landlocked country

landlocked country, an independent sovereign state that does not have direct access to an ocean, such as the Atlantic, or to a sea that is not landlocked, such as the Mediterranean. Countries such as Kazakhstan, in Central Asia, that only have access to a landlocked sea such as the Caspian are considered landlocked. Such inland seas are viewed as large lakes, although this has been a matter of debate.

Characteristics of landlocked countries

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There are currently 44 landlocked countries. The largest by area is Kazakhstan, in Central Asia, while the smallest is the Vatican, in Europe, surrounded by the capital of Italy, Rome. The most populous landlocked country is Ethiopia, in Africa, while the least populous one is the Vatican. The latter is one of only three countries, along with Lesotho and San Marino, to be surrounded entirely by another country. Two countries—Liechtenstein and Uzbekistan—are double-landlocked, making them the only ones to be exclusively surrounded by other landlocked countries. The former is located in Europe and is surrounded by Austria and Switzerland, while the latter is in Asia and borders Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan.

There are also certain territories that are landlocked but are not unanimously recognized as sovereign states. These include South Ossetia, in Georgia; Transdniestria, in Moldova; and Nagorno-Karabakh, surrounded by Azerbaijan.

Economic and security issues of landlocked countries

Being a landlocked country prompts certain disadvantages which can curtail national income, such as the lack of seaports, coastal trading points, and a large-scale fishing industry. As a result, 32 of these states are designated as landlocked developing countries (LLDCs) by the United Nations; 17 of them are considered least developed. LLDCs have to cover considerable transport costs for merchandise to be sent to and received from overseas markets, thereby discouraging investment, decreasing their competitive edge, and isolating them from international trade. Seaborne trade must transit through other countries, which often involves dealing with inappropriate infrastructure and inconvenient border-crossing procedures. Some LLDCs have managed to achieve a positive balance of trade despite being landlocked, as exemplified by Zambia, due to its mining industry.

The obstacles provided by neighbours are exemplified by Burundi’s trade in the early 1990s. Limitations in Tanzania’s transportation infrastructure, strained diplomatic relations with Kenya, and a civil war in Burundi itself led the country to consider the port of Durban in South Africa to export its merchandise. Similarly, Uganda’s exports, heavily reliant on cargo passing through the Kenyan port of Mombasa, were significantly affected by political tension between the two countries in the 2000s. Neighbours can also be essential trade partners for landlocked countries, as illustrated by Bhutan, whose products are bought primarily by India, and by Mongolia, which exports mainly to China.

The economic issues experienced by LLDCs seem like a distant reality for European landlocked countries, such as Luxembourg, Austria, or Switzerland, whose economies are more diversified, less dependent on seaborne trade, and surrounded by more economically developed markets. A relatively shorter distance from the sea also impacts on their wealth. Moreover, as mentioned by British economist Paul Collier, such countries can benefit from cross-border spillover, whereby landlocked countries benefit from the resources of wealthy neighbours, as exemplified by microstates such as Liechtenstein and Andorra, and larger states like Switzerland, which borders high-income countries such as Germany, France, and Italy.

Several countries became landlocked after wars or as a result of independence movements. Examples include Serbia, after Montenegro’s independence; South Sudan, upon seceding from Sudan; and Ethiopia, after Eritrea became independent in 1993. Certain landlocked countries have attempted to regain access to the sea. Bolivia, for instance, has struggled with Chile to recover some 250 miles (400 km) of coastline lost during the War of the Pacific (1879–83). While Chile does allow Bolivia to use the ports of Antofagasta and Arica to export raw materials and commodities, greater opportunities to trade are sought by the landlocked country. Other nations have sought access to the sea by means of joint infrastrucure projects with their neighbours. This is exemplified by the Trans-Afghan Railway project, which would span Uzbekistan and Afghanistan before connecting to Pakistan’s domestic rail network, ultimately reaching ports such as Karachi and Gwadar.

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Perhaps surprisingly, some landlocked countries maintain navies as a matter of national pride as well as security. These are typically “brown water” forces such as those employed by Paraguay on the Paraguay and Paraná rivers, by Serbia on the Danube, and by Rwanda on Lake Kivu. These “brown water” navies are largely composed of small shallow-draft patrol boats crewed by a handful of sailors or marines. Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan, however, operate ships as large as frigates on the Caspian Sea. Arguably the most conspicuous landlocked navy belongs to Bolivia. Every March, the country marks the Day of the Sea as a national holiday to commemorate the loss of its Pacific coast, and the Bolivian navy is maintained with the belief that, one day, Bolivia will regain access to the sea. Bolivia’s 5,000 sailors and naval infantry train on Lake Titicaca in an effort to preserve maritime readiness.

Economic diversification, enhanced infrastructure, access to reliable electricity, enhanced licensing processes, and trade facilitation measures are among the initiatives suggested by the United Nations in order to improve the status and wealth of LLDCs. More specifically, Collier suggests increasing spillovers by promoting regional trade, developing transport corridors, attracting aid from donors, fostering greater transparency to attract foreign investment, encouraging migration and remittances, and harnessing emerging technologies.

List of landlocked countries, ranked by size