TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

Temperature is the most fundamental parameter. It is required in the routine control of industrial plant and in carrying out performance and acceptance trials. It is needed in obtaining energy balances in all thermal process. Particularly these involving combustion and heat transfer.

Temperature measurement plays an important role in machine condition monitoring. Insufficient lubrication oil or very hot lubrication oil(due to failure of cooling water system) will cause bearing temperature to go high. Due to bad quality oil (because of steam condensation sediments etc) bearing temperature increases. All these causes are associated with damage of bearing.

Hence high bearing temperature trips are provided in safety interlocks system. In some machines high lube oil header temperature has been provided in safety interlocks. In gas turbine operated compressor/generator drives the exhaust gas temperature is measured by several thermocouples.

WHAT IS TEMPERATURE

Temperature is defined as the degree of HOTNESS or COLDNESS measured on a definite scale. Hotness and Coldness are the result of molecular activity, the faster the molecules of the a substance move the more heat contains, heat then is a form of energy and is measured in calories(BTU). When two substances passing different quantity of heat come into contact with one and other there is a flow of heat. This flow is away from the substance containing more heat and towards the containing less.

TEMPERATURE SCALES:
The comparison of the heat contents of one substance with an other is in made by reference to temperature scales. These scales also make it possible to measure and identify the heat level when there is change in the state or in the condition of the substance such as freezing, melting or decomposition. The instrument used to measure the temperature is the Thermometer. The temperature scales most commonly used in calibrating thermometers as the Fahrenheit scale and Celsius scale. The temperature at which ice melts(water freezes) and the temperature at which water boils are used as reference points. Theoretically there is a condition of no molecular motion, hence no heat. The temperature at this point is absolute 0 temperaturethe lowest temperature possible.

212

100

373

671

St Point

32

273

491

Ice Point

-459 -273 0 DEG F DEG C DEG K C = 5/9(F-32) ---------------------(i)

Abs Zero

DEG R

F = 9/5C+32 ----------------------(ii)
K = C+273 ------------------------(iii) R = F +459 ------------------------(iv)

TYPES OF TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT:

There are four basic types of temperature measuring devices. 1. Mechanical type 2. Thermocouple

3. Thermo Resistive(RTD & Thermistors)

4. Radiative (Infra red & Optical pyrometers)

Temp. Measurement Technique

Contact Type

Non contact Type

Expansion Thermometers (i) Expansion of solids (a) Bimetallic Thermometers (ii) Expansion of liquids (a) Liquid in glass thermometers (b) Liquid in metal thermometer (iii) Expansion of gases (a) Gas Thermometers Filled system Thermometers (i) Liquid filled thermometer (ii) Vapor pressure thermometers

Pyrometers

Radiation Pyrometer

Optical Pyrometer

Elect. Temp. instruments (i) RTD (ii) Thermocouples (iii) Thermistors

MECHANICAL TEMPERATURE DEVICES:

1. Liquid in glass thermometer: Thermometer consists

of a glass tube of very fine bore joined to a bulb at the bottom and sealed at the top. A measured quantity of mercury is enclosed. When the thermometer is heated, the mercury expands moving up the tube. The scale is calibrated to read temperature directly.

Scale

Bulb

2. Pressure-Spring thermometer:
a) Mercury & Liquid Thermometer: Both types operate on the principle of thermal expansion. The definite volume of mercury or liquid containing in the bulb expands under effect of temperature to be measured. The increase volume of confined mercury or liquid is transmitted through the capillary to the coiled bourdon tube. Which is uncoiled proportionally to volume increases. The volume of bulb will vary with the higher temperature range.

Gauge Bulb Tube Mercury Filled Thermometer

b) Gas Filled Type: This type depends upon the increase in pressure of a confined gas(constant volume) due to temperature increases. The relation between temperature and pressure is-

PV = RT,
Where R is GAS CONSTANT.

c) Vapour-Liquid Filled Thermometer: The liquid and gas filled system which depends upon volumetric expansion. For their operation vapor pressure thermometer depends upon the vapor pressure of a liquid.Which only partially filled the system. In this type of system the liquid can expand but it is heated its vapor pressure increases. Water in a pressure cooker behaves in the same manner. As the water is heated and changes to steam the pressure buildup.

FILLING LIQUID
Vapor Gas Mercury

RANGE
-300F to 600F -300F to 1000F -48F to 1000F

BIMETALIC STRIP THERMOMETER

Two dissimilar metals are bonded together is called Bimetallic Strip. The Operation of bimetallic thermometer is based on the principle of the difference in the coefficient of the thermal expansion of different metals. Metals are normally used Ni alloy as Invar. The actual movement of a bimetallic strip is proportional to temperature. One end of the strip is fixed and other end which is free and connected to pointer which sweeps a circular dial graduated in degree of temperature. In response to temperature change, the bimetal expand & the helical bimetal rotates at its free end, thus turning the stem & the pointer to a new position on the dial. Range: -30 to 550 C Metal A Metal B

Working of bimetallic strip

THERMOCOUPLE
A Thermocouple is a transducer which converts thermal energy into electrical energy. The principle of thermoelectric was discovered by Seebeck in 1821 & its simplest form, it states that when conductor of two different metals are joined at one end and this junction is heated to a higher temperature with respect to reference junction. A voltage is developed at reference junction and varies with difference in temperature between measuring & reference junction.

THE SEEBECK EFFECT: The Seebeck effect describes the result of heating one junction of a circuit form of two dissimilar metals in such a circuit electric current flows as long as the two junction are at different temperature. Instrument T/C
Measuring junction

Reference junction

TYPES OF JUNCTIONS
1. Exposed Type: This type of junction protrudes from the end of sheath but it is insulated from it. The junction respond very quickly to temperature changes. There is no sheath or insulation to slow down heat transfer. 2. Grounded Type: When junction welded to the inside tip of the sheath. Attaching the junction to the sheath ensures rapid heat transfer from the sheath to the junction. 3. Ungrounded Type: The ungrounded junction is similar to the grounded except it is isolated from the metal sheet.

CONSTRUCTION OF THERMOCOUPLE
1.

Ceramic Beaded: These thermocouple are fairly large

diameter wires junction and insulated with ceramic insulate or beads. These beads provide electrical insulation between the wires and between the wires & any protective metal tube used.

2.

Insulated Wires: Thermocouple wires are wrapped or

covered with insulation. The insulation is typically a fibrous,woven material made of fiber glass, mica or ceramic fiber. Other insulation types are plastic (like teflon) & polyamides (like kapton).

3.

Metal Sheathed: The thermocouple junction &

wires are assembled in small diameter metal tubes. The thermocouples are insulated using either fiber glass or MgO insulation.

THERMOCOUPLE SELECTION
The following points are required for the selection of thermocouples. 1. Cost 2. Temperature Range 3. Accuracy

4. Linearity
5. Sensitivity

6. Atmosphere of Area
7. Life

LIFE OF THERMOCOUPLE

RTD
RTDs are precision temperature sensors. RTD elements are typically more accurate than thermocouple & maintain the accuracy on a large period of time. They generally used up to 650C. RTD is a sensor whose resistance changes fairly linear as temperature changes. A controller measure this resistance value and convert it into a temperature reading. The following relationship is used to calculate resistance at temperature t,

Rt = R0(1+t)
Where, Rt = Resistance at tC, R0 = Resistance at 0C, t = true temp & is constant.

Resistance V/S Temperature is very linear. This curve is also known as a TCR(Temperature Coefficient of Resistance)

TYPES OF RTD:
There are 3 types of RTD.
1. Pt 100 2. Copper

3. Nickel

Construction of RTD: The most often used RTD elements are shown in fig. A fine platinum element wire coiled around a very small diameter ceramic cylinder. Small lead wires are welded on to the resistance element.

RTD ELEMENTS

TYPICAL RTD CIRCUIT

RTD LEAD WIRE EFFECT:

For eliminating lead wire resistance we can attach one additional lead wire at the one end of the RTD element. In fig we see how this 3 wire RTD. Electronic circuitry in the controller measures the resistance through wire 2 & 3. This is then subtracted from the total circuit resistance through wires 1 & 2. Now the control knows the true resistance value of the RTD.

ADVANTAGES :
High accuracy of measurement # Wide temperature range from -200 to 650 C # Small size # Fast response # Good reproducibility # Stable and accurate performance over the years
#

DISADVANTAGES :
# #

High cost Need for a bridge circuit and a power supply

RTD Vs Thermocouple
Sensor Accuracy Stability Range Response Characteristic Linearity Extension leads Electrical Noise RTD (Pt 100) Pt 0.1 to 1.0 deg C Excellent - 200 ~ 650 deg C 1 ~ 50 seconds Thermoresistor (0.4 ohm/ deg C) Fairly Linear Copper Good immunity Thermocouple Dissimilar metal 0.5 to 5.0 deg C Prone to ageing - 200 ~ 1750 deg C 0.1 ~ 10 seconds Thermovoltage (upto 40 V/deg C) Mostly non linear Compensating cable Susceptible

THERMISTOR
The thermistor is a semiconductor used as a temperature sensor. It is manufactured from a mixture of metal oxides pressed into a bead or in other shapes. The bead is heated under pressure at high temperature and then encapsulated with epoxy or glass. Beads can be very small less than 1mm in some case. The non linear resistance V/S temperature relationship, the resistance decreases as temperature increases. This called negative temperature coefficient(NTC) thermistor.
The maximum temperature operation is 100 or 200C.

PYROMETERS
All temperature measuring methods require physical contact with the hot body. At high temperatures the thermometer may melt due to high temperature. Therefore a non contact method of temperature sensing is used. This method is also suitable for moving bodies. Pyrometry is a technique for measuring temperature without physical contact. It depends upon the relationship between the temperature of a hot body and the electromagnetic radiation emitted by the body. When a body is heated , it emits thermal energy known as heat radiation. There are two types of pyrometers generally used in industries :
(a) (b) Radiation Pyrometer Optical Pyrometer

RADIATION PYROMETER

Operation of a radiation pyrometer is based upon the measurement of radiant energy emitted by hot body.When the total energy radiated by a hot body whose temperature is to be measured , enters the pyrometer it is focussed by the lens on to the detector. The detector is a thermopile. The disk absorbs energy when the pyrometer is focussed on a hot body , its temperature rises. The reference junction of the thermopile is attached to the pyrometer case. The difference in temperature is directly related to the temperature of the body.

ADVANTAGES : Ability to measure high temperature. No need for contact with target of measurement. Fast response speed. High output and moderate cost. DISADVANTAGES : Non linear scale Possible errors due to presence of intervening gases or vapors that absorbs radiating frequencies.

OPTICAL PYROMETER

An optical pyrometer determines the temperature of a very hot object by the color of the visible light it gives off. The color of the light can be determined by comparing it with the color of an electrically heated metal wire. In one type of pyrometer, the temperature of the wire is varied by varying the strength of the current until the operator of the instrument determines that the color of the wire matches the color of the object. A dial, operated by the current that heats the wire, indicates the temperature.
Optical pyrometer provide an accurate method of measuring temperatures between 600 and 3000C.

ADVANTAGES :
Flexible , portable and convenient to use.

Light in weight Non contact type Good accuracy

DISADVANTAGES :

Not useful for measuring temperature of clean burning gases that do not radiate visible energy. Relatively expensive Human error caused by operator adjustment of temperature dial.