
Short term fading r(t)
Received signal, s(t)
s(t) = m(t) r(t)

MULTIPATH FADING

PATH LOSS AND FADING

FADING
Short term fading

Also known as fast fading caused by local multipath effect by NLOS

Observed over distance = wave length
30mph will experience several fast fades in a sec
Given by Rayleigh Distribution (Rayleigh fading)
The distribution can be formed using the square root of sum of the square
of two Gaussian functions
r = ( Ac2 + As2)
Ac and As are two amplitude components of the field intensity of the
signal

Long term fading

Long term variation in mean signal level is also known as slow fading
Caused by movement over large distances, shadowing effects and wave
diffraction around buildings, hills etc, moving receivers experience slow
variations of the signal level
The probability density function is given by a log-normal distribution
i.e.normal distribution on a log scale (log-normal shadowing)
A small deviation of the power level is advantageous for a good
transmitting quality. Typical values are 3 to 8 dB

RAYLEIGH and LOG-NORMAL

FADING CHANNEL
CLASSIFICATIONS

Distortion: amplitude or phase

flat effect
baseband signal variation

FADING CHANNEL
CLASSIFICATIONS

Ref: B. Sklar. Rayleigh Fading Channels in Mobile Digital Communications Systems. Part I:
Characterization, IEEE Communications Magazine, Vol. 35, No. 7, pp. 90-100, July 1997.

PATH LOSS MODEL

Detail path loss model hard to factor in overall system design
Most important characteristic is power falloff with distance
Radio propagation models
- Analytical models mathematical
- Empirical models observation/experimentation
- Composite (Semi-empirical)
Applications:
- Predict large scale coverage for mobile systems
- Estimate and predict SNR

WHAT IS A PATH LOSS?

R = Pt + Gtot L
L = Pt + Gtot R
Example: for Pt = 39 dBm, Gtot = 7.5 dB, R = -95 dBm, path
loss, L, cant exceed 141.5 dB without violating the R (Rx
sensitivity)

FRIIS TRANSMISSION EQUATION

Power density at any distance, R, in the far field is the total power
transmitted divided by the area of the sphere of radius R

** Page 109, Example 4.2

FSPL
Assumes far-field (Fraunhofer region) d >> D and d >> , where
D is the largest linear dimension of antenna
is the carrier wavelength
Suppose we have unobstructed line-of-sight (LOS), the Free
Space Propagation Loss (FSPL) is denoted by:

4d
FSPL 20 log
(dB)

32.44 20 log fMHz 20 log dkm
f frequency
d distance

Try: http://www.qsl.net/pa2ohh/jsffield.htm

(dB)

ACTIVITY 1
FSPL 32.44 20 log fMHz 20 log dkm
f frequency

(dB)

d distance

1. The communication system, with total path loss

of 142 dB is operated under free space
propagation conditions at 900 Mhz. Determine
its maximum range
2. Calculate the maximum distance that can be
achieved, Given:
Total Path Loss (PL) = 142 dB
fMHz = 2350 MHz

ACTIVITY 1
FSPL 32.44 20 log fMHz 20 log dkm
f frequency

(dB)

d distance

1. The communication system, with total path loss

of 148.3 dB is operated under free space
propagation conditions at 900 Mhz. Determine
its maximum range d = 689 km
2. Calculate the maximum distance that can be
achieved, Given:
Total Path Loss (PL) = 142 dB
fMHz = 2350 MHz

d = 127 km

PEPL
PEPL Plane Earth Propagation Loss
Path loss for flat reflecting surface
One LOS path and one ground (or reflected) bounce
Ground bounce approximately cancels LOS path above critical distance

PEPL is given by (- for loss)

hh
PEPL 20 log t 2r
d
40 log(d ) 20 log(ht ) 20 log(hr )(dB)
ht transmitter (BS) height (m)
hr receiver (MS) height (m)
d distance between transmiter and receiver (m)

Pg. 125, Eq. 4.53 accurate PEPL equation, look at Example 4.6

ACTIVITY 2
Calculate the maximum range of the communication system
in activity #1 earlier, assuming hr = 1.5m, ht = 8m, f = 2350
MHz and that propagation takes place over a plane earth.
How does this range change if the base station antenna
height is doubled?
hh
PEPL 20 log t 2r
d
40 log(d ) 20 log(ht ) 20 log(hr )(dB)
ht transmitter (BS) height (m)
hr receiver (MS) height (m)
d distance between transmiter and receiver (m)

ACTIVITY 2
Calculate the maximum range of the communication system
in activity #1 earlier, assuming hr = 1.5m, hm = 8m, f = 2350
MHz and that propagation takes place over a plane earth.
How does this range change if the base station antenna
height is doubled?
hh
PEPL 20 log t 2r
d
40 log(d ) 20 log(ht ) 20 log(hr )(dB)
ht transmitter (BS) height (m)
hr receiver (MS) height (m)
d distance between transmiter and receiver (m)

r = ?? km, when antenna height doubled, range increase by factor of sqrt(2)

for same propagation loss, hence r = ??

LOG-DISTANCE MODEL
Log - distancepath lossmodel
average receivedsignalpower decreases
logrithmically withdistanced and
path lossexponent
PL (d ) (

d
) ; PL [dB] Pt [dBm] Pr [dBm]
d0

d
PL [dB] PL (d 0 ) 10 log( )
d0
With fading (log-normal)

X zero mean Gaussian dist random variable

PL (d )[dB ] PL (d ) X

Refer graph in Pg 141

Pr (d )[dBm] Pt [dBm] PL (d )[dB]

Pr (d )[dBm] Pr [d0 ] 10 log(

d
d0

PATH LOSS EXPONENT

Path loss is a function of
- T-R distance (d)
- Path loss exponent (n)
- Standard deviation (s)
Estimation path model parameters from measured data by linear
regression
The estimation error probability is also available
Use path loss models for link budget design
Estimate the percentage of coverage area for a signal:
Probabilit y[Pr (b) ]

DIFFRACTION MODEL
Diffraction occurs when waves hit the edge of an obstacle
- Secondary waves propagated into the shadowed region
- Excess path length results in a phase shift
- Fresnel zones relate phase shifts to the positions of obstacles
Model obstructions like hills, building use knife edge diffraction model
Fresnel-Kirchoff diffraction parameter
vh

2(d1 d 2 )
2d 1 d 2

d1 d 2
(d1 d 2 )

where
d1 d 2

h
d1 d 2

1st Fresnel zone

Obstruction

Single and multiple (Bullington, Millington, Deygout) knife-edge

Diffraction gain (loss) depends on v

d1

d2

DIFFRACTION MODEL
Gd (dB) 0
Gd (dB) 20 log(0.5 0.6v)
Gd (dB) 20 log(0.5 exp( 0.95v))

v 1
1 v 0
0 v 1

Gd (dB) 20 log 0.4 0.1184 (0.38 0.1v) 2

1 v 2.4
0.225
Gd (dB) 20 log

Refer Pg 132-133, Example 4.7

v 2.4

PERCENTAGE AREA COVERAGE

Pr (d )

PPr (d ) Q

P (d )

PPr (d ) Q r

x2
1
1
z

Q( z )
exp

dx

erf

2
2
2 z
2

Q( z ) 1 Q( z )

Pg. 143

OUTDOOR PROPAGATION MODELS

Predict the signal strength at some point or local area
Consider also the terrain profile, e.g., mountains, trees, buildings,
obstacles.
Obtain models from systematic interpretation of measurement data
Classifications:
Computer based models:
Longley-Rice model
Durkins model
Measurement model
Okumura model
Empirical model
Hata model
PCS extension and wideband PCS microcell models
Walfish and Bertoni Model

OUTDOOR PROPAGATION MODELS

Computer-based models
Longley-Rice model
Model point-to-point propagation
Frequency band 40MHz-100GHz
Use Geometric optic techniques:
Two-ray ground reflection, knife edge refraction,scattering
Can use the terrain path profile if available
Can not add environment corrections, no multipath considerations
Case study on Longley-Rice: Durkins Model (Pg 146)

Measurement model
Okumura model
Most widely used model in urban areas
Obtained by extensive measurements
Represented by charts (curves) giving median attenuation relative to
free space attenuation
Valid under:
Frequency band: 150-1920 MHz
T-R distance: 1-10 km,
BS antenna height: 30-1000 m
Quasi-smooth terrain (urban & suburban areas)

OKUMURA MODEL
Okumura model properties
Based completely on measurement, no analytical explanation and in
graphical form
based on extensive measurement in the Tokyo area at frequencies
from 150-1920 MHz. Valid for those frequencies and distance from 1
to 100 km
Model is valid for an urban environment over quasi-smooth terrain
Simple, but accurate for predicting path loss of cellular & land mobiles.
Practical standard for system planning
Okumuras model is very accurate in cluttered environments, but
responds slowly to rapid changes in terrain (as often seen in rural
areas)

Calculate path loss:

Determine free space loss
Look up table for median attenuation A
Add correction factors due to antennas and environments

OKUMURA MODEL
Okumura Path Loss M odel :
L50 [dB] LF Ama ( f , d ) G (ht ) G (hr ) G A
L50 : median path loss
LF : free space path loss
Ama ( f , d ) : median attenuation with
frequency f and distance d
G (ht ) 20 log( ht /200) : 1000 ht 30 m
hr 3 m
10 log( hr / 3),
G (hr )
20 log( h3 / 3), 10 hr 3 m
G A : gain factor due to environmen t

OKUMURA MODEL
h
G (hte ) 20 log te
200
h
G (hre ) 10 log re
3
h
G (hre ) 20 log re
3

1000m hte 10m

hre 3m
10m hre 3m

HATA MODEL
Empirical formulation to match Okumura model
Validity: fc = 150-1500MHz, ht = 30-200m, hr = 1-10m
Suitable for large cell, not for PCS microcells (<1km)
L p [urban] 69.55 26.16 log f c 13.82 log ht a (hr )
(44.9 6.55log ht ) log d

Antenna correction factor

dB

a(hr ) (1.1log f c 0.7)hr (1.56 log f c 0.8)

dB

Open, suburban and small sized city

8.29log(1.54hr )2 1.1 dB
a(hr )
3.2log(11.75hr )2 4.96 dB
Large city

f 300MHz
f 300MHz

L p (sub - urban ) L p (urban ) 2log( f c / 28) 5.4

2

dB

L p (open rural area) L p (urban ) 4.78log( f c ) 18.33log( f c ) 40.98

2

dB

Note: f is in MHz, d is in km and antenna heights are in meters

Activity 3: for ht = 8 m, fMHz = 2350, hr = 1 m, calculate the max. distance
for PL of 142 dB based on Hata for (i) open, (ii) sub-urban, (iii) small city,
and (iv) large city

COST231 - HATA MODEL

Hata Model - PCS Extension
Setup by EURO-COST: COST-231 committee
Valid for

COST: Cooperative for Sci and Tech

1.5-2 GHz PCS systems

base station height, ht = 30 - 200 m
Mobile height, hr = 1 - 10 m
Distance, d = 1 - 20 km
Environment: Urban areas

L p 46.3 33.9 log f c 13.82 log ht a(hr )

(44.9 6.55 log ht ) log d C M
where

a( hr ) 1.1log( f ) 0.7hr 1.56 log( f ) 0.8

C M 0 dB

for medium sized city and suburban

centres with moderate tree density

3 dB

for metropolitan centres

CCIR
An empirical formula for the combined effects of free-space
path loss and terrain induced path loss was published by
the CCIR (Comite' Consultatif International des RadioCommunication, now ITU-R) and is given by
LCCIR 69.55 26.16 log10 ( fMHz ) 13.82 log10(ht ) a(hr )
[44.9 6.55log10(ht )]log10(d km ) B
where
a(hm ) [1.1log10 ( f MHz ) 0.7]hm 1.56 log10 ( f MHz ) 0.8
B 30 25log10 (% of area coveredby buildings )

Activity 4: for ht = 8 m, fMHz = 2350, hr = 1 m and 25% area covered by

buildings, calculate the max. distance for path loss model based on CCIR

OTHER MODELS
Walfisch-Ikegami Model
Valid between 800 and 2,000 MHz and over distances of 20 m to 5 km
Useful for dense urban canyon-style environments where antenna height
is lower than the average building height Signals are guided along
the street, like an urban canyon
The Walfisch-Ikegami Model includes a diffraction constant and the
street width

Walfish & Bertoni model:

Consider the impact of rooftops and building height
Considered in IMT-2000 evaluation

WALFISCH-IKEGAMI MODEL
Applicable to large, small and micro-cells where antennas are mounted below roof
tops,
Assumes radio path is obstructed by buildings,
Considers generalized diffraction.

Base antenna

hb

Buildings

hB
hm

Street level

Mobile antenna

For NLOS path situations, the WIM gives the path loss using the following parameters:
hb = base antenna height over street level, in meters (4 to 50m)
hm = mobile station antenna height in meters (1 to 3m)
hB = nominal height of building roofs in meters
hb = hb-hB = height of base antenna above rooftops in meters
hm = nB-hm = height of mobile antenna below rooftops in meters
b = building separation in meters (20 to 50m recommended if no data)
w = width of street (b/2 recommended if no data)
= angle of incident wave with respect to street (use 90 if no data)

WALFISCH-IKEGAMI LOS MODEL STREET CANYON

Walfisch-Ikegami Street Canyon Model is defined when line-of-sight
exists between the mobile and the Base Station.
LLOS = 42.64 + 26log(d) + 20log(f), for d > 20 m
where:
LLOS

d
f

= path loss (dB)

= distance (Km)
= frequency (MHz)

Activity 5: calculate the max. distance given LLOS for WIMLoS is 142 dB and fMHz = 2350

WALFISCH-IKEGAMI MODEL
NLOS
The model is the most complex but it has the ability to
represent more environments.
In the absence of data, building height in meters may be
estimated by three times the number of floors, plus 3m if the
roof is pitched instead of flat.
The model works best for base antennas well above roof
height.
The NLOS path loss equation is best presented in sections
due to its complexity

Walfisch-Ikegami Model NLOS

LNLOS

L fs Lrts Lmds , Lrts Lmds 0

Lrts Lmds 0
L fs ,

where:
LNLOS

= path Loss (dB)

Lfs

= free space loss = 32.45 + 20.log(d) + 20.log(f)

= distance from site (Km)

= frequency (MHz)

Lrts

= roof-top-street diffraction and scatter loss

Lmds

= multi-screen diffraction loss

height of mobile antenna
below rooftops in meters

Lrts = -16.9 10.log(w) + 10.log(f) + 20.log(mobile) + Lstreet, for mobile > 0

Lrts = 0, for mobile 0
where:
Lstreet

= -10 + 0.354
= 2.5 + 0.075(-35)
= 4.0 0.114(-55)

for
for

for 0 < 35
35 < 55
55 90

angle of incident wave

with respect to street (use
90if no data)

WALFISCH-IKEGAMI MODEL
MULTI-SCREEN DIFFRACTION LOSS
Lmds = Lmed + ka + kd.log(d) + kf.log(f) 9.log(b)
where :
Lmed

= -18 log(1 + base)

=0

for base > 0

for base 0

ka

= 54
= 54 0.8 base
= 54 1.6 based

for base > 0

for d 0.5 and base 0
for d < 0.5 and base 0

kd

= 18
= 18 15 base/hroof

for base > 0

for base 0

kf

= -4 + 0.7 [(f/925)-1]
= -4 + 1.5 [(f/925)-1]

for urban and suburban

for dense urban

Activity 6: calculate d given LNLOS based on WIMNLoS =142 dB, fMHz = 2350, ht = 8 m, hr = 1 m

b = building separation in meters

(20 to 50m recommended if no
data)

base = height of base antenna

above rooftops in meters

PROPAGATION MODEL COMPARISON

Okumura-Hata

Walfisch-Ikegami

Frequency Range

150 MHz to 1 GHz

1.5 to 2 GHz

800 MHz to 2 GHz

BTS Antenna Height

30 to 200 meters
above roof-top

4 to 50 meters
above roof-top

UE Antenna Height

1 to 10 meters

1 to 3 meters

Range

1 to 20 kilometers

30 meters to 6 kilometers

OTHER MODELS
Wideband PCS microcell model
Measurement in the microcells
Results:
Two-ray ground reflection model is good for LOS microcells
Log-distance path loss model is good for OBS (obstructed)
microcells

Ibrahim and Parsons model - equations developed to best fit

data observed at London. (freq. 168-900 MHz)

Lees model - Use at 900MHZ with 3 parameters (median

transmission loss, slope of the path loss curve and adjustment
factor)

Summary
From Activity 1 to 6, observe the difference between the
calculated distance based on different propagation models
Identify which PL models over-estimate and under-estimate
the calculated distance
Is there any PL model which gives a realistic representation of
the considered scenario (given ht = 8 m, hr = 1 m, Pt = 39 dBm,
fMHz = 2350, Gtot = 7.5 dBm)

Calculated distance values for common example given

ht = 8 m, hr = 1 m, Pt = 39 dBm, fMHz = 2350, Gtot = 7.5
dBm
Path Loss Model

Calculated distance

Free space

127,000

WIM LoS

16,200

Hata open

5,300

Hata suburban

1,600

WIM NLoS

820

Hata Small/Large City

740

CCIR

550