Measurement of Physical Quantities

For the supervision and control of the power plant, physical parameters are measured and displayed in the centralized control room. Instrumentation system carries out the measurement of following quantities. 1. Pressure Measurement 2. Temperature Measurement 3. Fluid Flow Measurement 4. Level Measurement 5. Expansion, Differential Expansion, Eccentricity, Absolute Vibrations, Axial Shift, RPM measurement of the turbine 6. Analyzers for measurement of concentrations of the various gases present in Flue Gas 7. Measurement of various chemical parameters for water and steam. 8. Gas purity measurement for Generators etc. Measurement of chemical parameters is not covered in this literature. Measuring system essentially consists of following components:

PROCESS

Sensor + Transducer

Amplifier

Standard Instrumentat ion Signal fed

Sensors convert the physical quantity in to proportional displacement or very low power (weak) electrical signal. Transducers convert the displacement or the electrical output from sensor in to a proportional linear electrical or pneumatic signal. Amplifier amplifies and converts signal from transducer in to standard electrical or pneumatic signal of 4 to 20 mA or 0.2 to 1.0 Kg/ cm2. Sensors are always in physical contact with the process and hence continuously give output for the current state of the process. Various types of sensors used are:

Quantity to be measured Pressure and Differential Pressure Temperature Level Flow Rate Displacement/ Vibrations/ Expansions / RPM etc. Flue Gas Analyzers

Sensor Type / Sensing technique Bellows, Diaphragms, Bourden Tubes, Membranes Thermocouples, Resistance temperature detectors Head developed by liquid column Orifice Plates, Ventury Tubes, Inductance or Self inductance

Sensor Output Displacement Electrical Quantity Differential Pressure Pressure differential across sensor Electrical Quantity

Semiconductor cells output of which is proportional to Concentration of measured gas

Electrical signals

Temperature Measurement: Filled systems, Bimetallic sensors, Thermocouples, resistance temperature detectors are most widely used sensors for temperature measurement. Filled System: Fig. 1 shows a filled system type temperature-measuring device. It consists of a metallic bulb, a capillary tube and a Bourden Tube connected with each other as explained in the diagram. Bulb is filled with liquid, gas or liquid vapor. Bulb always remains immersed in the process and hence attains temperature of the process, causing expansion of the liquid or gas or liquid vapor in the bulb. Since the Volume of the system is constant, pressure inside the system increases and measured by the Bourden Tube, and indicated by a pointer on the dial calibrated in terms of temperature.

Bimetallic sensor: Fig. 2 shows the working principle of Bimetallic Temperature indicator. It consists of two metallic strips, having different coefficients of expansion, bonded to each other firmly to avoid relative movement of the strips. One end of the bimetal strip is held firm and other end is free to move. When the assembly is heated, it causes both metallic strips to expand. Expansions being unequal for both the strips, free end deflects and produces displacement, which is proportional to temperature. Free end is coupled to a pointer, which rotates over a dial calibrated in terms of temperature.

Thermocouple: Thermoelectric Laws: It states that when two dissimilar metal conductors are joined to form two junctions as shown in Fig.3 and temperature of one of the junction is increased above that of second junction, a DC emf is generated across the thermocouple. Fig 3 shows conductors made of metals or alloys A and B connected to form Junctions J1 and J2. If, temperature of J1 is T1 and that of J2, T2 and T1 > T2, then emf (T1 - T2) Metal A + Junction J1 T1 Junction J2 T2

Metal B Fig. 3 The emf generated in the thermocouple is proportional to difference in temperature of the two junctions and when T1 = T2, emf = 0. Magnitude of emf generated is in the order of milivolts. Output is defined mathematically as E =AT + BT2 + 1/3 CT3 Where A, B and C are constants, values of which depend on thermocouple materials used and T is the temperature of hot junction, keeping cold junction at 0 C. The output from thermocouple is an approximate parabolic function. If a measuring instrument is connected in the circuit as shown in fig. 4 the measuring instruments leads introduces a third metal forming Junctions J3 and J4. Metal A + Junction J1 T1 milivolt meter T2 J3 J4 Junction J2

Metal B -

Copper leads

Fig. 4 Law of intermediate metals: So long as J3 and J4 are at equal temperature, the emf generated at the thermocouples remains unaltered. This is called a law of intermediate metals and states that Net emf in the circuit remains unaltered if a third metal is introduced provided that two junctions of the third metal are at the same temperature.
3

Law of intermediate temperatures: Fig. 5 explains the law. A+ A+ Junction J1 Junction Junction J3 J2 at T2 TC1, emf E1 TC 2, emf E2 T1 T3 BB-

A+ T1 T3 BFig. 5 E1 = T1 - T2 , E2 = T2 - T3 and E3 = T1 - T3 If all the thermocouples are made of the same metals, then E3 = E1 + E2 Construction of the Thermocouple: Commercially available thermocouple is made of two wires of suitable materials. There are four types of thermocouples widely used in Thermal Power Plants, such as, Chromel- Alumel, Iron - Constantan, Copper - Constantan and Platinum/ Rhodium - Platinum. The first named metals wire is always at +ve polarity and second named is at - ve polarity. Fig. 6 explains the construction of a thermocouple. TC3, emf E3

Insulating Material
such as MgO

Thermocouple head assembly

Screwed Head cover

Hot Junction

Thermocouple wires

Insulation for Wires

Connector

External cable
Cable Gland

Fig. 6
4

Measuring Circuit

The wires are welded with each other to form a junction. While using the thermocouple for measurement of process temperature, this junction is immersed in the process and is called hot junction. Cold junction is formed by the external cable connected with the thermocouple on one end and measuring circuit at the other end as shown in fig. 7. Output from thermocouple depends on difference in temperature of hot junction and cold junction. Temperature Vs millivolt characteristics for the thermocouples is given in standard charts, known as calibration charts for each type of thermocouple. However, these charts indicate output with cold junction temperature held at 0C. In practice, cold junction is at ambient temperature which is not constant. Hence, the output from the thermocouple will vary due to change in Cold junction temperature also. For proper measurement of temperature, sensor output shall vary only with hot junction temperature. To overcome this problem, cold junction compensation (also known as CJC) techniques are used and are described below. The measurement circuit for thermocouples is explained in fig. 7. Chromel +ve lead

Alumel, -ve lead

Cold junction compensation such as bath maintained at constant temperature Chromel Alumel Cable Fig. 7

Terminal Strip in T/C head assembly

Copper Cable

In thermocouple measurements, it is necessary that Thermocouple cable made of the same material as that of measurement thermocouple shall be used up to Cold junction Compensation devices. There after Copper cable can be run. CJC by holding Cold Junction at constant temperature: It consists of a thermally insulated container (also called the bath) maintained at a constant temperature of 500 C or 700 C with the help of electrical heater and a temperature control circuit. Hot junction of a separate thermocouple, called Compensation thermocouple, is immersed in this bath. Wires from this thermocouple are connected with measurement thermocouple in series opposition as shown in the following figure 8.
+ Ve lead of Measurement Thermocouple Process +

CJC

- Ve lead of CJC thermocouple

70 C

Thermocouple maintained at

+ Ve lead of CJC thermocouple

Fig.8
5

Output going to measuring circuit: Let process temp = Tp, ambient temperature = Ta Output from measuring thermocouple = millivolts corresponding to (Tp - Ta) Output from CJC thermocouple = millivolts corresponding to (70 - Ta) Since both the thermocouples are in series apposition, Output milivolts going to measuring circuit = (Tp - Ta) - (70 - Ta)= (Tp - 70) Hence measuring circuit shall always receive millivolts independent of ambient temperature but as if measuring T/C cold junction is held at constant temperature of 70 C. In this case measuring instrument is calibrated in such a way that for zero input, indicator indicates 70 C. CJC with Bridge Circuit: The circuit shown in Fig. 9, provides another way of CJC. + ve
Copper cable

+ + -

-ve -

T/C Cable

Compensating circuit

Connection strip in T/C head Terminal strip where measuring T/C is terminated

Temperature Sensor measuring temp of terminal strip

Fig. 9 The temperature sensor is attached to the terminal strip and it is connected to compensating circuit. Compensating circuit output is equal to the milivolts corresponding to (ambient temperature - 0 C) for the thermocouple connected. The milivolts output going to measuring circuit is = milivolts corresponding to (Hot Junction Temp - Ambient Temp at terminal strip) + (Ambient Temp. at terminal strip - 0) Thus the output is equal to (Hot Junction temp - 0 C) Operating Range for various types of thermocouples are as shown in a table below.

Thermocouple Material Iron Constantan Chromel - Alumel Copper - Constantan Platinum 10% Rhodium - Platinum

Type Type J Type K Type T Type S

Operating Range, 0 C -210 to 760 0 to 1372 0 to 400 630 to 1064

Installation of Thermocouples: When thermocouples are to be used for measuring temperature of fluids in a pipe, the T/C assembly has to be installed such that the Junction is at center of the pipe. Thermocouples outer sheath generally is not strong enough to sustain fluids at high pressure and flowing with a large velocity. Hence it is a practice to provide a Thermowell as integral parts in pipes. Thermowells are made of the same material of which pipes are made and designed to withstand large pressure and flow velocities. The thermocouple assembly is then mounted in the Thermowell as shown in Fig. 10. Pipe Welded Joint

Thermowell
Internal threads for mounting thermocouple

Fig. 10 Thermocouple response time: The output from thermocouple should change without significant time delay. The time taken by the hot junction to reach the temperature of process during transient state determines the response time. Smaller the wires used, faster is the response. By introducing the Thermowell, another delay is introduced, as it shall first reach the temperature of fluid and then the hot junction shall attain the process temperature. Resistance temperature detector: Resistance temperature detector or RTD works on the principle of change in electrical resistance of conductor due to change in its temperature. Platinum, Copper, Nickel etc are the most widely used metals from which temperature sensors are manufactured. The characteristic equation for change in resistance due to temperature is given by R = Ro ( 1 + a1T + a2T2 + a3T3 + . . . . . + anTn + ..) where Ro is the temperature of the sensor at 00 C and a1, a2, a3 etc are constants. Construction of the RTD: RTD is usually made of a thin resistance wire of Platinum, Nickel or Copper wound on ceramic former. The whole assembly is then enclosed in a ceramic bulb with two leads of the resistance wire brought out of the bulb for connecting to measuring circuit. The bulb is then inserted in to a protective sheath and the leads are then terminated on strip housed in Terminal Head assembly as in case of thermocouple. The most popular RTDs are Pt - 100, Ni-100, Cu53 or Cu-47. The first two letters indicate the material used for resistance wires and figure (100, 53 or 47) indicate the Resistance in ohms of the sensor at 00 C.
7

Measuring Circuit using RTD: Since RTD output is change in resistance due to change in temperature, resistance of cable connecting RTD to measuring instrument plays an important role. Cables are laid from measuring sensor to control room and its route may pass through plants different areas where ambient temperature may change. This will cause change in cable resistance affecting the measurement. To avoid this, Three-lead arrangement as shown in fig. 11 is used. By providing third lead, influence of lead resistances is nullified.

Standard Instrumentation Signal: For transmission of measured value to remote places, electrical signals are required. Transmitters used now a day give the output in the form of Standard Instrumentation signal of 4 to 20 mA. The relationship between output and measured value is described as follows:

Measured Value, as Percentage of Instrument Range 0% 25% 50% 75% 100%

Output in mA 4.0 mA 8.0 mA 12.0 mA 16.0 mA 20.0 mA

The modern trend is to connect thermocouple or RTD to a Transducer which converts the signals from these sensors to corresponding 4 to 20 mA instrumentation signal.

Pressure Measurement: Pressure Sensors: Fig. 12 shows various types of sensors used for the pressure measurement.

Bourden Tube: Working of Bourden Tube as sensing element for pressure is explained in Fig. 13. Bourden tube is C shaped and is hollow. The sealed end of the tube is called free end. Other end of the Bourden tube is firmly anchored through socket. Process fluid is admitted in to the hollow tube by the impulse tubes connected to the socket. Due to the fluid pressure, Bourden tube section tends to change causing the Bourden tube to straighten out, resulting in the displacement of free end. This displacement of the free end of the Bourden Tube is given by aP a = 0.05 ---- (r /t)0.2 (x /y)0.33 (x /t)3 E Where, a is the displacement of free end, E is the Modulus of elasticity for the Bourden Tube material r is diameter of the C shape of Bourden Tube t is the thickness of the tube cross section x and y are the dimensions of the tube as shown in the figure. P is applied pressure Thus, the relationship between the displacement and applied pressure is nonlinear. By coupling the free end to a pointer mechanism results in to a device called Pressure Gauge. Similarly, by coupling the free end of Bourden Tube to various types of transducers, electrical or pneumatic signals proportional to the applied pressure can be obtained, as explained later in this handout.

Accuracy of measurement for Bourden Tube pressure gauges is normally 1.0%, but gauges are also commercially available between accuracy ranges of O.5 % to 2.0%. Bourden tubes are available in various materials, such as Brass, Bronze, Phosphor Bronze, Stainless Steel, alloy steel, Beryllium Copper etc. The choice of the material depends on Pressure range, Corrosion properties of the fluid etc.

The Bellows: Bellows are made of metals and consists of circular parts resembling the folds of an accordian as shown in fig. 14. These parts are joined in such a way that the bellows assembly contracts or expands according to applied pressure. The metals used are brass, bronze, beryllium copper, stainless steel etc. The bellows used for pressure measurement are seamless and are drawn from tubing. Displacement d of Bellows is given by: d = O.453 P b n D2 (1 -n2) ------------------------E t3

Where, P= Pressure in N/m2, b = radius of each corrugation in m, n is number of semicircular corrugations, t is thickness of wall in m, D is mean diameters in m, E is modulus of elasticity in N/m2 and n is Poissons ratio.

10

For limiting the deflection of Bellows, calibrated spring is fixed inside the bellows as shown in the figure 14. In such case deflection is given by: d =P Where Ab -----------Kb + Ks

d is deflection, P is applied pressure, Ab is effective area of bellows in m2 and Kb and Ks are stiffness constants of bellows and spring in N/ m2

Diaphragms: Diaphragms are made of metals and can be flat or corrugated. Pressure to be measured is applied to the diaphragm, causing its deflection. Fig. 15 shows the deflection of the diaphragm. Maximum deflection Dm for a diaphragm is given by Dm = 3P ------------ R4 (1 -n2) 16 E t3

11

Pressure Transducer (LVDT Type): In the fig. 13 above, displacement of the free end of the Bourden tube is connected to pointer through link and gear. For remote transmission of pressure signals, free end of Bourden Tube is connected to Inductive, Capacitive, LVDT or resistive transducers. Transducers convert displacement of free end into electrical signal, magnitude of that is proportional to the pressure. Fig. 16 explains LVDT type pressure transducer.

Construction: Core is made of soft iron having very high magnetic permeability. There are two secondary coils and one primary coil wound on the former and core is inserted in to the former in which it is free to move. High frequency AC Voltage is impressed in the primary coil. Voltage induced in both the secondary coils is proportional to the magnetic flux linked to these coils through the core. At Null position, core is at the center and covers both the coils equally, causing equal induced emf to be generated in both the coils. Output from LVDT is obtained by connecting both secondary coils in series opposition as shown in the figure. Thus Output voltage Eo = ES1 - Es2 Since the core movement is coupled to the free end of Bourden tube, its position relative to the secondary coils is decided by the position of free end which in turn is dependant on the pressure. Thus LVDT output is proportional to applied pressure. Output signal from LVDT is then processed for linear output of 4 to 20 mA. Inductive Transducer: Fig. 17 shows a inductive transducer for pressure measurement. It consists of two coils, upper and lower, forming two arms of an a.c. bridge. Coils are identical, have equal number of turns and are wound on ferrite core. Two equal resistances R1 and R2 form other two arms of the bridge. A diaphragm made of ferrite is symmetrically placed with respect of two coils. When differential pressure Dp = P1- P2 = 0, diaphragm is at its neutral position and air gaps

12

between the diaphragm and two coils is equal. Both coils have equal reluctance for magnetic path. Since Inductance = N2/Ro, where N is number of turns and Ro is reluctance of the flux path when diaphragm is at the center, the inductance of both the coils is equal and hence bridge is balanced resulting in zero volts output from the bridge. Now suppose P1 > P2, diaphragm deflects downwards by a small distance d, and reluctance R1 of upper coil And R2 of lower coil is: R1 = Ro + K(D + d) R2= Ro + K(D -d), where K and Ro are constants. Hence L1 = N2/( Ro + K(D + d)) and L2 = N2/( Ro + K(D - d)) Bridge output eo = (1/2 - L2/ L1 + L2) ei = K eI ---------2(Ro+ KD) d

Since K, Ro, D and eI are constants, output voltage eo is proportional to deflection of the diaphragm d and hence to the applied pressure. The bridge output is then amplified and processed to obtain a linear 4 to 20 mA signal, which relates to applied pressure, if process is connected to P1 and P2 is left open to atmosphere. The same device can be used to measure Differential Pressure if P1 and P2 both are connected to process.

13

Capacitance Transducers: Fig 18 shows a capacitance transducer for pressure and differential pressure measurement. It consists of one stationary plate and two measuring diaphragms forming moving plates of a differential capacitor. This assembly is placed in a housing, to which two isolating diaphragms are attached and the housing is filled with silicon oil. Process fluid comes in contact with the isolating diaphragms only causing these to deflect. Deflection of isolating diaphragms cause pressure of silicon oil to change, causing deflection of measuring diaphragm. Any deflection of measuring diaphragm causes change in the gap between stationary plate of the capacitor and the measuring plate, leading to change in Capacitance. A capacitance bridge detects the changes and output from bridge is amplified and converted to 4 to 20 mA signal which is proportional to pressure.
Connecting leads for three diaphragms

Isolating diaphragms

Stationary plate

P1

P2 Measuring diaphragm

Silicon Oil

Electrical Insulation

FIG. 18

14

Flow Measurement The most popular flow measuring devices in Power plants are Orifice plate, Flow Nozzle or Ventury tube. Fig 17 explains the principle of operation of Orifice Plate.
P2 P1

Upstream of orifice

Downstream of orifice

Jet of fluid emerging out of the orifice

Orifice Plate

Vena Contracta
Fig. 19

Let area, velocity and Pressure of fluid are A1, V1 and P1 at upstream of the Orifice and A2, V2 and P2 at down stream, measured at Vena Contracta of the jet emerging from the orifice. Vena Contracta is the point where the jet issuing out has smallest diameter. Velocity V2 = Cv M (2g/ w) (P1-P2) Where Cv is the discharge coefficient of the orifice, M is the dimensional constant, w is the density of fluid and (P1 - P2) is the head across orifice plate. Volumetric Flow = A2V2 where A2 is the are of Vena Contracta. Therefore, Q = A2 Cv M

As all the terms in above equation are constants except (P1 - P2). By measuring the Differential Pressure across the orifice plate by using Differential Pressure Transmitter, volumetric flow rate of the fluid through pipe can be known. The measuring system then shall be as shown in fig. 20.
Orifice Plate

(2g/ w) (P1-P2)

where Q is volumetric flow rate.

Flow Indicator
DP Transmitter

Square root Extractor

Since DP measured is related to Flow as Q = K (DP) , the transmitter output is connected to a square root extractor and then it is used to indicate flow rate. Mass Flow rate = Density (Volume flow rate) To know the mass flow rate, the output from square root extractor is fed in to the circuit, which generate an electrical signal of density of the fluid. Since density of fluid is a function of its Pressure and Temperature, the measuring chain for density calculation is as shown below.

Fluid Pressure Transmitter

From Sq. Root Extractor Mass Flow Indicator

Fluid temp. Transmitter

Density Calculating Circuit

Mass flow calculating circuit

Fig. 21

Level Measurement The measurement of level in almost all the applications in the power plant is carried out by measuring head exerted by the fluid. Consider a Tank, open to atmosphere, and containing certain liquid, as shown in fig. 22.

Pressure Transmitter

Fig. 22 The pressure P, sensed by the pressure transmitter shall be = h w where h is the height of liquid column and w is the density of the liquid in the tank. If the density of liquid remains constant, the transmitter output shall be equal to head and hence to the liquid level in Tank. This simple principle is applied for measuring the level in the Power plant. However, for closed Tanks and tanks under pressure, certain modifications to the measuring system are required, which will be discussed below.
16

Measurement of level in pressurized tank where liquid density change in not appreciable: Fig. 23 explains the measurement. The tank now contains water as well as steam. Let Constant Head Unit SP is the pressure in the tank.
(CHU) Steam

Water

Head h due to water level

Constant Head H

P1 P2
DPT Transmitter

Electrical Signal from the DPT

Fig. 23 Let P1 and P2 are the pressures developed on two sides of the DPT. Then P1 = h w + SP P2= Hw + SP DPT output shall be Op= P2 - P1 = (H w1 + SP) - (h w + SP) If density of liquid in Tank and that of liquid in the constant head unit are nearly equal, then w1 w2 and since H is constant, Op = h Hence the output of the DP Transmitter is proportional to liquid level in the tank. This output is then connected to an indicator calibrated in terms of level in the tank. Function of CHU: The constant head unit is necessary in this type of measurement as the impulse line connecting Top of the tank to DPT shall always remain full of liquid and hence shall exert a constant head. CHU consists of a small Pot in which the steam from tank flows. As the pot is exposed to atmosphere, steam cools and condenses thus keeping the pot and associated impulse line full of Condensate, thus ensuring constant head. Some times, the CHU are also provided with external filling lines, and while taking plant in to service, first the CHU is filled externally. Density Correction: When the density of the fluid in the tank remains unchanged during operation of the plant, the level measurement as described above gives the correct value. But in case of Drum level, the density of water and steam change as per the drum pressure and this introduces an unacceptable error. Density correction is introduced in such cases.
u u u

17